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Quaternary International 229 (2011) 132e139

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Holocene environmental changes and cultural patterns in coastal western India:A geoarchaeological perspective

Sushama G. Deo a,*, Savita Ghate b, S.N. Rajaguru a

aDepartment of Archaeology, Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Yerwada, Pune, Maharashtra 411 006, IndiabDr. Ambedkar College of Arts and Commerce, Pune, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online 19 May 2010

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 020 24460493.E-mail address: sushamadeo@yahoo.co.in (S.G. De

1040-6182/$ e see front matter � 2010 Elsevier Ltd adoi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.05.001

a b s t r a c t

Geomorphological studies carried out around coastal sites at Hazira, Kanmer, Padri and Sanjan in Gujarat,and Chaul, and Kelshi in Maharashtra indicate human activity throughout the Holocene. The offshore siteat Hazira, of early Holocene age, is the only submerged prehistoric site at a depth of 20e40 m below thepresent sea level in the entire 7000 km long coastline of India. Protohistoric Harappan sites at Kanmerand Padri are of mid-Holocene age. The sites of Sanjan, Chaul and Kelshi represent an Early Historiccultural phase belonging to the Late Holocene age. The site of Hazira was located on the banks of a buriedchannel adjusted to the low sea level phase of the Early Holocene. Cultural development of the Harappansite at Kanmer in the present semi-arid rocky landscape of Kachchh was closely related to the existenceof 2e5 m deep water in the presently dried up part of Rann of Kachchh throughout the mid-Holocene.On the other hand the economy of the Harappan site of Padri depended on salt manufacturing in a stableestuarine environment close to the present sea level of the Gulf of Cambay. Sanjan, Chaul and Kelshiappear to have depended on a trading economy. These sites are situated in estuarine environmentsinvolving lateral transgressiveeregressive phases more or less within the present intertidal zone ofArabian Sea in a humid environment.

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1. Introduction

The Holocene (Table 1) is a major research challenge to earthscientists, climatologists and also to social scientists includingarchaeologists, historians and anthropologists. In the entiregeological history of the earth there is no other period as complexas the Holocene, as it involves interplay between natural andanthropogenic-induced factors.

In recent years, the Holocene in Western India has receivedattention (Kumaran et al., 2005; Prasad and Enzel 2006; Shankar,2006; Chamyal and Juyal, 2008;). These studies have shown thatthe PleistoceneeHolocene transitional period was climatically verysensitive, the mid-Holocene (7 kae3 ka) was relatively wet andstable and the Late Holocene (<3 ka) was dry and dynamic.Geomorphic responses to the environmental factors were variableand complex. These studies, however, have not considered theimpact of environmental changes on human cultures developedduring the Holocene. On the other hand, archaeologists andhistorians have attempted to understand growth and decay ofpastoral and farming cultures in terms of climate and sea level

o).

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changes during the Holocene (Dhavalikar, 2002; Deotare et al.,2007). As these studies are broadly based, it is difficult to accepttheir conclusions. This short communication presents data gener-ated at Deccan College in the last decade. Archaeological sitesinvestigated here (Fig. 1) are given in Table 2.

The Kanmer, Padri, Sanjan, Chaul and Kelshi sites have beenexcavated. The offshore site of Hazira has been studied by a group ofscientists from the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT)specializing in studying the sea bed and marine processes forengineering offshore projects. These sites have been fairly welldated by conventional 14C and by traditional typological dating ofarchaeological antiquities, particularly ceramics. At Hazira anattempt has been made to date the fired part of wattle and daubstructures and highly weathered pottery by TL dating. The localgeomorphology of all the sites has also been studied. A summary ofresults from coastal sites with emphasis on ‘cultural ecology’ duringthe Holocene is given below.

2. Observations

2.1. Coastal sites in Gujarat

Except for the offshore site of Hazira, all sites mentioned in Table1 occur in estuarine zones of streams debouching into the Gulf of

Table 1Chronology of the Holocene.

Sub-division of Holocene Years B.P.

Early Holocene 10 kae7 kaMid-Holocene 7 kae3 kaLate Holocene 3 kaepresent

Note: as the timeframe of the Holocene in India is not yet well established, thispaper uses the chronology proposed by Belcher and Belcher (2000).

S.G. Deo et al. / Quaternary International 229 (2011) 132e139 133

Kachchh, Cambay, or the Arabian Sea. Sites in Gujarat except Sanjanare in the semi-arid climatic zone affected by summer monsoonalrainfall. Sanjan and site in coastal Maharashtra are in the humidzone with summer monsoonal rainfall varying from 1500 to2500 mm annually.

2.1.1. Offshore site of HaziraThe site was discovered accidentally by engineers and earth

scientists of the National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai, in2000. Initially, a side-scan sub-bottom survey carried out 20 kmwest of the present Hazira port near Surat revealed regulargeometric patterns and a palaeochannel-like feature at a depth of20e40 m below the present sea level in the Gulf of Cambay. Thepalaeochannel was traced over a distance of 9 km. This initialdiscovery was followed by off-shore drilling, and a detailed surveyby side-scan sonar was carried out in 2001e2003 (Kathiroli et al.,2004).

The palaeochannel is represented bywell-cemented (by calciumcarbonate) bouldery-pebbly gravel rich in subrounded lithoclasts ofbasalt, calcareous sandstone (which underlies the gravel), chal-cedony and quartz. The gravel is clast-supported, moderately sortedand rests disconformably on calcareous sandstone of fluvio-marineorigin. The basal sandstone is affected by the development of

Fig. 1. Location of archaeologi

carbonate rhizoconcretions of pedogenic origin, suggestinglowering of sea level after the formation of the sandstone. Duringthis low sea level phase palaeochannel developed over the exposedsandstone bed probably during the Early Holocene as indicated bya 14C date on driftwood of 7610�100 BP (BSIP STN-D-39) (Kathiroliet al., 2004). The wood fragment was found within the conglom-erate along with a few microliths made of chalcedonic silica. Exactthickness of the conglomerate could not be discerned due toturbulent conditions in the Gulf of Cambay. The conglomerate isoverlain by about 1.8 m thick unconsolidated sand and silt bedswhich have preserved microliths, weathered potsherds, lumps ofbroken hearth and wattle and daub (part of the mud wall). Sandshave also yielded freshwater shells (Kathiroli et al., 2004).

Weathered potsherds were investigated by X-ray diffraction,and trace and rare earth analysis by Plasma Mass Spectrometry(Gogte, 2005). This study indicated that potsherds were made fromlocally available clay (montmorillonite) and were fired at about700 �C (as indicated by the presence of calcite). Grasses andbamboo growing locally were used for constructing mud walls ofhuts (Kajale, 2009). TL dates on potsherds and broken hearth piecesfound in sand and silt indicate human activity during the EarlyHolocene, i.e., between 8 ka BP and 6 ka BP (Kathiroli et al., 2004).This human activity probably came to an end during the mid-Holocene (around 4 ka BP), as a result of submergence (Merh,1992). This is indicated by the sandy bed, rich in marine shells,capping the artifact-bearing fluvial sands and silts.

2.1.2. KanmerThe Harappan site of Kanmer, in Kachchh district, Gujarat, is

situated close to the Little Rann of Kachchh. It is in a semi-aridclimate with mean annual rainfall of about 330 mm. Thearchaeological site is roughly square and about 15 m high. It issituated on a pediment landscape dotted by inselbergs. The area

cal sites in western India.

Table 2Archaeological sites from western India considered in the present paper.

Sr. No. Site Region Culture Geomorphic context Approximate age(beginning; 14C)

1. Hazira (offshore) 21�140N 72�270E Gulf of Cambay, Gujarat Pre-Harappan Buried palaeochannel 20e40 mbelow sea level

8000 BP

2. Kanmer 23�150N 69�380E Mainland Kachchh, Gujarat Harappan Rocky pediment, ephemeral stream,close to Little Rann

w5000 BP

3. Padri 21�200N 72�090E Southern coast of Saurashtra,Gujarat

Harappan Estuary on Gulf of Cambay w5000 BP

4. Sanjan 20�120N 72�480E GujarateMaharashtra border Medieval Estuary, Arabian Sea w900 BP5. Chaul 18�330N 72�560E Konkan coast, Maharashtra Early Historic/Medieval Estuary, Arabian Sea 2300 BP6. Kelshi 17�60N 73�30E Konkan coast, Maharashtra Medieval Estuary, Arabian Sea 1100 BP

S.G. Deo et al. / Quaternary International 229 (2011) 132e139134

is drained by ephemeral streams originating in hills and meetingthe Little Rann after flowing short distances. One of thestreamlets, called Aludawaro Vokro, originates in the hillocklocated 2 km northwest of the site. It flows for a distance of 6 kmbefore disappearing in the Little Rann. The pediment, with anaverage elevation of 20 m asl, has developed over ferruginoussandstones and shale of the Upper Jurassic age. It consists ofsediments, 2e3 m thick, exposed along the banks of streamlets,or revealed by wells and pits dug on the periphery of the presentday water tanks. A reconnaissance survey of these soil sedimentswas conducted for understanding some aspects of environmentthat existed during the Holocene.

The site of Kanmer has preserved cultural evidence of Harappan,Early Historic and Medieval periods. On the basis of conventional14C dates obtained on charred grains and burnt wood fragments,the Harappans appear to have occupied this area around 5 ka BPand deserted the site around 3.5 ka BP for reasons not yet known(Kharakwal et al., 2008). The site was reoccupied by around 2 ka BPand settlement continued without a major break during theMedieval period. The Harappan occupation is characterized bya conspicuous protection wall and a steatite bead industry. Severalcereals and pulses such as barley, wheat, rice, millets, horse gram,field pea, and green gram were identified at the site. Detailedinvestigations of animal bones found in excavations by Goyal andJoglekar (2008) include fish, birds, reptiles, sheep, goat, pig, cattleand buffalo.

Studies (Rajaguru and Deo, 2008) of soil sediments show thatbasal sediments (60e70 cm thick) unconformably cover pedimentbedrock of sandstone and shale. These sediments are sandy silt orsilty sand, reddish brown, compact, and are devoid of pedogenicconcretions of carbonate and iron oxide. The finer sediments aredisconformably capped by sandy gravels of colluvio-alluvial originand are about 1.5 m thick. The upper part of these coarse sedimentshas preserved Medieval pottery. Locally these fine sediments areknown as ‘Lilva’ and are used for house floors and mud walls bypresent day villagers. The same type of soil sediment occurs asvirgin soil below the earliest habitation debris andwas also used formud walls and floors by the Harappans. On the basis of archaeo-logical data, these fine silty sediments appear to have beendeposited by streamlets even before the arrival of the Harappans inthis region around 5 ka BP. The fine-grained sediments continueduntil 3.5 ka BP. These field observations suggest that the streamletswhich are ephemeral today were holding surface water for a longerperiod due to relatively wet climate prevalent in general inwesternIndia (Singhvi and Kale, 2009), and in Kachchh in particular duringthemid-Holocene (Maurya et al., 2008). Sea level during this periodwas also higher than the present level (Maurya et al., 2008) and theLittle Rann of Kachchhwas covered by 2e5 m deep water from 6 kaBP to about 2 ka BP (Gupta, 1975).

The climate became relatively dry, the sea level dropped and theLittle Rann turned dry during the Late Holocene (sometime after

1.5 ka BP). This change in environment was partly due to climate(Singhvi and Kale, 2009) and partly due to local tectonics as indi-cated by uplift of mudflats of mid-Holocene age (Maurya et al.,2008).

Field observations around Kanmer also show dramatic changein behaviour of streamlets which started depositing coarser sandygravels during the Late Holocene (as indicated by the preserva-tion of unrolled Medieval potsherds in the upper 30e40 cm ofthe sandy gravel). This change in behaviour of streamlets isprobably in response to lowering of sea level, drying of the LittleRann and the presence of relatively dry climate during the LateHolocene.

2.1.3. PadriThe ancient site of Padri, locally known as “kerala ne dhoro”, is

2 km south of the village of Padri Gohil and 2 km west of Gulf ofCambay in District Bhavnagar. The site, dated between 5 ka and2 ka (Shinde, 1992), was occupied for about 2000 years in thepresent estuarine zone of the Shetrunji River which flows season-ally duringmonsoonmonths. The sitewas excavated (Shinde,1992)and it was suggested that the main economy of the site during mid-Holocene (5 ka BPe3 ka BP) depended on themanufacturing of salt.In order to prove this hypothesis, a local geomorphological studywas carried out. Seven trenches were dug between the archaeo-logical site and the stable beach dune ridge. The earliest settlementwas on a stable mudflat which is 0.5 m below the present sea level.Three generations of mudflats were detected between the occu-pation site and the beach dune ridge, all occurring within theintertidal range. The presence of three gravel lenses of alluvialorigin within these mudflats indicates a migratory pattern ofdistributaries of the Shetrunji estuary. Probably one of thedistributaries flowed towards the natural depression during theHarappan period (Fig. 2(b)). Archaeological data recovered fromthese sediments show that the beach dune ridge and the mudflatbelow the habitational deposit are older than 5 ka, and othermudflats are probably contemporary with them. Owing to the lackof numerical dates, it is not possible to date pre-5 ka estuarinelandscape precisely. Tentatively, these mudflats and beach duneridge are dated to Early Holocene as they disconformably overliecobbly-pebbly gravel deposited by the Shetrunji or its distributarieswhen the sea level was below the present sea level during the LatePleistocene. These geomorphological studies show that the estua-rine mudflat environment existed close to the habitational site ofPadri, as the Early Holocene and provided ideal estuarine flats forsalt manufacture. These mudflats might have favoured the devel-opment of a natural salt marsh in the upper tidal regime of theShetrunji estuary during the Harappan occupation between 5 kaand 3.5 ka BP. As suggested by Bird (2003), it is possible to forma natural depression in the salt marsh due to local tide and wavegenerated processes which might have formed a natural salt panwith minimum freshwater level (Fig. 2(b)). Recently, Shinde et al.

Fig. 2. (a) Present day landscape at Padri. (b) Landscape during the Harappan phase at Padri.

Fig. 3. A general view of the section showing disturbance by strong floods at Sanjanwith a close up showing concentration of pottery in the flood deposit.

S.G. Deo et al. / Quaternary International 229 (2011) 132e139 135

(2009) stated that Padri was a salt manufacturing centre based onoccurrence of storage jars and comparative ethnoarchaeologicalstudies of present day salt manufacturers.

2.1.4. Sanjan“According to the oral traditions of the Parsis (a group of Zoro-

astrian refugees who fled Islamic persecution in Iran in the 7thcentury A.D.), their ancestors first made landfall on the Indianmainland at a place called Sanjan” (Gupta et al., 2004, p. 93). UnlikeKanmer and Padri, Sanjan lies in the humid zone and is frequentlyaffected by monsoon floods. The site is situated on the right(northern) bank of the River Varoli, 2.5 km inland from its mouthon the Arabian Sea. This site lasted as a port for about 400 years (8thcentury ADe12th century AD) with its economy based on coastaltrade (Gupta et al., 2004). The site has ecological similarities withsites in coastal Maharashtra where the coastline is rocky, ria-like,without any delta development and is climatically humid. Prelim-inary geomorphological studies (Rajaguru and Deo, 2005) revealedtwo generations of transgression and regression of mid-Holoceneage. Transgressive phases are represented by beachedune complexrocks (locally known as ‘karal’ in coastal Maharashtra) with anexcellent preservation of buried red soil in two ‘karals’. The site issituated on a stablemudflat developed after the recession of the seasometime during the mid-Holocene, certainly after the formationof ‘karal ridges’. Probably this stable surface of the alluvial fillprovided ideal camping place for the early settlers sometime in the8th century AD. These settlers continued their habitation until theearly 13th century AD. The study of river bank sections around thesite and some kilometer upstream of the site on the river Varolishow that the site was marginally affected by strong floods (Fig. 3).It appears that landscape ecology was favourable during theoccupation at the site.

2.2. Coastal sites in Maharashtra

2.2.1. ChaulThe site is 45 km south of Mumbai, and is located on the right

bank of estuary of the River Kundalika that originates in theSahyadri range. The site has been mentioned as Semula, Chemulaand Semeru in ancient texts including the “Periplus of ErythreanSea” (Anon., 1882). Gogte et al. (2006) and his team recoveredarchaeological antiquities (particularly potsherds, glass bangles,beads) in an old mudflat with 3 m thickness. These deposits havebeen dated to 2300 BP and 200 BP on the basis of typo-morphologyof artifacts. Investigators have stated that the first occupation took

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of Late Holocene coastal formations at Chaul (not toscale).

Fig. 6. Stratigraphical section at Kelshi showing three cultural phases and lateriteslabs-L1eL6 (not to scale).

S.G. Deo et al. / Quaternary International 229 (2011) 132e139136

place on an eroded surface of ‘karal’ around 2300 years BP. Duringthis time the relative sea level was 1.8 m below the present hightide level. It has also been suggested that ‘Chaul’ operated asa major international trading port on the west coast of India forabout 2000 years. They also argued that the rise in sea level was ofthe order of 4e5 m in the last 2500 years. These archaeologicalstudies, though interesting, do not take into consideration theaspect of fluvio-marine dynamics including configurationalchanges as suggested by Ghate (1990).

The presence of antiquities in a relatively undisturbed conditionin a low energy mudflat environment could be better explained byconfigurational changes in the coastal region rather than a sea levelchange of 4e5 m. Changes in the balance of erosion and accretionor deposition result in horizontal displacements known as

Fig. 5. General view of the old dune with a close up showing laterite slabs, Kelshi.

configurational changes (Chappell, 1982). A variety of landformssuch as tidal flats, beaches, wetlands, and swamps are produceddue to such changes. At Chaul, configurational changes are repre-sented by formation of beachedune ridges, mudflats, spit bars andperiodically drying wetlands (Fig. 4), during the Late Holocene.

The following information is mentioned in the Gazetteer ofBombay Presidency (Anon., 1882). According to Ptolemy (159 ce)Chaul was an open sea port. A copper plate grant of the 14thcentury AD Silahara King Anantdeo (1094 ce) describes Chaul asa creek port. Since then, Chaul continued as a creek port till theend of 15th century. Geomorphologically, the beachedune ridgehas been 14C dated to 2190� 95 (TF e 1231) (Guzder, 1980) andrepresents a marine-transgression of about 2 km inland. On theeroded portion of this ridge human activity has taken place duringthe Late Holocene (2.3 kae0.3 ka BP). Recent palynological studiesof these anthropogenic sediments suggest that human activityoccurred on periodically drying non-saline wetland as indicatedby total absence of mangrove pollen in clayey silts (Naik et al.,2009).

A number of 14C dates of ‘karal’ in coastal Maharashtra(Guzder, 1980; Bruckner, 2001; Ghate, 2007; Karlekar, 2007),palynological studies by Kumaran et al. (2005) of the mudflatsand geoarchaeological studies in the coastal parts of Gujarat andKonkan do not support the hypothesis of a relative rise in sealevel by 4e5 m in the last 2500 years as suggested by Gogteet al. (2006). The landesea relationship has certainly changedbut more laterally than vertically. The site of Chaul, therefore,needs to be studied from the point of view of coastal configu-rational changes and site formation processes in the mudflatenvironment.

Fig. 7. Holocene sea level curve for western Indian continental margin. Arrow showing the position of sea level w9500 BP e the time for the Neolithic settlement in Gulf ofKhambhat (Cambay) (After Nigam and Hashimi, 2002).

S.G. Deo et al. / Quaternary International 229 (2011) 132e139 137

2.2.2. KelshiThis site is 165 km south of Chaul in taluka Dapoli, District

Ratnagiri and is located on the mouth of a small estuary (area ofabout 6 km2) called Bharja. A small pocket beach has formed on thecoast of Kelshi, located between two rocky headlands. Two sanddunes were developed near themouth of the estuary, and the site ispreserved in the context of an old dune 150 m away from thepresently active dune. The maximum thickness of the exposed olddune is 18 m and it is oriented NNEeSSW over 550 m (Fig. 5). Thelowermost 8 m of the dune was scraped and archaeological antiq-uities (potsherds, marine shells, animal bones, coins, charcoalfragments, etc.) were carefully collected. These artefacts werefound between 4 m and 8 m level. Based on the archaeologicalantiquities and a single 14C date of 1130� 90 (BS 2051) on charcoal,it can be stated that site was occupied from 1100 BP to 500 BPrepresenting Early Medieval period (Joglekar et al., 2001e2002).The sand bed between 2 m and 4 mwith different cultural materialis likely to be of the Early Historic period.

Archaeological excavations have revealed that the anthropo-genic activity was not continuous and was associated with anartificially stabilized surface by laying down laterite slabs (Fig. 5and L1eL6 in Fig. 6) on unconsolidated dune sands. The presence

of large numbers of un-abraded potsherds, shells, fish bones,charcoal fragments on the laterite slabs indicate primary nature ofhuman activity. Deo et al. (2007) suggest that people occupying thedune were maritime traders and the activity was only during non-monsoon months. In the entire period of early 1500 years, the rateof sand accumulation was moderate (8 m) which favouredanthropogenic activity during the Historic period. On the otherhand, the rate of sand accumulation appears to have increased veryrapidly (10 m) after 500 years BP during the Late Medieval period(Fig. 6). Proper understanding of the reasons for unusually thick(w10 m) sand accumulation after 500 years BP may help under-stand the decline of maritime trading activity at Kelshi.

3. Discussion and conclusion

The archaeological sites found in onshore environments ofWestern India illustrate the complex relationship of environmentalchange and human cultures during the Holocene. The environ-mental factors affecting human cultures are tectonics, climaticchanges, sea level fluctuations and configurational changes duringthe Holocene. Sea level fluctuations and configurational changes

S.G. Deo et al. / Quaternary International 229 (2011) 132e139138

are significant in the context of mid-Holocene Harappan sites andLate Holocene historic sites, respectively.

As per the sea level curve (Fig. 7) presented by Nigam (2006) forthe western coast of India, the sea level was 30e35 m below thepresent level between 10 ka and 9.5 ka BP. It reached the presentlevel around 5 ka BP, and it continued higher from 4.5 ka BP to 1 kaB.P. Discussion focuses on understanding of sea level fluctuations inrelation to environmental change and cultural pattern during theHolocene.

3.1. Early Holocene

The offshore pre-Harappan site of Hazira in the Gulf of Cambayis probably the first of its kind discovered in the entire coastline ofIndia. Its cultural matrix fits well with the low sea level phase of theEarly Holocene.

3.2. Mid-Holocene

Earlier archaeological investigations at the Harappan sites ofLothal (Rao, 1979) and Kuntasi (Dhavalikar et al., 1996) in Gujaratrevealed presence of a dockyard and landing platform, respectively,during the mid-Holocene high sea level. These archaeologicalfindings were supported by micropalaeontological investigationsby Rajaguru and Ghate (1996), Khadkikar et al. (2004) and Nigam(2006). These scholars detected foraminifers in sediments associ-ated with structures connected with maritime trade.

Geomorphological studies at the Harappan site of Kanmersupport the hypothesis of mid-Holocene high sea level (Merh,1992). On the other hand, the site of Padri was not affected bythe mid-Holocene high sea level due to the presence of the fossildune ridge of Early Holocene age bordering the shore of the Gulf ofCambay.

Thus, these geoarchaeological studies support the hypothesis ofa mid-Holocene high sea level phase, providing a conducive littoralenvironment for maritime trade of the Harappans. The exactposition of the sea level during the mid-Holocene is not clear. Asmall rise in the sea level coupled with high tidal range of 12 m isenough to develop geomorphic features including mudflats andbeachedune ridges at much higher levels than under a lowamplitude tidal range.

3.3. Late Holocene

According to Nigam (2006) the sea level remained slightly highthroughout the Late Holocene (Fig. 7). However, investigations atChaul and Kelshi suggest that the sea level fluctuated within theamplitude of 1e1.5 m during the Late Holocene. These fluctuationsare related to lateral transgression and regression phases. Theselateral changes of sea resulted in configuration changes at Chauland Kelshi during the Late Holocene.

In conclusion, the Western Indian coastline has a number ofarchaeological sites covering an approximate time span of last 5000years. The majority of these coastal sites are trading estuarine portsaffected by high sea level of the mid-Holocene and by the fluctu-ating sea level close to the modern, sea level of the Late Holocene.Apart from moderate tectonics and climatic changes, the role ofhigh tidal range in the Gulf of Cambay must be considered. In thecoastal part of Maharashtra, assessment of floods and strong windsaffecting estuaries and beaches is required.

“Many of the apparent anomalies observed in sea level recordsfor the Holocene may not be necessarily due to poor sampling andconsequent erroneous geochronological dating. The non-synchro-nicity transgressiveeregressive events could be due to drastic geoidchanges e a subject that has hardly received any attention from

researchers in the India region.” (Mathur 2005, p. 143). Therefore,as Mathur (2005) suggested, high resolution chronological data ofarchaeological sites and associated geomorphic features arerequired for better understanding of the humaneland relationshipin the coastal parts of Western India.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully thank Dr. S. Kathiroli, Director, National Instituteof Ocean Technology, Chennai for providing financial assistance forworking on the sites of Hazira and Padri. We are thankful to Prof.V.S. Shinde, Drs., P.P. Joglekar and A.R. Marathe of the DeccanCollege, Pune and Dr. J. S. Kharakwal, Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udai-pur for academic discussions on sites mentioned in the text.

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