Contents - Pakistan Research Repository

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Contents

Contents ........................................................................................................................................................ i

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................... x

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... xi

ABSTRACT (Translated into Urdu) ..................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 2

1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................................... 7

1.3 Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 11

1.4 Hypotheses ........................................................................................................................................ 11

1.5 Justification ....................................................................................................................................... 13

1.6 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................... 15

1.7 Scope of the Work ............................................................................................................................ 16

1.8 Basic Assumptions ........................................................................................................................... 16

1.9 Definition of Key Terms ................................................................................................................... 17

1.10 Limitations ...................................................................................................................................... 18

1.11 Organization of Study ..................................................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 24

2.1Training: ............................................................................................................................................ 24

2.1.1Introduction: ............................................................................................................................... 24

2.1.2 Definitions of Training: ............................................................................................................. 26

2.1.3 Reasons for Training: ................................................................................................................ 26

2.1.4 Advantages of Training: ............................................................................................................ 27

2.1.5 Disadvantages of Training: ........................................................................................................ 28

2.1.6 Ideology of Training: ................................................................................................................. 28

2.2 Historical Background of Training: .................................................................................................. 29

2.3 Training in Pakistan: ......................................................................................................................... 33

2.3.1 Training in Universities of Sindh: ............................................................................................. 33

2.3.2 Training Legislations and Authorities in Pakistan: .................................................................... 34

2.4 Training Theories: ............................................................................................................................ 36

2.4.1 Attitude Theory:......................................................................................................................... 36

Implications of Attitude Theories: ...................................................................................................... 37

2.4.2 Motivation Theory: .................................................................................................................... 37

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Implications of Motivation Theories: ................................................................................................. 38

2.4.3 General Systems Theory: Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1968) ........................................................ 38

Implication of General Systems Theory: ............................................................................................ 38

2.5 Human Productivity: ......................................................................................................................... 39

2.5.1 Significance of Human Productivity: ........................................................................................ 40

2.5.2 Principles of Human Productivity based on “Theories of Productivity” in Organization: ........ 40

2.5.3Training, Development and Human Productivity: ...................................................................... 41

2.6 Conceptual Framework:.................................................................................................................... 44

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 56

3.1 Study Design ..................................................................................................................................... 56

3.2 Study Population ............................................................................................................................... 57

3.3 Sampling ........................................................................................................................................... 57

3.4 Instrumentation ................................................................................................................................. 58

3.5 Pilot Testing ...................................................................................................................................... 59

3.6 Data Collection ................................................................................................................................. 59

3.7 Procedures of Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 59

3.8 Research Variable ............................................................................................................................. 59

3.8.1 Dependent Variable ....................................................................................................................... 59

3.8.2 Independent Variable ..................................................................................................................... 60

CHAPTER 4: TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................. 63

4.1 Introduction to Training and Development ...................................................................................... 63

4.1.1 Objectives of Training and Development: ................................................................................. 64

4.1.2 Difference between Training and Development: ....................................................................... 65

4.2 Relationship of Training, Development and Productivity: ............................................................... 66

4.3 Training Process: .............................................................................................................................. 68

4.4 Training Need Assessment: .............................................................................................................. 68

Significance of Training Need Assessment: ....................................................................................... 69

Components of Training Need Assessment: ....................................................................................... 69

Process of Training Need Assessment: ............................................................................................... 70

Techniques used In Training Need Assessment: ................................................................................ 70

Framework for Training Need Assessment in the Educational Institutes:.......................................... 71

4.5 Training Methods: ............................................................................................................................ 71

Methods used in Educational Institutes: ............................................................................................. 72

Internship and Assistant ship: ............................................................................................................. 72

Coaching/Mentoring: .......................................................................................................................... 72

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Lecture ................................................................................................................................................ 72

Film/Television (Audio-Visual): ........................................................................................................ 72

Conference/Discussion: ...................................................................................................................... 72

Role Playing/Simulation: .................................................................................................................... 72

Programmed Instruction: .................................................................................................................... 73

Group Discussion and Tutorials: ........................................................................................................ 73

4.6 Transfer of Training:......................................................................................................................... 73

Factors Influencing Transfer of Training: .......................................................................................... 73

Barriers in Transfer of Training: ......................................................................................................... 74

Model Proposed for Transfer of Training: .......................................................................................... 75

4.7 Evaluation of Training: ..................................................................................................................... 75

Reasons of Evaluation of Training: .................................................................................................... 76

Model of Training Evaluation: ........................................................................................................... 76

Process of Training Evaluation: .......................................................................................................... 77

Techniques of Training Evaluation: ................................................................................................... 77

Principles of Evaluation: ..................................................................................................................... 78

CHAPTER 5: TRAINING, LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE ..................................................... 83

5.1 Introduction: ..................................................................................................................................... 83

5.2 Training Mission: ............................................................................................................................. 83

5.3 Responsibility for Training: .............................................................................................................. 84

5.4 Training Policies: .............................................................................................................................. 84

5.5 Training Objectives: ......................................................................................................................... 86

5.6 Training Approaches: ....................................................................................................................... 86

5.7 Training Plan: ................................................................................................................................... 87

5.8 Learning and Training: ..................................................................................................................... 87

5.8.1 Concept of Learning: ................................................................................................................. 87

5.8.2 Philosophy of Learning: ............................................................................................................ 88

5.8.3 Types of Learning: ..................................................................................................................... 88

5.8.4 Principles of Learning in Training: ............................................................................................ 89

5.9 Learning Strategies: .......................................................................................................................... 90

5.9.1 Learning Strategies in Educational Institutes: ........................................................................... 91

5.10 Learning Organization: ................................................................................................................... 92

5.10.1 Principles of Learning Organization: ....................................................................................... 92

5.10.2 Educational Institutes as Learning Organization: .................................................................... 93

5.11 Learning Theories: ......................................................................................................................... 93

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5.11.1 Behaviourist Theory: ............................................................................................................... 93

5.11.2 Cognitive Theory: .................................................................................................................... 94

5.11.3 Social Learning Theory: .......................................................................................................... 95

5.11.4 Empirical Learning Theory:..................................................................................................... 95

5.12 Human Performance: ...................................................................................................................... 96

5.13 Determinants of Human Performance: .......................................................................................... 96

5.13.1 Top Management Support and Human Performance: ............................................................. 96

5.13.2 Training and Human Performance:.......................................................................................... 97

5.13.3 Leadership Style and Human Performance: ............................................................................ 97

5.13.4 Job Attitudes and Human Performance: .................................................................................. 97

5.13.5 Financial Compensation and Human Performance: ................................................................ 98

5.13.6 Motivation and Human Performance: ...................................................................................... 98

5.14 Relationship of Training, Learning and Performance: ................................................................... 99

CHAPTER 6: DYNAMICS OF TRAINING........................................................................................ 109

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 109

6.2 Role of Training in Employee’s Motivation ................................................................................... 109

6.3 Role of Training in Job Involvement .............................................................................................. 112

6.4 Role of Training in Employee’s Commitment ............................................................................... 117

6.5 Role of Training in Organizational change..................................................................................... 118

CHAPTER 7: CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN TRAINING ......................................................... 130

7.1 Introduction: ................................................................................................................................... 130

7.2 Computer–Based Trainings: ........................................................................................................... 130

7.2.1 Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction: .............................................................................. 131

7.2.2 Simulations and Virtual Training: ........................................................................................... 131

7.2.3 Intranet: .................................................................................................................................... 131

7.2.4 Webinar: .................................................................................................................................. 132

7.2.5 Smartphone: ............................................................................................................................. 132

7.2.6 Social Networking Websites: .................................................................................................. 132

7.2.7 CBT and Educational Institutes: .............................................................................................. 132

7.3 Cross-Cultural Training: ................................................................................................................. 133

7.3.1 Types of Cross Cultural Training: ........................................................................................... 135

7.3.2 Cross-Cultural Training Process: ............................................................................................. 135

7.3.3 Benefits of Cross- Cultural Training: ...................................................................................... 136

7.3.4 Methods and Outcomes of the Cross-Cultural Training: ......................................................... 137

7.4 Ethics and Trainings: ...................................................................................................................... 140

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7.4.1 Significance of Ethics in Training: .......................................................................................... 140

7.4.2Ethical Principles in Training: .................................................................................................. 141

7.4.3 Ethical Elements in Training: .................................................................................................. 141

7.4.4 Ethics Training and Productivity: ............................................................................................ 143

7.5 Future Perspectives in Training: ..................................................................................................... 143

CHAPTER 8: ANALYSIS OF DATA AND ITS INTERPRETATION ............................................ 164

8.1 DESCRIPTIVE TABLES: SECTION- A....................................................................................... 164

Table-1.1: Age of Respondents from Public Sector ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table-1.2: Age of Respondents from Private Sector ........................................................................ 165

Bar Diagram-1.1: Age of Respondents from Public Sector .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Bar Diagram-1.2: Age of Respondents from Private Sector ............................................................ 166

Table-2.1: Gender of Respondents from Public Sector .................................................................... 166

Table- 2.2: Gender of Respondents from Private Sector .................................................................. 167

Bar Diagram- 2.1: Gender of Respondents from Public Sector ........................................................ 167

Bar Diagram- 2.2: Gender of Respondents from Private Sector ...................................................... 168

Table-3.1: Education of Respondents from Public Sector ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table-3.2: Education of Respondents from Private Sector .............................................................. 169

Bar Diagram-3.1: Education of Respondents from Public Sector .................................................... 169

Bar Diagram-3.2: Education of Respondents from Private Sector ................................................... 170

Table-4.1: Experience of Respondents from Public Sector ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table-4.2: Experience of Respondents from Private Sector ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Bar Diagram-4.1: Experience of Respondents from Public Sector .................................................. 171

Bar Diagram-4.2: Experience of Respondents from Private Sector ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table-5.1: Nature of Job of Respondents from Public Sector ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table-5.2: Nature of Job of Respondents from Private Sector ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Bar Diagram-5.1: Nature of Job of Respondents from Public Sector ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Bar Diagram-5.2: Nature of Job of Respondents from Private Sector ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

8.2 DESCRTIPTIVE TABLES: SECTION-B ..................................................................................... 176

Dynamics of Training (DOT)............................................................................................................ 176

DOT Q1: Training may be used as a motivational tool for employee(s) Error! Bookmark not defined.

DOT Q2: Training can help out employee(s) in solving their job related problems ... Error! Bookmark

not defined.

DOT Q3: Training leaves positive effects on employee(s) job satisfaction, working in universities

................................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

DOT Q4: Training may help in reducing the employee absenteeism ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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DOT Q5: Training may help in reducing the employee turnover ........... Error! Bookmark not defined.

DOT Q6: Training leaves positive impact on individual’s behavior, attitude, skill, ability and other

traits .................................................................................................................................................. 182

DOT Q7: Training can create awareness about organizational culture Error! Bookmark not defined.

Role of Training (RoT)...................................................................................................................... 184

RoT Q1: Training enhances the human productivity .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

RoT Q2: Training assures long-term human productivity ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

RoT Q3: Training helps and guides an employee of the private and public sector university to learn

relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes which s/he needs to function more effectively.Error! Bookmark

not defined.

RoT Q4: Training is necessary for all employees of private/public sector universities irrespective of

their ranks and nature of jobs ........................................................................................................... 187

RoT Q5: Training bridges employee’s skills gap as its hallmark of good managementError! Bookmark

not defined.

Investment in Training (liT) .............................................................................................................. 190

IiT Q1: University should develop a system to evaluate cost & benefit of training of its employees


IiT Q2: Training means cost as seen by employers, but the hidden cost is more if employees are not

trained ..................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

IiT Q3: Training affects the cost of production of an organization .................................................. 193

IiT Q4: Investment in training pays higher dividends in the long run through improved performance

and positive attitude of employees .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

IiT Q5: Investment in training by the employers motivates the employees for their retention with the

organization commitment towards university ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Significance of Training (SoT) .......................................................................................................... 196

SoT Q1: There is significant difference in productivity of trained & untrained employees of

private/public Sector University ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

SoT Q2: There is significant difference in performance of male & female employees of private/public

Sector University .............................................................................................................................. 198

SoT Q3: There is significant difference in performance of senior & junior employees of private/public

sector university ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

SoT Q4: On the job training is more result oriented than off the job training ................................. 201

SoT Q5: Off the job training is more result oriented than on the job training ..... Error! Bookmark not

defined.

Training Need Assessment (TNA) ..................................................................................................... 203

TNA Q1: Do you think that your organization carries on training need assessment (TNA) for proper

execution of training plans and programmes on regular basis? ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.

TNA Q2: Organizational training needs and methods to achieve desirable training results are well

defined in your university training plan/programmes ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

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TNA Q3: Your University keeps and updates records of employee personal characteristics .......... 206

TNA Q4: TNA points out reasons for failure of previous training program ........ Error! Bookmark not

defined.

TNA Q5: The success of training program of university depends on effectiveness of TNA processError!

Bookmark not defined.

TNA Q6: Do you think that your university identifies and prioritizes the organizational as well as

individual goals as the part of TNA process? ................................................................................... 210

TNA Q7: Training program is started with TNA process in your university ........ Error! Bookmark not

defined.

TNA Q8: Through TNA we can control cost and budget of training program ..... Error! Bookmark not

defined.

TNA Q9: TNA process increases the cost and budget of training program ..................................... 213

TNA Q10: Do you think that private/ public universities collects data for TNA from employee(s)

performance evaluation reports?...................................................................................................... 215

Training Methods (TM) .................................................................................................................... 216

TM Q1: Traditional training methods are more effective than E-learning in transfer of training .. 216

TM Q2: Usage of E-learning in transfer of training is more effective than Traditional training

methods ............................................................................................................................................. 218

TM Q3: E-learning Technology increases the cost of training .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.

TM Q4: E-learning Technology decreases the cost of training ........................................................ 221

TM Q5: Training room layout can influence the success of training session .................................. 222

Evaluation of Training (EoT) ........................................................................................................... 223

EoT Q1: Evaluation of training determines the effectiveness of whole training program and justifies

investment expenditure on training .................................................................................................. 223

EoT Q2: Evaluation identifies the further training needs ................................................................ 225

EoT Q3: In training session trainer shares performance report of trainees with them at end of training

session in your university .................................................................................................................. 226

EoT Q4: Training feedback is given by trainees in your university ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.

EoT Q5: The University training feedback is mostly based on trainer’s self-evaluation ................. 229

EoT Q6: In your University training feedback is mostly based on testing ....................................... 230

EoT Q7: After attending training session(s) you mostly get financial increment(s) in addition to your

basic salary as a reward/training allowance. ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

EoT Q8: If employee could not improve his / her performance even after undergoing the professional

training(s) that means training process was not effective ................................................................ 233

Organizational Training Climate (OTC) .......................................................................................... 234

OTC Q1: There is HR Department in your University ..................................................................... 234

OTC Q2: HR Department of your university works for training and development .......................... 235

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OTC Q3: The top management of university recommends their employees for training on fair basis


OTC Q4: The top management of university gives more emphasis on teachers or faculty training

program than administrative staff .................................................................................................... 238

OTCQ4 Cross table: with Nature of Job .......................................................................................... 239

OTC Q5: The top management of university gives more emphasis on providing training program to

administrative staff than faculty staff. .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

OTCQ5 Cross table: with Nature of Job .......................................................................................... 241

OTC Q6: The administration of university focuses more on long term training needs and program

than short term training needs and program. ................................................................................... 241

OTC Q7: The administration of university focuses more on short term training needs and program

than long term training needs and program ..................................................................................... 243

OTC Q8: Mostly male employees of the university take training & development program more

seriously than female ........................................................................................................................ 244

OTCQ8 Cross table: with Gender .................................................................................................... 245

OTC Q9: Mostly female employees of university take training & development program more seriously

than male ................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

OTCQ9 Cross table: with Gender .................................................................................................... 247

OTC Q10: Most of the time male employees of university remain absent from training program

session ............................................................................................................................................... 247

OTCQ10 Cross table: with Gender .................................................................................................. 249

OTC Q11: Most of the time female employees of university remain absent from training program

session ............................................................................................................................................... 249

OTCQ11 Cross table: with Gender .................................................................................................. 251

OTC Q12: University should conduct training programs on regular basis for its employees ......... 252

OTC Q13: University must have formal and well defined training programs/plans for its all employees

irrespective of their grades and nature of duties .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

OTC Q14: Senior employees also informally train the junior employees of university ................... 254

OTC Q15: Universities should also arrange inter-universities learning exchange programme(s) on

regular basis on the part of on the job training. ............................................................................... 255

OTC Q16: The university administration excludes women, minorities and older employees from

training program .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

OTC Q17: The university administration gives special attention on training of women, minorities and

older employees in training program ............................................................................................... 258

OTC Q18: The private/public sector universities more focus on their employees training and

development than public/private sector. ........................................................................................... 259

OTC Q19: The employees of private/public sector universities are more emphasized on their training

needs according to their job requirements than employees of public/private sector universities .... 260

OTC Q20: Have you ever attended formal training(s)? ................................................................... 262

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8.3 Test Hypotheses .............................................................................................................................. 264

8.4 Discussion ....................................................................................................................................... 271

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................. 281

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 281

Contribution of this Study .................................................................................................................... 285

Recommendations and Framework for Improvement .......................................................................... 286

Direction for Future Research .............................................................................................................. 288

Proposed Training Model ..................................................................................................................... 290

A Standard Training Model .................................................................................................................. 293

Relationship of training with Productivity and Institutional Strengthening: ........................................ 294

A Research-Based Model of this Research. ......................................................................................... 294

Annexure-1 ........................................................................................................................................... 295

Annexure-2 ........................................................................................................................................... 300

BIBLOGRAPHY: .................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATION FULL NAME

AKU Aga Khan University

CBT Computer-Based Training

CCI Council of Commons Interests

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency

DCTE Directorate of Curriculum and Teacher Education

DEEP De-centralized Elementary Education Project”

DoT Dynamics of Training

EoT Evaluation of Training

ET Embedded Training

FHEC Federal Higher Education Commission

FPDP Faculty Professional Development Programme

HDI Human Development Index

HEC Higher Education Commission

HEC Sindh Higher Education Commission Sindh

HRD Human Resource Development

HRM Human Resource Management

ICAI Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction

IED Institute of Educational Development

IiT Investment in Training

JIT Job Instruction Training

JST Job Support Training

NAVTEC National Vocational and Technical Training Commission

NCHD National Commission for Human Development

NDAC National Defense Advisory Commission

NDI Notre Dame Institute

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OJT On-the-Job Training

OTC Organization Training Climate

PEST analysis Political, Economic, Sociological and Technological Analysis

PITE Provincial Institute for Teacher Education

RoT Role of Training

SEF Sindh Education Foundation

SoT Significance of Training

STEVTA Sindh Technical and Vocational Training Authority

SWOT analysis Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats Analysis

TM Training Methods

TNA Training Need Assessment

ToT transfer of training

TTS Teachers Training School

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ABSTRACT

Title:

DYNAMICS OF TRAINING AND ITS INSTITUTIONAL ROLE

FOR ENHANCING HUMAN PRODUCTIVITY:

A comparative study of

Selected public and private sector universities of Sindh.

This study focus on dynamics of training and its institutional role for enhancing human productivity;

therefore, a comparative study of selected public and private sector universities of Sindh would be

carried out to know that how to optimize the human productivity and its continuity at the public and

private sector university in this era of drastic competition with the help of training dynamics. This

study is descriptive in nature so qualitative approach will be applied to determine the results. It

would be conducted through survey research with the help of closed ended questionnaires. This is

not possible to cover all employees of each university, therefore, we design random stratified

sampling method as from each university there is a subset of teaching and non teaching field of

profession then select proportion of male and female employees. Close ended questionnaires data

would be interpreted by descriptive statistical methods with the help of frequency tables and graphs.

This research study would elaborate the dynamics of training and its institutional role for enhancing

human productivity as it sharpness the human sensors and resultantly such sharpened human sensors

help in minimizing the loss and increasing the profit and leads towards world of professionalism.

This research work is very specific and confined to the selected public and private sector universities

of Sindh; however, some part of the work may help in generalizations. This study will help in

addressing the problems and challenges being faced by the employees of public and private sector

universities with reference to their training and development and will also provide guidelines for

improving human productivity through training. This study would work out the different ways to

achieve best possible human productivity contribution towards the development of an organization

through dynamics of training.

Keywords: training dynamics, institutional role, human productivity.

UGC University Grants Commission

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

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ABSTRACT (Translated into Urdu)

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Introduction

Chapter 1

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The global economy is widely changing because knowledge is supplanting the tangible

(physical) capital as the underpinning resource of contemporary (and future) wealth.

Advancements in technology are driving most of this progression, with innovations

leading the significant revolution in our living and working prospects.

Knowledge is linked with higher education as knowledge gaining the significance, so the

vitality of higher education is increase. Nations need their communities, people, and civil

society to be more educating according the more advanced standard. At present time, an

educational degree from reputable institute or university is considered as a basic

qualification for majority of skill-based jobs. Currently, in the competitive globalization,

nations rely on the production of quality knowledge within higher education institutions;

its importance in expanded economies with access to global market is widely accepted.

(Diehl, Christiaana, Nalitolela, & Elias, 2001). The World Bank (2000) has reported that

the higher education systems specifically in developing countries are underneath

enormous sprain. In the public sector the higher education institutes are persistently

deprived of funds, and continue facing the challenge of rising need because about 50%

students belong to developing countries. In these institutions often faculty members and

non-teaching staff are under-qualified, have insufficient motivation, and mostly

unrewarded. The teaching pattern and syllabus are not up to the standards or lack skills

to compete with the challenges of modern job market (Higher Educationin Developing

Countries: Periland Promise, 2000). The state of the education sector in Pakistan is not

very promising. The low budget allocation from the government is the leading cause of

the underprivileged performance of education sector. It has been quoted by (Ghulam

Rasool Memon, 2007) in the education policy of 2008 that “the public expenditure on

education remained less than 2 percent of GNP before 1984-85. In recent years, it has

been increased to 2.2 percent”(Ghulam Rasool Memon, 2007).Literacy rate of Pakistan

is lowest with other comparable countries on the basis of income and capital (Higher

Educationin Developing Countries: Periland Promise, 2000). The education sector is

facing many challenges; some of them are: low admissions in the primary schools,

widespread disparities among regions, gender inequalities, the absence of qualified

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teachers, shortage of educational gadgets and equipment and underdeveloped

infrastructure of schools and colleges(Ghulam Rasool Memon, 2007). All these indicate

the subtle performance of education sector. Furthermore, inadequate money resource,

compromised levels of efficacy in the application of the educational programmes, no

system for quality management, monitoring and evaluation, insufficient administration

and teaching are contributing to the poor performance of education in Pakistan especially

the higher education.

Education, prior to the 18th Constitutional Amendment was a joint responsibility of the

federal and provincial governments in Pakistan. It was defined in the law as, “curriculum,

syllabus, planning, and policy, centers of excellence and standards of education”. Prior

to the 18th Constitutional Amendment the Federal Government was regulating higher

education through the Federal Higher Education Commission (FHEC) for which the

Higher Education Commission Ordinance 2002 was enacted. However, under the 18th

Constitutional Amendment, education has now been moved to the legislative and

executive jurisdiction of the provinces and, it is defined as “the standards in institutions

for higher education and research, scientific and technical institutions”. Currently, it falls

under the purview of the Council of Commons Interests (CCI)1 because there is a dispute

between the Federal Higher Education Commission and provincial commissions.

Education is a provincial subject after the 18th Constitutional Amendment therefore; the

Sindh Assembly has enacted legislation, the Sindh Higher Education Commission Act,

2013, on the subjects (curriculum, syllabus, planning, policy and centers of excellence)

devolved to it.

Earlier, the higher education was monitored and steered by the center through the Higher

Education Commission (HEC)(Nizamuddin, 2015). This was created to ensure

standardization and quality control at higher education institutions and to facilitate an

integrated system for the higher education sector. However, this arrangement has not

achieved desirable results, especially in terms of academic and research excellence and

training of staff.

1 CCI is a constitutional body in Pakistan. It resolves the disputes of power sharing between the federation and provinces.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Pakistan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_Pakistan

4

(Memon, 2007; Economic Survey, 2006-2007). There are 20 universities and higher

education institutes (public and private) that have been recognized by the Higher

Education Commission in Sindh.2

The higher education system in Pakistan especially in the Sindh province is not

performing well. The percentage of students in higher education institutes age between

18-23 years; is about 3.7% from the overall cohort of this age in the country. Although,

enrolment in public and private institutions is mounting annually at rate of 30%; there are

shortage of quality skills and worth noticing research from these institutes. Only small

number of public sector universities from Pakistan is listed in the top 500 universities of

the world. Only 25% faculty staff holding PhD degrees in the public

universities(Mehmood & Shafque, 2009).The undergraduates passed annually showing

the low expected results. Internationally, acceptance of degrees from majority of

universities is evaded.

There are many reasons for the poor quality of higher education in Pakistan. However,

in the higher education, per student expenditure per annum is several times more than the

expenditure in the secondary education sector. The higher education sector is poorly

funded in terms of suitable infrastructure, including “libraries, laboratories, scientific

equipment, teaching aids, and high speed internet connections”(Mehmood & Shafque,

2009). One of the many other reasons of quality deprivation is the lack of specialization

in universities; because of competition among public universities, they are offering the

courses in multiple disciplines and extend their limited resources (financial and human

resource) too sparingly. They are not achieving excellence due to less selective in few

and more focused specializations that are necessary and justify the scant resources. On

the other hand, the universities in the private sector have tried to specialize in the market-

oriented disciplines like IT, Management Sciences and Business. Nevertheless, there is a

need to maintain the quality.

The higher education’s reforms have identified several challenges. Some of them are:

1. “Poor standard of faculty and absence of training / capacity building

2 http://www.hec.gov.pk/Ourinstitutes/pages/Default.aspx

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2. Low enrolment in higher education

3. Minimal relevance of higher education to national needs and incompatibility to the

International Standards

4. Low quality of research and lack of relevance to national requirements

5. Poor Governance of Universities”

“Education plays a vital role in human capital formation. It raises the productivity and

efficiency of individuals and thus produces skilled manpower that is capable of leading

the economy towards the path of sustainable economic development”(Mehmood &

Shafque, 2009). Therefore, human resource is the most costly asset of any organization;

money, material and machines are worthless without man-power(Chowdhury, 2007; D.

A. Olaniyan & Ojo, 2008). In the higher education, teachers are considered the vital

component of any system of education. Their teaching quality and performance depends

on “motivation, qualification, experience, training, aptitude and a host of other factors,

not the least of these being the environment and management structures within which

they perform their role”(Lam, 2013).

Most of the organizations especially in the private sector put great emphasis on human

resource development. It is considered as a key for the growth of any organization. Many

economists view the skills of the labour force (human capital) as the engine of growth, or

major contributor to economic performance(A. Daron & JoÈrn-Steffen, 1999).

“Although, the most common indicators of human capital are measured in the amount of

formal schooling. However, on-the-job training is also important in determining

productivity. It is also important to consider that most lines of business require specific

skills which cannot be provided by general-purpose education in the formal

schooling”(A. Daron & JoÈrn-Steffen, 1999). In the past 20 years, “the Organization for

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has experienced in a number of

countries that the increase in the returns to a college degree and other skills has also added

a sense of urgency to concerns regarding skills”. Correspondingly, latest technology and

innovation in the organizations necessitate “continuous learning” and its paramount

feature is the training at work. The global landscape of business and employment is

changing rapidly due to advancements in Information Technology. Training in long-term

6

is beneficial for the workers who don’t possess the higher educational degrees. The

changing demands in the market would increase the need of updated skills that are

adopted through training, thus produce the better returns to the stakeholders and

organizations. Policy makers and Academic economists believed that training for long

time bridge the gap less between formal education and other skills(A. Daron & JoÈrn-

Steffen, 1999).

Adeniyi (1995) and (D. A. Olaniyan & Ojo, 2008) observed that the staff training and

development is a work activity that can make a very significant contribution to the overall

effectiveness and profitability of an organization.

Universally, it is accepted that the higher productive organizations constitutes human

resource that are more efficient and effective. Ultimately the efficiency and effectiveness

depends on the well organized system of training in organizations. Furthermore,

advancement in every field ascends the need of investment in training. Nonexistence of

these programmes frequently creates “three-way problems of incompetence, inefficiency

and ineffectiveness”. Different research studies have found that individuals also place

considerable value on the investments that organizations make in their human capital

enhancement(Thomas N. Garavan, Morley, Gunnigle, & Collins, 2001).

Similarly, the employees of educational institutes especially in the universities also rely

on their management for building their skills to improve their productivity. However, in

Pakistan, more emphasis is given to the training of primary or secondary school teacher

training. Training for the teaching staff in colleges and universities is not considered

important. There are no formal educational or training institutes for obtaining the skills

in teaching for the higher education institutes.

Therefore, there is a need to focus on training of employees of the higher education sector.

This research will focus on training and its institutional role for enhancing human

productivity. The research will be conducted as a comparative study of selected public

and private sector universities of Sindh.

7

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Education is linked with better skills, higher productivity, and enhanced human capacity

to improve the quality of life(HigherEducationinDevelopingCountries:PerilandPromise,

2000; Nwangwu & Elechi, 2014).During the past three decades, mostly the attention has

focused on primary education, especially for girls. This has neglected secondary and

tertiary education, with higher education in a perilous state in many developing countries

(Banya, 2010; HigherEducationinDevelopingCountries:PerilandPromise, 2000). It is

underfunded by governments and donors therefore, the quality is low and access remains

limited. Higher education institutions and higher education system in Pakistan is

politicized, poorly regulated, and plagued with deep rooted corruption. In this

technological era, the higher education has been forced to confront with the new realities

including expansion, differentiation, and the knowledge revolution ( Higher Educationin

Developing Countries: Periland Promise, 2000).

The mode and types of education are changing and as well as the environment in which

it exists. The late twentieth century saw the growth of a “knowledge-centered economy”,

as compared to the “manufacturing-centered economy”. According to the World Bank

(2000) the “knowledge revolution” has seen continuing increases in knowledge in the

developed countries since the World War II. There has been an increase in number of

new patent, databases, journals, as well as research and development expenditures.

Approximately, all industries have been affected by the growing information technology,

including the education, training and development sectors. Meanwhile, the information

technology has made this ever-increasing volume of knowledge more accessible,

effective, and powerful(Abbaspour & Abbaspour, 2012). Networked computers, tablets,

cellular smart phones and new forms of telecommunications spread information around

the world with incredible speed.

More and more knowledge is circulating through the internet. Those who have the skills

to use it have access to an extraordinarily valuable (and sustainable) resource which is

contributing in their skills development (Abbaspour & Abbaspour, 2012; Higher

Educationin Developing Countries: Periland Promise, 2000).

The staff in higher education not only needs teaching relevant skills rather more

interactive, innovative and advance skills that are compatible with the modernization of

8

the students and environment. Higher educational institutes hold the position in the

country to produce the holistic knowledge of the theory and application of the multiple

fields. They provide the accessibility and availability of the world’s knowledge directly

to students and indirectly to the communities and societies. It is only possible when the

human resource of the universities is able to impart these skills and knowledge to the

students. Similarly, Pakistan needs strong universities not only to carry out their own

research, but also to select and absorb knowledge from all over the world. In the current

international setting of higher education, the universities are ideally suited for the tasks

of selection and absorption of knowledge in the global community of scholars, study and

training, and research reaching across borders (Higher Educationin Developing

Countries: Periland Promise, 2000). Although, it cannot pledge rapid economic

development but sustained progress is impossible without it.

The current system of higher education in Pakistan and particularly in Sindh is facing

numerous challenges. “According to the UNDP, 24.6 % labour force works in the tertiary

education in Pakistan but their training and development is not prioritised. Therefore, the

higher education system is facing decline in quality.

lays lasting several months (HigherEducationinDevelopingCountries:PerilandPromise,

2000). The current grading and evaluation system is highly biased and leaves students at

the mercy of professors who themselves often need to be evaluated. Another critical issue

is the shortage of faculty with graduate-level training ( Higher Educationin Developing

Countries: Periland Promise, 2000). Most faculty members are not trained in teaching and

pedagogy skills. The current shortage of government resources and international

scholarships for overseas universities also makes it challenging to design any substantial

training of future faculty to increase and magnify the higher education. The curriculum

and books used in the higher education needs upgradation and revision to meet the needs

of current globalized world” ( Higher Educationin Developing Countries: Periland

Promise, 2000; Lam, 2013).

Education has a much broader impact than only cultivating earnings or employment

opportunities, that’s why it is an important element of the human development

index(Schleicher, 2015). The Human Development Index (HDI) “is a summary measure

for assessing long-term progress in three basic dimensions of human development: a long

and healthy life, access to knowledge and a decent standard of living. Pakistan’s HDI

http://hdr.undp.org/en

http://hdr.undp.org/en

9

value for 2014 is 0.538— which puts the country in the low human development group

placing it at 147 out of 188 countries and territories” (UNDP, 2015).

In addition to the public sector, the private sector is emerging as a major competitor in

providing access to education at all levels and in all fields including professional and

technical. To address the disorders of the education system, the Education Sector Reforms

were introduced in 2001 by the government which intended at targets for each sub-sector

from 2001-2004 as indicated in the following lines ( Education Sector Reforms Action

Plan 2001).

“The reforms identified eight areas for interventions aimed at addressing issues of access

and quality. These include (I) National Literacy Campaign (ii) Madrassa Education (iii)

Universal Primary/ Elementary Education (iv) Quality Assurance (v) Technical

Education at Secondary Level (vi) Higher Education (vii) Public Private Partnership (viii)

Innovative Programmes”(EducationSectorReformsActionPlanÈ 2001).

The quality assurance component of the Education Sector Reforms involved reforms in

the teacher education & training together with changes in the curriculum and assessment

systems.

Economic survey of (2006-2007) conducted by the Ministry of Finance had indicated that

in “the recent years the literacy levels in Pakistan have improved over time at a modern

pace”. The survey (EconomicSurveyofPaksitan, 2007) noted that the overall literacy rate

(10 years &above) was 45 percent in 2001 which has increased to 54 percent in 2005-06,

indicating at 9.0 percentage points increase over a period of only 5 years. Males’ literacy

rate (10 years and above) increased from 58 percent in 2001 to 65 percent in 2005-06

while it increased from 32 to 42 percent for females during the same period highlighting

the gender gaps that still persist in access to education. The percentage of children aged

10-18 that leaves school before completing primary level has decreased from 15 percent

in 2001 to 10 percent in 2005. According to the Education Census 2005, there are

currently 227,791 institutions in the country”(Ghulam Rasool Memon, 2007). The

government has targeted to improve the higher education from 2.6% to 5%. Therefore, it

is important to note that formal education alone is not enough to ensure greater

opportunity and prosperity of the society. In a number of areas, many unemployed

graduates coexist with a large number of employers who cannot find workers with the

10

skills they need. If individuals and countries are to continue to reap the benefits of

education, policymakers must focus on the skills required to prosper in a rapidly changing

world(Schleicher, 2015).

It is widely accepted that training enhances productivity and it is an investment for

achieving goals and objectives of an organization and countries. A reasonable solution

could be an initiative taken by higher education authorities to establish the graduate

institutes that cater the training of faculty and administration personnel related to higher

educational institutes. International financial support in collaboration with the

universities of other countries, contribute in the development of these institutes and their

curricula in diverse fields. Therefore, aim of this research is to explore the impact of

training on employees’ productivity and performance in the higher education institutes.

Organizations like educational institutions organized training and development

programmes for their employees of diverse positions (levels). Training can bridge the gap

between knowledge and skills of an employee required for his or her specified role.

When management makes this effort for completing organizational tasks, it helps in

grooming employees through enhancing their abilities and also develops the good

reputation for the organization internationally.

However, training does not always translate into human productivity, especially in the

universities of Sindh(M. Farooq & Khan, 2011). There remain many challenges in the

area of teacher training; most notably, the lack of adequate programmes in terms of

number, as well as the curriculum of some of these programmes. Pre-service training of

teachers in Pakistan is critically deficient at a time when education for a nation in a

globalized world is more important than ever before.

The higher education systems have been regarded to deliver support for national efforts

to raise standards for developing country. These systems are also looked upon for poverty

alleviation and improvement in living standards. They also attempted to widen access to

higher education and, in some cases, there was a belief that higher education could help

make societies more democratic, while strengthening human rights (Higher Educationin

Developing Countries: Periland Promise, 2000).Poor skills of employees in the higher

educational institutes and their behaviours not only affect the overall performance of

11

these institutes but also affect the students’ learning outcomes. Therefore, in general, the

research thesis “Dynamics of training and its institutional role for enhancing human

productivity: a comparative study of selected public and private sector universities of

Sindh” will review training as a tool for improving efficiency and achieving economic

growth. In particular, it will assess role of training in public and private sector universities

for improving human productivity and institutional strengthening. It will also assess:

significance and investment in training, process of training and its frequency followed in

universities, effective training methods, impacts of different types of training courses on

teaching and non-teaching staff in their professional skills, motivation; and training

effectiveness, and use of learning outcomes from the training courses in everyday work

life of the employees; effect of training on behaviour of staff in public and private sector.

It will also examine impact and institutional role of training on performance of

universities’ employees.

1.3 Objectives

The principal objective of this study is to add into the existing body of knowledge in the

field of human productivity and training. Overall, the research objective is to

optimizehuman productivity at the public and private sector universities with the help of

training. More specifically the research aims:

To examine relationship of training in enhancing human productivity and institutional

strengthening in university employees.

To identify and analyse factors (general and specific) that increase or decrease human

productivity in thepublic and private sector university employees of Sindh.

To study the impacts of training on the employees’ behaviour and performance to achieve

institutional strengthening.

To suggest a guiding framework for “improving human productivity in the public and

private sector” universities of Sindh.

1.4 Hypotheses

The research will test following hypotheses:

Ha (1). Training as a tool has significance in improving human productivity and institutional

strengthening in public and private sector universities of Sindh.

12

Ho (1). Training as a tool does not have any significance in improving human productivity

and institutional strengthening in public and private sector universities of Sindh.

Ha (2). Training is significant for the employees of the public and private sector universities

of Sindh.

Ho (2). Training is not significant for the employees of the public and private sector

universities of Sindh.

Ha (3). Investment on training is significant for the public and private sector universities of

Sindh.

Ho (3). Investment on training is insignificant for the public and private sector universities

of Sindh.

Ha (4). Training produces substantial outcome in employee’s productivity of public and

private sector universities of Sindh.

Ho (4). Training does not produce any substantial outcome in employee’s productivity of

public and private sector universities of Sindh.

Ha (5). The training Need Assessment (TNA) of employees has importance at public and


Ho (5). The training Need Assessment (TNA) of employees does not have any importance

at public and private sector universities of Sindh.

Ha (6). Imparting training has significance for the institutional development of public and


Ho (6). Imparting training has no significance for the institutional development of public and


Ha (7). Evaluation of training is necessary at public and private sector universities of Sindh.

Ho (7). Evaluation of training is unnecessary at public and private sector universities of Sindh.

13

1.5 Justification

The proposed research is considered very timely as: Human beings are naturally dynamic

and they try to be contemporary and relevant with the society and their environment in all

spheres of life. In order to satisfy their aspiration to remain relevant in their field of work

and its scope, training and development is a necessity.

In today’s world, organizations and businesses focus more and more on increasing

productivity, which depends on trained human resource. It isbecause much of the success of

any organization relies upon the productivity of its workforce. The employee productivity is

an important consideration for businesses as well.

Today administrators identify the actuality that training is evidently crucial not only in the

development of the individuals but it also facilitates the productive capacity of the workers

and ultimately contribute to organizational growth.

Quality of education is considered poor in Pakistan and one of the reasons is untrained staff

in education sector. Therefore, trained workers in universities will contribute to improving

quality of higher education which is necessary for development of the Pakistani society.

The “importance of teacher training” cannot be underestimated. “The better a teacher is

trained, the better he or she can educate tomorrow's generation of Pakistanis. In addition,

teacher training does not just positively impact a teacher’s knowledge and skill set but also

enhances a student's knowledge of a subject matter”. The teaching method used to share

information by teachers helps children not only stay in school, but also engages young

students and encourages them to keep learning.

Faculty training in pedagogical, communication and information & communication

technology (ICT) skills is required at all levels to enhance the productivity of teaching and

learning in higher education.

The higher education system (and institutions) must put the quality of services and quality

of outcomes on a high priority.

14

The capacity of higher education institutions must be strengthened to conform to the

international standards of quality assurance through developing and strengthening of internal

quality assurance processes.

When building the capacity of higher education institutes, importance should be given to

recognizing excellence and supporting it, and that would be achieved through trained staff.

The year 2015 is very important in the context that it marks the deadline for the participants

of “Dakar Declaration” (Education for All (EFA) commitment) and “Millennium

Development Goals” (MDGs). Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving EFA targets and it’s

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Currently, the government has called for an

analysis of the education system of Pakistan to review issues and problems it has been facing

so that workable solutions could be recommended. This research will contribute to analyzing

the training and human resource productivity issues in higher education institutes in Sindh.

The research will also contribute to the progress being made to achieve the Sustainable

Development Goal on Education and Vision 2025 set by the government. The Vision 2025

document also considers “improving human skills and this is its first pillar that emphasizes

on putting people first and developing human and social capital. The first priority is to

provide every citizen the ability to improve his/her choices and quality of life. This requires

capitalizing upon and strengthening existing social capital, improving the human skill base

of the population, and providing access to opportunities for advancement. It involves a rapid

scaling-up of investments in education, health and social development, generating jobs and

prospects for the youth bulge, harnessing the rising power of a socially aware population,

gender equality and women’s development, inclusion of vulnerable segments, interfaith

harmony and religious diversity, promotion of art, culture and heritage, raising sporting

standards, and moving towards a knowledge-based, ethical and values-driven society. It

targets to increase Higher Education coverage from 7% to 12%, and increase number of

PhDs from 7,000 to 15,000 by 2025”.

The sixth pillar of the Vision 2025 “foresees investment in the determinants of national

competitiveness; especially skill development, information and communication

technologies, and engagement in international markets. The foundations of a knowledge-

based economy will be laid and Industry-Academia linkage will be strengthened. It will be

achieved through the use of cluster based development approach and value chain

15

improvements incentivized. Innovation, technology adoption and value addition will be

encouraged. It targets to improve the triple labour, capital productivity and to improve

Pakistan’s score on the World Bank Institute’s Knowledge Economy Index from 2.2 to 4.0,

and increase internet penetration to over 50%”. Therefore, this research will also support

these targets of the Vision 2025.

The study will serve as a guide to the university administration and management in

improving their employees’ efficiency and institutional productivity. It will also inform them

work-related problems and performance stimuli in the area of training and human resource

management.

This study will be an evidence-based document addressing the problems and challenges

being faced by the employees of universities with reference to their training and

development.

This research study will also cover the important subject matters related to the professional

training including training dynamics, investment in training, significance of training,

training delivery, training needs assessment (TNA), transfer of training (ToT) and evaluation

of training etc.

It will also serve as a starting point for more research on this topic and contribute to the

wealth of knowledge in this area. This study will also be facilitating other researchers for

carrying out their work on training and development.

This study will be helpful for universities to design and conduct quality training programmes

of employees.

1.6 Research Questions

Broadly the research will assess role of training in public and private sector universities

for improving human productivity. Specifically it will:

Study the significance of training and factors contributing to increase in human

productivity.

Analyse the relationship of training and its role in institutional strengthening of higher

education institutes.

16

Examine role of training in employees’ productivity, motivation, and behaviour and job

satisfaction.

Identify effective process of training and training methods for enhancing human

productivity.

Examine Gaps and Challenges in Training and Development in Public and Private Sector

universities of Sindh and suggest a guiding framework for improving human productivity

in the public and private sector universities of Sindh.

1.7 Scope of the Work

This research covers the vast field of training and development, and its role in enhancing

the human productivity in particular in the universities of Sindh. Its scope is limited to

the employees of public and private sector universities in Sindh. This is a qualitative

research and its focus is on training and human productivity in the 10 selected universities

of Sindh. A survey of 400 employees (teaching and non-teaching) from these universities

is carried out to assess role of training on their personal and professional development

and enhancement of their productivity. The work is very specific and confined to the

universities of Sindh; however, some part of the work may help in generalizations. It will

also suggest a guiding framework for these universities to improve the productivity and

overcome gaps in implementation of training courses.

1.8 Basic Assumptions

The research assumptions are:

Training is directly related to contribution in human productivity and it is crucial for

organizational growth.

“Human productivity” is sole responsibility of “Human Resource Management” and it is

crucial for organizations’ development and strengthening.

“Human productivity” can be further improved by carrying out professional training of

personnel.

“A trained personnel is considered a qualified Human Resource and is able to perform

better than an untrained individual”.

17

Quality production has a direct relationship with quality Human Resource and; quality

Human Resource is outcome of quality training.

Training refines the human skills and resultantly such polished human resource helps in

minimizing the loss and increasing the profit in any organization or institute. Training

leads Human Resource towards the world of professionalism.

1.9 Definition of Key Terms

Training:

Training as described by the Olaniyan and Ojo (2008.p 326) “is a systematic development

of knowledge, skills and attitudes required by employees to perform adequately on a

given task or job.”

Human Capital:

“Economist Theodore Schultz invented the term human capital in the 1960s to reflect the

value of our human capacities”. Human capital is defined “as a measure of the economic

value of an employee's skill”.

Employee Productivity:

According to (Rouse, 2014), “Employee productivity (sometimes referred to as

workforce productivity) is an assessment of the efficiency of a worker or group of

workers. Productivity may be evaluated in terms of the output of an employee in a specific

period of time. Typically, the productivity of a given worker will be assessed relative to

an average for employees doing similar work.”

University:

“An educational institution of highest level”3.

Public Sector:

3Longman Dictionary of contemporary English

18

According to the (Institute of Internal Auditors, 2011 p.3), “In general terms, the public

sector consists of governments and all publicly controlled or publicly funded agencies,

enterprises, and other entities that deliver public programmes, goods, or services.”

Private Sector:

“The part of the economy that is not state controlled, and is run by individuals and

companies for profit. The private sector encompasses all for-profit businesses that are not

owned or operated by the government”.4

Institution:

The most cited definition of an institution is formulated by(Uphoff, 1986a). “Complexes

of norms and behaviours that persist over time by serving collectively valued purposes.

Through this definition, a difference can be made between concrete and abstract

institutions. For the purpose of this research, the word institution is used in terms of

Concrete Institutions that include government, schools, law courts etc. and they have an

organizational structure”.

1.10 Limitations

Training and development and human productivity are vast subjects having broad

contours and therefore, cannot be covered in one research study alone. However, this

particular research study is limited to discuss and investigate into dynamics of training

and its institutional role in human productivity in the higher education. It is a comparative

study of the public and private universities of Sindh. The research is limited to the

recognized institutes and universities and there are 20 institutes recognized by the Higher

Education Commission in Sindh province of Pakistan. This study is limited and time

bound therefore, for the purpose of this research only 10 universities; both public and

private are selected. It is also important to note some colleges also impart bachelor level

degree courses in collaboration of the University. However, these colleges are not

included in the scope of this study.

4http://www.investorwords.com/3947/public_sector.html

http://www.investorwords.com/1652/economy.html

http://www.investorwords.com/3947/public_sector.html

19

1.11 Organization of Study

The current study has been organized in following manner with nine chapters:

Chapter One: It introduces the ingredients of current study including the statement of

problem, hypotheses, justification of work, research questions, scope, assumptions and

limitations of the study.

Chapter Two: This Chapter reviews the literature and elaborates the relevant theories

with their implications with reference to current research work.

Chapter Three: It covers the details of study design and research methodology for the

current study.

Chapter Four: This chapter discusses the theories and practice in the field of training

and development.

Chapter Five: It deals with training prerequisites such as training mission, policies,

objectives, and plans along-with the learning theories and strategies. The relationship

among training, learning and performance has also been discussed.

Chapter Six: This deals with the individual, employee, trainee perspective and also

discusses that how the dynamics of training influence their Knowledge, Skill and Attitude

(KSA) in the changing organizational scenario.

Chapter Seven: The changing perspective in training has been discussed in detail in this

chapter.

Chapter Eight: It includes the results, discussions, analysis of current research data and

its interpretation.

Conclusion & Recommendations:

23

Literature Review

Chapter 2

24

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1Training:

2.1.1Introduction:

Human beings are the super creatures with the latent and cognitive abilities to survive in the

environment. Nevertheless, through the evolution, it was evident that the human nature strives

to learn from their environment and those who adapt themselves according to the environment

survive successfully. McLeod(2011)explained Albert Bandura’s The Social Learning Theory

presented in 1977 which is based on the bidirectional triad of learning, it comprises

environment, individual cognitive ability, and behaviour. In this technically advanced world,

learning is important irrespective of the age, basic qualification or formal school education and

the type of organization.

Learning as defined in the Business Dictionary is a “measurable and relatively permanent

change in behaviour through experience, instruction, or study”(B. Dictionary, 2015a). Learning

is the lifetime process to become more capitalized in terms of wisdom with the interaction

through the environment. The cognitive ability is defined as the “capacity to perform higher

mental processes of reasoning, remembering, understanding, and problem-solving”

(Ch.10,Douglas, 2015). Cognitive ability identified as one of the major determinants of skill

acquisition and learning (Kanfer, 1989; Salas, 2001).For continuous learning and acquiring

novel skills; training is a necessary ingredient. Training is a mean to replenish the knowledge

and skills of human resource. The human resource development (HRD) is the main consequent

of the training. Almost all organizations invest resources in terms of money, material and time

to develop their human resource(Casio, 2000).The development of human resource results in

the accumulation of human capital(T. N. Garavan, Micheal P. and Emmon C., 2001). Many

economists have a clear vision that the skills of the workforce (human capital) as the “engine

of growth or major contributor to economic performance”. Although, more frequent indicators

of human capital are measured in the amount of formal schooling. However, on-the-job training

is also important in determining productivity. It is also important to consider that most lines of

business require specific skills which cannot be provided by general-purpose education in the

formal schooling(UNDP, 2015).The diverse workforce, diversification in the organizations and

expansion of the organization through geographical boundaries increase the need of efficient

and productive human resource. The enhancement in learning not only increases abilities but

25

also increases the output of the organization which is possible through the different training

programmes(Bartel, 1994).Training is a tool to operate and reconstruct the organization

involving its employees to improve its internal and external environment and increase its

income. Therefore, majority of the companies emphasize on training of their employees and

consider it as an important part of the organization’s success, especially in the private sector

(G. S. Becker, 1993).Training is bridging the gap between existing and required knowledge,

skills and attitude. In the recent years, it is widely accepted that, to survive in competitive

market, training plays a basics as a benchmark. In the hierarchy of organizational structure, the

human resource requires training at all levels of the organization to develop a successful

company. The size of the organization expands and the technological growth occurs through

training(Colarelli, 1996).

Previously, it was argued that training would make employee demoralized and the company’s

turnover would increase. Despite recognition of the significance of training and its role in the

human management and development (Dowling, 2005),the organizations faced challenges in

producing the desired outcomes. The organizations lacked the systematic training programmes,

the organizational goals and training methods not properly designed and conducted which

resulted in the wastage of resources and increased the unproductive time which ultimately

decreased the efficiency of the organization. The evaluation of the training programme is

necessary for the future programmes. The investment on training returns through the cyclic

process which involves the application of the learned knowledge and skills, efficiency,

employee performance and productivity and organizational development(Davidove, 1992;

Foot, 1996; M. a. R. Wankhede, G., 2014). The success of organizations depends on several

factors. Some of these areas are well-structured training programmes, the proper need

assessment of the organization objectives, skills requirement for specific job and selection of

proper employees, properly designed methods of training and their evaluation process. All these

substantially produce the benefits which outweigh the cost of the investment on training (I. L.

Goldstein, 1991; Noe, 2002; Pineda, 1995; Rohan, 2012; Syed, 2011).

Training of teaching and non-teaching staff in the higher education institutes is inevitable. In

many countries, training of teachers in critical thinking, decision making and professional

development is getting prime importance(Gibbs, 2004). The quality of the future generation

and citizens depends on the educational institutes and; the quality of educational institutes is

directly linked with the qualified, competent, motivated and productive teachers and non-

26

teaching employees of the institute(F. Aziz, Akhtar, M. S., & Rauf, M., 2014; Hussain, 2010).

Thus, there is a need to assess the role of employees’ training at the higher educational institutes

and universities in Sindh, in order to improve the human productivity of teaching and non-

teaching staff and creation of a developed society.

2.1.2 Definitions of Training:

There are numerous definitions for explaining the term “training.” In this research, training is

defined as:

“The organized procedure by which people learn knowledge and/or skill for a definite

purpose.”(People at Work,Beach., 1965)

“Training is the act of increasing the skills of an employee for doing a particular job.”(Flippo,

1968, pp. 191-198).

“Training is the systematic development of the attitudes/knowledge/skill behaviour patterns

required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job.”(HRM,Patrick,

1992).

“Training is a learning process to acquire new skills, to incorporate in the company’s rules and

regulations, to learn attitudes and being operational in an organization which ultimately

enhances the employee performance.”(Stephanie, 2005, p. 2)

2.1.3 Reasons for Training:

Training is important for all kinds of organizations and workplaces; manufacturing firms,

sales firms, marketing firms and educational institutions (Krueger, 1998). There are several

reasons to train employees; it depends on the organizational goals and strategies. Some

general reasons of training in organizations are listed below:

Training is used as a tool to increase employee commitment and retention in the

organization (Scott. Brum, 2007).

In the market, there are increasing demands of quality services and products (Colin,

2001); in order to cope these demands training is mandatory.

According to the demand of the people, organization relies on diversification and

flexibility which requires training of their employees (Callan, 1995).

Human resource requires novel skills and training for new technology and

interventions(Hyland, 1992; Hyman, 1996).

When there is recession and downsizing of the company, training would be the best tool

to reduce cost (Hyland, 1992).

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When there is a shortage on the supply side of labour and skills, training can support in

production of qualified labour.

2.1.4 Advantages of Training:

Training is being considered an integral part of any organization’s success. Some advantages

of training are:

Increase in Productivity: Productivity is “the amount of output created in terms of

goods produced or services rendered, per unit input

used”(HumanProductivity,Bloomfield, 2015).

Therefore, if the organizations increase inputs in training of their employees, these

trained workers with more capabilities would be able to increase productivity of the

organization.

Increase in Ownership: When organizations invest in their employees, it develops a

sense of importance within employees and increases their satisfaction. Employees

‘satisfaction gets increased with the deployment in training activities and that increases

their sense of ownership of the organization. This sense of ownership among employees

produces a positive effect on their work and ultimately increases the productivity of the

organization.

Increases Retention and Reduces Turnover: The replenishment of the latent and

learned skills and enhancement in knowledge consequently increases the job

satisfaction and reduces the employee turnover.

Increase in Morale and good Human Relations: The sense of the achievements and

acquiring new skills ultimately increase the confidence in individuals. The basic human

need of security and self-belongings increases, which is necessary for better human

relations in the organization and for the individual employees as well as to be more

productive in the market with better economic status.

Reduction in Cost: The training plays vital role in cost reduction due to the wastage of

equipment used incorrectly by the untrained employee. Similarly, internal recruitment

of employees trained on specific job tasks reduce the cost of new hiring.

Reduction in Supervision: Training improves skills and reduces imperfection

therefore, the trained employees require less supervision.

Increase in Flexibility and sustainability of the Organization: The steadiness or

stability of an organization depends on its key employees. This stability is firmed by the

continuous training programmes for the employees and especially, for employees who

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are at the lower positions in the organizational personnel hierarchy as they also equally

contributes in the organization’s success and stability. Training programs conducted for

all employees and provide equal opportunity in the organization. It is necessary for the

flexibility and sustainability of the organization. It is also noted by Rajendra (1998),the

multi-tasking and multi-trained employee is the investment of the company which

adjusts in the robust changing environment and diversification to increase flexibility of

the organization.

2.1.5 Disadvantages of Training:

Despite the benefits, there are some disadvantages of training as well. These are mentioned

below:

Over-training also increases stress, loss of money and time and negative reinforcement

in the employees(Tania, 2015), especially when they are unable to use their knowledge

or the organizational polices does not provide a favorable environment.

The cost of salaries of trainers and trainees increases the budget of the organization.

A great amount of time is required for designing and implementation of the training

programmes and refresher courses.

Opportunity cost will increase due to less productivity.

The cost on training materials, equipment and facilities also increases organizations’

expenditure especially when organizations are unable to retain their trained staff

(Robert, 2011).

2.1.6 Ideology of Training:

There are different aspects of training such as physical training, intellectual training, social

training, technical training, spiritual training and on-the-job training. Human resource

department of an organization considers all these aspects based on certain ideology. The factors

behind the ideology or the training are:

Motivation of Workers: Training is conducted to keep the motivation of the staff at a

positive and healthy level. The consideration of workforce motivation is highly

significant for effectiveness of any training.

Objectives Based: The training complement the goals and targets of the organization

and equip workers to do the jobs in a more productive approach.

Universality: The training programme should imply for all and not for a specific group

of employees.

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Preplanned: A well-organized and scheduled training programme would be less time-

consuming and will produce more efficient results.

Theoretical and Practical Based: The theoretical bases firm the practicality of training

and get incorporated with workforce existing and new skills and knowledge.

Reinforcement: Rewards at the end of training produce positive reinforcement like

promotion, job expansion, and rise in monetary compensation or acknowledgment. This

also increases trainee’s desire for participation into the future training programmes.

Individual Differences: This should be considered because every person possesses

different capacities, needs, traits and aptitudes. The training procedures should be

designed accordingly; more than one method could be used to meet the different

learning styles.

Cost Effective: The training programme should cater all the required aspects of

training. For example, the company’s budget and competent trainers should be

considered(Admin, 2006; Rajendra, 1998).

2.2 Historical Background of Training:

Training is a vital component of the human and animal life. Its history starts with the human

life. Human and animal both have been training their offspring to have a good and successful

life since ages. Professional training of workforce has a long history. Broadly, the historical

background of training divided into following eras:

i. Antiquity

ii. The Middle Ages

iii. Industrial Revolution

iv. Vestibule Training

v. The World War I: Systematic Training

vi. After the World War II: Individualized Instructions

vii. Modern Types of Individual Instructions

viii. The End of 20th Century

ix. The Information Revolution and Beyond

x. The Training Legislation

Antiquity: On-The-Job Training

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It was previously practiced that parents transferred their knowledge to their children for the

necessary jobs to survive in the society. It did not require specialized knowledge; however, it

required practical, face-to-face training, that’s why it is also known as On-the-Job Training

(OJT). “On-the-job training, sometimes called direct instruction (or sit-by-me training in

England; King, 1964, p. xvii), is the earliest kind of training.” It was mainly used by illiterate

farmers, who were not able to read and write. Although, the efficiency remained low but, still

it has been the most popular and cost effective method of training in recent times.

The Middle Ages: Apprenticeship

In the Middle- Ages, parents used to send their children to more specialized and skillful person

on apprenticeships. The learner used to live with the master and prepare crafts and develop

expertise(Steinmetz, 1976). In the ancient civilizations, for obtaining training, people traveled

from their hometowns and lived with their trainers for years. Apprenticeships persist today as

well but in a modern form. It is organized in such a way that it involves both the trainer and

trainee for the accomplishment of the training.

The Industrial Revolution: The Classroom

In the 1800s, after the influx of the Industrial Revolution, the classroom training concept

evolved in factories. The trade and business expanded due to a large number of factories and

production was dependent on the machines. The demand of trained workers increased to operate

those machines to increase the productivity. The classroom training was beneficial because it

trained a large number of trainees at the same time and reduced the productivity loss. It also

reduced the training time at the worksite. However, the trainers with low capabilities to learn

were sat behind and instant feedback was not given to them to improve their skills (Cook, 1962).

Vestibule Training

In the1900s, vestibule training; “near-to-job” concept was evolved with the incorporation of

advantages of on-job-training and classroom methods of training. The trainer supervised large

six to ten trainees and the machines were installed in the department. The feedback was given

instantly and trainees applied their knowledge of the machines directly. In this way, they

practiced their learning instantly which reduced the workplace accidents and increased the

confidence of trainees. Besides, this kind of training was expensive due to the replication of the

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master machines. Nevertheless, the benefits of vestibule training outweigh the cost

increments(Hardman, 1963; L. J. Smith, 1942).

The World War I: Systematic Training

In 1917, Charles R Allen gave the concept of Show, Tell, Do and Check. It involved the

preparation of workers and evaluated their previous knowledge about the task. Based on that,

he instructed the trainees and showed them the operations and asked questions to discern their

new knowledge and encourage them to perform the job. After assigning the given tasks the

regular checkups and feedback was provided.

After the Second World War: Individualized Instruction

After the second World War, the reconstruction of the world was in progress and, there was a

need of more efficient way to train the workforce to cope with the peak workload. The

automated training technique “individualized instruction” was developed which involved the

paper based or machine based programme materials for instruction. The teaching machines

were introduced. It reduced the learning time and trainee could practice according to the need

and the capabilities within a suitable time.

Modern Types of Individualized Instruction

The modern types of individualized instruction are Computer-Based Training (CBT) and

Embedded Training (ET). CBT is defined as “an interactive learning experience between a

learner and a computer in which the computer provides the majority of the stimulus, the learner

must respond, and the computer analyzes the response and provides feedback to the

learner”(Gery, 1991). Embedded Training (ET) “involves incorporating training functions,

either in whole or in part, into an operational system.

The End of the 20th Century: Job Support

Job Support Training like JIT consists of step-by-step instructions, with exception that it does

not require learning. “Job aids are considered instructional interventions because they also

mediate knowledge/skills problems. However, job aids are not really intended to produce

learning. They substitute for learning. Learning that does occur as a result of using the job aid

(surely considerable at times) is incidental” (Job Aid,Ruyle, 1990).

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The Information Revolution and Beyond: Integrated Performance Support

An individual needs the performance support technology in the changing work environment to

perform different tasks at the workplaces. It requires no specialized skills perhaps however;

there should be cognitive abilities and potential to surmount the deficiencies.

The Training Legislation: The Industrial Act

The Industrial Training Act passed in the British Parliament in 1964. The main objective was

to rationalize the training needs and strengthen the occupational training programmes in all

businesses and firms. Post World War II scenario changed the concept of training. Previously,

the apprenticeships were operationalized which reduced the number of skilled workers at work

and fulltime work was compromised. The Carr report (1958) recommended the need of

expanded apprenticeship programmes by the factories and educational reforms in schools.

Despite the establishment of the Industrial Training Council, the supply of skilled workers

remained diminutive. With all the considerations of criticism of obsolete training programmes

and government involvement, the Industrial Training Act enacted in 1964.The Industrial

Training Act implicated in America in 1967. This act is a preamble for the legislations in

Pakistan as well.

Main clauses of this Act are:

The Act applies to all industries.

The Act applies at levels within industry, including training, is mandatory for managers,

supervisors, technologists, technicians, skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers.

The Act applies to persons of all ages, including training, retraining and education of

adults.

There should be an Industrial Training Board, whose duties are:

To provide ample facilities of training in the industry.

To recommend well planned content, nature, and length etc. of the training for

different occupations.

To financially support the trainers, who is responsible to provide standard and

approved training programme.

To impose a levy on employers to impose the above criteria.

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2.3 Training in Pakistan:

This is evidently proved that development of the higher positioned employees’ results in

increase of organization’s profitability and productivity. The development programmes

enhance skills and competencies of the individual. Thus, the retention of the employees

increases the organization’s productivity, job satisfaction improves and overall it reduces the

turnover (Atif, 2010; Hamid, 2011).

In Pakistan, many studies have been carried out to assess the impact of training on employee’s

productivity. Study focused on telecommunication industry and emphasized that training

methods and suitable designed training methods increase the employee’s performance and

productivity of the organization(Sultana, 2012).

Another study by (Elnaga, 2013) analyzed the different firms through following qualitative

research approach and synthesized the conclusion that investment in human resource in respect

to training and development endows with better productivity.

In a systematic review by (M. Farooq, & Khan, M. A. , 2011), it was stated that the planned,

customized training and timely feedback is vital for the increase in productivity of the

employees. The study conducted by (Fakhar, 2008) on hotel industry provides evidence based

conclusions that the trained employees are more productive and able to cope with the challenges

in the organizations. The training elicits the motivational factors as well for better productivity.

In a study by (Khan, 2012), it was implied that the motivation, working conditions, technology

and the organization system all contribute into the employee productivity. The training is the

independent major factor for the increase in productivity.

2.3.1 Training in Universities of Sindh:

Despite the increasing acceptance of appropriate training of employees in different fields in

Pakistan, the Universities in Sindh are deprived of proper training programmes. The definition

of the institution is compiled by Uphoff (Institutional Development,1986b) as the “Complexes

of norms and behaviours that persist over time by serving collectively valued purposes. Through

this definition, a difference can be made between concrete and abstract institutions. For the

purpose of this research, the word institution is used in terms of concrete institutions that include

government, schools, law courts etc. and they have an organizational structure”. The

Universities in Sindh are anticipated to be involved in the development country and globally as

well with regard to economics, globalization, and social development. A study conducted by

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(Ahmed, 2012) in Sindh on the teachers training surveyed teachers from educational institutes.

The results of this study concluded that there is a gap between training and the implications of

the training in educational institutes. The reasons of the unsuccessful training programmes are

the past behaviours and attitudes; and also the absence of timely evaluation of the training

programmes and absence of refresher courses. There is also a need to differentiate between the

school and higher Universities in Sindh and their relevant training programmes. The education

psychology and the adult education segregate this phenomenon to comprehend in the college

or university education(Martinez-Pons, 2006). The educational reforms need to survive in the

competitive and technologically advanced world. The quality of education , especially higher

education depends on the competency of the teachers(Hussain, 2010).

The quality and the production of the competent future generation depend on the efficient,

motivated and productive employees related to this profession. The multi-skilled teachers with

better communication skills, student-teacher relationship, abilities in making productive

learning environment are more effective and helpful in making better students and consequently

better nation(F. Aziz, Akhtar, M. S., & Rauf, M., 2014).The professional development of

employees in all fields especially in higher education is necessary. However, there are no formal

training institutes to train higher education teachers in pedagogical skills. There is a great

emphasis on training of primary and secondary school teachers but training for college and

university teachers is not given due importance. The pre-service and in-service training is vital

for teachers’ education(Rao, 2007). The in-service training for the contemporary concepts of

teaching and learning should be operationalized to increase the capacity building and

productivity. There is lack of public training institutes for the higher education / university

teachers. There are some private Universities in Sindh that are playing their role to produce the

productive and competent teachers to stabilize the system of higher education in Pakistan.

However, the non-teaching staff is the most neglected category for training in the higher

education institutes. Not only teachers but, the infrastructure, curriculum and creativity of other

employees also influence the overall quality and effectiveness of the institutes(Kayani, 2011).

2.3.2 Training Legislations and Authorities in Pakistan:

Education in Pakistan is in very poor state however, since the creation of Pakistan in 1947 there

has been great emphasis on education and training. For this purpose, there have been several

legislations enacted and training authorities established in different areas. Some of the major

35

legislations are discussed here. Initially, the Punjab Government Educational and Training

Institutions Ordinance were enacted in 1960s to look after training. After that, the

Apprenticeship Ordinance 1962 made the provisions for enhancing and regulating systematic

apprenticeship programmes for allowing the minimum benchmark of skills especially

concerned with the industrial sector. In 1973, “the National Development Volunteer

Programme Act (No. 49) was passed to make provision for promoting, developing and

regulating systematic apprenticeship programmes for educated persons to equip them for

securing gainful employment. It repealed the National Development Volunteer Programme

Ordinance l973 (No. XII of l973)”.

Later, the National Training Ordinance was formulated in 1980 and amended in 2002. The

Ordinance established “Training Boards to regulate and promote vocational training facilities

in various fields”.

The National Vocational and Technical Training Commission: The legislation for

establishment of the Commission was enacted in February 2011. The Commission provides

regulations, coordination and policy direction for vocational and technical training

(International Labor Organization,ILO, 2014).

National Vocational and Technical Training Commission: The commission was

established in 2011 under the National Vocational and Technical Training Commission

Act, 2011 (Act No. XV of 2011). The act applies to the whole country. It has established

the National Vocation and Technical Training Commissions.

The Higher Education Commission was preceded by the University Grants Commission (UGC)

in 2002 by a constitutional amendment at the Federal level. The universities were formerly

accredited by the UGC established in 1947. The HEC is responsible to formulate the higher

education policy and quality assurance to meet the international standards as well as providing

accreditation of academic degrees, development of new institutions, and uplifting of existing

institutions in Pakistan. The HEC had also trained some teachers by enrolling them in Faculty

Professional Development Programme (FPDP) in 10batches. After the 18th Constitutional

Amendment, education is now a provincial subject; therefore, the Sindh Assembly has enacted

legislation for Sindh in the form of the Sindh Higher Education Commission Act, 2013.

36

The Directorate of Staff Development in the Education Department is another body that deals

with staff development. Each province has an “Education Extension Center/Wing and/or

Directorate of Staff Development”. These institutes are in charge for in-service education and

objective of this directorate is to conduct at least one training program for every teacher once

in five years when they are on job. Apart from these training institutions, there are some other

departments and institutes at the Provincial level in Sindh that deal directly or indirectly with

the teacher training and development especially at the primary level. These include the

“Directorate of Curriculum and Teacher Education” (DCTE), the “Provincial Institute for

Teacher Education” (PITE), the “Education and Literacy Department”, “Bureau of Curriculum

and Extension Wing Sindh and the Education Directorate”, “Bureau of Curriculum and

Extension Wing” (BoC& EW).

“The Sindh Technical and Vocational Training Authority established under the Sindh

Technical Education and Vocational Training Authority Act, 2009 (Act No. VIII of

2010). It manages and regulates technical education and vocational training in close

coordination with industry in the Province”.

The Private Sector is also playing a very valuable role in imparting training for teaching and

non-teaching staff. Some of the famous organizations are the Teacher’s Resource Center, the

Aga Khan University, Institute of Educational Development, the St. Patricks’ Teachers

Training School and Notre Dame Institute.

2.4 Training Theories:

The literature on training theories also explains the relationship of training with the training

outcomes. The outcomes of training are increased knowledge, skills acquisition; transfer of

training, behavioural change and improved system productivity. Besides, the cognitive abilities

and other personal characteristics or factors influence the training effectiveness. The researchers

conceptualize these outcomes in theories. Some theories on training are discussed below:

2.4.1 Attitude Theory:

Attitude is the learned entity rather than innate. Some of the theories regarding attitude are

mentioned below:

Theory of Reasoned Action: Fishbein and Azjen (1975)

This theory was presented by the Fishbein and Azjen (1975). It is composed of three

components (i) Cognitive component; deals with the belief and opinion, (ii) Affective

37

component; deals with the feeling or emotions and (iii) the Behavioural component that

discusses the willingness to perform something in a specific way.

Concept of this theory explains that the cognitive component is the foundation of attitudes and

behaviour. Subjective norms and attitudes are the precursor of the behaviour.It is very

significant for making decisions, judgments and then formulating the evaluation.

Theory of Planned Behaviour:Azjen and Madden (1986)

According to the Azjen and Madden (1986), the concept of this theory is perceived control,

which is an additional factor in Theory of Reasoned Action. Behaviours are based on resources

and opportunities and are not voluntary. The significance of behaviours in this theory depends

on (i) Internal factors; perception of skills, knowledge, abilities and planning and (ii) External

Factors; perception of time, opportunity and other people.

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Leon Festinger (1957)

The concept of this theory is the disagreement among two or more attitudes or between attitudes

and behaviour. It is significant because individuals try to reduce dissonance on the basis of

importance of elements, individual influence and rewards.

Implications of Attitude Theories:

The various types of attitudes related to a job can be summed up as: the job satisfaction, job

involvement, organizational commitment and workforce diversity. The implications of these

theories revealed that the past behaviour of the employees, perceived controlling factors,

subjective norms and expectations of success improve their attitudes and intentions to act(Zint,

2002). Increased job satisfaction eventually increases the productivity, reduces turnover and

absenteeism(Raymond, 1986).

2.4.2 Motivation Theory:

Motivation is the Latin word derived from word ‘Movere’ which means “to move”(Krietener,

1998). Some of the motivation theories are:

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory: Abraham Maslow (1943)

Maslow believed that there are five needs; one need has to be fulfilled to desire for the next.

These are physiological needs, safety need, self-belongings, self-esteem and self-actualization.

Equity Theory: J.Stacy Adams (1969)

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In Equity theory, the input provided should be equal to the output when compared to others. If

there is imbalance between input and reward, people get motivated to be more involved in the

work in order to produce more. The elements of fairness and justice in rewards are the deriving

factors for motivation.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory: Victor H. Vroom(1964)

It consists of three components; (i) valence which is emotions, (ii) instrumentality which is

positive performance and (iii) expectancy which is expected reward. All three components are

necessary for each other. The performance depends on the reward which has been desired by

the employee.

Implications of Motivation Theories:

Training and development programmes, job analysis, compensation, benefits, diversity in work,

supervision and career advancement, all motivate employees and consequently increase their

performances, productivity and retention in the organization. This ultimately results in job

satisfaction that reduces turnover.

2.4.3 General Systems Theory: Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1968)

This theory is conceptualized in scientific philosophy as the combination of different but

specialized disciplines that work together as a system. The Systems Theory provides framework

which analyzes the organization in descriptive and explanatory ways(Anatol, 1956).

Its concept is designed to deal with intricacy, work done with precision and take a holistic

approach to view the circumstances in the organization. It is significant because it recognizes

the interdependence of personnel internally and involvement of stakeholders. Moreover, it is

focused on changing environments and organizational behaviour.

Implication of General Systems Theory:

The systems work together in organization as production line gets support from the proper

incursion of raw materials. Training, development and human relations are maintained with the

synergy of managerial control, coordination and adjustment with the changing environment.

Therefore, it is the collaboration of all the organizational sub-systems for success of the

organization as a whole.

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2.5 Human Productivity:

Training has undeviating connection with the human productivity. “ Human capital” is defined

as “the stock of competencies, knowledge, social and personality attributes, including

creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labour so as to produce economic value”(Worker

Productivity,Boundless, 2015).

The role of the productivity is to be anticipated for the successful economic performance of the

organization. As previously defined, the productivity is the ratio between input and output.

Nevertheless, the productivity detains the organizational behaviour, technology and most

importantly human resource. The resources of the productivity are money, machine, material

and method, though these are vital but the human being (men and/or women) is the central and

key resource. Productivity can be expelled through various activities in the organization;

therefore, the balance between dynamic structure and the organization’s goals should be

maintained(Hameed, 2014).The economists previously considered capital in terms of physical

capital (machines and structure) but now new theories have elaborated the concept and

accumulated the human capital and productive knowledge as the other most important

capital(Fuente, 2011). The sustained economic growth is directly related to the human

productivity and, the resultant human productivity is influenced by physical capital and human

capital(Boundless, 2015). Human productivity is increased by either spending on the machines

or on the human capital which ultimately generate the profits and the expansion in production.

In a report,(Jaison, 2011)described that increase in density of human capital results in two-fold

increase in the productivity 2%-4%.The findings are consistent with the concept that learning,

knowledge, information sharing and new ideas in industries showed noticeable increase in

human productivity. In a study (G.S. Becker, 1964) emphasized that investment in human

resource education and training is profitably same as the investment in equipment by the

business organization. He also discussed the positive impact of general education and

differentiates it from specific training required for job retention, increase in productivity and

job promotions. The economist Grossman(2000) presented the human capital model. This

model proposed that investment in formal schooling would increase in the human capital

including health which ultimately increases the working days and productivity of the individual.

However, it discussed that only formal education is not enough to be more productive; to

perform certain task, special skills and knowledge are also required that come through training

and development. Substantial investment in human resource converts it into human capital

40

which has direct relation with productivity, hence the quality and quantity of the productivity

improves.

2.5.1 Significance of Human Productivity:

The human productivity in long-run is the real income. Organizational and societal investments

in human capital generate monetary revenues in terms of education, health, knowledge and

skills which can be sustained for the future generations. These returns on investment are

transferable and exponentially increase the efficiency and quality.

2.5.2 Principles of Human Productivity based on “Theories of Productivity”

in Organization:

Productivity is not only the tangible maximum work performed or tangible items produced by

the worker; rather it is based on better planning and certain principles. Following are the

principles of Human Productivity:

High Degree of Morality: The morality, ethics, fairness and justice in the organization nurture

the productivity.

Better Leadership: It is the prime duty of the top management to provide better leadership and

play their role to manifest the improvement in production.

Organization Climate: The better working environment improvising better production.

Communication System: The open dialogue and less communication gap among employee

and employers induce better organizational atmosphere which affirms the improving

productivity.

Human Relations: Mutual understanding, trust, respect and focusing on common goals ensure

increased productivity with smooth relations among organizational members.

Democratic Management Role: The involvement of employees in planning and decision

making without being faced with coercion produces satisfaction, induces self-recognition in

employees and helps achieve better outcomes. Management should set high standards and

ensure smooth workflow.

Employee Development: The employee development by providing self-recognition and

diversity in job responsibilities increase the sense of growth in employee which can be implied

for achieving the main goals of the organization. Therefore, the job responsibilities should be

increased that are consistent with the employee’s capabilities and skills.

Motivation: The motivation relates with the working conditions such as better relation with

employer and subordinates and good working conditions may help in aggravating the

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motivation and the employee retention. The internal motivation is increased by the job

expansion, job rotation and redesigning of the relevant tasks. The need analysis for motivation

is mandatory. The employee needs are financial gains, acquaintances, self-respect and self-

fulfillment. The motivation pattern is not static and it changes overtime. The organizations that

give importance to these needs get better performance from the employees.

High Standards of Performance: The organization dynamically ranks their performance

standards higher than the employees’ abilities. Therefore, the employees ultimately utilize their

full potential and skills to reach these standards with remarkable improvements in productivity.

Organization Discipline: The maintained discipline in any organization plays pivotal role in

increased human productivity. Maintenance of punctuality, better human relations, reduction in

wastes and unnecessary financial cost, healthier organizational culture and productive attitudes,

intentions and behaviours are the factors which affect employees’ productivity and performance

of the organization as whole(Hameed, 2014).

2.5.3Training, Development and Human Productivity:

Training and human productivity are part of Human Resource Development. Term Human

Resource Development (HRD) encompasses an individual’s growth through training and

development of the organization (McLagan, 1989). Another definition of HRD by

Swanson(2001) is stated as “a process for developing and unleashing human expertise through

organization development and personnel training and development for the purpose of

improving performance.” The widely used definition is proposed by (McLean, 2001, pp. 313-

326) as “human resource development is any process or activity that, either initially or over the

long term, has the potential to develop adult’s work-based knowledge, expertise, productivity

and satisfaction, whether for personal or group, team gains, or for the benefit of an organization,

community, nation, or ultimately, the whole of humanity.” The HRD is based on three

components; learning, performance and changing environments. The other more

comprehensive definition of HRD is “the process of facilitating organizational learning,

performance, and change through organized interventions and initiatives and management

actions for enhancing an organization’s performance capacity, capability, competitive

readiness, and renewal”(SHRD,Gilley, 2000).

The human resource development is based on the training and it has direct relation with

productivity; it accumulates human capital of an organization. The econometric theories related

to human capital have been analyzed and researched extensively. The investment on training

42

and development of human resource is deposited as human capital. Economist Theodore

Schultz conceptualized the term human capital in 1960s. Several authors consider that the

investment on this capital increases the productivity. The formal education with the specified

training increases this capital in terms of knowledge acquisition and skills enhancement(G.S.

Becker, 1964). The education, experience and the cognitive abilities collectively are the human

capital. It helps in categorizing and identifying people that increases individual human

productivity and the organizational productivity and increase their value in economic

development as a whole. The literature on human productivity has assessed a positive

correlation among training, development and productivity of the not just the individual but the

organization as whole. Training at different levels of the organization and, for all of its

employees is essential for realizing the organizational goals. However, Rohan (2012) described

that there are certain variations in the effects and impacts of training which varies through

different organizations. The employees’ training, productivity and revenue is a cyclic process

which is dependent on each other, each element has its own importance in the success of the

organization. The structured and proper planned training produces better results otherwise; it is

a costly and time consuming business. The apparent cause of failure is the absence of training

evaluation. As described by Foot(1996) and Tanneunbaum (1992),mostly, the training

evaluation is avoided in organizations because it is a time taking and expensive task.

Consequently, absence of training evaluation undermines the objectives of the training. Thus,

in order to produce desired results of training and increase productivity, methods and strategies

of training and its evaluation should be planned (Hamid, 2011; Tanneunbaum, 1992). The

manufacturing firms and agriculture firms presented high productivity with training. The banks

and corporate business showed variable productivity as a result of training because of high

financial risk involved (Ekaterini, 2009; Rohan, 2012). Nevertheless, the organizations having

high turnovers and less skilled employees are less productive(Huselid, 1995).Therefore, the

training provides motivation and increases employee retention in organizations(Kate, 2009).

Nafukho (2005) proposed a model to integrate HRD, social capital and emotional intelligence

that yield productivity of the organization. It highlighted that training and development of work

force increases productivity. In this model, all four aspects are bidirectional and correlated with

each other (Figure1). As mentioned earlier, Aziz(2014) discussed the importance of training

with regard to teachers in educational institutes. His work is based on the model which

emphasizes that motivation and competency are inputs to enhance productivity in terms of

quality education, efficiency, individual performance and economic development (Figure 2).

43

Figure1: “The Integrated model of Training and Development, Career Development, Emotional

Intelligence, Social Capital and Productivity with the External Environment(Nafukho, 2005)”.

The individual’s development occurs by training and lifelong learning programmes. The novel

ideas and technologies enhance the competition and inevitably increase the demand of training

of the employees(Appleby, 2000).

As discussed earlier, the different disciplines and theories are implied in the training and

development of human resource. The systems theory viewed the organization as a whole with

interconnectedness of performance of every member with all sub-systems of an organization;

motivational and attitude theories are implied as the individual work performance with the

increase in productivity and satisfaction and proved to be the efficient for the organization as

well. The more investment on the human resource would increase the return on investment by

increasing productivity.

.

44

Figure 2: “The model proposed in a study by(F. Aziz, Akhtar, M. S., & Rauf, M., 2014) for the

effective productivity of teachers at the educational institutes”.

2.6 Conceptual Framework:

Conceptual framework of this study is comprised of following core components:

(i) Work and Human Development

(ii) Dynamics of Training and Development

(iii) Human Productivity

(iv) Educational Institutes

Human productivity can be achieved when human development is ensured. This study assesses

the relationship and effects of training on work and on individuals. Individuals feel the worth

of themselves by involving and contributing through their work. Participation in society in the

society increases their self-esteem and sense of being respectful(UNDP, 2015). Additionally,

the volunteer work and the work that concerned about others build “social cohesion” and

• Self-determinant

• Goal-directed behaviour

• Accomplishment of psychological and material needs

Motivation

• Training

• Knowledge and Skills

• Qualification and Expereince

Competency• Performance

• Quality Education

• Effeiciency

• Economic development

ProductivityOpportunity

45

reinforce the relations among “families and communities”. All are integral elements of human

development that is measured in terms of the Human Development Index (HDI).HDI is a

“summary measure for assessing long-term progress in three basic dimensions of human

development: a long and healthy life, access to knowledge and a decent standard of living”.

However, a positive link between work and human development is not automatic. The link can

be broken in cases of exploitative and hazardous conditions, where labour rights are not

guaranteed or protected, where social protection measures are not in place, and when unequal

opportunities and work related discrimination increase and perpetuate socioeconomic

inequality (UNDP, 2015).

One of the important characteristics of the human development is expanding people’s choices

and making sure that opportunities are available equally for them. Work can enhance human

development when policies are taken to expand productive, remunerative and satisfying work

opportunities; enhance workers’ skills and potentials; and ensure their rights, safety, and

wellbeing. Measuring aspects of work, both positive and negative, can help shape policy

agendas and track progress toward human development enhancing work. Therefore, work for

human development is about more than just jobs (UNDP 2015).

Training and skills’ improvement is an important facet of individual development and more

specifically human productivity. Training is “system of planned and organized activities of

continuous learning that improves individual, group and firms”(I. L. Goldstein, and Ford, K. ,

2002).

“Training is a learning process to acquire new skills, to incorporate in company’s rules and

regulations, to learn attitudes and being operational in organization which ultimately enhances

the employee performance”(Benedicta, 2010, pp. 15-17).

It is observed that training is the most important benefactor to productivity and enhance

accumulation of “human capital”. Essentially, it is the systematic actions pursue by an

organization for the provision of knowledge, capabilities and skills with the intention to groom

and development.

According to Manju (2011), training is implemented in a way that improves the quality of

outputs (products and services) of organization. Competencies, knowledge and advance skills

46

can be induct by training of employees and organization. Hence, training is considered to be

dynamic of existence in the competitive market.

The same principle applies to the higher educational institutes. The strengthening of the

educational institutes depends on the employees’ performance and quality of their education.

The literature emphasizes on the investment on human capital to increase productivity and

financial gains of existing organization and for future economic escalation. Training plays

major part which contributes in better performance and ultimately it increases productivity. It

is evident from different theories discussed earlier in this chapter. For example, the motivational

theories implied that employees get increase self-esteem and need to reach the fulfillment in

their career when organizations rely on them and train them. The General Systems Theory

organizes employee growth and organization growth as the unified target to be achieved

through training and development. The future generation learns from the skilled and well

trained supervisors and their productivity would increase. As a result, a country enters in the

economic development in long-run and achieves human development.

Educational institutes being the leading organization in all sectors, are the chief benefactor in

economic development of the country, need to revolutionize through the competent and highly

skilled employees. These employees play the role of teachers, researchers, educational leaders

and economic stakeholders. Employees of the institutes especially, the universities employees,

related to higher education need to be trained in order to provide substantial outcomes and

enhance learning of the students. “Pakistan’s current situation in educational sector is not

impressive and the future stresses a vitality and consistency in our long term and short term

educational policies. In order to weigh the effectiveness of Pakistan’s higher education system

and for measuring its ability to face the challenges of the world, focus should be on the effective

teachers and quality teaching. Competencies and motivation as being most significant

indicators of teachers performance and their positive correlation as key requirement of quality

teaching should be addressed to achieve the target of quality education” (F. Aziz, Akhtar, &

Rauf, 2014, pp. 23-33)174).

In literature, “job satisfaction and motivation are often taken as synonyms and are considered

necessary to the ongoing and long-lasting growth of educational systems throughout the world.

A researcher ranked them alongside professional knowledge and skills, core competencies,

educational assets as well as strategies, in indisputably determining educational success and

47

performance”(Ololube, 2006).The significance of training is widely accepted for increased

human productivity. The colleges and universities in Pakistan are under the supervision of

provincial education ministries and higher education commissions; however, the standardized

body HEC monitored the higher education. The teaching and non-teaching employees of the

universities are seldom offered any kind of training despite having the membership of the

national training ordinance, which proposed there should be a separate training board in every

organization. Thus, there is a need to examine the gaps and challenges regarding training of

employees in universities of higher education.

55

Research Methodology

Chapter 3

56

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research covers the vast field of training and development in general, and about training

and its role in enhancing the human productivity in particular in the universities of Sindh. Its

scope is limited to the employees of public and private sector universities in Sindh. The work

is very specific and confined to the universities of Sindh; however, some part of the work may

help in generalizations.In this paper, the researcher wants to measure the influence of training

along with other factors on employee performance in education sector of Sindh and the role of

training in the institutional strengthening. It will also suggest a guiding framework for the

universities to improve the productivity of their staff and overcome gaps in implementation of

training courses. This chapter discusses the details of study design and research methodology.

3.1 Study Design

The (de Vaus, 2001) explains that a research design refers to the structure of an enquiry. It is a

logical matter. The design is a logical task undertaken to ensure that the evidence collected

enables the researcher to answer questions or to test theories as unambiguously as possible(de

Vaus, 2001).

For this thesis research a cross-sectional descriptive research design is selected. A descriptive

study is one in which information is collected without making any change in the environment

and nothing is manipulated(Descriptive Design, 2016 ).It involved a onetime interaction with

groups of people and data is collected in one point of time that is called a cross-sectional

study(Descriptive Design, 2016 ).

The cross-sectional studies are simple in their design and are aimed at finding out the prevalence

of a phenomenon, problem, attitude or issue by taking a snap-shot or cross-section of the given

population. This shows an overall picture as it stands at the time of the study. The cross-

sectional study design is the rationale design to achieve the objectives of this research and it

answers research questions set forth in the introduction chapter of this study.

For the collection of evidences quantitative data collection methods are used. (Marsh,

1982)argues that quantitative surveys can provide information and explanations that are

`adequate at the level of meaning'. The research data is evaluated against the strengths and

weaknesses of statistical, quantitative research methods and analysis.

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In literature, the assessment of training and its impact was based on one time interview through

structured questionnaire and Likert scale to measure the parameters.

The study is a descriptive/survey type. The research is conducted in a number of successive

steps. First, the relevant literature was identified, secondly a sample was selected, research

questionnaire was prepared and tested, and lastly the data was collected and analyzed to test the

hypothesis.

Data for the research have been collected through primary source using survey questionnaires.

The data have been checked through statistical software to find the influence and relationship

of training on performance of employees. There are two variable Training (Independent) and

Employees’ productivity (Dependent).

A detail of the adopted procedure for the study is mentioned below:

3.2 Study Population

University teachers and non-teaching staff, who were readily involved in the teaching processes

in public and private universities, were the population of the study from the Sindh Province.

Equal number of employee’s men and women from teaching and non-teaching fields were

selected for the research.

3.3 Sampling

It is almost never feasible and is never necessary to administer the questionnaire to everyone in

the population. Instead the methods of sampling and statistics are used in research studies. In

order to conduct this study a probability based sample is selected.

In this study 10 public and private universities of Sindh from various districts with the minimum

of 400 employees for the last financial year were chosen.

Stratified random sampling technique is used to ensure that an appropriate numbers of

interviewees are drawn from homogenous subsets of the target population. The stratified

random sampling technique is used because important subgroups of people may have different

views. For example, males and females, public sector and private sector or teaching and none

teaching staff may have different point of view regarding training. Therefore, it is ensured that

the relevant subgroups are adequately represented in the study sample. The study population is

58

divided into two main sub-groups: public and private sector and teaching and none teaching. A

random sample is selected from these groups.

In this study the Sample size was calculated as N=400 employees. The respondents voluntarily

participated in the study and signed a written consent to participate in the study.

The sample was 400 employees of universities in Sindh Province ranging from subordinates to

middle managers and (teaching and non-teaching ) employed in the public and private sectors

respectively. They responded to a survey questionnaire specifically designed for this study. The

sample was 50% male and 50% female, 50 % teaching and 50 % non-teaching from public and

private sector universities ranged in age from 20 to 50 and above, and their work experience

ranged from 1 to 25 years in the education sector.

3.4 Instrumentation

Detailed survey questionnaire were developed keeping in view the research hypotheses. A

questionnaire is a way of collecting information by engaging in a special kind of

conversation(Olsan & George, 2004).

Separate questionnaire were formulated for the public and private sector university employees.

Self-administered structured questionnaires (Annex 1 and 2 were used respectively).

The questionnaire is divided into 2 sections. Section-A consist of Demographics including,

gender, age, education, education, work experience, name of University and nature of job.

Section-B contains 65 questions measured on Likert scale from strongly agree, agree, neutral,

disagree and strongly disagree, marked as 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively. Details of the each scale

and constituent items are provided in questionnaire in the annexure 1& 2.

Section B is divided on the basis of training components and elements. This include: Dynamics

of Training, Role of Training, Investment in Training, Significance of Training, Training Need

Assessment (TNA), Training Methods, Evaluation of Training and Organizational Training

Climate.

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3.5 Pilot Testing

Questionnaire was piloted on 10 % participants in both public and private universities. The

feasibility of time, process of data collection and cost was evaluated. After successful pilot

testing study was generalized on required sample and study setting.

3.6 Data Collection

Data collection methods for this study includes: questionnaire, structured interviews, and

analysis of documents. The data was collected from two different sources primary and

secondary. Primary data was collected by distributing the questionnaire for training as per

Annexure-1&2. The both questionnaires are standardized and were responded by the employees

of public and private universities in Sindh respectively.

Secondary data about the number of employees of various universities was collected from the

respective HR/ administrative departments. For correlating training practices with employee

productivity the values of training practices from the questionnaire were converted accordingly.

The respondents were briefed to fill up the questionnaire. Informed consent was taken and the

participants were recruited. Self-administered questionnaire was used. Questionnaire were

given on one day and collected the other day.

The data have been validated randomly at the end the data collection through phone.

3.7 Procedures of Data Analysis

Data compiled and entered in SPSS version 17.0 Frequency and percentages used to analyzed

the results. Cross tables were tabulated among each 65 questions and gender, age, education,

experience and nature of job.

3.8 Research Variable

Following variables were used

3.8.1 Dependent Variable

The dependent variables are for the research are:

Human Productivity, Institutional Strengthening, Institutional development, Employee

Productivity.

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3.8.2 Independent Variable

The independent variables are:

Training, Investment on Training, Training Need Assessment (TNA), Age, Gender, Education,

Experience and Nature of Job.

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Training and Development

Chapter 4

63

CHAPTER 4: TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

4.1 Introduction to Training and Development

Training and development are systematic processes initiated by organizations to develop

knowledge, skills and attitudes of their organizational members; these are usually employees(k.

Kraiger, 2003). This chapter discusses the theories and practice in the field of training and

development. It also discusses notion of training evaluation and its effectiveness in HRD

(human resource development) in higher education sector and improving individual

productivity.

Term training is defined by several authors; Olaniyan (2008, pp. 326-331)) defined training “as

a systematic development of knowledge, skills and attitudes required by employees to perform

adequately on a given task or job.” In this chapter, training refers to “activities directed at the

acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes for which there is an immediate or near-term

application”(HRM,5th ed.Noe, 2002)). It is a tool to help individuals to contribute and be

successful in their current role. The rationale of “training” is helping people in “learning” and

“develop skills” to perform their job effectively. Training must result in behaviour change, it is

a mean to an end and it is not vice versa. Training is linked with performance and, improved

performance results in development.

Development is kept for the “acquisition of attributes or competencies for which there may be

no immediate use” (HRM,Noe, 2002). Muhammad(2013) defined the term development as

“the activities leading to the acquisition of new knowledge or skills for purposes of growing”.

Development deals with preparation of individuals to strengthen the organizations therefore, it

has a long term focus.

Training and development is vital to all employees at all levels for achieving organizational

goals and improving productivity (Nishtha, 2010). The organizations should make special

arrangements to nurture the human resource through provision of better leadership, better

organization climate, motivation and training and development (Cole, 2004). Work force

(human resource) is the vital asset within an organization and continuous needs to grow in terms

of skills and knowledge. The organizational accomplishments depend on “human capital”. With

64

passage of time, depreciation occurred in this intangible capital, therefore, to restock this

capital; there is need of training and development.

Different types of training programmes like “apprenticeships”, “industry-targeted training

programmes” and “on-the-job training programmes” help prepare employees especially newly

graduated young people to work effectively in professional life. Both employers and

governments organize training programmes. For extension of training and development

initiatives, special policies and programmes that encourage training by public and private sector

are needed especially in the higher education sector. Women and girls require special attention

for training and development, since they are often excluded from training opportunities for

social or cultural reasons.

Training and development go hand in hand. Training is not only advantageous for organization

but also for an individual (employee). Training develops individual capacity of an employee

and trained employees produce better results, and ultimately the organization thrives and

generates more revenues. Hence, the organization tries to acquire and build up mandatory skills

and potential of employees, so they ought to require valuable training and development

programme. The trained employees perform in decent ways and it also influences their

commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1991). Mostly, organizations facilitate employees by imparting

training to enhance their potential to perform their assigned tasks as standard. Companies plan

for long term development and invest in effective training programmes that enable them to

survive with the uncertain challenges that they may face in future. Through training and

development, the organizations get the highest level of commitment and motivation of their

employees. Generally, the private organizations are more interested in offering training

programmes, and enabling employees to make their best efforts for the accomplishment of

organizational tasks.

4.1.1 Objectives of Training and Development:

There are certain objectives of training and development as comprehended by (Kulkarni, 2013):

“Individual Objectives: These objectives are helpful to employees in achieving their

personal goals, which in turn, enhances the individual contribution to the organization.

Organizational Objectives: These objectives assist the organization with its primary

objective by bringing individual effectiveness.

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Functional Objectives: Functional objectives are maintaining the department’s

contribution at a level suitable to the organization’s needs.

Social Objectives: Social objectives ensure that the organization is ethically and

socially responsible to the needs and challenges of the society.”

4.1.2 Difference between Training and Development:

Although, these two terminologies usually taken as synonymous, and can be used

interchangeably (Kitson, 2003). However, (Masadeh., 2015) described that both terms are

different and organizations apply appropriate strategies for each of them. He suggested to accept

the clarification made by (T. N. Garavan, 1997) regarding training, education, learning and

development; he described their differences as, training for instance, can be associated with

‘learning by doing’ whereas education is more synonymous with ‘learning by thinking’;

‘development’ involves learning, thinking, doing and feeling. Absolutist definitions are not

really helpful in understanding the role of training, development, education and learning in the

context of human resource management/development but in practice, such distinctions have

occurred and still do occur. The differences between two terminologies are listed below (Eric,

2012; Kulkarni, 2013; Kunal, 2015).

Training: Development:

Acquisition of skills through systematic

learning for operatives

Provide knowledge to the employees who

are at higher levels

Process of instruct specific skills, job

oriented

Personal motivation is the driver, career

oriented

Short term Long term

Focus on specific tasks Replenish the

existing knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Focus on broad tasks

Exploration of the potential and

capabilities

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4.2 Relationship of Training, Development and Productivity:

Within every occupational system, each individual is not completely specialized with all

technical proficiency or holds the ability of working on every allocated assignment. There is

evidence in the literature on the positive correlation among training, development and

productivity for not just an individual but for the organization as whole. Through the training

and development, organization can get desired output (productivity) (Elena & Imran, 2013).

Khan et. al (2014) noted in their study that if employees do not emphasize on training then they

cannot get firm grip upon their duties and roles. Through training, personnel learn advanced

information, techniques and tactics, and/or achieve professional developments and get a lot of

opportunities. Management is also satisfied with trained workforce and by their efforts as they

become contributor for the growth of organizational profit (Champathes, 2006). Singh &

Mohanty, (2012) assessed a positive influence of training on employee performance.

Consequently, training at levels of the organization and the employees is vital for

accomplishing the goals of the organization.

However, Rohan, 2012described that there are certain variations in the effects and impacts of

training which varies through different organizations. The employees, training, productivity

and revenue is a cyclic process which is dependent on each other, each element has its

importance in the success of the organization. The structured and proper planned training

produces better result otherwise; it is costly and time consuming business. Thus, in order to

produce desired results of training and increase in productivity, methods and strategies of

training should be planned (Hamid, 2011; Tanneunbaum, 1992).The manufacturing firms and

agriculture firms showed high productivity with training. The banks and corporate business

showed variable productivity as result of training because of high financial risk involved

(Ekaterini, 2009; Rohan, 2012).Nevertheless, the organizations having high turnovers and less

skilled employees are less productive(Huselid, 1995).The training provides motivation and

increases employee retention in the organization (Kate, 2009).

This is evidently proved that development of the higher positioned employees’ results in

increased organization profitability and productivity. The training development programmes

enhance skills and competencies of individuals. Thus the retention of the employees gets

increases in the organization, job satisfaction enhances and overall turnover is reduced(Atif,

2010; Hamid, 2011).

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In Pakistan, a number of researchers assessed the impact of “training on employees’

productivity”. A study focused on telecommunication industry and emphasized that training

methods and suitable designed training methods increase the employees’ performance and

productivity of the organization(Sultana, 2012).Another study conducted by Ullah et.al. (2011)

stressed on the staff development and considered it very significant for the achievement of

overall goals of higher education in Pakistan. In another study,(Elnaga, 2013) analyzed the

different firms through qualitative research approach and synthesized the conclusion that

investment in human resource in respect to training and development endows with better

productivity.

In a systematic review by(M. Farooq, & Khan, M. A. , 2011), it was concluded that the planned,

customized training and timely feedback is vital for the increased productivity of the

employees. Another study by (Fakhar, 2008) conducted on the hotel industry provided evidence

based conclusions that the trained employees are more productive and able to cope with the

challenges in the organizations.

The training elicits the motivational factors as well for better productivity. In a study,(Khan,

2012)implied that the motivation, working conditions, technology and the organization system

all contribute to the “employees’ productivity”. Training is one of the independent major factor

for increased “productivity”.

Despite the increasing acceptance of appropriate training of employees in different fields in

Pakistan, the educational institutes are deprived of proper training programme. A study was

conducted by (Ahmed, 2012) in Sindh on the teachers’ training for school teachers. The results

concluded that there is a gap between training and the implications of the training in the schools.

The reasons of the unsuccessful training programmes are the past behaviours and attitudes and

no timely evaluation of the training programmes.

There are several working bodies in Sindh for school teachers’ training. These include

“Provincial Institute for Teacher Education” (PITE), “National Commission for Human

Development” (NCHD), “De-centralized Elementary Education Project” (DEEP), “Sindh

Education Foundation” (SEF), and “Canadian International Development Agency” (CIDA).

Nonetheless, neither proper training institutes exist for the employees of higher educational

68

universities/colleges and nor any training programme is running in Sindh. Generally, in

Pakistan, people with a simple master’s degree or Ph.D. degrees (without any pedagogical

training) are inducted as teaching staff at the university level (Ullah et.at. 2014).

4.3 Training Process:

Generally, an effective and structured training programme consists of four steps:

1. “Need Assessment: Identify the specific knowledge and skills the job requires, and

compare these with the prospective trainees’ knowledge and skills.

2. Instructional/Training Design: Formulate the specific, measurable knowledge and

performance training objectives, review possible training programme content

(including work books, exercises, and activities), and estimate the budget of the training

programme.

3. Implementation: The programme is implemented by actual trainers/facilitators for the

targeted employee groups using participatory methods such as, group training, on-the-

job or online training.

4. Evaluation: assess the programme’s effectiveness.”(Dessler, 2011)

4.4 Training Need Assessment:

Training and development for the human resource in the organization is the systematic process

which involves critical analysis of the need to identify the problems, gaps and solution

strategies. Need assessment is the initial and foremost part of any training programme in any

organization. This is the assessment of why the training is required, what training method is

needed, who needs the training and how the training effectiveness is evaluated (Walter, 2000).

However, often training programmes are initiated without a proper need assessment(k. Kraiger,

2003).

Need assessment has various definitions and methods. In literature, the terms need, need

analysis and need assessment have been discussed by several researchers. “Need can either be

a current deficiency, or poor employee performance or a new challenge that demands a change

in a way that organization operates”(Desimon, 1998).Need is defined as “the gap or

discrepancy between current performance and desired performance” (Altschuld, 2004). Needs

analysis is defined as “the process for identifying the cause(s) of performance needs in order to

select performance improvement solution(s)”(Kaufman, 1994). Needs assessment is defined as

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“the process for identifying and prioritizing performance needs”(Rothwell, 2004). The terms

training ‘need assessment’ and ‘need analysis’ are used synonymously in the literature(Arthur,

2003).

Significance of Training Need Assessment:

Training need assessment is important for recognition of problems and their causes and

relationship of all other difficulties.

It is the process to identify and prioritize the training requirements.

The reason of non-performance and the training causal effects on the performance is

examined through the training need assessment.

Lack of employee capabilities are not the only reason of non-productivity, the other

factors which are responsible for non-productivity can be identified through the training

need assessment.

Training need assessment links the training results to the goals of the organization.

It increases better communication and information sharing between employers and

employees(Welingkar, 2013).

Components of Training Need Assessment:

The model of Need Assessment was first proposed by the McGhee and Thayer in

1961(McGhee, 1961) which is comprehensively called the OTP model. This constitutes three

components.

i. Organizational / Strategic Analysis:

This involves the analysis of the objectives of the organization and the factors which

affect these objectives. It analyzes available human resource and the strategies of the

organization to retain and motivate its employees; the capabilities of employees to make

the organization competitive and the jobs that require training. This analysis includes

cost, input output quality and efficiency of the organization. Overall, this analyzes the

gaps in the employee’s existing skills and organizational assets and targets(Dessler,

2011; A. J. Miller, and Diana M. Osinski., 2002).

ii. Task/Job Needs Analysis:

Task analysis provides the information about what training is required for specific job

to be done successfully. This is also to assess necessary KSA (knowledge, skills and

attitude) required for performing job. The job analysis develops a checklist of tasks and

70

KSA needed (Dessler, 2011; Kunal, 2015; Welingkar, 2013)(A. J. Miller, and Diana M.

Osinski., 2002).

iii. Person Analysis:

The person need analysis identifies the gap between the desirable or necessary

capabilities and the existing capabilities of the employees. The pre-trained and new

trainees are identified in this stage(Dessler, 2011; Kunal, 2015; A. J. Miller, and Diana

M. Osinski., 2002; Noe, 2002; Welingkar, 2013).

Process of Training Need Assessment:

The process of identifying needs is beneficial for individual, group and for organization as

whole. Mostly, following five steps have explained the process(Welingkar, 2013):

I. Identify the objective of the organization

II. Appointing the trainer and coordinator

III. Gathering information about KSA

IV. Analyzing the information

V. Identify the gap and develop a plan

Techniques used In Training Need Assessment:

There are several methods used in assessment of training needs in literature. In a study of the

corporate sector (Syed, 2011)in Pakistan, the following methods were used:

Organizational Analysis:

SWOT analysis (strength, weakness, opportunities and threats)

Organizational goal, mission statement, plans

PEST analysis (political, economic, sociological and technological)

Job Analysis:

Task / KSA analysis

Competency analysis

Job description

Skill inventory

Individual analysis:

Performance appraisals

Critical incident

Diary analysis

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Framework for Training Need Assessment in the Educational Institutes:

International forum of education programme proposed the framework for need assessment in

educational institutes(UNESCO, 1995). The basic components of this framework are:

“To diagnose the skills and qualifications of the available staff;

To define in detail the priority problem areas and, consequently, the staff requirements;

To review the existing staff qualifications, its background and training needs depending

on the staff level and its responsibilities.”

4.5 Training Methods:

Commonly, numerous methods of training are used by the organizations for the skills

development of their employees. Mostly, the methods used are based on their needs, cost,

duration and human learning abilities. Here, the training methods are broadly categorized in

three types:

On-the-job training

Off-the-job training

Online and computer based training

On-the-Job Training: Employees learn the skills for a specific job by actually doing

it(Dessler, 2011). The common types are:

“Orientation Training”, “Job-Instruction”, “Apprentice Training”, “Internship and

Assistantship”, “Job Rotation” and “Coaching/Mentoring”.

Off-the-Job Training: The training is obtained outside the workplace(Welingkar, 2013). The

common types are:

“Lecture and Special study”, “Vestibule Training”, “Conference or Discussion”, “Case study”,

“Role playing/simulation”, “Programmed Instruction”, “Laboratory Training and Exposure

Visits”.

Online and Computer Based Training: On-the-ground or face to face learning is important,

but training can be scaled up, taking advantage of information technology, online learning

platforms and global collaborations also work effectively in imparting essential skills. These

types of training are “Computer-based Training”, “Distance and Internet-based Training”,

“Action Learning”, “Management Games”, “University related Programmes”, “Outside

Seminars”, “films / television (Audio-Visual)”.

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Methods used in Educational Institutes:

There is a lot of literature available on the methods of training in the educational institutes. The

widely used and successful methods of training adopted in educational institutes are identified

by (Kunal, 2015):

Internship and Assistant ship

Coaching/Mentoring

Lecture

Films/Television (Audio-Visual)

Conference/Discussion

Role Playing/Simulation

Programmed Instruction

Group Discussions & Tutorials

Internship and Assistant ship: It is a “supervised temporary employment in partnership

between an academic institution and professional organizations. It emphasizes on skills to

perform the specific job. It is normally an on-the-job training”(Walker, 2011).

Coaching/Mentoring: It is “a technique that assigns a guide or knowledgeable person higher

up in the organization to help the new employee learn the ropes of the organization and to

provide other advice”(Anthony, 1993).

Lecture: The lecture is the frequently and most widely used method of training in different

organizations. The well-prepared, up to date content, well-delivered and explicable lecture

provide the best opportunity to the larger group of trainees to learn more out of it. It can produce

maximum results when supplemented with other training techniques(Dessler, 2011).

Film/Television (Audio-Visual): It involves television, films, CDs, PowerPoint presentations

and audiotapes. These are widely used to expose the trainees to the audio-visual excursion and

exploration(Dessler, 2011).

Conference/Discussion: It is “a method that involves individualized instruction and is

frequently used where the training involves primarily the communication of ideas, procedures

and standards in the conference or discussion method.” It is a better way to explain and learn

about a particular topic through discussions followed by question and answer session for

participants in which they can clarify the topic (Anthony, 1993).

Role Playing/Simulation: “Training in an artificial environment that closely mirrors actual

working conditions can be considered as simulation. Simulation activities include case

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exercise, experiential exercise, complex computer modeling and vestibule training”(Decenzo,

2002).

Programmed Instruction: It is the self-learning method through computers and internet; that

involves the sequential questions and framework to provide feedback and follow up. It reduces

the training time and provides an opportunity for the trainees to learn at their own pace(Dessler,

2011).

Group Discussion and Tutorials:

Group discussion and tutorials are feasible for a “classroom” or “training room” where a cluster

of individuals discusses issues. Trainees are divided into small groups and a precise topic or

reading material is provided to discuss within the group. Group discussions are generally

followed by a presentation on the group discussions. This method allows the whole group to

ask questions and discuss ideas. This method is a better form of training than lectures; it also

allows all trainees to discuss issues in quite detail. It also enables every attendee to voice

different ideas (HR, 2001).5

4.6 Transfer of Training:

Transfer of training (TOT) overrides the actual learning at the training programme(Baldwin,

1988). TOT is defined as “trainees effectively and continually applying what they learned in

training on their jobs”(Noe, 2002).

Factors Influencing Transfer of Training:

Following are some of the main factors influencing transfer of training:

Trainee Characteristics:

Trainee is the center point of any training programme. Ability to acquire latest knowledge,

skills and their application on job; all of these are influenced by the cognitive abilities of the

trainee. The motivation and self-efficacy to perform a learned behavior is beneficial in

progression of further learning and transfer.

Trainer Characteristics:

Trainer’s knowledge, motivation and making appropriate learning environment is prerequisite

of a successful training and, consequently the “transfer of training”. It is necessary to develop

training content for self-study approach, trainer’s concepts and objectives of training

5 http://www.hr.com/en/communities/training_and_development/list-of-training-methods_eacwezdm.html

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programme should be unambiguous. The personality of the trainer helps in breaking the

negative perception of training and helps in maintaining a convenient learning environment.

Training Design:

Building of factors that enhance the positive transfer of the training is the center of design a

training programme. The development of the appropriate training contents with defined

objectives, methodology and delivery is necessary to maximize the transfer. The training design

also depends on the application of learning theories and self-management strategies.

Transfer of Training Theories:

Identical Element: The training environment and the working environment should be identical

in order to simulate training where the conditions are stable for working. Identical elements are

more productive for action and behaviours.

Stimulus Generalization: The general principles are applicable to many working conditions.

This transfer would be fruitful in organizations which believe in diversification.

Cognitive Theory: The properly designed materials and coding schemes help in transfer and

practicality of the training. Its application is suitable for all types of organizations and working

environments.

Self-management Strategies:

The self-management concept is about the abilities of the trainees to cope and adjust in the

challenges and that trainees could make decisions and control their behaviour. The employees

manage their new training skills on their jobs themselves.

Organizational Characteristics:

The organization is the preamble to any training programme because it identifies the need of

training, identifies the trainees, conducts training programme, and evaluates the specified tasks.

The organizational culture, climate, peer support, management support, logistics support, and

new technological support are vital for TOT (transfer of training).

Barriers in Transfer of Training:

There are certain barriers that inhibit the transfer of training. However, those are rectifiable.

Some of the barriers are:

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Unambiguous training design and contents

Lack of positive reinforcement in the organization

Lack of organizational support

Impact of past behaviours of employees

Lack of acceptability to change

Negative feedback from colleagues

Model Proposed for Transfer of Training:

Following model was proposed for the transfer for training and it is adopted from the

(Baldwin, 1988; Noe, 2002; Welingkar, 2013).

4.7 Evaluation of Training:

Evaluation “determines the importance, effectiveness or worth of something”(Dictionary,

2015). The “evaluation of the training programme” measures the “effectiveness of the training

programme” and its productivity implied by the employees in terms of learning and

Transfer of

Training

Training Design:

Transfer of Training Theories

Self-Management

Training Content

Trainee Characteristics:

Cognitive Ability

Motivation

Trainer Characteriestics:

Capabilities

Personality

Work Enviornment/ Organization

Characteristics:

Management and Technological Support

Opportunity to Apply

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applicability. This would also indicate the areas need to be improved and replanted (Armstrong,

2006).

Mostly, the training evaluation is not carried out because of lack of time and cost, which could

waste the objectives of the training (Foot, 1996; Tanneunbaum, 1992).

Reasons of Evaluation of Training:

There are three main reasons for evaluating a training programme that are recognized by

(Kirkpatrick, 2009).

“The evaluation justifies the existence and budget of the training department by

showing how it contributes to the organization’s objectives and goals.

It helps to decide whether to continue or discontinue the training programmes.

It assists to gain information on how to improve the future training programmes.”

Model of Training Evaluation:

The first “model of training evaluation” was proposed by Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959. This

model has been widely used in the evaluation of training programmes (Armstrong, 2006;

Dessler, 2011; Kulkarni, 2013; Syed, 2011; Tanneunbaum, 1992).

The model consists of four levels:

I. Evaluate Reaction

II. Evaluate Learning

III. Evaluate Behaviours

IV. Evaluate Results

i. Evaluate Reaction: It evaluates the trainee’s instant reactions towards the

programme. They like the programme or not and, how it would be more

effective.

ii. Evaluate Learning: The evaluation of the skills, knowledge and principles

learned in the training programme are judged through the test. It is important to

compare the indented outcomes of the training with the planned training

objectives.

iii. Evaluate Behaviours: The behaviours need to be evaluated after the training

which are purposely required to be changed as agreed in the training contents

(Dessler, 2011).

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iv. Evaluate Results: The most important part of evaluation process. Measurable

results should be achieved to prove the effectiveness of training programme and

productivity of trainees (Tharenou, 2007).

Process of Training Evaluation:

The training evaluation is conducted at three different levels; before the training, during the

training and at the end of the training.

a. Pre-Training Test or Pre-test: The trainees’ pre-training evaluation is important for

the understanding of their characteristics, their current knowledge on the topic and their

expectations from the training. The pre-test supports in explaining and linking the

objectives of the training with the expectations of trainees.

b. During Training: The regular tests are conducted during the training phase, or after

each session or at the end of each training day. It provides an opportunity to continually

assess the trainees’ performance.

c. Post-Training: Effectiveness of “training programme” is evaluated at the end. The

desired outcomes and objectives of the training need to be assessed for the future

implementation of the programme and success of individuals and organization as

whole(Akhila 2011; Welingkar, 2013).

Techniques of Training Evaluation:

The most commonly used techniques for evaluation are(Akhila 2011):

Questionnaire: These are different questions that explicitly take into account the

trainees’ learning in the training programme. The trainer and supervisor evaluate the

questionnaires and the trainees’ competency.

Observations: The behaviour at the workplace of the trainees is observed at pre, during

and post training phases. The evaluation would be regarding the training provided in

terms of skills, knowledge enhancement, creativity, critical analysis and most

importantly productivity.

Interview: The interviews provide the actual mind clarification about the training

programme as the trainee learns. It could be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.

It could be conducted individually or in a group to find evaluation in a more qualitative

and exploration way for the future.

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Principles of Evaluation:

Some general principles are postulated for evaluation of any type of training programme(Kunal,

2015; Tharenou, 2007).

“Evaluation specialist must be clear about the goals and purposes of evaluation.

Evaluation must be continuous, specific, meaningful and scientific method based.

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Training, Learning and Performance

Chapter 5

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CHAPTER 5: TRAINING, LEARNING AND

PERFORMANCE

5.1 Introduction:

This chapter deals with training pre-requisites such as training mission, policies, objectives and

plans along with the learning theories and strategies. The relationship among training, learning

and performance will be discussed later in this chapter.

According to General Systems Theory, individuals or human resources together make the

system of the organization. Thus, they work towards the achievement of the mission set by the

organization. The mission of the organization involves the values, strategic plans and goals to

be attained for the success and to survive in the environment(Corlett, n.d).

It was discussed earlier as well that the training is a systematic and dynamic process to increase

the capabilities of human resource. In literature, the evidence based studies stated that the

mission of training of the human resource increases their productivity and performance and

hence, the productivity and success of the organization. The top management, employers,

trainers and employees have to be mutually responsible for the success of any training

programme in line with the policies set by the organization. The unplanned and unevaluated

training programme could result in the high cost to the employees and organization. The criteria

of training policies, training approaches, training plan and significance of learning will be

discussed in this chapter. The transfer of training as discussed in previous chapter depends on

learning by the trainee. The concept of learning, theories of learning and strategies are implied

in the educational institutes. The educational institutes are not separate from the learning

organization which produce the effective human resource for the future and increase their

performance(Garvin, 1993).

5.2 Training Mission:

A mission statement is an “enduring statement of purpose that reveals an organization’s product

or service, markets, customers and philosophy. It provides the foundation for priorities,

strategies, plans and work assignments”(Pearce, 1987, pp. 109-116). The mission for the

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training is beneficial for the structure of action and for the development. The mission statement

should include the organization’s strategy, plan, standards, values, behaviours and organization

culture(M. Smith, Ronald B. Heady, Paula Phillips Carson, and Kerry David Carson, ,

2001).The training mission is to develop employees and their competencies. Training mission

is to propagate the goals of the organization in employee’s behaviour and their work aligned

with the organization’s productivity. The mission of the training is to enhance the employee

performance and for construction of the better working conditions(Dessler, 2011).

5.3 Responsibility for Training:

Training is the responsibility of four units(Welingkar, 2013):

I. The top-management: is responsible for formulating the training policies.

II. The human resource department: is responsible for plans, and it establishes and

evaluates the training programmes.

III. The supervisor/trainer: is responsible for the implementation of the training

programme and its application.

IV. The employee/trainee: is responsible for providing feedback, suggestions and post

training effective measures.

5.4 Training Policies:

The policies are applicable to all members of the organization. The salient features of any policy

regarding training programme proposed by the organization are as follows:6

The policy aims to sensitize the employees and employers that it is their responsibility

to develop the organization with the competencies and skills.

The organization is committed to increase the productivity and the employees’

performance.

The organization considers their employees as an asset and the investment on their

training and development is mandatory for the efficiency and success of the

organization. They need to face the challenges and make the decisions in the

competitive market.

The organization is responsible for the establishment of the competent and diverse

workforce in the collaborative teams with multi-tasking job responsibilities. The

6Adapted from “Training Policy Format”, Retrieved from: http://www.authorstream.com/

85

organization values its each employee and each contribution is worth for the

organization productivity.

The training programme is designed for all employees and it involves the internal and

external opportunities for training.

The policy explains the training methods which would be offered to the

employee/trainees.

The policy clearly defines the roles and responsibilities of the employer, supervisors

and trainers. The identification of training needs is done on regular basis. Identification

of knowledge, skills and attitudes requisite for changing work responsibilities is also

done according to the objectives of the organization. The employees recognize their

own training needs and the learning commitment.

The policy formulates the annual training plan which includes the domestic or

international strategy of the training, the research based training and development of

the competent workforce according to international set standards.

The policy for the annual employee performance appraisal is obligatory for identifying

and bridging the gaps between existing and new requisite of the skills and knowledge.

Thus, the establishment of training programmes according to the need of the employee

would be planned. The organization clearly outlines the mandatory or desirable training

requirement and demarcates the funding procedures.

The policy is based on the equal opportunity for all.

The policy is based on the fact that all employees should go through pertinent needed

training at some point during their job for flourishing and remaining relevant in

changing work environment; such as health & safety training and for acquiring hands-

on learning of the novel technologies. The continuous professional development and

encouragement of leadership and management skills at all levels is the commitment of

the organization.

The policy should encompass the training resources like finance, technology and the

personnel.

The quality management of the trainers, the training design and contents in the

internally or externally executed training programmes should be ensured in the said

policy.

The policy should also outline the strategy for the training evaluation. The better

assessment of the learning by the trainees for the future through measureable indicators

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would increase the organization efficiency and effectiveness and the individual

competency.

The certification or accreditation of the training programmes by the organization is in

the policy statements.

5.5 Training Objectives:

The objectives of the training are specific for the targeted job and for specific organization;

however, generally those are mainly concerned with the overall goals of objectives. The main

training objectives are suggested below(Vertaji, 2013):

Improves efficiency

Improves quality

Increase employee stability

Increase organization work operations

Benefits the organization as whole

Benefits the individual

Benefits the human relations, intra group and inter group relations

5.6 Training Approaches:

In previous chapters, the importance of training has been discussed. The organization’s strategy

to enhance the productivity of the employees through training is foreseeable. There are different

approaches for training of the employees (Niazi, 2011).

Reactive Approach: This is the traditional approach identical to classroom training. The main

component is to train employees the technical skills that they need to acquire in order to perform

their job well.

Proactive Approach: This approach encompasses all sort of learning activities which are

aligned with the organizational objectives. It basically helps organization to better plan and

acquires the required competencies of the employees.

Active Learning Approach: The trainees are actively involved in the training by analyzing

their own needs of training and learning. It would have a long-term impact. The trainees

implement their learning in the workplace and combat the new constraints for the better

productivity of the organization.

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5.7 Training Plan:

There is no optimum plan for training; however, all the training programmes follow the

planning steps which are as follows:7

Step 1: Identify the trainees

Step 2: Elaborate objectives of the training

Step 3: Analysis of actions required to achieve the goal

Step 4: Analysis of knowledge and skills required for those actions

Step5: The selection of suitable method of training and schedule planning

Step 6: The delivery of the training programme

Step 7: Evaluation strategy for the training programme

5.8 Learning and Training:

“Learning is the active process. We learn by doing…Only knowledge that is used sticks in

your mind”.

Dale Carnegie

5.8.1 Concept of Learning:

Literature revealed that concept of learning is explored by many researchers. According to

Argyris (1993),learning is not just to have a new idea or skill rather, it is to take effective action,

analyze and overcome the errors, to know something just not enough until you produce it.

The learning is a dynamic entity which surrounds the concept of training; that is more specific,

the concept of education; that is more elaborated term that implies “knowledge, skills, values

and understanding of all notions of life”(Jensen, 2001); and the concept of development; is a

future impact oriented activity for the growth of people potential and enhancement of

effectiveness(Gansberghe, 2003).

Another definition by Sloman (Training to Learning,2005)states that “a self-directed, work-

based process leading to increased adaptive capacity” is learning.

Learning is defined as “measurable and relatively permanent change in behaviour through

experience, instruction, or study”(B. Dictionary, 2015a).

In another study by Cole (Management Theory and Practice,2004), “learning” is defined as

“the process of acquiring knowledge, understanding, skills and values in order to be able to

adapt to any environment; it underpins education, training and development.”

7 Adapted Online Fact Sheet, Retrieved From: http://www.Lessonly/training-plan-playbook-by-lessonly?qid=d848ce26-8166-46b7-9885-

ea3393185e70&v=qf1&b=&from_search=1

88

According to (T. N. Garavan, 1997), “however, learning is better seen as the overarching

concept under which formal education and training take place, with development as the

resulting outcome of these pursuits”. “Learning is the heart of human resource development”

(Masadeh., 2015).

5.8.2 Philosophy of Learning:

The “philosophy of learning” was articulated by Sloman as follows:

“Interventions and activities that are intended to improve knowledge and skills will

increasingly focus on the learner. Emphasis will shift to the individual learner (or team). And

he or she will be encouraged to take more responsibility for his or her learning. Efforts will be

made to develop a climate that supports effective and appropriate learning. Such interventions

and activities will form part of an integrated approach to creating competitive advantage

through people in the organization”(Steppingup Learning,Sloman, 2003).

5.8.3 Types of Learning:

The types of learning are also based on certain concepts and theories. The most widely known

is “Learning Type Theory” proposed by Frederic Vester in 1975. He claimed that any material

can be learned in different styles and ways that are suitable for the learner. He described four

types of learning(Loob, 2001):

I. Learning type 1: Auditive learning (“by listening and speaking”)

II. Learning type 2: Visual learning (“through the eyes, by watching”)

III. Learning type 3: Haptic learning (“by touching and feeling”)

IV. Learning type 4: Learning through the intellect

Learning is a long-lasting phenomenon that brings in transformation in behaviour that is the

consequence of the experience. However, it depends on certain determinants, such as the

cognitive abilities of the learner, competency of the instructor and environment in which the

learning takes place(Eric, 2012). It is similar to the notion that was discussed in previous

chapter that TOT (transfer of training) effected by characteristics of trainer, trainees and

working conditions(Baldwin, 1988). Perhaps, the amount of learning is the predecessor of

transfer of training (I. L. Goldstein, 1991). Hence, the training effectiveness depends on the

learning of the trainee and it is believed to produce the desired organization

objectives(Tanneunbaum, 1992). The researchers have emphasized that learning is an input or

mediating factor which produces certain outcomes. However, according to Mumford and Gold,

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“learning is both a process and an outcome concerned with knowledge, skills and

insights”(Managing Development,Mumford, 2004). In contemporary cognitive sciences, the

term “learning styles” is used synonymously with types of learning which include the verbal

knowledge and procedural knowledge (K. F. Kraiger, K. and Salas E, 1993; Loob, 2001)thus,

Harrison(Learning & Development,2005) comprehended and classified learning as stated

below:

I. “Instrumental Learning: Learning how to do the job better once the basic standard of

performance has been attained. Enhanced by learning on the job training.

II. Cognitive Learning: Outcomes based on the enhancement of knowledge and

understanding.

III. Affective Learning: Outcomes based on the development of attitudes or feelings rather

than knowledge.

IV. Self-reflective Learning: Developing new patterns of understanding, thinking and

behaving and therefore creating new knowledge.”

5.8.4 Principles of Learning in Training:

Training is a systematic and planned arrangement to accelerate learning. The approach is called

the “learner-based training.” Learning is distinguished from training as the learning lies in the

individual domain and the training exists in organization’s domain. Learning is the process that

not only exhibits the reloading of the knowledge and skills but also the development of the

attitudes, behaviours and competencies for the future. The training and development

programmes will be more successful and productive when those are based on the following

principles of learning:

Employee Motivation: Motivation of the employee or trainee to be a good learner is the

fundamental aspect that gets the effective training outcomes. It is the motivation of acquiring

the job, promotion or financial gain that one/trainee indulges in the training and development

programme. The abilities of trainee affect learning and overall outcomes of the training.

Recognition of Individual Differences: The organization consists of multi-type personalities

and employees with different abilities, backgrounds and aptitudes; thus, it is “employer’s

responsibility” to understand the need and recognize individual differences to accelerate

learning.

Practice Opportunities: The opportunity to practice is the foremost and the main requisite of

the successful training. Whether the new skill, knowledge or any behavioural intervention is

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given through training, the application is indispensable for the production of what has been

learned.

Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is the repeatedly induction of response behaviour that

occurred as a result of some reinforcement and it is the solidification of the response behaviour.

The learned behaviour of the employee would be strengthened when reinforced from the

organization, employer and peers.

Feedback: The principle of feedback in learning is vital. The feedback of what has been learned

is obligatory to concentrate on the desired objectives of the training. Any divergence from the

training objectives will be evaluated and the performance of the learner is assessed. The learner

also takes counteractive actions to overcome any deviations.

Goal Setting: The implementation of goal setting principle accelerates learning. The employee

gets urged to learn more when smart goals are set. The challenging tasks and goals motivate

employees and their participation in goal setting considerably increases the learning and

productivity.

Schedules of Learning: The well-planned and scheduled training sessions provide better

results. The duration of learning, practice and rest sessions should be formulated and executed

to increase the capacity of the learners and decrease mind fatigue.

Meaning of Material: The learning and the meaning of material is directly associated. The

more precise, meaningful and accurate the material of the training is, the better would be the

learning progression.

Transfer of Learning: The learned concepts and new skills in training must be transformed

and translated in the job. The approach of identical elements is utilized to transfer, however,

the teaching skills or leadership skills not possibly get transfer through this approach. The

employees resist change in the environment and a similar pattern for teaching is frequently used

in the educational institutes. The reinforcement from the management and the behavioural

change modifications are required to overcome this resistance.

5.9 Learning Strategies:

Learning strategy is defined as “behaviours and thoughts in which a learner gets engaged and

which are intended to influence the learner’s encoding process. Thus, the goal of any particular

learning strategy may be to affect the learner’s motivational or affective state or the way in

which the learner selects, acquires, organizes or integrates new knowledge”(Weinstein, 1983,

p. 3).

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The following are some widely used learning strategies:

The Cognitive Learning Strategy: The content is repeated and learned, can be conceptualized

in a one theme.

The Behavioural Learning Strategy: This is about learning from others. The inclination of

this strategy is towards the learner where learner obtains help from others. The feedback for

corrections is provided by others.

The Self-Regulating Learning Strategy: This strategy explains that people learn to control

their emotions and motivations(Warr, 1999).

The Meta cognition Learning Strategy: Meta cognition is the form of learning which includes

the cognitive skills and abilities of individual and the competency to process and regulate the

learned behaviour. Meta cognitive skills include planning, monitoring and evaluation and the

restructuring of the goals-based decisions. It includes the understanding of the individual

capabilities and its relationship with the job tasks. It also includes the skills for acquisition of

knowledge and the high level activities of mind to execute the application and solutions (K. F.

Kraiger, K. and Salas E, 1993; Leoniseo, 1990).

5.9.1 Learning Strategies in Educational Institutes:

Learning is an active process. One of the main objectives of teachers is to make their student

learn what has been taught. The goal is to teach “how to learn” which is the major implication

of the learning strategies. Some widely used learning strategies in educational institutes are as

follows:8

Activity-Based Strategies: This involves participants in activities. It includes simulations,

debates, surveys, presentations, field trips and rehearsal and practice.

Cooperative Strategies: It involves group learning. It includes collaborative teaching, jigsaw,

conflict resolution, mentoring, peer teaching, interview and discussion.

Direct Instruction Strategies: It involves direct intervention to teach and learn. It includes

conferencing, demonstration, feedback, flash cards, guest lectures, guided exploration and

writing, seminar, tutorial, storytelling, work sheets, programmed learning and text books.

ICT-Based Strategies: It involves the information and communication technologies. It

includes computer-assisted instructions, multimedia presentations and virtual learning.

8 Adapted from Prepared by Tim Gauntley, Retrieved From: http://timgauntley.blogspot.com/

http://timgauntley.blogspot.com/

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5.10 Learning Organization:

Senge (1990) coined the term ‘Learning Organization’ and defined it as “where people

continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and

expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where

people are continually learning how to learn together.”

Garvin (1993)defines “a learning organization” as one which is skilled at creating, acquiring,

and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and

insights.”A learning organization typically arranges the performance and productivity based

training and development programmes to enhance the continuous learning of its human

resource.

5.10.1 Principles of Learning Organization:

Learning organization should incorporate the system thinking, team work, vision for all, each

individual competency and the recognition of individual differences. The key principles of

learning organization are summarized by Miller (1999) as given below:

“Learning and business strategy are closely linked;

The organization consciously learns from business opportunities and threats;

Individuals, groups and the whole organization are not only learning but are also

learning how to learn;

Information systems and technology serve to support learning rather than control it;

There are well-defined processes for defining, creating, capturing, sharing and acting

on knowledge;

These various systems and dimensions are balanced and managed as a whole”(R. a. S.

Miller, J 1999, pp. 42-46).

The learning organization should have the tendency to adapt to the changing environment,

technological sound and provide the working conditions that are conducive to learning.

Training is part of the learning organization system to explore and develop the employees’

skills in the alignment of organizational aims. The flexibility, experimentation and technology

in organizational processes enhance employee’s creativity and learning. The climate of

continuous learning and sharing of the novel knowledge and skills builds the organization’s

credibility in external environment and employees’ retention.

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5.10.2 Educational Institutes as Learning Organization:

Higher education institutes are considered to be the learning organization. In today’s world of

rapid technological advancement, highly skilled personnel and the encouraging environment

for learning and practice is the spirit of the organization. Educational institutes produce a large

number of human resource; the competencies and capabilities of the teaching and non-teaching

staff ultimately affect this human resource and affect the transformation of the institutes into

the learning organization. The learning organization improves overall performance of the

organization(Cheng, 2009). Educational institutes acknowledge its importance in form of

providing enhanced environment and growing culture of learning for students as well as for

teaching and non-teaching employees(Rowley, 1998). Moreover, the educational training for

continuous learning process and propelling future is mandatory to adopt research

experimentation, creativity, behaviour change strategies and transformation of information. It

is the prime responsibility of the higher management and faculty in educational institutes to

build leadership skills in their subordinates and students. Furthermore, these leaders would

generate the culture of learning process and provide the opportunity for their subordinates to

get novel training(Kurland, 2010). However, the educational institutes in Pakistan are deprived

of the understanding of the concept of learning organization and there is lack of leadership (S.

Akhtar, Arif,A.,Rubi,E. and Naveed,S., 2011; Malik, 2012). Decision-making power relies on

the heads of the institutes while employees are not empowered due to lack to knowledge and

experience(Malik, 2012). Therefore, continuous learning through training and development

programmes very much needed in order to boost competencies, skills and performance of the

employees in higher educational institutes.

5.11 Learning Theories:

There are certain theories which are the basis of principles of learning. Majority of theories

depend on the work motivation, work environment and the individual cognitive capacity,

attitudes and behaviours. Some theories are discussed here:

5.11.1 Behaviourist Theory:

Components: This theory was proposed by Pavlov, Skinner and Thomdike. This theory

identifies the basic elements of learning behaviour. It is restrained to observing the behaviour

and people who learned from past experience in terms of the punishment and reward received.

This theory is also called Reinforcement theory. The positive reinforcement is the recurrence

94

of the behaviour as a result of reward. The negative reinforcement is avoidance of behaviour

as a result of punishment.

Training Perspective: The “stimulus-response psychology” is implied in training. The

feedback on training programme provides the basis for future improvement. The positive

reinforcement of the behaviour change after the training provides sustainability of the learned

behaviour.

Effects in Educational Institutes:

Responsibility of students to learn with teachers

Rewards and punishments

The structured approach of learning

Lectures oriented

Critics: Oversimplified. Not applicable on the more conceptual and skills’ learning and

training. It does not cover the process and the willingness to learn.

5.11.2 Cognitive Theory:

Component: This theory has been proposed by Kohler, Piaget and Kelly. This theory is rooted

from behaviourist theory and composed of the consideration of how the feedback and the

reinforcement are processed in mind for future decision making. This theory is also called

Information Processing theory. The past experience and information, already known or new

information, is processed in the mind to induce the behaviour. It also conceptualizes the

personal beliefs and values already possessed that have the influence on the new information.

The person responses in three ways:

Assimilation: The information or the situation is same as the mind processed.

Rejection: The information is different so that it has been rejected.

Accommodation: There is mismatch between the experience and the information;

however, the mind has the capability to accommodate the difference and the learning

enhanced.

Training Perspective: The learning of new skills and knowledge in training endows with the

previous information, induction of solutions and interaction which increases learning than

positive reinforcement. It also explains the symbolic learning with verbal connotations.


Provides solution of the problems

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Curiosity is encouraged

Provides insight to develop new skills and acquiring new knowledge

Anybody can learn at any age

Critics: Less emphasis on individuality and the “affective characteristics.”

5.11.3 Social Learning Theory:

Components: People learn by observing others. This learning will be immediately occurred

especially when the task is simple and no practice is required. This theory is also called

Observational theory. The acceptable behaviour has been observed and learned through pre-

occupied motivation.

Training Perspective: The trainers demonstrate the activities and the trainees learn and

perform. The trainer gives positive response which further confirms the replication of the

learned activities. Furthermore, on-job application of the learned activities is reinforced if

reward is timely given and learner is motivated otherwise; if the reward is not given

substantially then the behavior may revert.


Collaborative learning and team work

Opportunities to observe the experts

Critics: It is effective on short term basis. It takes trainees as passive learners. It does not take

into account the individuality and the experience.

5.11.4 Empirical Learning Theory:

Components: This theory has been derived from social learning theory. The behavior is

consequence based. Learning takes place through blending of experience and observation. This

theory is also known as “Social Constructivist theory” or “learning through experience”.

Training Perspective: The trainer provides the material and demonstrates the tasks, learner

then is asked to replicate. The evaluation sessions improvise the positive feedbacks and praise

the learner. Moreover, the critical analyses of the observation and experience to perform the

task have been evaluated and proved to be more effective. This practice is beneficial for long

term learning.


Critical thinking and active learning

Experimental activities

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Collaborative and cooperate learning

Critics: Less robust than traditional instructions. It is not implied for learning at old age, or the

strict semester exams schedule.

5.12 Human Performance:

Performance: “Employee performance is measured in terms of input-output relationship. It is

the measure of the efficiency with which inputs or resources are utilized to create outputs.

Performance is employee productivity”(Effect of Trining and Development,Eric, 2012).

Brumbrach elaborated the concept of performance: “Performance means both behaviours and

results. Behaviours emanate from the performer and transform performance from abstraction

to action. Not just the instruments for results, behaviours are also outcomes in their own right

– the product of mental and physical effort applied to tasks – and can be judged apart from

results”(1988, pp. 387-402).

This implies that performance is about considering both the inputs and outputs. The

measurement of the performance is based on measuring the competency, quality, working in

teams, skills and learning, consistent with organizational goals, responsive with the

organizational changing and achievement of the targets set. The high performance is the result

of acceptable behaviour. The implementation of the required knowledge and skills ultimately

affects the performance and the achievement of what the organization demands.

5.13 Determinants of Human Performance:

Human performance is influenced by many factors. These can be organizational factors as well

which include managers, training and development and leadership style(Altrasi, 2014), all that

has an impact on employee performance. The individual factors such as motivation and

accumulation of human capital influence the employee performance(Rounok, 2011). Some

determinants of human performance are discussed below:

5.13.1 Top Management Support and Human Performance:

The top management support reflects positive attitude of managers and provision of access to

information system(Yap, 1989). The managerial commitment is necessary to gain the efficient

and effective performance from the employees. Long-term success of any organization mainly

effected by top management support and commitment. Allocation of resources, affiliation and

compensation to employees depends on top management. Thus, the contentment of the

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employees and being rewarded fairly by the manager would encourage enhancing

performance(Eisenberger, 1990; Haque, 2012).

5.13.2 Training and Human Performance:

A highly competent human resource is essential for any organization to flourish in the

competitive market. The organization’s management plans the training programmes to assure

the continuous improvement and supply of the well-skilled workforce for the better functioning

of the organization(Haslinda, 2009).

A high attention is being paid to the employees by the organizations now-a-days, for team

building and solutions of the problems which ultimately pave the way to the success.

Employees are being taken as the “learner customer” (Niazi, 2011) who employs his motivation

and all skills at the work place. The job satisfaction, measurement of performance and

organization’s overall performance is positively associated with the employees’ performance.

The several studies asserted the importance of performance and its relationship with the training

and development programmes(Javidan, 2004; Muhammad, 2013). There is a noticeable

difference between the organizations with trained and untrained employees(Benedicta, 2010).

“Organizations concerned with their investors, customers and beneficiaries, feel free to invest

in their employees in the form of giving new knowledge, skills and build attitudes and

behaviours through training” (Evans, 1999).

5.13.3 Leadership Style and Human Performance:

Leaders are the one who influence others to perform a task. The actions of the leaders to

influence the subordinates are the leadership style. The most widely known leadership styles

are the autocratic, participative and democratic and human oriented and task oriented as have

been described by(Hersey, 1974). The important notion of the leadership is the “relationship.”

Many studies identified that subordinates need morale and structural support from the leaders

cum managers and the effect of leadership styles on the human performance(Podsakoff, 2006;

Yukl, 2011).

5.13.4 Job Attitudes and Human Performance:

Job attitudes are the job satisfaction and job involvement exhibit by the employees. The

changed attitudes and transfer into behaviour is implied as the series of evolution involving

cognitive understanding of events, solutions and outcomes which affect the reactions.

Employees evaluate the organizational behaviour towards them; the ownership by the

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organization; while fair reward system and training and development initiatives would change

the job attitudes and the employees would be more satisfied with their job (Kim, 2009).The job

involvement has direct relationship with the human performance. Employees enrolled in the

job assignments and tasks are more performing(Lassk, 2001; Sultana, 2012).

5.13.5 Financial Compensation and Human Performance:

Financial compensation i.e. salary is considered to be one of the major determinants of the

employee performance. Mostly, this factor alters the decision of the employee to persist in the

organization or not. The pay according to performance enhances the motivation of the

employee and the more effort would be carried out to earn more. The payments on daily wages

or monthly salary have direct effects on the overall performance. It has been observed that the

managers provide bonuses and the monthly incentive to retain their competent workers

(Sultana, 2012). The employees put extra effort to perform well and have healthy competition

among their peers and other colleagues which results in the better overall performance of the

organization(Pendleton, 2009). The other organizations get attracted towards them and offer

them higher incentives. The salary provides financial security to employees and gratuity and

pension incentives deploy the employees in the better performance to serve the organization in

long run(Bandiera, 2005; Sultana, 2012).

5.13.6 Motivation and Human Performance:

Motivation is the driver to perform a task with enthusiasm and willingness by a person and it

depends on the situation. It is the factor which engages the employees in the work to perform

better day by day to increase their own credibility and performance and entirely organization’s

performance. Although salary considered as main motivating factor as it fulfills the basic needs

of the employee. However, there are other factors like job enrichment, training and

development programmes, team building, challenging goals setting, participation in decision

making, positive reinforcement and flexible work schedules; all affect motivation and increase

the human performance(Rounok, 2011).The appreciation, career development and recognition

by the employer and organization elicit the behaviours which enhance the job

performance(Laurie, 2007; Lu, 1999).

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5.14 Relationship of Training, Learning and Performance:

Individual perceives the life-long learning career as a result of “training”. Training increases

job security, jab satisfaction and career development(Heise, 2004). Training can improvise the

application of learning, decision-making skills, attitudes and behaviours, general human

relations at work and the professional specific skills which are liable to increase productivity

and economic development (Pfeiffer, 2001). Apart from technical training, the development of

the employees with regard to problem-solving skills and decision making potential are now

well-recognized abilities to acquire for the better work performance. The individual

development has indirect relationship with the learning and performance. Increasing

organizational investment on training would increase the employees’ learning and cognitive

abilities. Hence, training programmes are formulated and evaluated to enhance the

performance. As discussed earlier, learning is a more broad term which is being considered as

both the input and outcome of the training and as well as mediation linking between training

and performance.

The model (Figure1) of learning outcomes was proposed by Kraiger and Salas (1993). The

cognitive outcomes are the knowledge acquisition process which dynamically plays its role in

the application of learned content from the training. The individual cognitive abilities influence

the learning capacities. The knowledge or skills adopted in the training need to be organized in

mind. The mind maps the information, processes it and utilizes it. The inter-relationship of new

and old information and knowledge is important for the solutions and decision-making

strategies. The cognitive strategies are more replenished through training and continuously

developed. The knowledge and the human cognitive abilities increase the execution of the tasks

and decision-making strategies get developed. The learned behaviours become internalized and

continue to implement fluidly in the job operations. The skill-based outcomes are one of the

major learning outcomes of the skill-based training programmes. It involves the procedural

compilation of the knowledge and the behaviours. Simultaneously, the automaticity exists

which include the multitasking with less errors, more spontaneous and higher level

development in the skills and anticipated behaviours. The motivation and attitudes are the

internal state of the individual and can be measured as learning outcomes of the training

programme. The attitudinal outcomes are precursor of the behaviours and the performance.

Perhaps, the attitudes can be changed so as the behaviours. It includes the acceptance of the

novel information, organization’s commitment, capacity to accept challenges and changing

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environment and is more focused on what to learn. The motivational outcomes are the intended

goals of majority of training programmes which ultimately affect the performance. It includes

the self-efficacy, the ability to recognize one’s own abilities and it is proved to have the direct

relationship with the individual performance. It also includes the goal-setting skills which

increase likelihood of the application of the learned skills. The individual exerts effort to

achieve pre-set goals with the internal commitment of more devotion, motivation, persistent

and long-term behaviours along with high performance(Baldwin, 1988; K. F. Kraiger, K. and

Salas E, 1993; Lu, 1999). In addition, models proposed by Altrasi (2014), Sultana (2012) and

Tahir (2014) correlate between training and performance which has been mediated by learning

or considered learning as an input. The dynamics of these models will be discussed in the next

chapter. The purpose of these models to illustrate here is to understand the relationship among

training, learning and performance. In Pakistan, there has been a gap between the skills learned

and their application. The training institutes for higher educational employees provide with the

on-demand learning strategy. Hence, they are based on “basic principles of learning” in training

context which are conceptualized on learning theories. Nevertheless, efforts have been made

but they are not sufficient to meet the existing gaps between training, learning and performance

in educational institutes in Sindh.

FIGURE-1:Model of Learning Outcomes by (K. F. Kraiger, K. and Salas E, 1993)

Learning

Cognitive outcomes

Verbal Knowledge

Knowledge Organization

Cognitive Strategy

Skill-Based OutcomesProcedural Compilation

Automaticity

Affective OutcomesAttitudinal

Motivational

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Figure 2: Human Performance Model by (Altrasi, 2014)

Figure 3: Employee Performance Model by (Sultana, 2012)

Organizational Factors

Top Management Support

Leadership Style

Training

Job Attitudes

Job Satisfaction

Job Involvement

Employee Performance

TrainingSalary and

Job Involvement


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Figure 4: Human Performance Model by (Tahir, 2014)


Employee Perfromance

Employee Productivity

Enhancement, Job Knowledge, Techniques,

Skills , Abilities, Competency and Morale

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Dynamics of Training

Chapter 6

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CHAPTER 6: DYNAMICS OF TRAINING

6.1 Introduction

As discussed earlier, “training is the process for acquiring new skills to perform a job” in a

more proficient manner. The organizations facilitate their employees in growth through training

and invest in them to achieve the pre-set objectives and goals. The determinants of human

performance discussed in the previous chapter. There are certain factors that are imperative for

quality work life. According to Chandranshu Sinha, there are 12 such factors which directly

affect quality of work performance, development of employees and sustainability of an

organization in competitive market. These are “communication, career development and

growth, organizational and employee commitment, emotional supervisory support, flexible

work arrangements, family response culture, employee motivation, organizational climate,

organizational support, job satisfaction and involvement, rewards and benefits and

compensation”(2012, pp. 31-40). Hence, training is proved to be the important too that provide

various benefits to improve quality of work, to increase the human performance and

productivity. Training programs are design in a way to enhance human resource performance

and productivity at the job. The “pre-service” and “in-service training programs” arranged that

make employees knowledgeable and skillful. Moreover, these programs are based on “steps of

training process”. First step is most crucial step for the success of any training i.e. training need

assessment (A. J. Miller, and Diana M. Osinski., 2002) which analyze the organization, job and

the individual performance to bridge the gap between existing and needed requirements. This

chapter deals with the individual/employee/trainee perspective and how the dynamics of

training influence their attitudes, skills, and behaviors in the changing organization scenario.

6.2 Role of Training in Employee’s Motivation

Motivation a major dynamic that affects employee productivity; augment internal demand to

acquire more, increase level of energy and keen to perform best at job. Theories on motivation

revealed that the money is not the only motivating factor; other factors associated with the

individual or with the working environment control the motivation level. It’s the human nature

that it needs diversity and curiosity to learn new things. Stagnation at one position would make

them demotivated and disoriented. The organizations need to contribute in continuous growth

and mobilization of their employees.

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Formal education is “the development of the human mind, and it increases the powers of

observation, analysis, integration, understanding, decision making, and adjustment to new

situations”(ProfessionalDevelopment,Abdul Halim, n.d.). However, training is mostly

associated with the specific job. Van Dorsal defined “training as the process of teaching,

informing, or educating people so that (1) they may become as well qualified as possible to do

their job, and (2) they become qualified to perform in positions of greater difficulty and

responsibility”(SuccessfulSupervisor,1962). For the success of organization the education and

learning should be continue through training. Training programs are based on the learning

theories as discussed in previous chapter and the two entities are operated simultaneously. This

implied that learning itself is influenced by the behavior of the learner which derived from the

attitudes and inner motivation. Thus, the “pre-training motivation” is correlated with

“performance, transfer of training, post-training attitudes of the employees and the motivation

to participate in future training programs”(Tannenbaum, 1991).

Organizations worked in a way to motivate their employees. Motivational theories are

conceptual and the applicable framework for employers to motivate employees. Hence, the

efforts made by the employees should be recognized through verbal awarding and the financial

rewards. Mostly the consideration of the strengths and abilities would help in the fulfilling of

the assigned jobs which cultivate the motivation in future. Making working conditions

favorable and flexible and allocate the ownership to the employees increase their motivation

and feeling to be valued. Empowering the employees through increase their participation in the

problem-solving decisions and increase communication would enhance the motivation as well

as their productivity (Walton, 2014).“Enabling someone to grow and develop and helping them

set and achieve goals really motivates people. Knowing that your employer cares about your

personal and professional development is so important. People who feel valued are much more

motivated and therefore much more productive than those who don’t”(HRD, 2015).

“Ideology of training based on the motivated work force, impact of training on employee

motivation and impact of employee motivation on the training is the vice versa phenomenon”.

Training is a tool for motivating employees that it turns provides multiple advantages.

Employee feel more responsible and engaged in the training, acquire new knowledge and skills,

additionally the employer get benefit from more knowledgeable and skilled employee along

with motivation.

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Steve Minks descried certain ways to motivate the employees through training:

“Contextualize staff’s work: The similar routine job duties performed by an employee

provoke the feeling of detachment from the organization’s mission and vision. Training

of the employee creates an opportunity to develop sense of valuable employee in the

organization. Organizational investments on the employee demonstrate that work of

every individual matters and is beneficial for the organization as a whole. The main

objective of the training is to improve the fluidity in the work flow. The learned skill

should be appreciated to apply from the organization and the top management.

Identify employee strengths: Training provides the opportunity to employees to

enhance their specific skills relevant to their job. It’s the responsibility of the employer

to identify those skills that need to be replenished. The SWOT analysis of the employee

gives the insight into the strengths to be enhanced further through training.

Strengthening employee bonds: Team- work and bond among employees is necessary

to promote the healthy organization culture that nurtures the development. Training

programs designed in a way that its content develops the abilities to solve the problems

and empowering the trainees to make decisions. Working together for the common

objective in training simulates the behaviors in daily work life and strengthen the

employee bonds.

Enhance long-term career development: Participatory approach taken by the

employer demonstrates their long term commitment with the employees. Thus, increase

the employee motivation and the employee commitment and retention. Training

effectiveness depends on two-way communications between employer and employee.

Identification of training needs help in choosing the best suited training type and

materials to be delivered. Moreover, this will assist in long-term development beneficial

to employee and to the organization”(Motivate Through Training,2014).

Some researcher found that training is not the only solution for the compromised performance

by the employee. Asare-Bediako (2008) proposed a mathematical model “Performance =

ability x motivation; that performance is the product of ability and motivation”. If employee

has ability with needed motivation the performance will be better. Absence of motivation

despite of having ability cannot enhance the performance or even non-performance. Thus, the

training alone cannot produce the desire outcomes. However, training has effect on both the

ability and motivation. The training increases the enhance skills and utilize the cognitive

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abilities(T. N. Garavan, Micheal P. and Emmon C., 2001). Additionally, increase employees’

motivation. Tahir (2014)proposed a model (Figure-1) which showed that the training and

development are the effected by the competency, abilities , morale and job enhancement which

ultimately effect the employee performance and productivity. Therefore, training programs if

properly planned and implemented is a powerful tool to increase employee motivation and

productivity. Ikhlas(2012) concluded that “there is positive relationship between training and

motivation and employee performance”. Training is the one the major determinants of the

better employee performance along with the technology, working conditions and

organizational behavior. Organizations conducted proper training programs with perfect plan

would have high productivity with high performing employees. The fulfillment of training has

the positive relation with increase self-efficacy (motivation) and post training organizational

commitment (Tannenbaum, 1991).

FIGURE-1: Human Performance Model (Tahir, 2014)

6.3 Role of Training in Job Involvement

The competitive market emerge the need to enhance the adoption of contemporary and diverse

approaches to training of the employees that contribute in the employee satisfaction and job

involvement. The organizational performance depends on the interrelationship of employee

productivity and internal and external working conditions(Niazi, 2011).For the organization

and the employees it is vital that employees do their job with whole heartedly and concerned

with their jobs which consequently incite problem-solving initiatives(Lawler, 1986) initiatives.


Employee Perfromance

Employee Productivity

Enhancement, Job Knowledge,Techniques, Skills ,Abilities, Competency and

MoralIGUREe

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“Job Involvement is a psychosomatic recognition or dedication towards occupation”(Kanungo,

1982, pp. 341-349). He adopted the motivational approach to the job involvement. “Job

involvement is the degree to which an individual identifies psychologically with the job and

considers his/her perceived performance level important to self-worth” (Blau, 1987, pp. 288-

300). According to Mowday, Steers and Porter(1979, pp. 224-247) “ job involvement is a

relative strength which varies from person to person in the different firms”. According to

Khalid and Rehman(2011)“job involvement as motivation to carry out work and it is highly

compatible between personal and organizational goals, which stimulate motivation among the

employees to generate positive work outcomes”.

The organizations identify the gaps of existing and required resources and working in achieving

the goals. Thus, the identification of employee capabilities for performing the job is mandatory.

Every employee has different levels to perceive and acted upon the assigned tasks(Paullay,

1994). Employees who perceived that to be involved in the assigned tasks produce the desired

results and it’s the integral part of their work life. Moreover, this would increase their job

satisfaction and job involvement which in turn increase their motivation and self-esteem. When

employees undergo involvement in their job they do innovation and creativity in the job with

motivation(Kanungo, 1982). Thus, the job involvement is based on the personal norms and the

internal attitudes that attempts to produce behaviors on the job (Kejner andLodahl, 1965).They

used the expectancy theory which implied that the work expectation and its fulfillment increase

the involvement in the job. According to Brown(1996),job involvement is specific to the direct

activities related to the work and linked with the work experience and organizational

commitment. He explained the job involvement on the basis of causality theory model. There

are certain factors (Figure-2) which effect the job involvement such as training, employee

personality, job characteristics and motivation (Lubakaya, 2014).

Bartlett(2004) divided training in job involvement context into sub-variables. These consist of

“participation in training”, “motivation to learn from training”, “perceived benefits from

training”. Below is the description of these variables:

Participation in Training: “Participation in training is found to be related to the perceptions

that training is accessible and that the organization supports training for career

advancement”(Karia, 2006, pp. 30-43).

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Perceived Benefits of Training: Akhtar, et al.(2010) described that “employees who are able

to gain benefits from the training will feel more motivated and willingness to get more involved

to their job that they are responsible for their job”.

Motivation to Learn from Training: The degree of job involvement is associated with TOT

(transfer of training) at work. Job involvement increases the employee performance. There is

low turnover rate and absenteeism. The organization invests on such employees and develops

them through training because there is more likelihood of increase concerned about their job

and motivation for acquisition of new skills and knowledge. Therefore, they are more

efficiently and effectively transfer the training at the workplace (Noe, 2002).

Although the recognition of job involvement in organization is appreciated by most of the

researchers, however, there is no causal-effect relationship and there is only minimal effect of

job involvement on employee performance(Brown, 1996). In other researches some managers

claimed that employee who is high in job involvement is more effective in the job

assignments(Diefendorff, 2002).Nevertheless, the improvement in performance at the job is the

result of job involvement which is directly associated to the motivation and effort(Brown,

1996). Job involvement is indirectly associated with the employee performance due to

presence of certain other factors. Altrasi (2014) explained this phenomenon through the model

(Figure-3). Organizational factors which involve working conditions, climate and behavior and

tangible resources. These factors along with management support and leadership style affect

the training and development activities in the organization. Thus, have the impact on job

attitudes which involve job satisfaction and job involvement that subsequently results in better

employee performance. Hence, Job involvement is directly related to employee performance.

In other model (Figure-4) Sultana(2012)showed the direct relationship of training and job

involvement and direct relationship with the employee performance with the salary and job

involvement as intervening factors.

Tariq(2014) conducted a study “to assess the mediating role of job involvement between

training and turnover intention” in the public sector of Pakistan. The results concluded that “the

there is a correlation between training, job involvement and reduced turnovers intentions”.

Workers who are more recruited in trainings more are more involved in job and consequently

the turnover intentions are reduced (illustrated in Figure-5)

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FIGURE-2: Job involvement Model by Lubakaya

FIGURE-3: Human performance Model by Altrasi

Job Involvment

Motivation

TrainingJob

Characteristics

Employee personality

Organizational Factors

Top Management Support

Leadership Style

Training

Job Attitudes

Job Satisfaction

Job Involvement


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FIGURE-4: Human Performance Model by Sultana

FIGURE-5: Training, Job involvement and Turnover intentions Model by Tariq.

TrainingSalary and

Job Involvement


TrainingJob

Involvment

Reduced Turnover

Intentions

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6.4 Role of Training in Employee’s Commitment

Employee Commitment is “the relative emotional strength of employees’ identification with

and involvement in a particular organization”. The concepts of “employee commitment” and

the “organizational commitment” viewed as synonyms in the literature. Organizations seek

different ways to promote employee commitment and produce the competitive advantage.

Increasing employer employee communication, positive peer relations in work place, clear job

description and training and development programs are being utilized to enhance the employee

commitment. There are certain factors affecting employee commitment, which include

workplace values, subordinate – supervisor interpersonal relationship, job characteristics,

gender, marital status and recruitment procedures.

The literature revealed that employee commitment has positive impact on the employee’s

performance, decrease absenteeism rate and increase retention with the more capabilities to

adapt in the changing organization environment. The support from the top management is vital

it increases the employee obligation to the organization and if the perception of not supporting

arouse they feel deceived. “When employees perceive support from their organization, they

feel obligated to their organization. When they feel like the support is absent, they feel betrayed

and tend to decrease their commitment”(Robinson, 1995).O’Malley(2000) described five

common factors which are positively linked to enhancement in “employee commitment”.

Employees who are more committed would perform well and associated with accomplishments

of their goals which are aligned with organizational goals. However, to increase commitment

employees should be satisfied with their jobs along with motivation and feels valued to have

full knowledge and skills that demonstrated in their work and rewarded by the organization. In

recent years the human resource management in the organization worked on the strategic

activities according to the demand of the customers and the people who are connected to it.

Employee’s organization commitment nurtures the individuals as well as the teams who

perform well and enhance organization’s performance(Benkhoff, 1997).

As discussed earlier the fair access to training programs increases the employee commitment.

Employees get benefit as they perceived training provide novel knowledge and skills which

enhance their capabilities. The organization and employees both get benefit. For the

sustainability in the modern high technological advanced era the continuous improvement and

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enhancement in knowledge ,skills and attitude is vital(Jacobs, 2003). The organizational view

of training is as the resource to invest for increment in the capital that is associated with the

human and thus, increase the “organizational commitment”. “The theoretical proposition

therefore is that training is likely to lead to employees’ commitment to the organization”. The

studies revealed that training is positively affected to the employee commitment. Organizations

utilize training as one of many ways to enhance “employee commitment” and “performance”.

However, there could be negative impact of training as well. If the training program is not

properly designed feeling of disgrace and disown could be arouse if the objectives of the

training not achieved due to unsupported behavior by the management. The lacking of trainees

need assessment and the skills required to be enhanced not meet with training material could

rise the mistrust between employee and employer. Obenge (2014) in the study in educational

institutes revealed that teacher, head and other officers found training workshops as the tool to

revive their knowledge. Most of the trainees get themselves more committed to the organization

after training which was based not the strategic plans.

According to Newman (2011)number of studies demonstrated that training escorted towards

improvement in organizational commitment. Role of training has been recognized as the quality

improvement tool and the growth factor in the development of the employee. The long-term

planning and implementation of the training programs is the priority of HRM (Human Resource

Management) facilitating to motivate employees and growing “level of commitments”. The

uncommitted and demotivated employee less likely to retained in the organization and increase

the turnover rate in the organization. Thus, training is the strategy which can be used to the

overcome the cost associated with new human resource recruitment(S. Brum, 2010; Owens,

2006). Some study provides empirical evidence that increasing the frequency and duration of

trainings also increase the employee commitment. Hence, organizations based on tangible and

intangible profits in terms of financial and commitment focused on the training

programs(Ayodeji, n.d).

6.5 Role of Training in Organizational change

Change is the “process of causing a function, practice, or thing to become different somehow

compared to what it is at present or what it was in the past”. “Colloquial term describing the

effects or outcomes after the transition or transformation of a function, method, or thing”(B.

Dictionary, 2015b).

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/process.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/function.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/practice.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/transformation.html

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/method.html

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Organizational change “is both the process in which an organization changes its structure,

strategies, operational methods, technologies, or organizational culture to affect change within

the organization and the effects of these changes on the organization. Organizational change

can be continuous or occur for distinct periods of time” (Organizational, 2015).

The organizations undergo change faced resistance by individual and organization. “Human

nature is to resist change”. “We resist change. We choose to keep our habits, rather the comfort

of our habits” Dr. Claude Brodeur9. Change is sometime synonyms to evolution however it is

subjected to resist. Change is harder to accept but resistant is not occurs naturally.

Thus, there is mechanism of change management is applied by the top management and the

implementers of the change to overcome the resistance. “Organization Change management”

is defined as “framework for managing the effect of new business processes, changes in

organizational structure or cultural changes within an enterprise”(Management, 2009). A

systematic approach is required to be implemented when the change effect the whole

organization. The change management surrounds the concept that personnel learn new skills

and applied new behaviors in the change environment. The management employing tools to

improve the communication which increases the collaboration between employee and

employer for achieving the organizational goals. One of the tools is training program that

evidently proved to be the effective way to improve communication, provide novel knowledge

and skills and increase adaptability to the change environment. The proper designed training

provide the opportunities to learn and grow (Vinesh, 2014). The central theme of organizational

change management is training and the employee’s acceptance of the change and the change

implementers (Niazi, 2011).

Organizational change derives from the roots of psychology, sociology, politics, and

economics. However, March(1981, pp. 563-597) asserted that “organizations are continually

changing routinely, easily, and responsively, but change within organizations cannot be

arbitrarily controlled, what most report implementation indicate is not the organizations are

rigid and inflexible but the they are impressively imaginative”. There are different types of

change in organization briefly described below:

Planned change: “It is a change resulting from a deliberate decision to alter the organization”.

Unplanned change: “It is imposed on the organization and is often unforeseen”.

9 Retrieved From: http://members.tripod.com/zenol/humanism.html

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Radical Changes: “A process by which firms regain competitive advantage after it has been

lost or threatened significantly”.

Transformational change: “Change occurs when organizations incur drastic changes and

must essentially transform themselves. This can occur when an organization faces different

technologies, significant changes in supply and demand, unexpected losses”.10

Undefined Goals and Objectives: “An organization should clarify continually the goals and

objectives, outlining roles and specifying performance standards”.

Financial and Environmental: “Lack of working capital in an organization can prevent it

from introducing change that is necessary to stay ahead of competitors or merely survive as a

business. In these circumstances redundancies are almost inevitable”.

Lack of Resources and Bad Resource Allocation: “Lack of resources is an onset of financial

and/or environmental issues as discussed in the above paragraph. Bad resource allocation,

occur when managers make bad decisions in allocating resources such as money, time,

machinery and staff. Managers should use their imagination to avoid causing conflict

situations”.

Structural: “An organization that follows the traditional hierarchical structure tends to resist

change more than that which has a more flat structure.

Insufficient Communication: “There are two branches of communication, which are

communication internally, within the organization between Employees and Management and

externally between the organization and suppliers and customers”.

In organizations where management keeps employees in the dark with respect to change

potentially face fierce resistance. Employees may interpret this as a conspiracy against them

inevitably leading to an unfriendly atmosphere to work in.

Lack of or Bad Leadership: “Strong leadership is required in order to direct the change

management process in any organization. Bad leaders who merely provide are not doing

enough to inspire the employees to march ahead. People want to be shown the way”.

Lack of Preparation for New Roles: “Organizations may lack in their planning phase".

10Adapted From: http://www.scribd.com/Hien%20Hoang%20Pham/d/13754469-CHAPTER-10- TYPES-AND-FORMS-OF-ORGANIZATIONAL-CHANGE

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Cultural Issues: “The culture of an organization is a set of “unwritten rules”. The culture of

the organization can strongly resist changing as employees become too familiar with the

current way of doing things”.

Fear: “News of change can invoke fear among employees”.

Lack of Input into the change: “Individuals tend to resist change where they play not part in

change. The idea of not knowing the change can cause a rift between the employees and

management”(Barriers to Change,2015).The organizations retained their employee and

increase the employees’ attachment , top management applied those strategies that increase the

degree of willingness to be accepted as the integral part of the organization and they will desire

more to attain their individual goals and ultimately the organizational goals (Allen, 1990).

Some factors that enabled to integrate organizational change with the employees and thus

improve performance.

Transparency and Effective Communication: “During an organizational change, it is

essential for managers to communicate the reasons for the change as well as the process needed

to make the change”.

Effective Education and Training: “Education and training is essential for employees to

understand and adapt to a change in the workforce”.

Personal Counseling: “When a major change happens in the workplace, some employees may

feel very uncomfortable about the change—especially the employees most affected by the

change”.

Monitoring the Implementation: “One of the most important steps in managing a successful

change is to monitor how the change is playing out in the organization.11.

Change is the process required time span to be effected. The most widely recognized change

process is formulated by Kurt Lewin (1951) that constitutes the 3 stages (Figure-1). Stage-1:

Unfreezing; recognizing the need for change and abduct the old values, behaviors and

structures. Demonstrating that resistance to change is not productive and create the

psychological safety that concerning change. Stage-2: Changing; is the stage where the new

values, behaviors replaced the old. It is based on the action oriented process. Stage3:

Refreezing; is to make change permanent implementation of new policies depicted through

11 Adapted from: Boundless. “Strategies for Successful Organizational Change.” Boundless Management. Boundless, 21 Jul. 2015. Retrieved 15 Jan. 2016

https://www.boundless.com/management/definition/transparency

https://www.boundless.com/management/definition/communication

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stage 2. Changing involves many players which are managed by the organizational change

management(Heward, 2003)

Figure-1: The model of change process formulated by Kurt Lewin

The organization development is “a series of techniques and methods that managers can

use in their action research program to increase the adaptability of their organization. Goal

is to improve organizational effectiveness and to help people in organizations reach their

potential and realize their goals and objectives. Can be used to unfreeze, change, and

refreeze attitudes and behaviors”. The following are some organization development

techniques to promote change.

“Counseling, Sensitivity training, and Process consultation

Team building, Intergroup training, and Organizational mirroring

Total organizational interventions

Organizational confrontation meeting”

Thus, training is arena that is part of organizational techniques that aimed “to produce the high

level performance of Individuals and groups in organizational setting. It is a combined role

often called human resources development (HRD) meaning the development of human

resources to remain competitive in the market place”. It bring out an assessment “ the objective

of training and development is to creative learning organizations which ensure that employees

through value addition can effectively perform their jobs, gains competitive advantage and seek

self-growth: this measurable performance resulting from good training and development, shall

enhance organization development. It is a process transferring information and knowledge to

Unfreezing

Recognizing the need for change.

Create Psychological

Saftey.

Decrease Resistance.

Changing

New values , behaviors and

structures replace old ones. Action Oriented.

Refreezing

Make change permanent.

Implementation what is learned in the seccond

stage

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employers. It is equipping employers to translate that information and knowledge into practice

with a view to enhancing organization effectiveness and productivity, and the quality of a

management of people. It should be considered along with education policies and systems

which are crucial to the development of human resources”. The association of the

organizational change and training is illustrated in Figre-212. It’s a two way relationship.

Organizational change incorporates with the internal and external pressures. The strategy is

that the training, learning, managing and organizational process should remain dynamic in

order to have the successful change.

FIGURE-2: “Training and Organizational Change Model”

12 “Generic Strategy Model."

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Generic_Strategy_Map.png WikiPedia CC BY-SA 3.0

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Generic_Strategy_Map.png

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

129

Changing Perspectives in Training

Chapter 7

130

CHAPTER 7: CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN

TRAINING

7.1 Introduction:

The changing perspectives in training are discussed in this chapter. The globalization affects

the work trends; work force and the environment where organization need to stabilize and

adjust with changing world. The organizations experience the transformations in their work

and business. The human resource of the organization has to be managed with the technological

advancements. The current scenario increases the urge to train the workforce according to the

need of the global trends. The changing in the training perspective is inevitable in order to get

the organizations in align with the technological advancement(Findley, 2013).The changing

pattern in training is due to diversity in workforce and the single method cannot fulfill the

requirement of all the employees, fortunately the technology carry out the multiple trainings in

an organization at one point in time(Blanchard, 2009). The “cross-cultural training” for

effective production of human resource is mandatory for the organizations that are

geographically expanded. The communication and cultural interactions in other countries

facilitated by the cross-cultural training of employer and employees (Lievens, 2003). Due to

changing scenario in the working conditions the choices and alternatives are also changing and

it’s the duty of organization to make ethical decisions in every level and step of training and

development of the employees. This aspect of training will be discussed later in this chapter.

7.2 Computer–Based Trainings:

The Computer-based training (CBT) is widely used contemporary category of training adopted

by many organizations. The globalization and technology advancement are being mediated by

the influx of Internet technology(Mathis, 2008). CBT defined as "an interactive learning

experience between a learner and a computer in which the computer provides the majority of

the stimulus, the learner must respond, and the computer analyzes the response and provides

feedback to the learner"(Electronic Support System,Gery, 1991). Embedded Training (ET)

"involves incorporating training functions, either in whole or in part, into an operational

system". The audio-visual method of training is superseded by the computer- based technology.

In 1980’ is marked as the computer revolution era. The organizations consider the cost on the

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training is reduced by introducing CBT and the efficiency has been improved. CBT also called

E-learning. E-learning refers as “the delivery of training or education through electronic media”

(Blanchard, 2009, pp. 263-287). “Study after study reveals that the key to a healthy bottom line

is investing in employee skill development. This has forced business executives to search for

cost-effective ways to enhance employee proficiency” (Salz, 2011). Therefore, need to explore

the computer-generated methods.

7.2.1 Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction:

According to Koschmann (1996) the IBM launched the course writer program in 1960 and it

was the first Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction (ICAI). This CBT can customize

according to the trainee need and operated like the human trainer. The responses were recorded

and feedback was given. The intelligent tutoring system evaluates the trainees, together with

corrective methods were guided.

7.2.2 Simulations and Virtual Training:

The arrival of personal computer in 1983 the simulations method of training emerged more

widely. The simulation is the replication of the work environment and situations and trainees

learned there. The advanced form of simulation is “virtual reality”. The function of virtual

reality is equipped with the instruments that are to be used at the actual job, the computer

assisted guidance and interaction with the objects similar to work environment.

The CBT training programs required the basic process of training which includes “need

analysis”, “selection of appropriate training methods” then “plan and implement the training

programme”. Although, the CBT is costly method larger organizations invest on it and increase

their employee efficiency and performance(Blanchard, 2009).

7.2.3 Intranet:

Intranet is widely used in organizations operated through organization’s web portal. Intranet

is advantageous as it allows the sharing of information within the organization and computer-

based training can be operationalized. The intranet increase productivity, less time consuming

method, cost effective, improve communication, the updates are spread widely, the new

technology launched in the organization with its manual can be shared and the teamwork

improved through collaboration. The well-designed system in organization provides desired

advantages(McGovern, 2003).

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7.2.4 Webinar:

Webinars are the form of web conferencing. It includes the web messaging, Internet Relay

Chats(Ross, 2012), videos and web presentations. The training through webinars is one way

installation of the ideas and contents. Thus, most of the people take it as drawback and resist

adopting the technology(Coleman, 2004). Regardless, of the pros and cons the webinars are

widely used for training purposes.

7.2.5 Smartphone:

As the new millennium starts the telephone technology dramatically advanced with the advent

of smart phones. Most of the organizations utilize this technology to incorporate the new

advancements in employees through continuous linkages and updates. Despites of having work

disturbance because of personal usage the smart phones proved to be valuable at the job.

Moreover, through video sharing, training session’s links and reminders, the employee training

can be less time consuming and more technological sound.

7.2.6 Social Networking Websites:

The social networking websites like facebook, twitter, linkedIn and youtube. The employers

use these networks to keep their employees well-verse with the training updates. The training

material, sessions, videos and important tips are uploaded to the customized group of people

or just the employees of a specific organization. The reducing cost, easy accessibility, more

precise material, continuous monitoring of the training and less time in training these networks

getting popularity in every organization (Edosomwan, 2011). The retention of the knowledge

through videos getting enhanced, the attitudes and behaviors are pronounced to be changed due

to more acceptance of the audio and visual images in thinking process (Blanchard, 2009).

Nevertheless, the advantages of CBT are high however, the transfer of training ,which is

ultimate goal of training program, depend on the merging of the CBT and hand-on training to

have achieve the training goals. Secondly, the younger generation readily accepts these trends

as compared to older employees so the need assessment is necessary to adopt any method of

training.

7.2.7 CBT and Educational Institutes:

The advent of computer-based training also influences the teaching and non-teaching staff in

educational institutes. These trainings are incorporated to equip the staff with knowledge

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society and knowledge economy. “The potential of the new information technologies for

improving learning and teaching will not be realized [sic] unless teachers are well trained and

retrained in the pedagogical use of technology in the classroom” (Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development,OECD, 1992).

In Pakistan, this trend needs to be flourishing for educational reforms and the revolution of the

training and learning process. The priority is given to the higher educational institutes with the

involvement of all teaching and non-teaching staff (UNESCO, 2003). The internet based

training programs are initiated however; the internet service issues are noticeable and major

hindrance to facilitate. Other issue is the availability of pedagogy –based trainers in this field

as compared to other fields. Nevertheless, majority of in-service training program are promptly

activated and involve principals, headmasters, teachers, administrators and managers of the

institutes. Due to high cost in implementation of CBT, mostly the program are running in large

organizations, perhaps in educational institutes mostly are funded either by government or by

different international donors. There is deficiency of knowledge and skills in teachers and

unavailability of hardware and software. As Fullan stated “Educational change depends on

what teachers do and think—it’s as simple and as complex as that”(1991, p. 117). Employees

of educational institutes existing beliefs and behaviors are essentially modified to adopt the

new technologies (Veen, 1993). Therefore, different traditional methodologies are being used

in combination with CBT to enhance learning and adaptation(UNESCO, 2003).

7.3 Cross-Cultural Training:

Today mostly people are interacted with each other through the interconnectedness of the

political, social and cultural contexts. The organizations are not apart from this network. Along

with geographical expansion of the organizations workforce is also diverse with different

culture, norms and values. Success of organizations depends on the acceptability of these

diversities and adopting methods to cultivate their human resource. Thus, the cross-cultural

training of the employers and employers is deeming to be effective to increase

interconnectedness (Black, 1989). “Culture” is defined as “the cumulative deposit of

knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of

time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions

acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group

striving”(CULTURE,Anonymous, n.d).More relevant definition for this study is “Culture is

symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group's skills, knowledge, attitudes,

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values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in

a society through its institutions”(Cultures and Organizations,Hofstede, 1997). Marshall

defined culture as the “consistent ways in which people experience, interpret, and respond to

the world around” (CulturalDiversity,2002).The people are influenced by culture and their

respective behaviors and experiences, therefore to be more efficient and productive there is

need to be personified with the organization culture. Moreover, the culture of the organization

influence on motivation of employees , quality of work, retention in the organization, hence

the productivity and efficiency increases(Campbell, 1999). The organizational culture defined

by Schein as “The pattern of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered, or

developed in learning to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration,

and that have worked well enough to be considered valid, and, therefore to be taught to new

members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” (1992,

pp. 17-43).Traditionally, the organization consider as the single culture-oriented, however, as

discussed earlier to survive in the international market the understanding of different cultures

is unavoidable. There exists failure in mergers due to incompatible cultures (McShane, 2003).

Therefore, the element of “cross-culture” needed to be embedded in the more contemporary

approach for the development and success of organization. “Cross-cultural training, which aims

to develop the awareness, knowledge and skills needed to interact appropriately and effectively

with culturally diverse customers and co-workers, is an important element in the development

of cultural competence” (Bean, 2006b).The emergence of virtual teams in the organization

employers emphasize on managing and controlling work force from different countries.

Language barriers and different cultures arises need of “cross-cultural training programs”.

Major role of “cross-cultural trainings” is to enhance intercultural sensitization to manage

human relations in their cultural context.

Further, there is need to differentiate between tradition training and cross-cultural training. In

the management perspective training can be planned for anyone and at anywhere, however the

cross-cultural training is more focused on the staffing approach. The selection of employee for

the training is the main precursor of the cross-cultural training(Caligiuri, 2000). Staffing

approach is classifies as the(Bhaskar, 2014):

The Ethnocentric: The trainees selected from the parent country of the organization.

The Poly Centric: The trainees selected from the host country of the organization to which the

business is to be linked.

The Geo Centric: Trainees selected from the best suited areas.

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The Re-Geo Centric: Trainees selected from anywhere.

In the study by Lievens (2003) concluded that the openness of the trainee (the ability to readily

accept the changes and innovation), cognitive ability (likelihood to be proficient in learning

and language acquisition) and personality characteristics (adaptability to teamwork, and

communication) are the major traits for the trainees which influence the performance in the

cross-cultural training programs.

7.3.1 Types of Cross Cultural Training:

Generally, “cross-cultural awareness training” and the “country-culture specific training”

programs are planned in the organizations. Some specific types are13:

Cross Cultural Team Building: “Training will aim to raise team members' awareness of each

other culturally in order to foster mutual trust, respect and understanding. The result of which

will be clearer lines of communication”.

Cross Cultural Management: “Training aims to equip management staff with the knowledge

and skills to effectively supervise a multi-cultural staff. Cross cultural awareness training

results in a more convivial and understanding work environment”.

Cross Cultural Negotiation: “Training assists negotiators involved with foreign clients or

customers with whom they are discussing possible terms and conditions”.

Cultural Diversity: “Training offers HR staff support in helping them understand their

responsibilities to ethnic minority staff and/or look at ways of nurturing harmonious inter-

personal relationships at work”.

Culture Specific: “Training is generally aimed at individuals or teams that regularly visit a

foreign country or who frequently interact with overseas clients or colleagues. Such training

usually focuses on areas such as values, morals, ethics, business practices, and etiquette,

protocol or negotiation styles with reference to one country. This better equips participants with

the key skills that will help in building successful business relationships”.

7.3.2 Cross-Cultural Training Process:

As the traditional training process has systemic approach, cross-cultural training required the

same approach in order to be effective and produce the desired outcomes. These steps

include(Bhaskar, 2014):

13Adapted from “the training company” designs. Retrieved from: http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cross-

cultural/training.html

http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cross-cultural/team-building.html

http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cross-cultural/management-training.html

http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cross-cultural/negotiation.html

http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cross-cultural/diversity-training-course.html

http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cross-cultural/cross-cultural-courses.html

136

1. Training Need Assessment of the targeted Population

2. Establishing Training Objectives

3. Formulation and Implementation of appropriate Training Design

1. Training Need Assessment of the targeted Population: This process includes the

analysis of the trainees. The leadership skills, stress bearing capacity, openness to accept

the change, emotional stability, interpersonal communication skills and motivation need to

be analyzed for selecting the trainees.

2. Establishing Training Objectives: Main objective of the cross-cultural training is to

sensitize the employee with the different cultures perspectives. Training effectiveness

evaluate from the personality is adjusted and feeling of contentment in the international

scenario. Additionally, the performance is valuable, trainees completing the assigned tasks

and enhanced productivity. Moreover, the inter-personal adjustment is necessary to interact

with local and international contexts.

3. Formulation and Implementation of appropriate Training Design: There are certain

levels of cross-cultural training which should be incorporated in the training design.

First level is the learning about the host culture. Prior to the actual assigning the task,

getting acquaintance with the culture, language, politics, geographical location, values and

norms and history of the host country. Videos, seminars and meeting with the local citizens

proved to be helpful.

Second level includes the actual assigned task given by the organization. The task needed

technical or managerial knowledge for the completion of the tasks was prearranged by the

organization.

Third level deals with the training about the preparation for the new job at new destination

and to whom the employee is replaced.

Forth level includes the training and support to adjust and adapt the new environment.

Fifth level deals with the employee reentry in the parent country and get interact with the

other people.

7.3.3 Benefits of Cross- Cultural Training:

The “cross-cultural training” proved to increase corporate culture in the organization and the

ownership by the foreign national employees increases. Some benefits are enlisted by

Zakaria,(2000)

137

I. “A means for constant switching from an automatic, home culture international

management mode to a culturally adaptable and acceptable one

II. An aid to improve coping with unexpected events and cultural shock in a new culture

III. A means to reduce uncertainty of interactions with foreign nationals

IV. A means for enhancing expatriates coping abilities” (p.492-510).

7.3.4 Methods and Outcomes of the Cross-Cultural Training:

In “cross-cultural training programs”, a wide diversity of training methods are typically used,

including “lectures, video films, experiential exercises, culture assimilators, and behavior

modification” (Bhawuk, 2000, pp. 162-191).Others are the provision of international

experience, developmental assignments, International Job rotation, common training and

developmental programs in parent/regional countries and international meetings that nurture

the interconnectedness and networking (Bhaskar, 2014). The parent organization provides the

training based activities. These activities are illustrated in Figure-1. The main focus of any

training program is its outcome. The outcomes of the cross-cultural training are illustrated in

the Figure-2.

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FIGURE-1: Training based Activities by Parent Organization.

International Research:

Cultural

Economic

Political

Legal etc.

Expatriate Training:

Culutral awareness

Language Training

Sensitivity Training

Political And Legal etc.

HCN/TCN Training:

Corporate Culture

Standards

System and Procedures

Technical Training

Corporate Strategy

Global Management Training:

Globalization

Management Division

International Team Division

Training of Trainers

Cross-cultural Skills

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FIGURE-2: Outcomes of Cross-Cultural Training14

14 Adapted from: http://lareteconsultants.com/culture.html#prettyPhoto

•Greater enjoyment in corss-cultural intercations

•Better adjustment to stress

•An increase in awareness or ' world-mindedness'

•Improved sefl-confidence

•Decrease in the use of stereotypes

•Improvment in perecptions of good-relationship with people from diffrerent culutra

•Feeling that people have more control over problems in their daily life

Attitude/Emotion

Appropiraite personal

emotional responses

•A greater understanding of pther culutres

•Development of more complex ways of thinking about other culture

•Greater understanding of other cultures from the perspective of memeber of those culture

Knowledge

Understanding of one's own and other's culture

•Better job performance

•Increased ability to solve problems and resolve cross-cultural misunderstandings

•More realistc goal-setting and expectations on others

Behavior

Appropriate behavior and

communication

http://lareteconsultants.com/culture.html#prettyPhoto

140

7.4 Ethics and Trainings:

Ethics is defined as “an area of study that deals with ideas about what is good and bad behavior

: a branch of philosophy dealing with what is morally right or wrong” (Webster,2015). Ethics

is the incarnation of values and norms that the individual or organization consider as mandatory

to expel and ethics guided us to conduct properly and perform action that are right. Training is

the context which implies certain transactions in which the organization, the employer and the

trainee has to opt among different choices. The need of training, method of training, technique

of training and the targeted individuals who needs training involves the judgment of selecting

the right way and considers all the alternatives. This consideration based on ethical decisions

(Bergenhenegouwen, 1996). The ethical decision is not based on just to select between right

and wrong rather it’s a selection between two right alternatives.

7.4.1 Significance of Ethics in Training:

The significance of “ethics in training” and “training in ethics” is important for the organization

culture to grow. The code of conduct in the organization according to set policies and standards

is vital for the organizational credibility in the competitive market. Significance of ethics in

training is comprehended below by Hunt15:

“Ethical conduct is important because it not only involves doing what is right and

proper, but it’s also good for business”.

“Ethical conduct is the basis for long-term success in any organization”.

“Ethical conduct promotes a strong public image for the organization”.

“Ethical conduct makes the best use of resources”.

“Ethical conduct on the part of all employees also helps maintain quality and

productivity”.

“Ethical conduct assists the organization to comply with laws and regulations”.

“Ethical conduct ensures good and proper relationships with customers and vendors”.

“Ethical conduct boosts morale and promotes teamwork” (EthicsTraining,2012).

15 Retrieved From

141

7.4.2Ethical Principles in Training:

Different disciplines of science and philosophy seem ethics as the basis of individual action.

Ethics itself based on certain worldwide accepted principles. In training context the

following principles of ethics applied:

Objectivity

Selflessness

Stewardship

Beneficence and Non- Malfeasance

Objectivity: The organization employers and employees must place the organization interest

before any personal interest or outside compulsion. Employers avoid activities which are

incompatible with their own responsibilities of training need assessments and implications.

Financial interest or any conflict of interest invalidates the organization position in market.

Selflessness: Principle of selflessness applied universally to provide the benefit to others

without the care of own self. Decisions based on merit and no financial and other incentives

should be draw for themselves, or the specific employees.

Stewardship: The success of organization depends on the ownership by the personnel of each

level. The top management, supervisors, employers, trainers and trainees have responsibility to

conserve the resources. As discussed earlier many organizations avoid training program to be

conduct because of high cost this can be substantially overcome by the proper plan, design and

recruitment of the trainees.

Transparency: Human resource of organization is an asset which needed to be handled

carefully. So as the every individual in the organization should practice openly and subjected

to accountability. Simultaneously, they should own the confidential information specifically in

the inter organizations training program.

Beneficence and Non- Malfeasance: The provision of maximum benefit and less harm is the

basic principle of ethics applied in all fields. It’s the duty of employers and employees to

collaborate and work align in the organization’s goals and objectives to achieve its mission.

7.4.3 Ethical Elements in Training:

Training programs are designed on the certain policies which discussed earlier. Each step of

designing the training program also considers some ethical elements for successful

implementation. These are summarized below by Frank Narvan in magazine “Workforce”:

142

1. Vision statement: Defines “the long-term, most desirable future state for the

organization”. The vision gives employees and managers a first screening test for

decisions. They should ask themselves: "Will this decision or action move the

organization colp

2. loser to its vision?".

3. Values statement: “Defines general principles of required behavior. It's the standard

against which decisions and actions are evaluated to determine if they meet the

company's and employees' requirements”.

4. Organizational code of ethics: “It gives organization-specific definitions of what's

expected and required.

5. Ethics officer: “ The Ethics Officer ensures that the ethics systems are in place and

functioning”.

6. Ethics committee: “It oversees the organization's ethics initiative and supervises the

ethics officer”.

7. Ethics communication strategy: “If employees are to know what's expected of them

and what resources are available to them, the ethics officer must create a cohesive ethics

communication strategy”.

8. Ethics training programmes: “They teach employees what the organization requires,

gives them the opportunity to practice applying the values to hypothetical situations and

challenges, and prepares them to apply those same standards in the real world”.

9. Ethics help line: “It is not just for reporting unethical conduct. They also make it easier

for the organization to provide guidance and interpretation of its expectations when the

intent of an ethics policy is unclear”.

10. Measurements and rewards: “In most organizations, employees know what's

important by virtue of what the organization measures and rewards”.

11. Monitoring and tracking systems: “It isn't enough to track and monitor employee

behavior. It's also critical to assess the extent to which employees accept and internalize

the organization's values and ethics code”.

12. Periodic evaluation: “It's important to assess periodically the effectiveness of any

initiative, especially an ethics program”.

13. Ethical leadership: “The bottom line is that ethics is a leadership issue. Leaders set the

tone, shape the climate and define the standards”.

143

7.4.4 Ethics Training and Productivity:

“The ethical training would generate a climate for a positive code of conduct, affecting

employees’ willingness to shoulder corporate social responsibility” (Carroll, 1979, pp. 497-

505). Ethics training guarantees that all employees adopt the ethical principles in their behavior

which ultimately effect the employee commitment and the productivity. The ethics committee

in organization with ethic codes increases the credibility of the organization in market (Kaptein,

2008). The employee satisfaction increase organization performance in terms of values and

norms (Jose, 2007). Moreover, Liao(2010), explained that employees in the organization are

more satisfied with the practicing of ethical training. Despites of having organizations policies

and ethical codes the top management played their role in building the trust and acted as role

model in objectivity, transparency and stewardship. Thus, improve the employee satisfaction

and its performance.

7.5 Future Perspectives in Training:

Some researcher evidently proved that the future perspective of training is the “transfer of

training” through “learning” as the process or outcome. The modern era marked as the

“knowledge societies”(Stehr & 1994). Despite the existing importance of material and money

resource, human resource with accumulation of human capital is considered to be the major

asset. The human capital enhances with the attainment of higher education and knowledge and

competency in the individuals. Thus, the society as a whole propagate in terms of this intangible

capital which is required to generate the other tangible capitals; money, material and machines.

However, the organizations need to survive in market with internal and external interactions.

Therefore, it required novel knowledge and skills and special arrangements to enhancing them.

Identification of the knowledge needed and the targeted individual and how to provide this

knowledge is vital. All these components should be institutionalized to produce desire

outcomes. Science of this institutionalization depends on the individual competencies,

transferring of knowledge and the implementation of the learned knowledge. Thus, this implied

that the organizations, research institutes, higher educational institutes and societies integrate

to persist in the changing working and living environments, globalization and modern

technologies.

The individuals from higher educational institutes are working in different organizations and

at every level. They are in more contact with the outside community, customers and more

144

equipped with the inter organization human relations. Thus, they need to be skilled more and

updated with the changing working conditions through training and development programs.

They in return produce the future competent workforce from the educational institutes which

are based on innovation, creativity and research oriented.

The influx of technology, the training aspects also modernized. As discussed earlier Computer-

based training, embedded training, smart phones and cross cultural training aggravate the need

of educational institutes to be more diverse in their training programs. The pre-requisite of the

productive training program is to take modern and traditional approaches to training and

manipulate them with the contemporary changing perspectives. However, people in the society

are technological oriented nowadays and well educated and accessible to all kinds of

knowledge and information. Thus, to deal with the institutional, organizational and societal

advancement; the workforce need to adapt these changing quickly. This improvises the

empowered workforce to take decisions and show their performance. Additionally, this will

enhance by learning systematically and transfer the training. The Greek Philosophy and the

American Paradigm attempts to explain that “how practical skills, experience, expertise and

knowledge are preconditions for all understanding and knowledge, even of the most scientific and

theoretical kind”(Eikeland, 1995). The training is more focused on the specific job. The

propagation of general skills and knowledge is might useful but today it will cost high. The

organizations so as the educational institutes targeting the employees and the training needed.

Educational institutes need to be played their role as “learning organization” where all employees

trained, learned and applied the knowledge and skills to communicate with the changing world

but within the context of local implications and understanding of cultures.

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Results and Discussion

Chapter 8

164

CHAPTER 8: ANALYSIS OF DATA AND ITS

INTERPRETATION

In this chapter the data is analyzed in simple tabulation representing the “dynamics of training

and its institutional role for enhancing human productivity: a comparative study of selected

public and private sector universities of Sindh, Pakistan”. This information was acquired in the

form of interview using a structured questionnaire.

The factors included the: personal information of the respondents in Section-A i.e. Gender,

Age, Education, Work Experience, Name of University and Nature of Job.

Section-B included Dynamics of Training (DoT), Role of Training (RoT), Investment in

Training (IiT), Significance of Training (SoT), Training Need Assessment(TNA), Training

Methods (TM), Evaluation of Training (EoT) and Organization Training Climate (OTC). Each

question is measured on Likert scale from strongly agree to disagree. Percentage responses

from private and public sector universities were recorded and tabulated for comparison.

Responses from public and private sector are compared. Questions OTC Q8, OTC Q9, OTC

Q10 and OTC Q11 were cross tabulated for gender only for specific to male and female

respondents. These data are analyzed as under:

8.1 DESCRIPTIVE TABLES: SECTION- A

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Table-1.1 and 1.2 provides information about age of the respondents from the Public and

Private Sector Universities respectively. The above tables indicated the largest slot of the

respondents from public sector, 52% were between the ages of 30-39. However, the largest slot

of respondents from private sector 53.3 % were from 20-29 years of age. The second slot of

the respondents from public sector, 29% were between the ages of 40-49 years. However, in

the public sector only 7% respondents were in the ages of 40-49 years. In the private sector

second slot of respondents were in the ages of 30-39 which is 34.5 %.

The public sector has only 11 % of respondent between the ages of 20-29. The fourth slot 8%

was between the ages of 50 and above in public sector and in private sector this slot is further

declined to 5%. Therefore, the results indicate that the private sector has more young employees

in the ages of 20-29 years (53.3. %) as compare to public sector (11%). This age break up could

be the result of hiring strategies. The private sector prefers hiring early graduates and public

sector hires senior and more experience employees.

168

The above tables and bar diagram indicates that the largest slot of the respondents was 50%

and 50% female from private and public sector, whereas rest of the 50 % and 50 % were

male respondents from public and private sector respectively.

170

The above tables and bar diagrams 3.1 and 3.2 showing education of the respondents from

public and private sector universities respectively. Majority of the employees from public

sector were Master (46%), M.Phil/MS (28.5%), PhD(14.5%) and Bachelor (11%). Majority of

the employees from private sector were Master (57.5%), M.Phil/MS (22.5%), Bachelor (18%)

and PhD (2%). It is revealed that public sector have more PhD and M.Phil/MSC employees

and its consistent with age brackets that private universities hire more young employees with

bachelor and masters degrees.

172

Experience of respondents was grouped in 5years brackets for analysis. The above table and

bar diagrams 4.1 from public sector showing that 16% respondents have 1-5 years experience,

42% have 6-10 years, 16% have 11-15 years, 12% have 16-20 years, 6.5% have 20-25years

and 7 % respondents have equal to or more than 25 years of experience. Table and Bar diagram

4.2 showing experience from private sector that is 58.5% respondents have 1-5 years of

experience, 24% have 6-10years, 8.5% have 11-15years, 4.0% have 16-20years, 2.0% have 20-

25 years and 3.0% have more than or equal to 25 years of experience. Majority of employees

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have 5 years experience in private sector universities, nevertheless this factor contributing in

more acceptances of training and developments importance in universities. However, public

universities have more experience employees and this is consistent with the age and education

of the respondents.

174

The distribution of respondents is equally divided in teaching and non-teaching employees that

is 50% and 50% in public sector universities. Similarly, 50% teaching staff and 50% non-

175

teaching staff recruited in study from Private Sector University. Hence, the responses are

balance and avoid selection bias.

176

8.2 DESCRTIPTIVE TABLES: SECTION-B

Dynamics of Training (DOT)

The above tables showing 50% and 58% employee from public and private sector respectively

were strongly agree. In public sector 40% agree, 10% neutral and nobody disagree, in private

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sector 36% agree, 4% neutral and 2% disagree that training may be used as motivational tool.

Although majority (58%) were strongly agree in private sector, there were 2% respondents who

were disagree with this dynamic of training.

178

The above tables showing that in public sector 37% respondents strongly agree, 50% agree,

12% responded neutrally and 1 % disagree. In private sector universities 58% strongly agree,

50% agree, 12 % neutral and 1% disagree. The acceptance of the fact that training can help out

in job related problems was prevalent in respondents and no one was disagree in this dynamic.

179

Training leaves positive effects on job satisfaction and working in universities were strongly

agree by 36% in public sector and 44% in private sector employees, 54% agree in public sector,

42% agree in private sector, 9% neutral and 1% disagree in public sector, 13% neutral and 1%

disagree in private sector universities. Overall majority agreed on the effectiveness of training

in job satisfaction.

180

The above tables and bar diagram showing that 16% , 42%,36%,6%, strongly agree ,agree,

neutral and disagree respectively in Public Sector. Similarly, 21%, 32%, 34%, 11% and 2%

strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly agree in private sector universities.

However, a significant number of respondents remained neutral (36% and 35%) on the topic

of training reduces absenteeism.

182

Training may help in reducing employee turnover were strongly agree by 21% in public sector

and 27% in private sector employees, 39%agree in public sector, 31% agree in private sector,

27% neutral, 11% disagree in public sector, 36% neutral, 4% disagree in private sector. Overall

similar responses found regarding training and its effect on employee turnover.

183

The above tables indicates 37% strongly agree, 44% agree and 19% neutral in public sector in

comparison to private sector slightly more respondents 50% strongly agree on the training and

its impact on individual behavior ,skills and ability. About 35% agree, 12% neutral, 2%

disagree and 1% strongly disagree in private sector universities.

184

The above tables showing results regarding training can create awareness about organizational

culture in public and private sector universities. Tables indicate that private employee were

more tending to agree with 48% and 44% strongly agree and agree, while in public sector it is

31% and 49% , with 20% neutral responses.

Role of Training (RoT)

185

Training enhances human productivity; this role of training has been widely agreed among all

the respondents. In public sector 37% strongly agree, 56% agree, 6% neutral and 1% disagree.

Similarly, 52% strongly agree, 40% agree and 7% neutral in private sector.

186

In public sector 34% respondents strongly agree and 51% agree that training assures long term

human productivity whereas 29% strongly agree and 49% agree in private sector. Neutral

responses were 13% and 17% in public and private sector universities.

187

Training helps and guides an employee of the private sector university to learn relevant

knowledge, skills and attitudes which s/he needs to function more effectively was strongly

agree 41% and 56% in public and private sector universities respectively. Similarly, 47% and

36% agree in public and private sector universities. Interestingly, there were 0% employee

disagreed in both public and private sectors.

188

In previous section it was mentioned that equal proportion of respondents from teaching and

non-teaching staff was recruited in the study. It is revealed in the above tables that similar

responses were given by employees that training is necessary for all irrespective of ranks and

189

nature of jobs. Strongly agree by 31%, agree by 54%, neutral 12% and 3% disagree in public

sector. In private sector 43% strongly agree, 38% agree, 14% neutral and 5% disagree.

190

Role of training in bridges employee’s skills gap as its hallmark of good management was

strongly agreed by 35% respondents in public sector, 44% agree, 18% neutral, 2% disagree and

1% strongly disagree. In private sector 42% strongly agree, 43% agree and 15% neutral.

Investment in Training (liT)

191

University should develop a system to evaluate cost and benefit of training was strongly agree

and agree by 44%,50%, 48% and 45% in public and private sector universities respectively.

Overall 10% neutrally responded in both sectors and 3% disagree from public sector.

192

The above tables showing responses about training means cost as seen by employers, but the

hidden cost is more if employees are not trained. Respondents from public and private sector

equally respond in all slots i.e. strongly agree 32% ,31%; agree 43% ,44%; neutral 22%,23%;

disagree 3%,1% and strongly disagree 0%,1%.

194

The above tables indicate a result regarding investment in training question 3, which is training

affects cost of production of an organization. In public sector 29% strongly agree, 51% agree,

13% neutral, 6% disagree, 1% strongly disagree. In private sector 20% strongly agree,

34%agree, 24% neutral, 15% disagree and strongly disagree 7%.

195

Investment in training pays higher dividends in the long run through improved performance

and positive attitude of employees were strongly agree 25%, 21%; agree 52%,52%; neutral

20%,24% and disagree 3%,3% in public and private sector respectively.

196

The above tables showing investment in training by the employers motivates the employees for

their retention with the organization commitment towards university that strongly agree by 31%

respondents, 42% agree, 23% neutral, 4% disagree and 0% strongly disagree in public sector.

In private sector universities 26% strongly agree, 48% agree, 24% neutral, 2% and 0% disagree.

Significance of Training (SoT)

197

The above showing result about there is significant difference in productivity of trained &

untrained employees of private/public Sector University. In public sector Universities 35%

strongly agree, 52% agree, 12% neutral, 1% disagree and 0% disagree. In private Universities

43% strongly agree, 47% agree, 10% neutral, 0% disagree and 0% strongly disagree.

199

Significance of training agreed by male and female employees equally. Table indicates 18%

strongly agree and 33% agree respondents from both public and private sector. In public sector

23% neutral, however 21% disagree means they in favor that male and female are different in

their performances.

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The above table indicates that 26% employees strongly agree, 42% agree, 24% neutral, 6%

disagree and 2% disagree that there is different in performance of senior and junior employees

from public sector. Additionally indicates that 24% employees strongly agree, 35%agree, 33%

neutral, 3% disagree and 5% strongly disagree from private sector.

201

Majority of respondents agree on the acceptance of on-job-training is more result oriented.

Overall 91% agree from public sector where as 74% agree from private sector. The 20% neutral

response has to be notifying from private sector.

203

In public sector University 24% strongly agree, 20% agree, 24% neutral, 23% disagree and 9%

strongly disagree that off –job-training is more result oriented. In private sector less number of

respondents agree (13%) with acceptance off-job-training.

Training Need Assessment (TNA)

204

Majority of private sector respondents were strongly agree (35%) as compared to public sector

(17%) that their university carries TNA for proper execution of training programs. Although

40% agree from public sector however neutral (24%), disagree (11%) and strongly disagree

(8%) indicates shortcoming in public sectors.

205

The above table indicates 16% respondents from public sector and 23% respondents from

private sector strongly agree that training needs and methods to achieve desirable results are

well defined in their university. In public sector 47% agree, 25% neutral, 10% disagree and 2%

strongly disagree. In private sector 39% agree, 27% neutral, 8% disagree and 3% strongly

disagree.

207

Universities keep records of personal characteristics of employees that have been strongly

agreed by 21% and 27% in public and private sector respectively. Public sector employees 43%

agree, 27% neutral, 6% disagree and 3% strongly disagree. In private sector 36% agree, 29%

neutral, 5% disagree and 3% strongly disagree.

208

In public and private sector employee small proportion strongly agree 17% and 13%

respectively that TNA point out reasons for failure of previous training program. Similarly,

majority of employees responded neutrally (31% and 32%). This finding indicate employee

were unaware of the reason of TNA process.

209

The above tables indicate that 0% respondents strongly disagree in public sector and 1% in

private sector that success of training program depends on effectiveness of TNA process.

Neutrally responded by 24% and 26% in public and private sector respectively. Although major

responses lies in agree and strongly agree slots, nevertheless neutral and disagree component

provide insight of the TNA declination.

211

In public sector 19%employees were strongly agree, 32% agree, 33% neutral,11% disagree and

5% strongly disagree that university identifies and prioritizes the organizational as well as

individual goals as the part of TNA process. In private sector were strongly agree by 23%, 26%

agree, 37% neutral, 13% disagree and 1% strongly disagree.

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Majority of the responses lies in neutral slot with 33% from public sector and 39% private

sector regarding training program is started with TNA process in university. Disagree by 12%

and 16%, strongly disagree by 4% and 3% in public and private sectors. This indicates that

majority of employees unaware of the TNA process is the first step in planning of training

programmes.

213

Through TNA cost and budget can be control of training program. Strongly agree by 19% in

both public and private sectors. Agree by 55% and 42%, neutral by 25% and 31%, disagree by

1% and 8%, and strongly disagree by 0% from both sectors.

214

TNA process increases the cost of training program strongly agree by 20%, agree by 34%,

neutral by 40%, disagree by 6% and 0% strongly disagree from public sector universities. In

private sector 19% strongly agree, 25% agree, 30% neutral, 23% disagree, and 3% strongly

disagree.

216

The above tables showing statistics about universities collection of data from evaluation reports

of employees for TNA. Majority of responses 28% and 33% from public and private sector

respectively lies in neutral slot which is again indicative of unawareness.

Training Methods (TM)

217

Regarding training methods the above tables indicates that majority of employee from public

(24%, 30%) and private (21%, 36%) sectors agree that traditional methods are more effective

than E-learning in transfer of training. Furthermore, in public sector 22% neutral, 20% disagree

and 4% strongly disagree while in private sector 19% neutral, 16% disagree and 8% strongly

disagree.

219

Regarding training methods the above tables indicates that majority of employee from public

(27%, 42%) and private (26%, 36%) sectors agree that E-learning are more effective than

traditional methods in transfer of training. Furthermore, in public sector 16% neutral, 13%

disagree and 2% strongly disagree while in private sector 31% neutral, 7% disagree and 0%

strongly disagree.

220

The above indicates that in public sector 16% strongly agree, 37% agree, 20% neutral, 25%

disagree, 2% strongly disagree that E-learning technology increases the cost of training. In

private sector 12% strongly agree, 27% agree, 31% neutral, 26% disagree, 4% strongly

disagree.

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disagree, 2% strongly disagree that E-learning technology decreases the cost of training. In

private sector 20% strongly agree, 48% agree, 25% neutral, 5% disagree, 2% strongly disagree.

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disagree, 0% strongly disagree that training room layout can influence the success of training

session. In private sector 34% strongly agree, 40% agree, 22% neutral, 2% disagree, 2%

strongly disagree.

Evaluation of Training (EoT)

224

The above tables showing statistics about evaluation of training determines the effectiveness

of whole training program and justifies investment expenditure on training. In public sector

21% strongly agree, 55% agree, 22% neutral, 2% disagree, 0% strongly disagree that training

room layout can influence the success of training session. In private sector 31% strongly agree,

49% agree, 18% neutral, 2% disagree, 0% strongly disagree.

226

The above tables showing responses about evaluation identifies further training needs. In public

sector 33% strongly agree, 56% agree, 10% neutral, 1% disagree, 0% strongly disagree that

training room layout can influence the success of training session. In private sector 31%

strongly agree, 49% agree, 18% neutral, 2% disagree, 0% strongly disagree.

227

In training session trainer shares performance report of trainees with them at end of training

session in universities were strongly agree by 21% employees, agree 37%, neutral 34%,

disagree 7% and strongly disagree 1% in public sector whereas in private sector strongly agree

by 20%, agree by 29%, neutral by 37%, disagree by 10% and strongly disagree by 4%

employees.

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The above tables indicate that in public sector 23% strongly agree, 34% agree, 35% neutral,

7% disagree, 1% strongly disagree that training feedback is given by trainees in your university.

In private sector 24% strongly agree, 40% agree, 24% neutral, 8% disagree, 4% strongly

disagree.

230


2% disagree, 0% strongly disagree that training feedback is given by trainer’s self evaluation

universities. In private sector 25% strongly agree, 32% agree, 36% neutral, 5% disagree, 2%

strongly disagree.

231


32% disagree, 2% strongly disagree that training feedback is based on testing. In private sector

22% strongly agree, 27% agree, 33% neutral, 12% disagree, 6% strongly disagree.

232

In public sector after attending training session mostly get financial increments in addition to

basic salary as a reward/training allowance was strongly agree by 22%, agree 36%, neutral

19%, disagree 14% and strongly disagree 9%. In private sector strongly agree by 28%, agree

by 16%, neutral 25%, disagree 16% and strongly disagree by 15%.

234

The results indicate that in public sector 14% strongly agree, 44% agree, 28% neutral, 11%

disagree, 3% strongly disagree. In private sector 11% strongly agree, 29% agree, 39% neutral,

10% disagree, 11% strongly disagree. Overall private sector seems more aware of evaluation

process.

Organizational Training Climate (OTC)

235

Regarding organizational training climate the above tables showing majority of employees

agree (93% public sector, 73% private sector) that their university have HR department.

236



14% disagree, 7% strongly disagree. Overall private sector employees are more aware that HR

department works for training and development.

237


disagree, 6% strongly disagree that the top management of university recommends their

employees for training on fair basis. In private sector 17% strongly agree, 40% agree, 30%

neutral, 9% disagree, 4% strongly disagree.

239



10% disagree, 4% strongly disagree.

The above cross tables showing that majority of teaching and non-teaching staff agree that the

management of university gives more emphasis on teachers or faculty training program than

administrative staff.

240




241

The above cross tables showing that majority of teaching and non-teaching staff agree that the

management of university gives more emphasis on administrative staff training program than

faculty staff. Thus, it is concluded that faculty staff are more recruited in training programs by

management.

242



17% disagree, 2% strongly disagree that administration of university focuses more on long term

training needs and program than short term training needs and program

244



9% disagree, 10% strongly disagree that administration of university focuses more on short

term training needs and program than short term training needs and program.

245


disagree, 6% strongly disagree that mostly male employees of the university take training &

development program more seriously than female. In private sector 11% strongly agree, 15%

agree, 31% neutral, 28% disagree, 15% strongly disagree.

As it was mentioned in previous section that male and female ratio was in sample however,

gender bias occurred in the response.

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The above results indicate that in public sector 14% strongly agree, 34% agree, 34% neutral,

13% disagree, 5% strongly disagree that mostly female employees of the university take

training & development program more seriously than male. In private sector 17% strongly

agree, 18% agree, 33% neutral, 18% disagree, 14% strongly disagree.

As it was mentioned in previous section that male and female ratio was in sample however,

gender bias occurred in the response.

248


25% disagree, 5% strongly disagree that most of the time male employees of university remain

absent from training program session. In private sector 11% strongly agree, 13% agree, 29%


249

The above cross table showing that female respondents were agree more that male employees

remain absent from training programmes.

250


24% disagree, 6% strongly disagree that most of the time female employees of university

remain absent from training program session. In private sector 8% strongly agree, 8% agree,

36% neutral, 25% disagree, 23% strongly disagree.

251

The above cross table showing that male respondents were agreed more that female employees

remain absent from training programmes.

252


1% disagree,0% strongly disagree that University should conduct training programs on

regular basis for its employees. In private sector 35% strongly agree, 35% agree, 20% neutral,


253


2% disagree, 0% strongly disagree that University must have formal and well defined training

programs/plans for its employees irrespective of their grades and nature of duties. In private

sector 38% strongly agree, 36% agree, 19% neutral, 3% disagree, 4% strongly disagree.

255


2% disagree, 0% strongly disagree that senior employees also informally train the junior

employees of university. In private sector 38% strongly agree, 36% agree, 19% neutral, 3%

disagree, 4% strongly disagree.

256

The above tables indicate that in public sector 36% strongly agree, 56% agree, 6% neutral, 2%

disagree, 0% strongly disagree that inter-universities exchange training programmes should

arrange on regular basis. In private sector 30% strongly agree, 48% agree, 14% neutral, 2%

disagree, 6% strongly disagree.

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23% disagree,11% strongly disagree that administration excludes women, minorities and older

employees from training programs. In private sector 15% strongly agree, 13% agree, 31%


259


10% disagree,7% strongly disagree that administration includes women, minorities and older

employees from training programs. In private sector 16% strongly agree, 21% agree, 49%

neutral, 7% disagree, 7% strongly disagree

260

The above tables indicate that in public sector universities more focus on their employees

training and development than private sector 16% strongly agree, 34% agree, 36% neutral, 10%

disagree,4% strongly disagree. In private sector 26% strongly agree, 38% agree, 27% neutral,


261

The above tables indicate that in private sector universities more focus on their employees

training and development than public sector 18% strongly agree, 30% agree, 41% neutral, 11%

disagree,0% strongly disagree. In Private sector 26% strongly agree, 31% agree, 36% neutral,


263

The above tables indicate 24% strongly agree, 34% agree and 34% neutrally responded that

they attended any formal training from public sector university. From private sector 29%

strongly agree, 31% agree and 26% neutrally responded.

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8.3 Test Hypotheses

Hypothesis Test - One Population Mean: Confidence Level α= 0.95

HYPOTHESIS 1:

Training as a tool does not have any significance in improving human productivity and

institutional strengthening in public and private sector universities of Sindh.

Variables

Training does not any significance in improving human productivity

Training does not any significance in improvement of institutional strengthening

Null hypothesis: μ = 3.0

Alternative hypothesis: μ < 3.0

Result: Highly significant at 0.05 null hypotheses is rejected

265

HYPOTHESIS 2:

Training is not significant for the employees of the public and private sector universities of

Sindh.

Variables

Training is not significant for the universities employees




266

HYPOTHESIS 3:

Investment on training is insignificant for the public and private sector universities of

Sindh.

Variables

Investment on training is not significant




267

HYPOTHESIS 4:

Training does not produce any substantial outcome in employee’s productivity of public

and private sector universities of Sindh.

Variables

Training does not produce any substantial outcome in employee’s productivity




268

HYPOTHESIS 5:

The Training Need Assessment (TNA) of employees does not have any importance at

public and private sector universities of Sindh.

Variables

Training Need Assessment does not have any importance




269

HYPOTHESIS 6:

Imparting training has no significance for the institutional development of public and


Variables

Training has no significance for the institutional development




270

HYPOTHESIS 7:

Evaluation of training is unnecessary at public and private sector universities of Sindh.

Variables

Evaluation of training is not necessary




271

8.4 Discussion

The aim of this study is to examine the relationship of training and human productivity. The

results of the study revealed that training is a tool which has a significant role in improving

human productivity and institutional strengthening. Furthermore, this has been study

conducted with objective to compare private and public universities in the domain of

training of their employees. In the results it has been established that the private universities

trained teaching staff and non-teaching staff are more productive as compared to public

sector universities. In private sector universities, training and its role in increasing the human

productive is widely accepted as compared to public sector universities. Private Sector

swathe the educational activities at all levels in Pakistan (G.R Memon, 2007).Majority of

respondents agreed that training is motivation enhancer in their job, this result is consistent

with other studies conducted by Kayaniand Aziz (2014; 2011). In perspective of higher

education Trigwell,et.al.(2004) investigated teaching and motivational aspects. Motivation

increases by academic knowledge and self-efficacy that comes through increasing

qualification. Although, formal education is necessary however, to be in the technological

advanced globalization scenario and educational competency, higher educational institutes

provide elements for better production of quality students that are the future workforce.

Institutes provide continuous learning environment to teaching and non-teaching staff.

Higher educational institutes are manufacturing industry for labour production vital for

economic development. Motivation is internal factor which initiates employee’s working

commitment that is directly aggravated by the training and enhances productivity (Nadeem,

2010). Although Norton and Mayes(2005)claimed that training has a very little impact on

teaching behaviour, however Gibbs(2004) studied approaches of training and their positive

effect on productivity. Postareff (2007) studied pedagogical training effectiveness in

universities. Length of training sessions would affect long term behavioural change in

teaching and its internal motivation and perception that results in higher productivity.

Various school of thoughts differentiate teachers competencies (F. Aziz, Akhtar, M. S., &

Rauf, M., 2014) however, employee behaviour and learning motivation and reaction to

training are correlated concluded by Raymond (1986) in consistent with study by Aziz

(2014) conducted at higher educational level institutes and supports our results.

Many problems incurred by the university employees specially synchronization with

technology and novel researches in the fields (G.R Memon, 2007). For growth in academics

272

and according to international standards adopted by HEC researches in the different fields

are encouraged. Teaching staff needs training in research techniques as mentioned by

Hameed Ullah (2011).The change in teaching occurs slowly (Postareff, 2007),thus regular

training program have to be conducted in universities agreed in our study by almost 70% in

both private and public sector universities. Majority of respondents agreed on the

effectiveness of training on long-term basis. Policy makers and Academic economists

believed that training for long time, bridge the gap between formal education and other

skills(A. Daron, & JoÈrn-Steffen, P. , 1999).

In literature job satisfaction is correlated with the training(Blau, 1987; Burgard, 2011; Khan,

2012). Results from study revealed that job satisfaction level is almost same among the

private and public institutes however; they agreed that training would increase their

motivation to work. The absenteeism rate was high in public universities, therefore

production was effected. Certain factors are the probable causes of job satisfaction in public

sector; these could be job security, scholarships, postings and post-employee

benefits(Qasim, 2012). Employees from private institutes agreed that they are satisfied with

their job, however, their probable causes of satisfaction would be training, development

programs, research, innovation, competition and more focused courses offering by these

institutes. As discussed earlier various motivational and satisfaction factors involved in

employee performance and productivity in context with theories and implications which are

varied among individuals (Riding, 1997).

In private sector universities employees are more agreed that training reduces absenteeism

and employee turnover. In our study, the human resource department is more functional and

operationalized in private sector than public sector universities accordingly with 52% and

38% respondents. Another finding does have an impact that 47% have neutral response.

This somewhat showed the unawareness regarding human resource department by the

employees.In our study very few public universities have the functional human resource

department. Nadeem (Nadeem, 2010) explained impact of training in human productivity

in other corporate organization in conceptual model. The extent of efficiency and

effectiveness of training varies with the organization. Various methods have been used in

other studies to measure these domains. Wankhede and Rajashree (2014) used the primary

data from the human resource department about the training programs and secondary data

collected from internet and further assessed the different performance parameters and their

273

relation with training. Results revealed that administration agreed on conduction of

frequent training programs enhance the efficiency of the employees. Strong team building

and efficiency influenced by the training. Moreover, procedure of hiring and firing lies with

autonomous department and administration in private sector whereas in public sector if non-

teaching and teaching staff indulge in misconduct, disciplinary action taken by committee

through specific operational policies and documentation. Owence (2014)described turnover

factors in higher education institutes. He described non conducive working conditions and

promotional hindrances were the major factors among employees. Brum(2010) and

Newman(2011) discussed that training have the impacts on working conditions and job

involvement which consequently effect the employee commitment and increases the

organizational commitment for the employees. As discussed in previous chapters that

organization should be learning organization and promotes transfer of learning. Specifically

higher education institutes are the learning organizations for not only students but for

teachers and other employees of institutes(Malik, 2012). Malik also identified that

continuous education and training are the major determinant factors for the inducement of

learning in educational institutes. Therefore, university should arrange formal and informal

training programs which involve all the employees irrespective of nature of their jobs and

ranks as consistent with responses in our study from both sectors. After analysis of our

results it was revealed that it had been widely accepted that training is substantially vital for

all employees irrespective of ranks and job responsibility. Higher education sector is the

organization consists of diverse employees from different fields like administration,

management, employees from pedagogical sector with different experiences, skills and

competencies. Although private sector does involved employees from all positions,

however, training programs are failed to cater all the employees in public universities.

Training is correlated with positive knowledge, skills and attitudes(G. S. Becker, 1993;

Jaison, 2011; K. F. Kraiger, K. and Salas E, 1993). In our study employees in both sectors

agreed that training increase not only knowledge and skills but changing factor in attitudes.

However, 37%strongly agreed in public sector whereas in private sector 50% employees

strongly agreed that training programs enhance knowledge and skills. Long term training

programs bridge existence and novel skills other than formal education (A. Daron, & JoÈrn-

Steffen, P. , 1999).

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The relevance of training in higher educational institutes is more significant. Educational

institutes are major supply industry of competent and quality of labour in the country

economics. Economic development is affected by this industry(F. Aziz, Akhtar, M. S., &

Rauf, M., 2014). New theories have elaborated the concept and accumulated the human

capital and productive knowledge as the most important capital(Fuente, 2011) other than

physical capital.Respondents agreed that knowledge, skills and attitudes learned in training

would help them in functional effectively and efficiently. In educational sector in Pakistan

there are no formal university teachers training institutes however some are now working as

previously discussed, nevertheless they are insufficient to meet the need. Studies by

Kayani(2011) and Saleem(2014) revealed that teachers training at institutes impart

significant effect on their teaching skills, knowledge and help in changing behaviours.

However, they didn’t include the non-teaching staff and focussed on the teaching staff. Our

results also coincide with the pattern that most respondents agreed that university

emphasized on training of teaching staff. Nevertheless, through our study the universities

and top management would take in account the need of non-teaching staff regarding their

training and development. Higher educational institutes in Sindh constitute multicultural

students from around the country because of quota system and induction of foreign

admissions therefore employee should comprehend with cultural diversity. Language

proficiency programs and cross-cultural training programs would be effective in providing

fruitful results. Ahmed(2012) in his study emphasized that English language proficiency

necessitate for academics in our colleges. Employees oriented with diverse cultures are more

productive at workplace and interacted with colleagues (Bean, 2006a) that enhance positive

organization culture. In our study respondents agreed that training in diverse domains

created awareness about organization culture. It was evident that organizational culture and

structure, top management and trainee are the basic elements of successful training programs

which eventually lead to achieve goals and objectives of successful organizations(S. Akhtar,

Arif,A.,Rubi,E. and Naveed,S., 2011).It is hallmark of management to bridge skills gaps of

potential employees(Atif, 2010).Training refers to overcome shortcomings and inducement

of new skills and knowledge. On analysis of results it was revealed that all the respondents

agreed on development of system to evaluate the cost and benefit of the training of its

employees. Majority of respondents agreed that investment on training would retain and

motivate employees. Training is fundamental instrument that plays vital role in increasing

organizational efficiency by achieving targeted goals and objectives(Colombo, 2008). In our

study52% respondents from private and public universities were tending to had positive

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attitudes due to the presence of trained staff; this is consistent with findings of other study

by Aziz (2014) in higher educational institutes where 50% respondents were trained showed

more competencies and motivation towards their work. Kayani and Aziz argued that

providing the organized training to staff of public colleges would result in provision of

desired outcomes of training. In our study employees from public university respond that

cost of training would affect the production of organization. However, cost of untrained staff

has to bear by the organization, which exceeds the expenditure on training programs.

Organization gets benefit and profits through more productions. In the long-run training

increases the return on investment(Casio, 2000). Training programs for the career oriented

employees increase their retention and enhance commitment with organization. Thus,

increase productivity of organization as well as beneficial for individual(Foot, 1996; Rohan,

2012; Syed, 2011).

From our results it is evident that training is significant for better performance irrespective

of gender. Every employee has job responsibilities and duties of own and they are more

versed with skills required for their specific job. Training enhances their skills around their

own paradigm and job contexts. The results of a study conducted by Aziz(2014) showed

that male motivation is depend on their competency which came through training however,

in our results male and female respondents have similar responses against the effectiveness

of training in performance from both sectors. In our study it has been showed that most of

employees agreed on significance of training and its importance for the organizational

success.From public sector universities majority of the employees agreed that senior

employees were significantly different from junior employees, as compared to private

university. It was also noted earlier that senior employees in public sector universities show

some resistance in acquiring new interventions(G.R Memon, 2007). In the response of

informal training by senior employees to junior employees had been agreed by majority of

public sector employees. As discussed in previous chapters social learning theory and

attitude theories had the implications in this regard. Regular training programs provoke the

sense of development in employees. Some researchers showed that entry level employees

need more training as compared to the exiting employees. Other development programs

conducted for high positioned employees for career fulfillment. However, researchers

studies in different organizations and emphasized on training due to induction of technology.

In universities senior employees consider it as time consuming and employee juniors in their

class room lecture. Senior employees mostly rely on traditional methods of training.

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However, new teaching staff mostly prefer e-learning and Computer Based Training (CBT).

The duty of top management is to analyse the need and plan the training programs

accordingly. For an effective training, various methods must be used because adults learn in

different ways. Some individuals need written documents while others need to hear the

information spoken aloud. Some do well in classroom settings and others excel through e-

learning. However, all training should have one thing in common: it should incorporate

practical application. To read or hear about something isn’t enough; successful training

requires theory, demonstration, as well as application.

Training need assessment is the first step and most crucial for planning a training

program(UNESCO, 1995). Universities of higher education lack proper training need

assessment plans and programs. There is no clear and standard procedures or methods for

conducting the need assessment and training for employees. Many of organizations conduct

performance appraisals for each employee however, the record of each individual highlighting

skills gap is not documented in the universities(Naseer, 2011). Effectiveness of training is

properly evaluated through need assessment of existing employees and their knowledge and

skills. There are various factors associated with failure of training program. Training need

assessment step proven to revealed aetiology of failure and future rectification of

reoccurrence(A. J. Miller, and Diana M. Osinski., 2002). The role of top management is

evident in literature for successful training need assessment procedure(Naseer, 2011; Syed,

2011). In our study majority of respondents strongly agreed on the need for conducting a proper

training need assessment (TNA). However mostly the administration is lacking the resources

or training program was not planned properly to incorporate this vital step as demonstrated by

Hameed Ullah (2011) consistent with our study results. This has been identified by respondents

that the higher educational institutes do not conduct individual need assessment and do not

maintain training evaluation data. Most of respondents agreed that TNA reduces training cost

and budget in long run. Although, universities do keep documentation of TNA but their

implementation and relationship with the individuals personal development and organizational

development goals are uncertain that is evident from a large number of neutral response

recorded in the study. Highest uncertainty in the recording of individual based need

assessments and that training process started from training need assessment step.

Majority of the respondents believe that on-the-job training is effective and result oriented

method of training. In addition, as noted in other industries on-the-job or in-services training

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was evidently proved to be most effective method of training(Elnaga, 2013; Rohan, 2012),

similarly in higher education sector in Pakistan Kayani (2011) and Saleem(2014) also

demonstrated that on-job-training produced results and were widely accepted in our study.

With advent of e-learning concept it has been operational in many organizations.Learning

of computer technology and better assessment of training needs would increase the work

efficiently and implementation of planned training program. Despite of high capital cost in

first induction later cost can be compensated, however, in our study there were mixed

responses about the e-learning. Some agreed on influx of e-learning enhances the transfer

of training, probable cause could be flexible time and practicing sessions as per individual

customize it and easy availability of material on emails and increase usage of smart phones.

Most respondents agreed that traditional form of training was more useful. Probable cause

could be limited orientation of technology by employees(Hameed Ullah, 2011) and

considered it as costly commotion. Furthermore, power failure, internet connectivity, and

unavailability of IT support are some of the major factors in disagreement with e-learning

technology because they cause uncertain disturbance. Despite widely acceptance of

technology, mixed methods of training were mostly appreciated by respondents in our study

consistent with findings of other study conducted in different organizations(D. Olaniyan, &

Ojo, L. B. , 2008; Rohan, 2012). Previously, it was discussed that organizational structure

is a contributing factor in the success of a training program. Organizational environment has

a positive impact on employee performance. Trainin Training environment plays an

important role in learning. Training, a planned activity at workplace should be conducted in

constructive and reinforcing environment. Room lay-out has positive impact on successful

training sessions(Kayani, 2011), this is consistent with our findings.

Training evaluation is usually considered a last step in a training process. It helps in

justifying the expenditure incurring in training program, evaluates effectiveness of training

program, its success and the future need of training. It is the prime responsibility of the

management of universities to evaluate training programs. Most widely used method of

training evaluation is designed by Kalpatrick and it was adopted by(Akhila 2011; S. Akhtar,

Arif,A.,Rubi,E. and Naveed,S., 2011). However, in higher education institutes and colleges

the more specific and customize evaluation processes need to be adopted. In our study it is

identified that the higher educational institutes in Sindh are deprived of a proper training

evaluation system. Feedback on performance of a trainee should be shared by the trainer at

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the end of the training course. Mostly, evaluation is based on self-assessment or pre-test/post

test method. Proper evaluation model and techniques have not been used in the universities

as revealed in the current study. Although, mostly employees from private sector agreed that

they got feedback individually nevertheless, in public sector usually feedback based on

testing process at the end of training sessions. Training has motivational impact which is

related to job satisfaction and employee’s commitment. Financial incentive is considered as

tool for motivating employees in many organizations. If this factor is added in training

programs for employees, it could be more motivating to participate in training and accelerate

learning. However, this could have monetary implications and will increase the cost of

training. Although private universities have no direct incentive to offer after training, they

usually subsidize off-job-training fees. On-the-job training programs contributes in

enhancing the knowledge and skills which could be helpful in career development

opportunity in future rather increment in basic salary. However, the study results identified

that mostly public sector employees got increment in their basic salary after in-service

training. This phenomenon have been discussed by Ahmed(2012), he mentioned that the

outcomes of training programs in the public sector have not been in line with the training

objectives and long term implementation of training was compromised because most of the

participants were attending training for remuneration. Training for teaching staff in

universities require complex process to be implemented and mostly off-the-job training

practices were utilized more specifically in seminars and discussion forums that could not

independently produce desired results. Reason could be the traditional teaching format,

resistance to change and failure of transfer of training.

Almost all universities selected in the study have human resource department. Most universities

plan training programs outside universities and send their employees in seminars and

conferences. Training programs are also outsourced in many universities. Most of respondents

disagree with the selection procedure of trainees, they believe there is a need for clear and fair

selection procedures; absence of a fair selection procedure could induce negative opinion and

de-motivation in employees. However, some employees agree that their management recruit

trainees on proper need based analysis. Nevertheless, responders agreed that universities

planned training programs for teaching staff. Mostly respondents agreed that universities

focused on short-term training needs and programs, although they strongly agreed that training

should be focused on long-term needs.

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In literature, influence of gender on training effectiveness have not been studied extensively,

except some studies (Burgard, 2011). In our study female participants respond that male

participants are less serious in the training and development programs and male participants

responds that female participants remain absent from training sessions. Data analysis on these

variables were computed using cross tabulations and results revealed insignificant differences

in behavior of both genders for the training.

There was strong agreement on arrangement of inter-universities exchange learning programs

should be conducted in private universities and public universities. The results revealed that

mostly university administration includes women, minorities and older employees in training

program.

In our study almost 50% respondents attended formal training programs in public and private

training programs. Despite acceptance of significance of training in the organizational

development in various fields, employees from higher education universities have less

participation in training programs. On the other hand, the results revealed that administration

of public and private universities agreed on conducting frequent training programs to enhance

the efficiency of the employees, but it is not implemented frequently. Hence, training, its

dynamics and organizational training climate have major influence on institutional

strengthening and increasing human productivity.

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Conclusion and Recommendations

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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

The whole research examines the role of training for improving human productivity and

institutional strengthening in the public and private higher education universities in Sindh.

Training is considered a vital tool for increasing productivity at the workplace. The creation of

future workforce depends on the quality of the teachers, non-teaching staff and organizational

policies of an institute or university. In today’s world organizations and businesses are

increasingly focused on maximizing productivity and profits. To achieve this objective, the role

of in training at the university level in preparing trained graduates, equipped with knowledge

and skills is very important for the development of economies. Dynamics of training, its

significance and vitality for successful organizations have been discussed extensively in the

literature from different countries and organizations. This study has investigated the genre of

training as tool for increasing productivity and has compared its role in the public and private

sector higher education universities in Sindh, Pakistan in the context of employees’

productivity and institutional strengthening. The other objectives of the study were: to examine

relationship of training in improving employees motivation, behaviour and performance;

identify effective process of training and methods; identify challenges in training and

development in the universities and find factor that affect human productivity in the public and

private sector university employees of Sindh. The study also shares recommendations for a

framework to improve human productivity in the public and private sector universities.

This study has compared following factors impacting the training of public and private

university employees’ that affects their productivity and institutional strengthening of their

respective higher education institutes. These factors are dynamics of training, motivation,

behaviour, job satisfaction, training process and methods, training evaluation and

organizational climate for training.

In Sindh, higher education institutes including public and private universities are not meeting

the standardized training system for employees. Most of the teaching and non-teaching staff is

deprived to be allocated a seat in the formal training programs conducted by administration of

universities. Private sector universities have better training process than public sector.

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However, some universities outsource their training programs to other specific training

institutes. Training needs assessment steps lacking in most of the training programs in

universities which ultimately results in failure to bridge required gap in skills and knowledge

in employees. Due to budget constraints investment in training programs are reduced in public

sector universities. In private sector training institutes indulge in training programs however

the major budget allocated for training confined to teaching staff. Importance of training is

widely accepted. Training has positive impact on human productivity. Training considered as

vital tool for employee motivation, job involvement, employee commitment and organizational

change. Learning and training based on transfer of training which is vital for any training

program to be successful. Nevertheless, staffs in higher educational universities of Sindh

regarded training as significant step taken by administration for career development and

learning, however due to scarce resources; employees are not receiving full support from

organization and management. Resistant to change was also concluded as major factor in

implementation of learned new skills and behaviors. Effectiveness of training rooted from

learning theories which need to be implemented in universities through pedagogical approach.

Training is essential for all employees irrespective of gender preference, departments and

ranks. Thus, all employees working for achieving one objective and goal and that is to produce

a quality future workforce. Managing and enhancing human capital is the asset for development

of any organization. Organizational performance and productivity based on achievement of

goals. Universities’ quality is measured and evaluated through the quality and success of their

students which is dependent of the quality human resources.

The results of the study reveals that the training is a very significant tool for improving human

productivity and institutional strengthening, in public and private sector, 56 % public sector

respondent agrees and 52 % private sector respondents strongly agreed on the impact of training

in increasing productivity. In the results it has been established that the private universities’

trained teaching staff and non-teaching staff are more encouraged for training according to their

job requirements than employees of the public sector universities. Because private sector

provides more training opportunities and invest more in training as compare to public sector.

In private sector 26% respondents strongly agree, 31% agree, 36% neutral as compare to 18%

strongly agree, 30% agree, 41% neutral in the public sector. In the studied population 60 %

employees of private sector had attended a training programme as compare to only 58 % public.

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Furthermore, training is widely accepted as a tool for improving productivity in the private

sector and process of training is properly established in the private sector.The results also shows

that the respondents from private sector also strongly expressed that the training helps and

guides an employee in knowledge, skills and attitudes which he or she needs to function more

effectively.

The study has identified that there is a clear and positive relationship between training

dynamics and human productivity. It is evident from the study results that training produce

substantial outcome in employees productivity of public and private sector. A trained human

resource is more motivated and satisfied with her/his job (50 % public 58 % private) replied in

favour of the training. It also helps the employees in resolving their job related problems in the

public and private sector. This study has also identified that majority of the private sector

employees feel that training reduces absenteeism from work. However, staff absenteeism is

also linked with stronger role of human resources department and monitoring in the private

sector as compared to public.

The research has also examined the role of training in employees’ motivation, behavior and job

satisfaction. It is found out that a large number of both public and private sector employees also

strongly believe that training helps in reducing staff turnover (39% public, 31 % private) in the

organization, and it improves employees’ behaviour, attitude and skills (50% private 37 %

public). Both public and private sector respondents agreed that the training bridges employee’s

skills gap as it assures good management.

Overall, it is evident form the result that job satisfaction and motivation improved through

training help is retaining qualified human resources in the organization which is necessary for

a stronger institution. The importance of human resource department was recognized but this

study also contributed in raising awareness about its responsibility toward teaching and non-

teaching staff training. The results revealed that regular training program have to be conducted

in the universities as agreed by almost 70% respondents in both private and public sector

universities.This study focused on non-teaching staff as well and highlighted their trainings

needs. On the other hand, this study has also noted inadequacies in the training programs that

are contributing in weakening of the institutions. Most of these weaknesses are in the process

of training or due to lack of organizational climate for training.

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This study provided an insight in the importance of the process of training and highlighted the

significance of the training need assessment (TNA) before designing training in the studied

sectors. Although the universities do conduct TNA and takes account of the organizational and

personal goals of the employees, however, a small number of respondents also disagree 13 %

public and 11 % private sector. Similarly, majority of the public and private sector respondent

remained neutral on implementation of the TNA in the training. This indicates that majority of

employees unaware of the TNA process as the first step in the planning of training programmes

or they are left out of the process of TNA. Therefore, there is a need that TNA process should

be improved and all the employees should be included in the process.

The study has noted discrimination on the bases of sex, age and religion in the selection of

trainees in the both public and private sector. However, this discrimination is more in the public

sector than in private. In the public sector 15% respondents strongly agree, 26% agree that the

administration exclude women, minorities and older employees from training as compare to

private sector where 15% strongly agree, 13% agree. It is also worth noting that a large number

of respondents 25 % public and 31 % private remained natural on this issue. It is also noted by

male respondents that females training participants are absent from the training either because

females are provided with lesser training opportunities or there are less female employees than

male in the universities.

Male and females were equally responsible on achieving training objectives, attending sessions

and transfer of training. The results also reveal that female are provided with lesser training

opportunities but they take training more seriously. However, a large number of females also

believe that male employees take training seriously in both public and private sector. Therefore,

there is a need to study more deeply into the behavior of male and female employees in towards

training and what are the reasons that affect their gender based identities in the training.

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Contribution of this Study

Generally, this study served as a direction for the university administration and management in

improving their employees’ efficiency and institutional productivity. It also provides

information regarding work-related problems and performance stimuli in the area of training

and human resource management. Quality of education in Sindh was compromised due to lack

of management of resources. This study provides evidence base documentation for the

importance of investment in training and benefits outweigh the cost which eventually observed

by the high turner over of quality of human resource and compromised productivity.

This study also added knowledge in the body of literature about training which included

including training dynamics, investment in training, significance of training, training delivery,

training needs assessment (TNA), transfer of training (ToT) and evaluation of training.

Furthermore, extensive literature about learning, learning theories and its implications in higher

education have been discussed with its relevance to training and development. It could be

served as platform for the future researchers in the domain of training and development.

Universities administration and management get support from the results and literature for

planning and designing of quality training programs for teaching and non-teaching staff.

The research has also recognized the importance of on- the job training by senior to junior

employees. Changing perspectives in training were discussed and through our findings it was

assessed that employees agreed on mixed method of training including traditional methods of

training including on job training with amalgamation of computer-based learning, cross cultural

training and training to understand the organization culture. Thus, this study contributed widely

about training and development with respect to human productivity and strengthening of higher

education institutes.It will also suggest a guiding framework for these universities to improve

the productivity and overcome gaps in implementation of training courses.

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Recommendations and Framework for Improvement

In this study the researcher has highlighted the important reasons and factors for improvement

of the human productivity and institutional strengthening of higher education

institutes/universities in Sindh. The recommendations of the study are as follows:

1. Quality of teaching depends on quality teachers and non- teaching staff that would be

produced by proper training programs. Inadequacies in the training programs contribute

in weakening of the institutions.

2. Training of employees is crucial for improving productivity and achieving institutional

strengthening in the education sector of Sindh.

3. Training very important for all employees, it should be given priority especially for

newly hired staff.

4. Training is essential for increasing productivity and strengthening higher education

institutes. It also contributes in preparing knowledgeable and skilled students to

participate in the economy of the province and country.

5. The universities and top management should consider the need of training and

development for non-teaching staff and ensure its implementation.

6. There should be allocation of seats for training of non-teaching staff in the training

courses or separate training courses could be organized for them.

7. Training design should be based on the training need assessment.

8. Training need assessment should be conducted regularly and, its record should be

maintained and shared with top management.

9. The process of training need assessment should be announced so that all employees

could participate in this process. Short online survey could be used for conducting need

assessment.

10. Training methods should involve both contemporary and traditional methods. Some of

the training methods could be mentoring, job shadowing, participation in workshops,

working on assignments, online training course and researching on a new topic.

11. Training feedback should be provided to trainees after completing the course.

12. Training courses should have an individual action plan or learning implementation plan

for each participant for transferring the training to other employees in the organizations.

It will ensure transfer of training and will also ensure proper participation during the

training course.

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13. The universities should develop and proper training evaluation procedure, it is lacking

currently in universities of Sindh.

14. Training should be conducted on a regular basis including refresher courses for both

teaching a non-teaching staff.

15. Equal training opportunities should be provided to all staff and discrimination on the

base of sex, race, religion or age, political association should be avoided. The public

sector universities need to give more attention towards development of their staff and

reduce discrimination on the basis of sex, age and religion.

16. The training should be imparted using traditional and contemporary method to

accommodate needs of all employees and their individual learning behaviours.

17. Training plans are prepared by the universities administration but these plans are not

implemented due to fewer resources especially in the public sector thus management

should undertake strategies for overcoming these gaps. Therefore, there is a need to

allocate proper financial resources for training.

18. One-way orientation of training is not productive until the practical element is not

submerged.

19. Inter-university exchange visits should be organized for enhancing employee’s

orientation and learning new skills.

20. Human Resource Management has to be proficient in recording the documentation of

all employees on their training needs. Performance appraisals, motivation and internal

rewards need to be combined to ensure the transfer of training and training needs are

assessed.

21. Human Resource department has a vital role to plan and implement the training and

development programs. Universities should hire competent human resource manager

who not only employ teaching staff in training programs but also worked for non-

teaching staff.

22. It is top management’s responsibility to enroll HR employees as well ensure updated

training programs for all employees regardless of their job nature. Traditional methods

of human resource management have been modified due to inducement of novel

researches in this field.

23. Universities administrations need to incorporate senior faculty members to train new

faculty members for on-the job training.

24. There should be a proper training plan for organizing on-the job training courses

conducted by senior faculty members, and it should be monitored by the management.

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25. Universities in collaborate with other training institutes to manage and conduct training

sessions frequently. As the growing globalization and consumer awareness, universities

should involve students to provide feedback unanimously to top management to

proliferate the knowledge into the teaching staff according to their demand.

26. Training room’s environment and layout of the room should be conducive for training.

27. Organization climate that is policies and procedures should be developed by the top

management for promoting a training culture in the universities.

28. There is a need for establishing a training institute for higher education teaching and

learning in the Sindh province.

29. Universities should also organize their own workshops, seminars and other training

programs according to their culture and norms.

30. There should be a proper system of selection of training participants designed to cater

needs of all the staff. The system should have following elements in place:

o The universities need to design training and development polices,

o Announcement for training programmes

o Conduct regular training need assessment

o Non- discriminatory trainee selection process

o Limit of training per staff member

o Regular budget for training and refresher courses

o Dedicated Human Resource Officer for training

o Assessment of training needs from the performance appraisal

o Personal and professional development plan for each staff

o Training evaluation and feedback mechanism

Direction for Future Research

This research covers the vast field of training and development in general, and about training

and its role in enhancing the human productivity in particular in the universities of Sindh. Its

scope is limited to the employees of public and private sector universities in Sindh.

1. It is suggested to conduct future research in the areas gender based impacts of training

to understand the reason why women employee feels that men take training more

seriously and how gender affects the work relations of men and women in higher

education. Gender influence on training effectiveness have not been studied

extensively, except some studies by (Burgard, 2011). In our study female participants

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respond that male participants are more serious in the training and development

programs and male participants responds that female participants remain absent from

training sessions. For data analysis on these variables cross tabulations were computed

and results revealed not significant differences. However, gender aspect of the training

should be studied more precisely.

2. Another area for future research is identifying the reasons of productivity in the private

sector and how these should be applied to enhance productivity in the public sector.

3. The work is very specific and confined to the universities of Sindh; however, some part

of the work may help in generalizations.

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Proposed Training Model

This training model is based on the current study conducted in the public and private

universities of Sindh. Core features of the Proposed Research-Based Training Model for the

employees of both the Public and Private Sector universities is submitted below:

Vision

To increase productivity and institutional strengthening of the University.

Mission

To ensure training and development of all employees equally without any discrimination.

Objectives

To improve performance of university employees.

To increase employee’s productivity

To increase motivation and job satisfaction of employees through training

To induce standardize framework of training program

Prerequisites

Organizational Climate for Training

Active Human Resource Department

Training budget

At least 2 competent trainers/facilitators for conducting the training

Identified Trainee

Training plan (including agenda and lesson plan)

Stationary, reading material and practice material

Need Assessment

To diagnose current level of the skills and qualifications of the available staff.

To connect the needs of human resource development with organizational strategy.

To define detailed priorities, problem areas and the staff requirements of training and

development needs.

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To review the existing staff qualifications, its background and training needs depending

on the staff level and its responsibilities.

Duration of Training:

5 Days.

Type of Training:

Formal Training Workshop with practical application.

Methods to be used in the Training:

Brainstorming

Coaching/Mentoring

Lecture

Films/documentary (Audio-Visual)

Conference/Discussion

Programmed Instruction

Role Play

Group Discussion and Tutorial

Field Visit/Exposure Visit

Practice application

Evaluation of Training:

Each training should conduct a pre-test and post-test for assessing knowledge of trainees. An

overall evaluation of the training should also be conducted. This evaluation could be conducted

at the end of the training. Its results will provide an evidence on the suitability of each element

of a training. This evaluation should be no longer than 2 pages and participants should be

instructed to fill it without mentioning their names.

In this evaluation following factors should be considered: Administrative arrangements for

training; Food and Tea; environment of the training hall and its location; breaks during the

sessions; duration of the training; trainer’s knowledge and methods used for delivering training;

balance of lectures and exercises for enhancing learning and learning material.

The results of this evaluation should be included in the final report of the training.

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Transfer of training through individual action plans:

All the trainees should develop a mandatory transfer of training action plan. In this action

plan each trainee should plan how she/he will transfer the knowledge gained through this

training.

Training Report:

A final training report should be prepared and shared with the top management.

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A Standard Training Model

Training

Vision and Mission

Organizational Goal / Stretegy

Ojectives

Need Assesmsent

Training plan

Evlaution

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Relationship of training with Productivity and Institutional

Strengthening:

A Research-Based Model of this Research.

295

Annexure-1

Dear Respondent!

I am conducting a doctoral research on ‘“Dynamics of training and its institutional role

for enhancing human productivity”: A comparative study of selected public and private sector


I have designed this questionnaire to collect data from various employees working in

the public sector universities of Sindh. The data collected will be used in aggregate form; no

individual responses will be referred to or quoted. The information you furnish will be treated

as matter of trust.

The objective of this research survey is to explain the extent and importance of

professional training in enhancing human productivity; therefore, a comparative study is being

carried out in public and private sector universities of Sindh. The results of this study will

facilitate the public and private sector universities in enhancing the human productivity of their

employees by conducting professional trainings and will also help to design effective training

programmes and their successful implementation.

You are, accordingly, requested to fill this questionnaire that comprises two sections

(A&B). Please fill both sections completely. Your cooperation is highly appreciated. If you

will need findings of this research please send a request to [email protected]

Thanks and regards,

Saima Tabassum, Ph.D Scholar,

Department of Public Administration

Faculty of Management Sciences

University of Karachi.

296

SECTION – A

Name

Gender Male Female

Age (years) 20 – 29 30 – 39

40 – 49 50 and above.

Education (in years) /

Degree

Experience (in years)

Name of University

Nature of job Teaching Non Teaching

Contact Nos.

297

SECTION – B

Please tick or circle the number that most closely reflects your degree of agreement or

disagreement with the following statements:-

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

Disagree

1 2 3 4 5


Role of Training

Investment in Training

01 Training may be used as a motivational tool for employee(s) of public

sector university.

1 2 3 4 5

02 Training can help out employee(s) of the public sector university in

solving their job related problems.

1 2 3 4 5

03 Training leaves positive effects on employee(s) job satisfaction,

working in public sector universities.

1 2 3 4 5

04 Training may help in reducing the employee absentism in public sector

university.

1 2 3 4 5

05 Training may help in reducing employee turnover in public sector

university.

1 2 3 4 5

06 Training leaves positive impact on individual’s behavior, attitude, skill,

ability and other traits in public sector universities.

1 2 3 4 5

07 Training can create awareness about the organizational culture in

public sector universities.

1 2 3 4 5

01 Training enhances the human productivity. 1 2 3 4 5

02 Training assures long-term human productivity. 1 2 3 4 5

03 Training helps and guides an employee of the public sector university

to learn relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes which s/he needs to

function more effectively.

1 2 3 4 5

04 Training is necessary for all employees of public sector universities

irrespective of their ranks and nature of jobs.

1 2 3 4 5

05 Training bridges employee’s skills gap as its hallmark of good

management.

1 2 3 4 5

01 University should develop a system to evaluate cost & benefit of

training of its employees.

1 2 3 4 5

02 Training means cost as seen by employers, but the hidden cost is more

if employees are not trained.

1 2 3 4 5

03 Training affects the cost of production of an organization. 1 2 3 4 5

04 Investment in training pays higher dividends in the long run through

improved performance and positive attitude of employees.

1 2 3 4 5

05 Investment in training by the employers motivates the employees for

their retention with the organization commitment towards university.

1 2 3 4 5

298

Significance of Training


Training Methods

Evaluation of Training

01 There is significant difference in productivity of trained & untrained

employees of public sector university.

1 2 3 4 5

02 There is significant difference in performance of male & female


1 2 3 4 5

03 There is significant difference in performance of senior & junior


1 2 3 4 5

04 On the job training is more result oriented than off the job training. 1 2 3 4 5

05 Off the job training is more result oriented than on the job training. 1 2 3 4 5

01 Do you think that your organization carries on training need

assessment (TNA) for proper execution of training plans and

programmes on regular basis?

1 2 3 4 5

02 Organizational training needs and methods to achieve desirable

training results are well defined in your university training

plan/programmes.

1 2 3 4 5

03 Your university keeps and updates records of employee personal

characteristics.

1 2 3 4 5

04 TNA point out reasons for failure of previous training program. 1 2 3 4 5

05 The success of training program of university depends on effectiveness

of TNA process.

1 2 3 4 5

06 Do you think that your university identifies and prioritizes the

organizational as well as individual goals as the part of TNA process?

1 2 3 4 5

07 Training program is started with TNA process in your university. 1 2 3 4 5

08 Through TNA we can control cost and budget of training program. 1 2 3 4 5

09 TNA process increases the cost and budget of training program. 1 2 3 4 5

10 Do you think that your university collects data for TNA from

employee(s) performance evaluation reports?

1 2 3 4 5

01 Traditional training methods are more effective than E-learning in

transfer of training.

1 2 3 4 5

02 Usage of E-learning in transfer of training is more effective than

Traditional training methods.

1 2 3 4 5

03 E-learning Technology increases the cost of training. 1 2 3 4 5

04 E-learning Technology decreases the cost of training. 1 2 3 4 5

05 Training room layout can influence the success of training session. 1 2 3 4 5

01 Evaluation of training determines the effectiveness of whole training

program and justifies investment expenditure on training.

1 2 3 4 5

02 Evaluation identifies the further training needs. 1 2 3 4 5

03 In training session trainer shares performance report of trainees with

them at end of training session in your university.

1 2 3 4 5

04 Training feedback is given by trainees in your university. 1 2 3 4 5

05 The University training feedback is mostly based on trainer’s self-

evaluation.

1 2 3 4 5

06 In your University training feedback is mostly based on testing. 1 2 3 4 5

299

Organizational Training Climate

-End-

07 After attending training session(s) you mostly get financial

increment(s) in addition to your basic salary as a reward/training

allowance.

1 2 3 4 5

08 If employee could not improve his / her performance even after

undergoing the professional training(s) that means training process

was not effective.

1 2 3 4 5

01 THERE IS HR DEPARTMENT IN YOUR UNIVERSITY. 1 2 3 4 5

02 HR Department of your university works for training and

development.

1 2 3 4 5

03 You university recommends their employees for training on fair

basis.

1 2 3 4 5

04 The management of university gives more emphasis on teachers or

faculty training program than administrative staff.

1 2 3 4 5

05 The top management of university gives more emphasis on providing

training program to administrative staff than faculty staff.

1 2 3 4 5

06 The administration of university focuses more on long term training

needs and program than short term training needs and program.

1 2 3 4 5

07 The administration of university focuses more on short term training

needs and program than long term training needs and program.

1 2 3 4 5

08 Mostly male employees of the university take training & development

program more seriously than female.

1 2 3 4 5

09 Mostly female employees of university take training & development

program more seriously than male.

1 2 3 4 5

10 Most of the time male employees of university remain absent from

training program session.

1 2 3 4 5

11 Most of the time female employees of university remain absent from


1 2 3 4 5

12 University should conduct training programs on regular basis for its

employees.

1 2 3 4 5

13 University must have formal and well defined training

programs/plans for its all employees irrespective of their grades and

nature of duties.

1 2 3 4 5

14 Senior employees also informally train the junior employees of

university.

1 2 3 4 5

15 Universities should also arrange inter-universities learning exchange

programme(s) on regular basis on the part of on the job training.

1 2 3 4 5

16 The university administration excludes women, minorities and older

employees from training program.

1 2 3 4 5

17 The university administration gives special attention on training of

women, minorities and older employees in training program.

1 2 3 4 5

18

Public sector universities more focus on their employees training and

development than private sector.

1 2 3 4 5

19 The employee(s) of public sector universities are more emphasized

on their training needs according to their job requirement(s) than

employee(s) of private sector universities.

1 2 3 4 5

20 Have you ever attended formal training(s)? 1 2 3 4 5

300

Annexure-2

Dear Respondent!

I am conducting a doctoral research on ‘“Dynamics of training and its institutional role

for enhancing human productivity”: A comparative study of selected public and private sector


I have designed this questionnaire to collect data from various employees working in

the private sector universities of Sindh. The data collected will be used in aggregate form; no

individual responses will be referred to or quoted. The information you furnish will be treated

as matter of trust.

The objective of this research survey is to explain the extent and importance of

professional training in enhancing human productivity; therefore, a comparative study is being

carried out in public and private sector universities of Sindh. The results of this study will

facilitate the public and private sector universities in enhancing the human productivity of their

employees by conducting professional trainings and will also help to design effective training

programmes and their successful implementation.

You are, accordingly, requested to fill this questionnaire that comprises two sections

(A&B). Please fill both sections completely. Your cooperation is highly appreciated. If you

will need findings of this research please send a request to [email protected]

Thanks and regards,

Saima Tabassum, Ph.D Scholar,

Department of Public Administration

Faculty of Management Sciences

University of Karachi.

301

SECTION – A

Name

Gender Male Female

Age (years) 20 – 29 30 – 39

40 – 49 50 and above.

Education (in years) /

Degree

Experience (in years)

Name of University

Nature of job Teaching Non Teaching

Contact Nos.

302

SECTION – B

Please tick or circle the number that most closely reflects your degree of agreement or

disagreement with the following statements:-

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

Disagree

1 2 3 4 5


Role of Training

Investment in Training

01 Training may be used as a motivational tool for employee(s) of a

private sector university.

1 2 3 4 5

02 Training can help out employee(s) of the private sector university in

solving their job related problems.

1 2 3 4 5

03 Training leaves positive effects on employee(s) job satisfaction,

working in private sector universities.

1 2 3 4 5

04 Training may help in reducing the employee absentism in private

sector university.

1 2 3 4 5

05 Training may help in reducing the employee turnover in private sector

university.

1 2 3 4 5

06 Training leaves positive impact on individual’s behavior, attitude,

skill, ability and other traits in private sector universities.

1 2 3 4 5

07 Training can create awareness about organizational culture in private

sector universities.

1 2 3 4 5

01 Training enhances the human productivity. 1 2 3 4 5

02 Training assures long-term human productivity. 1 2 3 4 5

03 Training helps and guides an employee of the private sector university

to learn relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes which s/he needs to

function more effectively.

1 2 3 4 5

04 Training is necessary for all employees of private sector universities

irrespective of their ranks and nature of jobs.

1 2 3 4 5

05 Training bridges employee’s skills gap as its hallmark of good

management.

1 2 3 4 5

01 University should develop a system to evaluate cost & benefit of

training of its employees.

1 2 3 4 5

02 Training means cost as seen by employers, but the hidden cost is

more if employees are not trained.

1 2 3 4 5

03 Training affects the cost of production of an organization. 1 2 3 4 5

04 Investment in training pays higher dividends in the long run through

improved performance and positive attitude of employees.

1 2 3 4 5

05 Investment in training by the employers motivates the employees for

their retention with the organization commitment towards university.

1 2 3 4 5

303

Significance of Training


Training Methods

Evaluation of Training

01 There is significant difference in productivity of trained & untrained

employees of private sector university.

1 2 3 4 5

02 There is significant difference in performance of male & female


1 2 3 4 5

03 There is significant difference in performance of senior & junior


1 2 3 4 5

04 On the job training is more result oriented than off the job training. 1 2 3 4 5

05 Off the job training is more result oriented than on the job training. 1 2 3 4 5

01 Do you think that your organization carries on training need

assessment (TNA) for proper execution of training plans and

programmes on regular basis?

1 2 3 4 5

02 Organizational training needs and methods to achieve desirable

training results are well defined in your university training

plan/programmes.

1 2 3 4 5

03 Your university keeps and updates records of employee personal

characteristics.

1 2 3 4 5

04 TNA point out reasons for failure of previous training program. 1 2 3 4 5

05 The success of training program of university depends on effectiveness

of TNA process.

1 2 3 4 5

06 Do you think that your university identifies and prioritizes the

organizational as well as individual goals as the part of TNA process?

1 2 3 4 5

07 Training program is started with TNA process in your university. 1 2 3 4 5

08 Through TNA we can control cost and budget of training program. 1 2 3 4 5

09 TNA process increases the cost and budget of training program. 1 2 3 4 5

10 Do you think that your university collects data for TNA from

employee(s) performance evaluation reports?

1 2 3 4 5

01 Traditional training methods are more effective than E-learning in

transfer of training.

1 2 3 4 5

02 Usage of E-learning in transfer of training is more effective than

Traditional training methods.

1 2 3 4 5

03 E-learning Technology increases the cost of training. 1 2 3 4 5

04 E-learning Technology decreases the cost of training. 1 2 3 4 5

05 Training room layout can influence the success of training session. 1 2 3 4 5

01 Evaluation of training determines the effectiveness of whole training

program and justifies investment expenditure on training.

1 2 3 4 5

02 Evaluation identifies the further training needs. 1 2 3 4 5

03 In training session trainer shares performance report of trainees with

them at end of training session in your university.

1 2 3 4 5

04 Training feedback is given by trainees in your university. 1 2 3 4 5

05 The University training feedback is mostly based on trainer’s self-

evaluation.

1 2 3 4 5

304

Organizational Training Climate

-End-

06 In your University training feedback is mostly based on testing. 1 2 3 4 5

07 After attending training session(s) you mostly get financial

increment(s) in addition to your basic salary as a reward/training

allowance.

1 2 3 4 5

08 If employee could not improve his / her performance even after

undergoing the professional training(s) that means training process

was not effective.

1 2 3 4 5

01 There is HR Department in your university. 1 2 3 4 5

02 HR Department of your university works for training and

development.

1 2 3 4 5

03 The top management of university recommends their employees for

training on fair basis.

1 2 3 4 5

04 The top management of university gives more emphasis on teachers or

faculty training program than administrative staff.

1 2 3 4 5

05 The top management of university gives more emphasis on providing

training program to administrative staff than faculty staff.

1 2 3 4 5

06 The administration of university focuses more on long term training

needs and program than short term training needs and program.

1 2 3 4 5

07 The administration of university focuses more on short term training

needs and program than long term training needs and program.

1 2 3 4 5

08 Mostly male employees of the university take training & development

program more seriously than female.

1 2 3 4 5

09 Mostly female employees of university take training & development

program more seriously than male.

1 2 3 4 5

10 Most of the time male employees of university remain absent from


1 2 3 4 5

11 Most of the time female employees of university remain absent from


1 2 3 4 5

12 University should conduct training programs on regular basis for its

employees.

1 2 3 4 5

13 University must have formal and well defined training programs/plans

for its all employees irrespective of their grades and nature of duties.

1 2 3 4 5

14 Senior employees also informally train the junior employees of

university.

1 2 3 4 5

15 Universities should also arrange inter-universities learning exchange

programme(s) on regular basis on the part of on the job training.

1 2 3 4 5

16 The university administration excludes women, minorities and older

employees from training program.

1 2 3 4 5

17 The university administration gives special attention on training of

women, minorities and older employees in training program.

1 2 3 4 5

18

Private sector universities more focus on their employees training and

development than public sector.

1 2 3 4 5

19 The employees of private sector universities are more emphasized on

their training needs according to their job requirements than employees

of public sector universities.

1 2 3 4 5

20 Have you ever attended formal training(s)? 1 2 3 4 5

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