Aubrecht et al. 2009 (Sedimentary Geology - stromatactis)

Sedimentary Geology 213 (2009) 97–112

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Sedimentary Geology

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Middle Jurassic stromatactis mud-mounds in the Pieniny Klippen Belt(Carpathians) — A possible clue to the origin of stromatactis

R. Aubrecht a,⁎, J. Schlögl a, M. Krobicki b, H. Wierzbowski c, B.A. Matyja d, A. Wierzbowski d

a Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina - G, SK-842 15 Bratislava, Slovakiab Dept. of Stratigraphy and Regional Geology, University of Mining and Metallurgy, Al. Mickiewicza 30, PL-30-059 Kraków, Polandc Institute of Geological Sciences, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Twarda 51/55, 00-818 Warszawa, Polandd Institute of Geology, University of Warsaw, Al. Żwirki i Wigury 93, PL-02-089 Warszawa, Poland

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Aubrecht)

0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. Aldoi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2008.11.007

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Four occurrences of Jurassi Received 14 May 2008Received in revised form 11 November 2008Accepted 28 November 2008
Keywords:Mud-moundsStromatactisSiliceous spongesJurassic Carpathians

c stromatactis mud-mounds were found in the Czorsztyn Unit of the PieninyKlippen Belt (Western Carpathians) — in western Slovakia (Slavnické Podhorie, Babiná), and in theTranscarpathian Ukraine (Priborzhavskoe and Veliky Kamenets). Their stratigraphic range is from Bajocian toCallovian. The mounds consist of micropeloidal mudstones, wackestones to packstones with a faunaincluding pelecypods, brachiopods, ammonites and crinoids. Spicules and skeletons of siliceous sponges areabundant in every section. All of the mounds contain networks of stromatactis cavities that are partially filledwith radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC) and locally by internal sediments. At Slavnické Podhorie, the sparrymasses that fill stromatactis cavities are weathered out and show casts of sponges. Parallel study of theweathered casts and their cross-sections in slabs showed that they bear all the signs of stromatactis(relatively flat bottoms and digitate upper parts, RFC initial fillings and eventual blocky calcite later filling).Almost no original sponge structures were preserved. This strongly supports the possible sponge-relatedorigin for stromatactis cavities.

© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Stromatactis mud-mounds are typical elements of the Paleozoicsubtidal marine facies (Krause et al., 2004). Stromatactis was firstdescribed by Dupont (1881, 1882) and it is still an enigmaticphenomenon. It can be defined as the masses of spar (with partialsubstitution of internal sediment) which have smooth base, digitateroof, occur in swarms and have reticulate distribution (Bathurst,1982).There is still no agreement in opinions concerning the origin ofstromatactis. The suggested origins for stromatactis included internalerosion and reworking of small cavities (e.g. Kukal, 1971; Wallace,1987; Bridges and Chapman, 1988; Matyszkiewicz, 1993, 1997),dewatering or escape of fluids (Heckel, 1972; Desbordes and Maurin,1974; Bernet-Rollande et al., 1981), neomorphism or recrystallizationof the calcareous mud (Black, 1952; Orme and Brown,1963; Ross et al.,1975), dynamic metamorphism (Logan and Semeniuk, 1976), slumps(Schwarzacher, 1961) and fresh-water karstification (Dunham, 1969).Most recent ideas involve frozen clathrate hydrates in the calcareousmud, after which the stromatactis cavities remained (Krause, 2001) orthe cavities are interpreted as a result of sedimentation of stirred

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polydisperse sediment (Hladil, 2005; Hladil et al., 2006, 2007). Second,biogenic origins for stromatactis have also been suggested. The mostwidely invoked origin for stromatactis is that they are cavities whichremained after decomposition of an unknown soft-bodied organism orby nemorphism of carbonate-secreting organism. The suggestedorganisms include stromatoporoids (Dupont, 1881, 1882; Lowenstam,1950; Carozzi and Zadnik,1959), bryozoans (Textoris and Carozzi,1964),algae (Philcox, 1963; Textoris, 1966; Coron and Textoris, 1974),stromatolites (Cross and Klosterman, 1981), microbial colonies (Tsien,1985), and burrowing activity of crustaceans (Shinn, 1968). Theorganisms which are most frequently mentioned in the stromatactisliterature are sponges. The sponge theory was firstly suggested byBourque and Gignac (1983), followed by Bourque and Boulvain (1993),Neuweiler et al. (2001), Neuweiler and Bernouilli (2005) and Delecatand Reitner (2005). Some authors sugested an opinion that acombination of several processes played role in the onset of stroma-tactis, such as microbial binding of the sediment and excavating of theunbound mud (Bathurst, 1982; Pratt, 1982) or a succession of spongesand microbial colonies (Flajs and Hüssner, 1993; Flajs et al., 1996).

Mesozoic stromatactis mud-mounds (including Jurassic) are notcommon. Neuweiler et al. (2001) ascribed this fact to taphonomy ofMesozoic sponge taxa which was different from those of Paleozoic.The Mesozoic taxa were prone to more rapid decay resulting incommon cavity collapse and sediment filling. Neuweiler et al. (2001)introduced special terms used for incompletely developped

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98 R. Aubrecht et al. / Sedimentary Geology 213 (2009) 97–112

stromatactis, such as aborted stromatactis, which is cavity filledentirely (or nearly entirely) with fine-grained internal sediment, andinhibited stromatactis which is initially filled with cement but the restis filled by sediment.

This paper describes the Middle Jurassic (Bajocian to Callovian)stromatactis mud-mounds in the Slovak and Ukrainian WesternCarpathians (Fig. 1). These mud-mounds may provide a clue to thelong lasting problem of stromatactis origin.

Fig. 1. Position of the examined sections. 1 — Slavnické Podhor

2. Geological setting of the studied sections

The stromatactis mud-mounds reported here are located in thePieniny Klippen Belt of the Western Carpathians. This belt representsthe boundary between the internides and externides of theCarpathians, ranging from Slovakia, through Poland and Ukraine asfar as Romania. Its very complex structure results from at least twodeformation phases. Firstly, the Laramian nappe structure was created

ie, 2 — Babiná, 3 — Priborzhavskoe, 4 — Veliky Kamenets.

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99R. Aubrecht et al. / Sedimentary Geology 213 (2009) 97–112

Fig. 3. Slavnické Podhorie Locality. (A) View on the Slavnické Podhorie locality, with marked measured section. (B, C) Weathered-out spar filling of the stromatactis cavities atSlavnické Podhorie. (D) Polished slab of the pink micritic limestone with stromatactis cavities.


at the Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary. This nappe structure was laterdissected by an Oligocene–Early Miocene transpressional deforma-tion, resulting in a mélange of sedimentary rocks (so called klippenstructure), where the limestone members (mostly Jurassic to EarlyCretaceous) form blocks and tectonic lenses enveloped by softermarlstones and claystones (predominantly of Late Cretaceous age).Despite extensive tectonic deformation, the lithostratigraphic units ofthe Pieniny Klippen Belt do not show any significant metamorphic orthermal overprint and contain well preserved fossils and sedimentarystructures.

The areas under study all belong to the Czorsztyn Succession,which was deposited in a relatively shallow-water shelf environ-ment. Bajocian sediments of this unit are represented by white andred crinoidal limestones. After a transgression during the Bathonianto Oxfordian, the deposition of crinoidal limestones was replacedby deposition of pelagic red nodular ammonitico rosso-type lime-stones, accompanied by some non-nodular mudstone equivalentsknown as Bohunice Limestone Formation (Mišík et al., 1994).Stromatactis occur both in the crinoidal limestones and the limemudstones.

3. Research methods

Field work involved measurement of the sections, detailedsampling, and collection of stratigraphically important fauna. About150 thin-sections and slabs were studied petrographically (some ofthem under cathodoluminescence). In weathered stromatactis fromthe Slavnické Podhorie which display casts of siliceous sponges werestudied both, the weathered surfaces and the corresponding cross-sections in slabs. Selected bulk samples and several generations of

cavity fillings were analysed for oxygen and carbon stable isotopes.About 10 mg of powdered sample was analyzed for stable isotopesusing the method of McCrea (1950). The samples were reactedovernight in sealed vessels at 25 °C with 100% orthophosphoric acid.The isotope composition of the extracted CO2 was analyzed by meansof a Finnigan Mat Delta Plus mass spectrometer at the Institute ofGeological Sciences and Institute of Palaeobiology, Polish Academy ofSciences in Warsaw. The oxygen and carbon isotope results arereported in δ notation in per mil relative to the V-PDB standard byassigning a δ13C value of +1.95‰ and a δ18O value of −2.20‰ to NBS19.Precision of results (2σ), which was measured on repeated analyses ofa laboratory reference was close to ±0.10‰ and ±0.05‰ for δ18O andδ13C values, respectively.

4. Studied sections

Four localities were involved in this study (Fig. 1). Two of them aresituated in Slovakia, in the middle part of the Váh river valley(Slavnické Podhorie: N 49°01′0.1″, E 18°09′31.4″; Babiná: N 49°01′55.0″, E 18°10′48.6″) and two in the western Ukraine (VelykyKamenets: N 48°10′48.1″, E 23°44′7.3″; Priborzhavskoe N 48°19′59.8″, E 23°15′12.7″). The first results were published by Aubrechtet al. (2002a,b), who provide the details about the location of thesesites. Only Bajocian to Bathonian stromatactis occurrences wereincluded in this study.

4.1. Slavnické Podhorie

This site is in the middle of Váh River valley, near the village ofSlavnické Podhorie, at the foot of the Biele Karpaty Mountains. (Fig. 1).


It represents a tectonically overturned klippe cut by an abandonedquarry. A 32 m long section was measured in the southern part of thequarry (Figs. 2 and 3A) where the core of a stromatactis mud-mound isexposed (Aubrecht et al., 2002b; Aubrecht, 2006).

Major part of the quarry exposes crinoidal limestones dated byammonite Parkinsonia sp. to the uppermost Bajocian or lowermostBathonian age. The overlying pink to red micritic limestones(mudstones) are of latest Bajocian to Callovian. Stromatactis arepresent in the crinoidal limestone, but they reach their maximumdevelopment in the micritic limestones (Fig. 3D), where they areweathered out in positive relief (Figs. 3B, C, 12 and 13). At 28 m fromthe base of the section, the stromatactis cavities disappear.

4.2. Babiná

The section is located in a quarry at the foot of Babiná Hill in BieleKarpatyMountains (Fig. 1). The locality has been described in detail byMišík et al. (1994). An overturned Czorsztyn succession from theMiddle Jurassic to the Lower Cretaceous is exposed in the quarry(Fig. 4A). White and pink crinoidal limestones are exposed in the SEpart of the quarry, with sharp boundary to the overlying pink micriticlimestones (mudstones) of the Bohunice Limestone Formation.Measured section showing the lowermost part of the mudstonesbegins 5 m above the floor of the quarry (Fig. 4B).

Fig. 4. Babiná Locality. (A) Overall view of the Babiná Quarry. (B) Right (SE) part of the quarry wbedding. (D) Polished slab with anastomosing tiny stromatactis. (E) Slab with larger, severa

Stromatactis of small size (Fig. 4C–E) occur in the basal bed of themudstones which is about 80 cm thick (Mišík et al., 1994). This bed isdominated by Bositra microfacies which indicates latest Bajocian toCallovian age (cf. Wierzbowski et al., 1999). At the top of themudstonebed a black manganese crust representing a non-deposition surfaceoccurs. Above this crust, pink micritic limestones (mudstones) appearagain, with an abundant occurrence of Globuligerina planktonicforaminifers, typical of the Oxfordian in the Czorsztyn Unit (Wierz-bowski et al., 1999). These micritic limestones, however, are free ofstromatactis cavities. Some stromatactis-like structures appear higherin the section, in limestones (mudstones) containing numerousossicles of the planktonic crinoid Saccocoma, which is typical for theKimmeridgian and Lower Tithonian. As mentioned above, theseyounger structures are not included in this study.

4.3. Velyky Kamenets

The locality is situated in the western Ukraine (Fig. 1). It wasdescribed by Andrusov (1945), Slavin (1966) and Rakús (1990). Com-bined, ammonite-magnetostratigraphy was carried out by Lewan-dowski et al. (2004). It is an active quarry, where the Middle to UpperJurassic ammonitico rosso limestones and pink micritic Upper Jurassiclimestones are quarried for building stone (Fig. 5A). The lowest strataexposed are crinoidal limestones with abundant micritic matrix up to

ith themeasured section indicated. (C) Stromatactis structure broken subparallel to thel cm-size stromatactis.


4.3 m in thickness (Fig. 2). The upper boundary of the crinoidallimestone unit is an omission surface coated with ferro-manganesecrusts. Higher up, red nodular ammonitico rosso limestones areexposed, having about 7 m in thickness.

The stromatactis occur within the crinoidal limestone unit (Fig. 5B,D), and in the lowermost part of the overlying nodular limestones(Fig. 5C, E). In the latter, thin mound-shaped bodies with stromatactisoccur which can be traced over a distance of 40 m, and they reach upto 1.8 m in thickness (Fig. 5B–C). These small mounds overlap eachother and interfinger with typical red nodular limestones. Somesmaller mounds, about 2–5 m in length, and up to 0.3 m in thicknessare recognized in slightly younger strata, directly above these largermounds. These patch mounds may be interpreted as an attempt torecolonize the environment after the facies change.

The crinoidal limestones and the lowermost part of the nodularlimestones are of Bajocian–Bathonian age (cf. also Rakús, 1990;Lewandowski et al., 2004).

Fig. 5. Veliky Kamenets Locality. (A) Overall view of the Veliky Kamenets quarry with marlimestone with stromatactis (pale coloured, right) is overlain by red rosso ammonitico-typevisible in the nodular limestone. (C) Detail of the flat mounds with stromatactis within thcrinoidal and nodular limestones. The facies change temporarily stopped development of st

4.4. Priborzhavskoe

The locality represents a large active quarry located in the westernUkraine (Fig. 1). This quarry is in a huge klippe of Lower Jurassic toLower Cretaceous rocks (see Kruglov, 1971, 1986), surrounded by softUpper Cretaceous marls (Fig. 6A). The klippe consists of severaltectonic slices. The lowermost of them, outcropping in the quarry, istectonically overturned.

The stratigrapically oldest strata are represented by Lower Jurassicblack limestones and spotted limestones, followed by Toarcian/Aaleniancondensed thin beds of sandy limestones with Fe–Mn stromatolites andoncoids. Stromatactis start in the overlying crinoidal–sponge muddylimestones. The presence of stephanoceratid ammonite Emileia (Emileia)vagabunda BUCKMAN indicates an Early Bajocian age (PropinquansZone). The stromatactis are found exclusively in this unit. The stroma-tactis-bearing mound is at least 450 m long and 95 m thick and is one ofthe largest known Jurassic stromatactis mud-mounds. A detailed section

ked studied section. (B) View on the studied section. Steeply inclined muddy crinoidalnodular limestone (dark coloured, left). Flat overlapping mounds with stromatactis aree nodular limestone (parallel section to the previous). (D) Sharp contact between theromatactis. (E) Stromatactis in the flat mounds embedded in red nodular limestones.

Fig. 6. Priborzhavskoe Quarry. (A) Overall view on the Priborzahvskoe Quarry with the studied section marked. (B) Block showing small-scale cyclicity in stromatactis limestones.(C, D) Typical, well-developed dm-size stromatactis.


wasmeasured approximately in the middle of the quarry, having 22m instratigraphic thickness (themost complete continuous section accessible).The stromatactis are conformable with stratification (although they arereticulate on a smaller scale) and their arrangement shows some regularcyclicity (Fig. 6B, cf. Hüssner et al., 1995). Stromatactis size ranges fromseveral centimetres size to several decimetres (Fig. 6C–D). Beds withstromatactis are accompanied by beds of limestone breccia, with clastsabout 5 cm in diameter (maximum 10 cm) (Fig. 7A–B). The clasts arecoatedwith isopachous crusts of radiaxial fibrous calcite (Fig. 7C) (i.e. theyresemble the well-known “evinosponge” breccias, cf. Frisia-Bruni et al.,1989). Brachiopods are common, forming nests in some places,and probably represent autochthonous, non-redeposited assemblages(Fig. 7D).

5. Petrography and sedimentology

5.1. The host rocks

The stromatactis-bearing rocks are mostly bioclastic limestones,wackestones to packstones, with a micropeloidal matrix (Fig. 8A), a

feature typical also for the Paleozoic stromatactis mud-mounds. Thesediment commonly displays polymud fabric (see Lees and Miller,1995). The composition of skeletal particles is dependent on thestratigraphic positon. The oldest stromatactis-bearing carbonates arecrinoidal wackestones to grainstones (Slavnické Podhorie, VelykyKamenets and Priborzhavskoe — Fig. 8B) which are later replaced byBositra microfacies (dominated by thin-shelled bivalves Bositra buchi— Fig. 8C), due to gradual deepening of the sedimentary environment.Other skeletal particles are less abundant but ubiquitous: thin-shelledostracods, agglutinated foraminifers (dominated by Ophthalmidiumand Dorothia), calcareous foraminifers (mainly Lenticulina, Patellina,Spirillina and nodosariids) and sessile nubeculariid foraminifers.Fragments of thicker-walled bivalves and brachiopods, rare gastro-pods, juvenile ammonites, echinoid spines, bryozoans and serpulidworm tubes can be found. The calcareous bioclasts are often bored.Quartz grains are rare.

In both lithologies, isolated calcified spicules to fragmentary ske-letons of siliceous sponges are abundant. The most abundand aresphaerical rhaxa and monaxone spicules (Fig. 8D–F). Tetraxonespicules (Fig. 8F) and irregular spicules of lithistid sponges (Fig. 9A)


are also common. Locally they are poorly preserved and occur only asghosts. Skeletons of siliceous sponges with amicropeloidal matrix alsoform the main lithology of the clasts in the breccias accompanyingstromatactis-bearing strata at Priborzhavskoe (Fig. 10D). No stroma-tactis were found in the clasts but they are locally present in thebreccia matrix. Siliceous sponges are also visible macroscopically atVeliky Kamenets but no relationship to stromatactis is visible there(Fig. 9B).

5.2. Stromatactis

Most of the examined structures fit the definition for stromatactisas being spar-filled cavities having flat to undulose smooth floors anddigitate roofs, and occur in reticulate swarms (Bathurst, 1982; Bourqueand Boulvain, 1993). The size and appearance of the stromatactisvaries between the individual localities. At Babiná and VelikyKamenets they are rather small (only several centimetres long);stromatactis at Slavnické Podhorie and Priborzhavskoe are severaldecimetres long and up to 10 cm in thickness. At Veliky Kamenets andlocally at Priborzhavskoe, filling of the cavities with micritic sedi-ment is common (Fig. 9C–F), forming thus incompletely developedstromatactis (aborted and inhibited stromatactis sensu Neuweileret al., 2001).

Fig. 7. Priborzhavskoe Quarry. (A, B) Beds with stromatactis, accompanied by “evinosponge”radiaxial calcite crust. (D) Nest-like accumulation of the autochthonous brachiopod fauna.

The first and the main filling of the stromatactis cavities isrepresented by radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC). It is typical by fibrousappearance, undulose extinction, swinging in the samedirection as therotation of microscope stage, and by convex-up deformed twin planes.The first phase of RFC is short-bladed, which also fills porosity in thesurrounding host rock (Fig. 10A). The short-bladed crystals graduallypass to long crystals. Both phases are full of inclusions, having dustyappearance. Not all crystals are typical, with well developed crystalboundaries and deformed twinning lamellae (Fig. 10B). RFC enclosesnumerous islets of the host rock and “floating allochems” (Fig. 10C, fordiscussion see Aubrecht et al., 2002b). At Babiná and Slavnické Pod-horie, cave-dwelling ostracods Pokornyopsis sp. were found sur-rounded by the latest stages of the RFC. These ostracods indicate thatpart of the stromatactis cavities formed an open network throughwhich the ostracods and their larvae could migrate (Aubrecht andKozur, 1995; Aubrecht et al., 2002b). The RFC filling of the stromatactiscavities is identical to that surrounding the clasts in the breccias whichaccompany the stromatactis structures at Priborzhavskoe (Fig. 10D).

Some stromatactis cavities are filled with internal sediment,postdating the RFC filling. In the crinoidal limestones, the internalsediment is similar to the host rock. In the mudstones, the internalsedimet is either pure micrite (Fig. 10E) or pelmicrite, sometimescontaining small fragments of Bositra shells (Fig. 10F) and thin-shelled

breccia. (C) “Evinosponge” breccia composed of clasts of sponge limestone covered by

Fig. 8. Petrography of the host rocks. (A) Micropeloidal bioclastic wackestone — a typical microfacies of the studied stromatactis mud-mounds. Veliky Kamenets. (B) Stromatactisstructure in the crinoidal–spicule–micropeloidal packstone. Veliky Kamenets. (C) Bositra microfacies — a wackestone consisting of thin-shelled bivalves Bositra buchi. Typicalmicrofacies of the ammonitico–rosso type limestones, hosting the stromatactis at Velyky Kamenets. (D, E) Monaxone and sphaerical (rhaxa) spicules, forming a typical host-rockmicrofacies at Priborzhavskoe Locality. (F) Monaxone spicules and rhaxa with tetraxone spicules in the clast of the “evinosponge” breccia. Priborzhavskoe.


non-sculptured ostracods. The micrite is usually laminated andsometimes disturbed by bioturbation. Ocasionally, the sedimentaryfilling is formed by silt-size crystal detritus.

The latest filling of the stromatactis cavities is represented byblocky calcite. It is either pure or contains inclusions. The crystals areseldom twinned (Fig. 11A). Some cavities had the centers still empty.Blocky calcite also fills the late veinlets cutting the rock. Unlike thehost rock and RFC, which are non-luminescent under CL, the blockycalcite has zoned orange luminescence. In some cases, asymmetriccrystal overgrowths of cavity ceilings (see also Aubrecht et al., 2002b)were revealed by CL indicating that at least part of the blocky calciteoriginated probably in a vadose environment (Fig. 11B).

At Slavnické Podhorie, the spar fillings of stromatactis cavities areweathered out. Most of the upper surfaces of the RFC stromatactisfilling represent casts after siliceous sponges (Fig. 12). Various formscan be recognized, most of them dish-shaped hexactinelids reminis-cent of the genera Craticularia, Stauroderma or Cribrispongia. Study ofthe slabs corresponding to the sponge casts showed that they have

typical stromatactis shapes in cross-sections (Figs. 13 and 14). Most ofthe sponge features were obliterated due to collapse and subsequentcement filling. Only in very rare examples, structures reminiscent ofpores or borings were observed within the spar body (Fig. 14C–c).However, the inner cement filling of these specimens also do not showany relationship to sponges.

6. Carbon and oxygen isotopes

Stable isotopes were analysed in order to reconstruct the diage-netic processes and verify if isotope ratios of carbonate fillingstromatactis cavities were affected by fractionation within decayingsponge bodies. The samples were selected from the importantconstituents (host-rocks, brachiopod shells, RFC, internal micritefilling, blocky spar filling the voids and veinlets). The δ18O and δ13Cvalues range from −5.8 to +0.89‰ and from −0.3 to 3.7‰, respectively(Fig. 15; Table 1). These isotope data indicate that most of the studiedrock components from Babina, Priborzhavskoe and Velyky Kamenets


localities were precipitated from solutions similar to normal Jurassicseawater. Some brachiopod shells, blocky spar, RFC and host rockfrom Slavincké Podhorie (data from Aubrecht et al., 2002b) areevidently depleted in 18O. This suggests either a thermal or,more likely, a meteoric overprint (cf. Marshall, 1992). A slight negativeshift in δ13C values of samples from Slavincké Podhorie may resultfrom freshwater impact, with 12C derived from a pedogenic reservoir.There is no evidence for the incorporation of isotopically-light CO2

derived from the bacterial breakdown of organic matter within thesediment.

Fig. 9. (A) Skeleton of a lithistid sponge in the stromatactis-bearing micritic crinoidal limestsmall arrows) within the stromatactis-bearing crinoidal limestone. Velyky Kamenets. (C) Tinythe same as the composition of the surrounding sediment and the contours of the previous vodark-redmicritic filling showing only thin rim of spar. Velyky Kamenets. (E) Branching systemfilled stromatactis are developed in the parts unfilled with sediment (lower left — arrows)micrite. Velyky Kamenets.

7. Discussion

Our research has revealed an evidence that siliceous sponges havecontributed to the origin of the stromatactis structures described here.The sponge-related theory for stromatactis originwas first introducedby Bourque and Gignac (1983) who presented stromatactis structuresas cavities that remained after decayed sponges and the peletoidalfabrics of the host rocks as originated due to microbial cementation.However, this theory was challenged by Pratt (1986). The evidence forsponges was based on ubiquitous sponge spicules found in the host

one. Velyky Kamenets. (B) Accumulation of flat-shaped siliceous sponges (marked withaborted stromatactis in muddy crinoidal limestone. Sedimentary filling of the cavities isids cannot be traced. Velyky Kamenets. (D) Aborted stromatactis filled with contrasting,of voids filled with contrasting dark laminated limestone (inhibited stromatactis). Spar-. Priborzhavskoe. (F) Inhibited stromatactis filled with contrasting dark-red laminated

Fig.10. (A) Short-bladed initial stage of the radiaxialfibrous calcite (grey)filling partof the cavityandfillingporosity in thehost rock. Slavnické Podhorie. (B) Typical inclusions-rich radiaxialfibrous calcitewith deformed convex-up twinning lamelae and undulatory extinction, filling a stromatactis cavity. Velyky Kamenets. (C) Small shell of a juvenile ammonite surrounded byradiaxialfibrous calcite. Slavnické Podhorie. (D) Clast of the spiculitic limestone surrounded by radiaxialfibrous calcite. “Evinosponge” breccia. Priborzhavskoe. (E) Stromatactis cavityfilledwith radiaxial fibrous calcite and pure dark micrite. Babiná. (F) Remaining space of the stromatactis cavity filled with Bositra packstone. Velyky Kamenets.


rocks of the stromatactis mud-mounds (Bourque and Gignac, 1983;Labiaux, 1997) and some were even found in the spar fillings ofstromatactis cavities (Boulvain, 1993) but the body fossils were scarce.There seemed to be a contradiction between the sponge mounds withnumerous preserved body fossils and stromatactis mud-mounds withfew sponge body fossils. Even the researchers working in spongemounds attributed the stromatactis-like cavities in these mounds toother processes, like internal erosion, cavitation or they consideredthem as shelter porosity (cf. Matyszkiewicz, 1993; Leinfelder andKeupp,1995; Delecat and Reitner, 2005). The supporters of the spongetheory looked for indirect proofs, like microbial cementationresponsible for the micropeloidal (clotted) fabrics of the so calledautomicrite that dominates the mud-mounds. Sponges containsymbiontic microbes which contribute to their metabolic processes(Reitner et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2001). These microbes are believed toplay an important role also in post-mortem decay and earlycalcification of sponge tissues. Therefore, micropeloidal fabrics ofthe host rocks in stromatactis mud-mounds are attributed to this mass“inoculation” by symbiontic microbes. However, still uncertain is their

role in formation of the sparry masses. There were some notes in theliterature which interpreted the origin of RFC as happening at theexpense of decaying tissues or an organicmatter (Monty,1982;Monty,1995). In the cases presented in this paper, no evidence of suchprocesses has been observed, despite earlier opinions of Aubrechtet al. (2002b). In the context of the new findings it seems plausiblethat the RFC filled empty collapsed cavities after sponges. Cavitieswere empty prior to being filled with radiaxial fibrous calcite, asevidenced by the presence of cave-dwelling ostracods trapped in theRFC which were found at two sections (cf. Schmid et al., 2001;Aubrecht et al., 2002b) and seawater isotope signatures of many RFCcalcites. Rarely preserved pores or borings within the RFC filling(Fig. 14C) may be interpreted as the evidence that the observedstromatactis did not represent just shelter cavities below flat spongesbut the structures actually represent molds after their decayed bodies.To remain preserved, sediment fillings of the pores and/or boringsshould be at least slightly lithified prior to the decay. Such filling maybe also responsible for the presence of “floating” allochems andsediment islets surrounded by RFC. Early lithification of the covering

Fig. 12. Casts after siliceous sponges on the upper surfaces of the weathered-out RFC fillings of the stromatactis cavities at Slavnické Podhorie.

Fig. 11. (A) Centre of a stromatactis cavity filled with twinned clear blocky calcite, overlying the inclusion-rich radiaxial fibrous calcite. Babiná. (B) CL image of the cavity with sparfilling. Asymmetric geopetal initial overgrowth of the blocky calcite indicates cementation in vadose zone.


Fig. 13. Relationship between the weathered casts of siliceous sponges (capital letters) and the corresponding cross-sections in slabs (small letters). The corresponding weatheredsurfaces aremarkedwith arrows in the slabs. The cross-sections display actual stromatactis shape and composition (relatively flat bottoms and digitate upper parts, RFC initial fillingsand eventual blocky calcite later filling). Slavnické Podhorie.


sediment is also the only way how to explain preservation of the castsby the radiaxial fibrous calcite.

Big effort has been also spent on looking for the evidence by studyof siliceous sponges fossilization (Neuweiler and Burdige, 2005;Delecat and Reitner, 2005; Neuweiler et al., 2007; Reolid, 2007). Ourresults suggest that stromatactis is one of the results of the spongetaphonomy. They represent a special case of post-mortem structuresas correctly suggested by Neuweiler et al. (2001). The origin ofstromatactis is in contrast to in-situ preservation, or “mummification”via calcification of soft tissues syn-vivo, or early post-mortem(Neuweiler and Burdige, 2005; Neuweiler et al., 2007). The “mummi-fication” is an opposite end member in the spectrum of spongepreservation and is common for instance for the Late Jurassic spongereefs in Poland and southern Germany (cf. Matyszkiewicz, 1993;Leinfelder and Keupp, 1995). Excluding the sponge casts preserved onthe surface of the RFC filling, the earlier presence of sponges is almostcompletely obliterated. This is emphasized by the fact that the cavitiesafter sponges collapsed and thus any original shape of the deadorganism was deformed. The δ13C and δ18O values of the hosts rocksand the initial spar filling, do not show any biofractionation thatwould suggest their biogenic origin; these components predomi-nantly show a normal seawater isotope ratio (e.g. Kaufmann, 1997),

except of some special examples where the samples were obviouslyaffected by methanogenesis (Belka, 1998). The casts on the stroma-tactis surfaces are therefore the only feature which betray their origin.

8. Conclusions

1. Four sections of Middle Jurassic stromatactis mud-mounds wererevealed in the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Western and EasternCarpathians). The stromatactis-bearing rocks are mostly bioclasticlimestones, wackestones to packstones, with micropeloidal matrix.The stromatactis sometimes bear signs of partial filling bysediment. This way, aborted and inhibited stromatactis originated(sensu Neuweiler et al., 2001).

2. Spicules and skeletons of siliceous sponges are ubiquitous in all thesections. At Priborzhavskoe Quarry, a breccia with clasts containingskeletons of siliceous sponges accompanies the beds with stroma-tactis sctructures.

3. At Slavnické Podhorie, most of the upper surfaces of the weatheredout RFC stromatactis spar filling display casts after siliceoussponges. This is a direct evidence about the sponge origin ofstromatactis. The stromatactis cavities originated due to decay ofdead sponges, as suggested by Bourque and Gignac (1983), Bourque

Fig. 14. A, B — relationship between the weathered sponges and the corresponding cross-sections (as previous). C — Stromatactis with some original sponge structures preserved(pores, or borings — marked by arrows). c — Thin-section microphotograph of the previous sample showing relic pores (arrows) surrounded by radiaxial calcite.

Fig. 15. Crossplot of the carbon and oxygen isotope values (δ18O vs. δ13C) of individual rock components. SP — results from Slavincké Podhorie.


Table 1Carbon and oxygen isotope composition of individual rock components

Location Sample δ13C(PDB) δ18O (PDB) Lithology

Babina B/str1/B 3.7 −0.3 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)B/str3/C 2 −21 Internal micriteB/str3/B 1.5 −2 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)B/str3/A 1.5 −0.6 Host-rock

Slavnicke Podhorie P-rm1 0.9 −1.8 Host-rockP-cm1 0.1 −4.7 Host-rockP-cm2 1.0 −1.7 Host-rockP-zm1 2.2 0.3 Host-rockP-zm2 1.6 −1.1 Host-rockP-RFC-1 1.7 −3.5 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P-RFC-2 0.9 −4.9 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P-RFC-3 2.0 −2.0 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P-RFC-4 1.1 −1.4 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P-rs1 1.3 −1.5 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P-rs2 1.1 −2.0 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P-rs3 1.3 −2.5 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P-bs1 1.3 −4.1 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P-bs2 1.0 −3.3 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P-bs3 1.4 −3.3 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P-bs4 1.0 −4.0 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P-bs5 1.7 −3.5 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P-kz1 −0.1 −5.8 Blocky sparite (calcite veinlet)P-kz2 −0.3 −5.7 Blocky sparite (calcite veinlet)P-b1 0.5 −2.8 Brachiopod shellP-b2 1.3 −3.0 Brachiopod shellP-b3 0.6 −3.0 Brachiopod shell

Priborzhavskoe P1 2.35 −2.73 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P2 2.41 −0.18 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P3 2.73 0.31 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P4 3.45 0.35 Host-rockP5 1.81 −1.04 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P6 2.9 0.38 Brachiopod shellP7 2.81 −0.58 Brachiopod shellP8 3.29 0.4 Brachiopod shellP9 2.73 −0.06 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P10 2.87 0.52 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P11 3.36 0.29 Host-rockP12 2.41 0.85 Host-rockP13 2.67 0.37 Host-rockP14 2.36 0 Blocky sparite (calcite veinlet)P15 2.66 −0.15 Blocky sparite (cavity centre)P16 2.73 0.04 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)P17 3.4 0.38 Host-rockP18 3.32 0.66 Internal micriteP19 2.73 0.1 Internal micriteP20 3.35 0.89 Host-rock

Velyky Kamenets VK21 2.17 −0.87 Host-rockVK22 2.41 −0.19 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)VK23 2.79 0.11 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)VK24 2.71 0.22 Host-rockVK25 2.55 −0.78 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)VK26 2.82 0.46 Host-rockVK27 1.25 −3.05 Internal micriteVK28 2.98 −0.64 Internal micriteVK29 2.55 −2.8 Host-rockVK30 2.41 −2.51 Radiaxial fibrous calcite (RFC)

Data from Slavincké Podhorie after Aubrecht et al. (2002b).


and Boulvain (1993) and by Neuweiler et al. (2001). The spongestructures were completely obliterated and the cavities collapsed.The surface casts are the only phenomena which betray theorganisms responsible for their origin.

Acknowledgements

This article is dedicated to Pierre-André Bourque who was the firstwho introduced the sponge-theory about the stromatactis origin but,unfortunately, could not see these results. The authors wish to expresstheir thanks to Prof. Brian Pratt (University of Saskatchewan, Canada)and Prof. MalcolmW. Wallace (University of Melbourne, Australia) fortheir thorough review of an earlier version of the manuscript. Their

critical comments considerably helped to improve quality of thispaper. The research benefited from grants provided by VEGA agency(Grant No. 1/2027/05), APVV agency (Grants No. 0465-06 and 0280-07) and NATO (Grant ST.CLG.980120).

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