Chapter 4: Van chai in fisheries village development and management in Binh Thuan Province

 Kenneth Ruddle and Luong Thanh Son

Abstract Coastal fishing villages are abundant in the central coast province of Binh Thuan, where van chai have existed for about 300 years, since pioneer fishers settled in Phan Thiet. Nowadays there more than 30 coastal van chai in the province. These include the nationally renowned Van Thuy Tu shrine, the largest and oldest fishery temple in Binh Thuan Province, which attracts many visitors. Despite experiencing profound social change, the van chai have been maintained by their communities, since they are basic to both fisheries production and the social and spiritual life of their communities. In this chapter we provide a brief history of the van chai in Binh Thuan Province, and analyze their management and spiritual role, based mainly on the case of Van Thuy Tu, located in Duc Thang Ward, Phan Thiet. Introduction

During the establishment and development of Binh Thuan fisheries, van chai played a crucial role in the organization, management and operation of production activities and in fostering the religion and culture of coastal fishing communities. More than 30 van chai are located along the coast of Binh Thuan Province. Among them is the Dinh Van Thuy Tu (Van Thuy Tu Whale Temple), now an important tourist attraction, and the oldest and largest temple in the province.

The shrine at Van Thuy Tu illustrates the historical processes at work. In the late-17th century, the southern borders of what is now Vietnam were in Binh Thuan Province, around present-day Phan Thiet. To stabilize the frontier in newly conquered territory, the Nguyen kings brought many settlers from the northern provinces of the Ngu Quang Region. The first such settlers gathered in the Phan Thiet area at what is now Duc Thang Ward, where general rural occupations gradually gave way as the marine fishery developed. The van started in 1697, and so now has just over 300 years of history as an association (People’s Committee Binh Thuan Province, 1995; Ruddle, 1998). The Van Thuy Tu shrine was established in the winter of 1762.9 It initially functioned as a shrine to village deities and ancestors, but as the sea fishery developed that function was displaced by the worship of the Deity of the South Sea. It is also known that various kings approved the fishing rights of Van Thuy Tu in 1843 and 1887.10 A hamlet in Duc

                                                            9 This is known from Chinese characters written on the beam in the main hall of the shrine and verifiable from historical documents and other objects kept in the shrine (Troung, n.d.; Anon., 1996). 10 This is known from the original documents kept in the shrine (Anon. 1996).

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Thang Ward, the first fishing settlement in the region, is regarded as the center from which the whale cult disseminated in Binh Thuan Province.11

Management has historically been far more comprehensive than the governance of marine fisheries. As noted by the Administrative Section of Duc Thang Ward, Van Thuy Tu has assisted the local government with administration, justice, social affairs, and the maintenance of order and public security (Republic of Vietnam, 1963). This implies that a thorough understanding of the establishment history and the characteristics of the culture, management and religion of the van chai, which were interwoven tightly in the life of the fishing communities, will provide both a theoretical and practical basis for designing better fisheries management and development.

Because of the far-reaching changes occurring in both general society and the fishery, in 1963 officials of Duc Thang Ward decided to ensure that local fishery regulations and customs be handed-down systematically to future generations (Republic of Vietnam, 1963). To do this they compiled a comprehensive document consisting of 22 chapters and 114 articles dealing exclusively with the local marine fishery (Chau Thanh Village Council, 1963). That document is analyzed here. Development history of van chai in Binh Thuan Province

The development history of van chai in Binh Thuan is linked closely to fisheries development of the province, and may be divided into five periods: (1) the Feudal Era, (2) the French Colonial Period (1887-1954), (3) the American War Period (1954-1975), (4) the Collectivization Period (1975-1988), and (5) the Market-Oriented Economy Period (1988 to the present). 1. Feudal Era Generally, this period saw the foundation and spatial broadening of van chai. Some authors (Republic of Vietnam, 1963; and see this volume) confirm that the historical development of van chai in Binh Thuan Province began at the end of 17th-century, when migrant fishers from the central regions settled on the unutilized land of Phan Thiet. Fishers gathered in small clusters, which then became hamlets (xom), van and villages (lang).12 Their livelihoods depended mainly on capture fisheries and fish processing. Under the Nguyen Dynasty, especially during the reigns of the kings from Minh Mang to Tu Đuc (1820-1883), royal settlement policies encouraged more fishers from the north to settle in Binh Thuan Province. As a result, the populations in sandy and coastal areas increased, and villages like La Gan, Phan Ri, Mui Ne, Pho Hai, Phan Thiet, and La Gi developed.

                                                            11 In the main hall of the shrine the originator (sage) of the fishery at Duc Thang Ward village is worshipped as the originator of all fishing villages in Binh Thuan Province (Ruddle, 1998).

12 The initial coastal fishing communities were established in at Binh Thạnh, Binh Thiện, Quan Thi, Hon Nghe, Mui Ne, Xom Tram, Kim Thanh, Xom Ray, and Cay Gang, among others.

 

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Concurrently with the establishment and development of fishing communities along the coast, each in-migrant community cluster established a van chai to worship the Whale God (Ca Voi). These reflected the traditional folk and professional beliefs of their home regions, and resulted in the intensification of mutual respect and assistance within the fishing community. Dozens of temples (dinh van) in van chai were established, mostly in the 18th – 19th centuries, and were closely connected with the formation of communities and foundation of fishing villages.13 The van chai was the first socio-occupational organization in a new settlement, having been established ahead of village and commune governments. 2. The French Colonial Period (1887-1954) This is divisible into two periods; one is 1887-1845, and the other from August, 1945 until 1954. In general, marine capture fisheries in Binh Thuan Province became much better established and developed during the period 1887-1945 than during the Nguyen Dynasty. During the French colonial period, the van chai made a major contribution to the general development of fisheries, despite being small in scale and continuing to use small gear and boats, including rafts and coracles, and fish processing based on traditional technology. However, owing to the strong cohesion and mutual assistance of the van chai, fisheries were promoted, based on the abundant local resources.14 Fisheries activities were halted from August 1945 to 1954 when fishers were prohibited from working, to prevent them assisting the revolution. 3. American war period (1954-1975)

The government of the former Republic of South Vietnam promulgated many policies to modernize fisheries, including motorization and establishment of a fishing infrastructure. Fisheries expanded during this period, and the van chai played an important role in the process. In 1963, the total number of vessels of Binh Thuan was 4,637. That number increased to 8,269 by 1972, when they employed 31,129 laborers (Anon, 2005a). 4. Collectivization period (1975 - 1988)

Following national reunification, fishing vessels were put under public ownership. Fishery cooperatives were developed by the State, so the role and operations of van chai was overshadowed, and many van temples deteriorated from neglect.

                                                            13 Typical are Thuy Tu, Nam Nghia, Khanh Long, Hiep Hung, Nam Hai, Thach Long, Khanh Thien, among many others. In Phan Thiet city, there are many, like Long Hai, Hội Van Lach, Phuoc The, Ha Thuy, Ta Tan, Hiep Đuc, Nam Phu, Nam Thuan Thanh, Lang Ong Nam Hai, Lang Ong Bac, in Tuy Phong District; Thien Ai in Bac Binh District; Phuoc Loc, Tan Long, Tan Phu, Xom Ray in La Gi downtown; An Thanh, An Than, among others, in Phu Quy Island District. 14 For example, the production of fish sauce increased from 3.7 million liters in 1895, to 40 million liters in 1930 (Anon, 2005a).

 

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5. Market-oriented economy period (1988 to present)

Investment in the sector was renewed with the implementation of policies to revive fisheries. However, after a long period of idleness during the Collectivization Period many van chai had become derelict. In recent years the Government has made many attempts to preserve or revive national cultural identity, based on van chai. This has included support for rebuilding or repairing Whale temples, and re-organization of fishing community festivals. As a result, many large and key temples have been reconstructed, and gradually the role of van chai has revived. The fishing communities welcomed such positive changes. However, so far the activities of van chai have focused mainly on cultural and religious traditions, rather than on their important roles in community cohesion and in the organization, management and development of fisheries production and resource protection. The structure of van chai-based fisheries management in Vietnam

Although the details vary considerably by locality, the underlying principles of the veneration of deities and ancestors, combined with the sacred obligations of mutual assistance, remain all pervasive. The sections that follow are based on the comprehensive data from Van Thuy Tu.

The principal objectives of van chai system were (1) shrine management and the conduct of ceremonies; (2) mutual assistance among fishers; (3) specification of the behavior, rights and obligations of fishing boat owners, captains and crew members; (4) disposal of the catch; (5) governance of fishing operations; (6) specification of the rules for the main gear types (pertaining mainly to eligibility, seasonality and profit-sharing); (7) conciliation of fisheries conflicts, the resolution of which is not stipulated in current local rules or higher laws; and (8) sanctions (punishment) (Ruddle, 1998).

Van administration

An elderly man of high prestige and with a profound understanding of local society and fishing usually heads a van chai. At Van Thuy Tu the administrative committee is com-posed of 7-15 members, elected to a three-year term of office. All boat-owners and fishers 18 years-of-age or older elect them, and all over 21 years old can run for election. The elected administrators themselves elect the three heads of the sub-sections of administration that manage routine affairs. These are the Head of worship, Head of the van, and Secretary of the van.

Van administrators have four main duties. These are: (1) worship of the Sea Deities; (2) assisting the local government to implement the orders of higher levels of government; (3) in concert with the Hamlet Council, settling fisheries disputes among fishers; and (4) investigating the needs of the fishing community and assisting the government to fulfill them.

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Mutual assistance

The linkage between festivals and mutual assistance in the codification document of Van Thuy Tu implies that mutual assistance is a sacred duty of van members (Republic of Vietnam, 1963). It demonstrates the traditional moral authority of the van. It is reiterated within the document that the Sea Deities must be solemnly and sincerely worshipped by owners of fishing boats and fishers.

Mutual assistance obligations are specified in detail. They are divided into three groups of rules: (1) those applied at sea, (2) those pertaining to a bereaved fishing family, and (3) those pertaining to substitute crewmembers. If an accident occurs at sea, boat-owners and fishing boat crews must try first to save the crew, and then the boat and gear. Those who do not would be punished by the court. When requested by a boat-owner, the van organizes emergency searches for accident victims. If a fisher dies at sea during the fishing season, the van must try to supplement government assistance to the bereaved family. The family is allocated food, boat-owners are enjoined from claiming the dead fishers' loans or advances, and the victims' parents, wife or children are entitled to his share of catch proceeds. The boat-owner pays the funeral expenses. To maintain a proper crew size, boat-owners are obliged to seek substitute members for those lost at sea. The boat-owner is required to pay their hiring expenses (i.e., wages, advances or loans) (Ruddle, 1998). Rules A fundamentally important set of rules defined relationships among boat-owners, captains and crewmembers. These are strenuously enforced to ensure harmony in the fishing community. Operational rules govern fishing behavior, gear externalities, assign-ment issues, fishing behavior and temporal allocation of space, seasonality of fishing, conservation practices, and distribution of the catch within the community (Ruddle, 1998). (1) Rules pertaining to relationships among boat-owners, captains and crew.

Several rules cover boat-owners' behavior when seeking to hire a captain and crew. First they are required to know for whom the captain and crewmembers worked during the previous season. They are forbidden to offer enticements to lure men away from other boat-owners, and must not compete to hire a captain and crew.

Formerly at Van Thuy Tu all contractual rules regarding the rights and obligations of crewmembers concerned cash advances and loans from the boat-owner. Such financial arrangements are still made, but maximum amounts allowable are no longer set by van rules (Ruddle, 1998). Contracts specify the following three types of financial arrangement. (1) Before starting work for the year, crewmembers are entitled to an interest-free cash advance to cover their family's expenses. This is repaid by deduction from each crewmember's share of the profit from the entire fishing season. In a poor season, where the individual crewmember’s share of the profit is less than the amount

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advanced, repayment must be made by either signing-on with the same boat-owner for the following year, or by obtaining a loan from another boat-owner to repay the advance in full. (2) Crewmembers can obtain an interest-free cash loan from a boat-owner who is unable to make an advance. Such loans must be repaid in cash, but are not subject to deduction from shares of the fishing season's profit. (3) Crewmembers who receive advances or loans, but who fail to fulfill their contracted duties, are required to make repayment in full. They are not entitled to wages. A captain's rights and obligations to loans and advances are the same as for crewmembers, except that the maximum amounts allowed are double.

Captains and crewmembers are admonished to cooperate closely in the conduct of fishing operations. Those who become drunk then argue and fight, or who quit fishing during the contract period, and thus interrupt smooth fishing operations, are taken to the authorities for punishment. The same rule is applied to crewmembers who importune several boat owners for loans, as well as to "stubborn and bad-mannered captains and crewmembers" (Chau Thanh Village Council, 1963).

Captains and crewmembers are also required to maintain gear. If intentional damage to gear can be proven, the expense of repairs is covered temporarily by the van, and later deducted from the profit share of the guilty person(s). Such persons may also be subject to criminal proceedings.

Captains and crewmembers are required to work for the entire fishing season. However, despite having signed an annual contract, early resignation can be accepted. In such a case, they must seek an acceptable substitute person, and also repay all advances and loans. If not they could be tried, and forced to compensate the boat-owner, captain and fellow crewmembers.

Provision is made for illness. Captains and crewmembers are entitled to five days sick leave per season, with an additional five days if the illness is both serious and clearly work-related. Under normal sea conditions, other crewmembers will cover for a sick colleague for up to ten days. However, when seas are heavy, the van is required to hire a substitute. If a person is on sick leave for more than ten days, he must himself hire a substitute, in order to remain entitled to his full share of the season's profit. (2) Operational Rules Detailed rules were applied to the main gear types used. These pertained mostly to eligibility, seasonality and profit sharing among boat-owners, captains and crew. The overriding principle of eligibility rules is that boat-owners are eligible to participate in a given fishery if they can supply the requisite number of boats and gear, as well as meet all expenses for the entire season. The details of profit sharing among boat-owners, captains and crewmembers vary by gear type. They are summarized in Table 4.1.

Further detailed rules are applied to some gears, and particularly to the fixed sardine net. At Van Thuy Tu special rules were applied to the sardine net, because, being a major fishery and employing a fixed fish sheltering device, there was a greater inherent potential for conflict than with other gear types. The sardine net comprised a fixed floating fish shelter made of bamboo, branches and palm fronds, and anchored with

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ropes and rocks. Since this gear targeted an important fishery (sardine, the basis of the local fermented fish sauce [nuoc mam] industry), it was governed by an elaborate and specific set of rules. These pertained to eligibility, fishing season, territory, conservation, outsider's rights, removal of fish shelters, monitoring, expenses, accounting, and catch-sharing (Table 4.2).

Table 4.1: Profit sharing Rules by Gear Type at Van Thuy Tu, Binh Thuan Province Gear Type Profit Sharing

Gizzard Shad Net

50-50 owner and captain-crew; captain of forward boat 2 shares, captain of rear boat 1.5 shares, crew 1 share each

Drag net Two types: 50-50 owner and captain-crew, and 40-60, respectively. Captain of forward boat 2 parts and of rear boat 1.5 parts

Small drag net 30-70 owner-captain and crew. Captain takes 1.5 shared, crew 1 share

Trawl 50-50 owner-captain and crew. Captain gets 1.5 shares, crew divide balance equally

Purse seine 40-60, owner-captain-crew Sea crab net Each member keeps income from own net; boat-owner gives 10% of

his receipts to helper (who has no gear); crew give 10% of receipts to boat-owner and 10% to helper

Nylon net Each person keeps income from own net and pays 15% of receipts to boat-owner

Shell-fishing Equal division among boat owner and two cooperating crew member Hand-lining Boat-owner takes 15% of receipts from each day's catch Fixed gear Each participant entitled to receipts from own gear (Source: Ruddle 1998, based on field survey data obtained in 1995-96.)

If rights are to be meaningful, provision must be made within the system for monitoring compliance with rules, and back-up this by imposing sanctions on violators. At Van Thuy Tu the fishers, who were required to report to the van officers any violations concerning the location of fish shelters or lack of maintenance, monitored the sardine net fishery.

Further van rules governed the use of the sardine net, so crucial to the traditional econ-omy of Phan Thiet. A detailed contract had to be drawn-up at the beginning of the fishing season at a special meeting of captain and crewmembers. Details of the season's work assignment, rewards, punishments, rations, and the like had to be specified, and the agreement recorded in a minutes of the meeting. A detailed record of expenses and other accounts was required. To avoid conflict, each fishing unit had to employ a bookkeeper, who could be neither a family member nor relative of the boat-owner, captain or any crewmember, to maintain "clear and impartial" accounts for the season. The bookkeeper was paid with 3% of the season's profits, as was the person in charge of selling fish and collecting sales money. As a further safeguard, the boat-owner and crewmembers had keep an account book for comparison.

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Table 4.2: Rules Applied Specifically to the Sardine Net at Van Thuy Tu Object Rule

Eligibility Only boats that constructed a fish shelter and set the net could fish, unless the owner had permitted use of the site (see below). To be eligible a boat must construct at least one shelter.

Fishing season The season opened from the first lunar month, except for late-entrants who begin in the fifth month, and ended on the fifth day of the ninth month, when the season's income was shared. If abundant fish remained and sea and weather conditions were still favorable, fishing could continue. The same sharing rules as for the main season governed the income from this extended season.

Territory To avoid gear conflict, individual nets must separated by at least 300 m. Net owners had to mark their sites with a distinctive sign. Users of other gear, particularly nylon nets, seine nets and baited-lines, were forbidden from fishing around the sardine nets belonging to others.

Conservation Attractor lights were forbidden because, although a large catch would be made on the first night, thereafter few fish could be caught. Blast fishing was prohibited.

Outsider's rights Boats that had set their own Sardine net had the right to fish from another's site. However, as soon as the boat that "owned" the site approached and signaled, an outsider boat had to cease fishing immediately. Should the outsider fail to comply immediately, and delay the owner's fishing, the latter could claim the entire catch from its site from the outsider. However, the owner was forbidden to take any direct punitive action at sea.

Removal shelters So the entire community could benefit, rules governed the removal of shelters at the end of the fishing season. Fishers could remove only their own fish shelter; shelters could not be removed before the 21st day of the ninth lunar month, in case others wished to continue fishing after the season closure, on the fifth day; and fishers who stopped fishing before the end of the season had to leave their shelters intact until the 21st day of the ninth month, for the use of others.

Source: Chau Thanh Village Council, 1963; Ruddle, 1998. . Religious and cultural functions of van chai

Whale temples are traditional institutions where fishers worship their marine gods, together with their ancestors who developed and managed the community’s fisheries. Most temples in Binh Thuan Province are dedicated to the whale, and ceremonies are conducted there to venerate it. The whale is referred to using such reverential terms as “Ông Nam Hải” (Lord of the Southern Sea), “Ong Chuong” (Lord Bell), “Ong Long” (Lord of the Nearshore), or “Ong Khoi” (Lord of the Offshore), among others. Fishers

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believe that the whale is the deity who protects men at sea, so they venerate the whale to demonstrate their gratitude.

A major function of van administrators is the maintenance of the shrine and conduct of festivals and routine ritual performance, including the rites for new "whale" carcasses encountered by van members. Members of the committee are responsible for ensuring the appropriate treatment of "whale" carcasses. "Whales" washed ashore are buried close to the shrine for two or three years. (In former times, the van committee was in mourning until the bones were disinterred.) They are then disinterred, cleaned and placed in containers in the shrine. The skeletons are kept in separate containers, one set containing the bones of just one animal. A whale skeleton 22 m long and estimated to weigh 65 tons, among some 100 other skeletons, is on display at the Van Thuy Tu temple.

Festivals

The number and scheduling of shrine festivals varies by van, but most are held in the Spring and Fall, according to lunar reckoning. Information is most complete for the Van Thuy Tu where festivals for the worship of the Sea Gods are performed five times each year during two-day festivals, on the 20th and 21st days of the lunar month. These are the "Spring Festival" (2nd month), the "Summer Festival" (4th month) to mark the beginning of the Southwest Monsoon or the main fishing season, the "Autumn Festival" (6th month), the "Praying for Fish Festival" (7th month), and the "Close of the Southwest Monsoon Fishing or Transition Season" (8th month). Additional festivals are organized as required to pray for fish, when a dead "whale" is encountered, or when the annual fish catch is very poor (Anon. 2005b; Anon 2006).

The rituals performed at these festivals are of deep significance, since they emphasize the importance of harmonious relationships among the various stakeholders in the fishery, and the vital importance of mutual assistance, both of which ensure the continued prosperity of the community and thereby venerate the ancestors. For example, the rituals of the "Praying for Fish Festival" include display of the royal diplomas sanctioning the van,15 a procession of fishing boats decorated with flags, gongs, proces-sional parasols, musical instruments to invite the "whale" to witness the festival, rituals of veneration for the God of the South Sea, the Originator of the Fishery, the Sea Goddess, Antecedent Sages, and the Souls of the Ancestors, and, as the centerpiece of the festival, performance the Ba trao traditional operetta. This morality play interweaves three themes stressing the community's traditional values. These are (1) that by combining the intercession of supernatural forces with their own diligence and sacrifice, the community's ancestors could create a vibrant economic and social life under harsh frontier zone conditions; (2) the life of a fisher is hard and dangerous, so if the fishing community's aspiration for a comfortable and prosperous life is to be realized, a spirit of

                                                            15 Many whale temples of Binh Thuan Province have preserved the Nguyen dynasty documents by which the king conferred on the temple title to the fishery. For example, Van Thuy Tu now keeps 24 sheets by Kings Thieu Tri, Tu Đuc, Dong Khanh, Duy Tan, and Khai Dinh. The Ta Tan temple in Phan Ri has 16, and An Thanh temple in Phu Quy has 5 title sheets.

 

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unity, attachment, benevolence, righteousness, and affection among all persons in the fishery is essential; and (3) the benevolence of the "whale" saves human life at sea (Ruddle, 1998).

Together, these three themes sanction the moral authority of the van. In particular they emphasize especially the moral obligation for mutual assistance and community solidarity (Republic of Vietnam, 1963).

Arrangement and architecture of van temples in Binh Thuan: Most Whale temples cover a large area in a coastal location, where they are oriented toward the south or southeast. They have a solemn appearance, and are surrounded by walls. Most are constructed from such traditional materials as wood, mortar, brick, and tile. Yin-yang tiles are used for roofing, the ground is made of Bat Trang bricks (from Hanoi), and the interior is made of wood.

The main entrance includes a wide central path and two narrower side paths, with ornaments depicting fisheries. Behind the gate is a large terrace on which funerary or veneration rites for whales (Ca Ong) and the “good catch” ceremony are conducted. There follows the flag tower, screen, Vo Ca house, Chinh Dien (central chamber), and Tien Vang (front chamber).

In the central chamber and Vo Ca house, laudatory phrases applaud the strength and holiness of the Whale God, and reflect the fishers’ gratitude to it. The central chamber normally consists of three worship chambers: the central one dedicated to the Whale, that on the left dedicated to the Male Water God, and that on the right sides dedicated to the Female Water God. The rear of the central chamber is dedicated to those persons who made great contributions to the establishment of the fishing village, the van chai and the whale temple. In the middle of the Vo Ca house is the stage for Ba Trao traditional opera and Boi singing (Hat Boi) during the annual festivals.

Discussion Since the beginning, van chai have been institutions for management, culture and religion that lie deep in the heart of coastal communities in Binh Thuan Province. For the sake of efficient management of fisheries and resource protection, fishing villages should again become the focus of attention in development. This conforms to state policies on promotion of the people’s ownership, and, at the same time, with the expectations, religious beliefs, cultural traditions, and occupations of fishing communities.

In fisheries, it is difficult to demarcate ownership for rational use. It is therefore necessary to clarify the rights and obligations of communities and the State in the management of coastal resources. Fishers directly use and benefit from the fisheries resources, so they should be responsible for their protection and management. If the rights and obligations are clear and fishers empowered, they would feel that resources are their own assets, and be willing to take responsible management measures. Along with this, the State should reduce the cost of management and improve efficiency of governance.

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To enhance the effectiveness of management and development of fisheries in Binh Thuan Province, the role of van chai should be promoted, particularly for (1) self-regulation and (2) community solidarity and mutual assistance.

Through the festivals, traditional culture and customs, professional beliefs, and van regulations, cohesion among fishers could be enhanced, community values strengthened and the common desire for better livelihoods, enhanced production and improved living conditions achieved. That would also contribute to preservation and promotion of typical cultural characteristics of coastal communities in Vietnam.

To enhance the effectiveness and development of production under current economic conditions, producers would benefit from close links with each other and cooperation with other economic sectors. By linking with other organizations, the van chai would be qualified for joint activities in sea fishing, resource conservation, and all other aspects of the fisheries business. State policies and regulations on aquatic resources protection and exploitation, information on technology and science, and information and procedures for the mitigation of natural disasters and safety at sea, as well as on prices and markets should be disseminated to the fishers through the van chai, with feedback routed along the same channels.

Van chai are old-established socio-occupational organizations, based on the voluntary participation by fishers. Leading a van chai is an elderly man with high prestige and knowledge. Fishers usually respect their van regulations, and this is the basis for the management of fishing activities. Through the activities of a van chai, government could understand the expectations and needs of fishers, and, based on that, could develop appropriate plans and effectively implement policies and programs related to fisheries and rehabilitation of coastal aquatic resources. References Anon. 1996. Van Thuy Tu temple profile (unpublished report). Documentation on nat-ional cultural relicts proposal. Phan Thiet: Binh Thuan People's Committee (in Viet-namese).

Anon, 2005a. Binh Thuan Geography (unpublished report). Phan Thiet: Binh Thuan People’s Committee (in Vietnamese).

Anon. 2005b. Papers of the organizing committees of the Good-catch Ceremony, Binh Thuan Province. (unpublished report) Phan Thiet: The Organizing Committee (in Vietnamese).

Anon. 2006. Good-catch rituals of Binh Thuan fishers: (unpublished report of the scientific research project of the Ministry of Culture and Information on the preservation and promotion of intangible cultural values), Phan Thiet: Binh Thuan Museum (in Vietnamese).

Chau Thanh Village Council. 1963. On the compilation of village regulations, Official Note No. 982/ACL (May 17, 1963), Phan Thiet: Chau Thanh Village Council (in Vietnamese).

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Republic of Vietnam. 1963. Minutes: Seminar on amendment to professional rules concerning the sea fishery of Van Thuy Tu. Phan Thiet: retained by Duc Thang Ward. Phan Thiet: Duc Thang Ward Office (in Vietnamese).

Ruddle, Kenneth. 1998. Traditional community-based coastal marine fisheries management in Viet Nam. Ocean & Coastal Management 40: 1-22.

Truong Cong Ly. n.d. Van Thuy Tu, the temple in Duc Thang Ward. Unpublished manuscript, Phan Thiet: retained by author (in Vietnamese).

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Photo 4.1: Main buildings of Van Thuy Tu before restoration, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province (Kenneth Ruddle, 1995)

Photo 4.2. The van Binh An, Mui-Ne Ward, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province

(Kenneth Ruddle, 1995)

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Photo 4.3. Roof ornaments at van Binh An, Mui-Ne Ward, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province (Kenneth Ruddle, 1995)

Photo 4.4: New grave of a small cetacean at the van Binh An, Mui-Ne Ward, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province (Kenneth Ruddle, 1995)

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Photos 4.5 and 4.6: Large whale skeleton displayed in Van Thuy Tu temple, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province (Luong Thanh Son, 2008)

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Photo 4.7: Arrangement and ornaments of main entrance, Van Thuy Tu, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province, (Luong Thanh Son, 2008)

Photo 4.8: Arrangement of terrace and flag tower, Van Thuy Tu, Phan Thiet, Binh

Thuan Province (Luong Thanh Son, 2008)

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Photo 4.9: Arrangement of Vo Ca house and central chambers, Van Thuy Tu, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province (Luong Thanh Son, 2008)

Photo 4.10: Offerings in the central chamber, Van Thuy Tu, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan

Province (Luong Thanh Son 2008)

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Photo 4.11: Leng Ong Thuy (Altar for the Male Water God), Van Thuy Tu, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province (Kenneth Ruddle, 1995)

Photo 4.12 : Offerings in front of Leng Ong Thuy (Altar for the Male Water God),

Van Thuy Tu, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province (Kenneth Ruddle, 1995)

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Photo 4.13: Lenh Ong Ba (Altar for the Female Water God), Van Thuy Tu, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province

(KennethRuddle,1995)

Photo 4.14: To Nghe Bien (Altar for the Ancestors of the Fishers), Van Thuy Tu, Phan Thiet, Binh Thuan Province

(Kenneth Ruddle, 1995)

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