Use of a Changeover Key to Train Serial Learning in the Pigeon

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Master's Theses Graduate College

12-1986

Use of a Changeover Key to Train Serial Learning in the Pigeon Use of a Changeover Key to Train Serial Learning in the Pigeon

Rhoda Kay Yutzy-Ryan

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USE OF A CHANGEOVER KEY TO TRAIN SERIAL LEARNING IN THE PIGEON

//

b y

Rhoda Kay Y u tzy -R y an

A T h e s i s S u b m it te d t o t h e

F a c u l ty o f The G ra d u a te C o l le g e i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e

r e q u i r e m e n ts f o r t h e D eg ree o f M a s te r o f A r t s D e p a rtm en t o f P s y c h o lo g y

W e s te rn M ic h ig a n U n i v e r s i t y K a lam azo o , M ich ig an

D ecem ber 1986

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.


R hoda Kay Y u tz y -R y an , M.A.

W e s te rn M ich ig an U n i v e r s i t y , 1986/

T h re e p ig e o n s w e re p r e s e n t e d w i th a s e r i a l l e a r n i n g

t a s k i n v o l v i n g a s e q u e n c e o f t h r e e c o l o r s : y e l lo w , g re e n

a n d r e d . The c o l o r s a p p e a re d o n a l i t k e y one a t a t im e

i n random o r d e r . T he p ig e o n s w e re r e q u i r e d t o p e c k th e

c o l o r s i n t h e c o r r e c t o r d e r a n d t o u s e a s e c o n d l i t key

( t h e c h a n g e o v e r k ey ) t o c h a n g e t h e c o l o r w hen i t w as i n

c o r r e c t . T he d a t a show t h a t t h e p ig e o n s w e re a b l e t o

l e a r n t h e t a s k an d g e n e r a l i z e t o n o v e l a r r a y s a t a h ig h

l e v e l o f a c c u r a c y . T h is e x te n d s t h e f i n d i n g s o n s e r i a l

l e a r n i n g w i th p ig e o n s to a ty p e o f s e q u e n c e w h ere t h e

c o r r e c t s t i m u l i a r e n o t a l l p r e s e n t a t t h e same t im e ,

sh o w in g t h a t t h e b i r d s a r e c a p a b le o f l e a r n i n g a n e v e n

m o re co m p lex t a s k t h a n p r e v i o u s l y s t u d i e d , an d p r o v id i n g

an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r f u r t h e r nonhum an r e s e a r c h on an im

p o r t a n t ty p e o f human b e h a v io r .


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C o p y r ig h t b y R hoda Kay Y u tz y -R y a n

1986


TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF T A B L E S ... . ................... i i i

LIST OF FIGURES. .............. i v

INTRODUCTION .......................... 1/

S e r i a l L e a r n in g ................................ 1

The C h an g eo v er . P r o c e d u r e ................. 13

METHOD......................................... 15

S u b j e c t s . ........................... .15

A p p a r a tu s ................................ . . 1 5

P r o c e d u r e . .................................... 17

T e rm in a l E x p e r im e n ta l T a s k ............................. .. .......................17

T r a i n i n g C o n d i t i o n . . . . J .............................. 19

C o n d i t io n I ( F i r s t G e n e r a l i z a t i o n C o n d i t i o n ) ..............24

C o n d i t io n I I ( F i n a l G e n e r a l i z a t i o n C o n d i t i o n ) . . . . 2 5

RESULTS ........................... . . . . 2 6

C o lo r E r r o r s ............................. . . 2 7

L a t e n c i e s . . . . . ............................. 30

DISCUSSION................... 33

BIBLIOGRAPHY................... 37

i i

F ' ■ ' . . . ; . ■Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

LIST OF TABLES

1 . S e q u e n c e s o f C o lo r s D u rin g E ach E x p e r im e n ta l C o n d i t io n ............... . . . ................ .2 0

2 . A v erag e P e r c e n t o f C o r r e c t C o lo r C h o ic e s f o rE ach S eq u en ce . ............ . . . . . .................. 31

/

3 . A v e ra g e , H ig h a n d Low L a te n c i e s t o C o r r e c tan d I n c o r r e c t C h o ic e s 3 2

i i i


LIST OF FIGURES

1 . S c h e m a tic D raw ing o f t h e E x p e r im e n ta l P a n e la s V iew ed b y t h e S u b j e c t s . .............. .1 6

2 . P e r c e n ta g e o f C o r r e c t C h o ic e s and C o r r e c t T r i a l s f o r Each S u b je c t D u r in g S e q u e n c e s1 , 2 a n d 3 o f t h e T r a in i n g C o n d i t i o n . ..............28

3 . P e r c e n ta g e o f C o r r e c t C h o ic e s and C o r r e c t T r i a l s f o r E ach S u b je c t D u r in g C o n d i t io n sI an d I I ................. 29

i v


INTRODUCTION

S e r i a l L e a r n in g

. Much co m p lex human b e h a v io r c o n s i s t s o f s e q u e n c e s o f

r e s p o n s e s w h e re t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e s e q u e n c e (w h ich

ty p e o f r e s p o n s e o c c u r s f i r s t , w h ic h n e x t , e t c . ) d ep en d s

t o some e x t e n t o n th e s p a t i a l o r te m p o r a l a r ra n g e m e n t o f

a s e q u e n c e o f s t i m u l i . The im p o r ta n c e o f some l e a r n i n g

. o f t h i s s o r t i s t h a t t h e s e q u e n c e o f b e h a v io r s c a n c o n

t i n u e t o o c c u r u n d e r a p p r o p r i a t e c i r c u m s ta n c e s e v e n i n

t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y e n v i r o n m e n ta l s e q u e n c e s o f s t i m u l i

e x c e p t t h o s e r e s u l t i n g fro m t h e o r g a n i s m 's own b e h a v io r .

Thus a c h i l d l e a r n s t o e m i t a s e q u e n c e o f v e r b a l r e s p o n

s e s c a l l e d n u m b e rs . W h a te v e r t h e s t im u lu s c o n d i t i o n s

o c c u r r i n g d u r in g l e a r n i n g , t h e v a lu e o f t h i s b e h a v io r

f o r t h e c h i l d a n d f o r o t h e r m em bers o f t h e com m unity i n

h e r e s i n t h e l a t e r o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e p r o p e r s e q u e n c e

w h ere t h e r e a r e no e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t

r e s p o n s e s o f th e s e q u e n c e .

The a n a l y s i s o f s e r i a l ( o r s e q u e n t i a l ) l e a r n i n g in

te rm s o f b a s i c b e h a v i o r a l c o n c e p ts and f u n c t i o n a l r e l a

t i o n s h a s lo n g b e e n o f i n t e r e s t t o b e h a v i o r a l l y o r i e n t e d

p s y c h o l o g i s t s . K e l l e r an d S c h o e n f e ld (1 9 5 0 ) i n c lu d e d

t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s t o p i c i n t h e i r h i g h l y i n f l u e n t i a l t e x t

b o o k , P r i n c i p l e s o f P s y c h o lo g y , w h e re t h e y d e a l t w i th su ch

1


s e q u e n t i a l b e h a v io r i n te rm s o f c h a in i n g (p p . 1 9 7 -2 3 0 ) .

I n a s im p le c h a in o f r e s p o n s e s t h e f i r s t r e s p o n s e o c c u r s

u n d e r th e c o n t r o l o f t h e a m b ie n t s t im u lu s s i t u a t i o n . T h is

r e s p o n s e th e n p ro d u c e s a s t im u lu s c h an g e w h ic h e v o k e s t h e

n e x t r e s p o n s e , w h ic h p ro d u c e s a n o th e r an d d i f f e r e n t/

s t i m u l u s c h a n g e , w h ic h e v o k e s t h e n e x t r e s p o n s e , an d s o on

u n t i l t h e l a s t r e s p o n s e i n t h e s e q u e n c e p r o d u c e s t h e t e r

m in a l r e in f o r c e m e n t c o n s id e r e d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m a in

te n a n c e o f th e s e q u e n c e . The s t i m u l u s c h a n g e s o c c u r r in g

d u r i n g t h e se q u e n c e a r e c o n s id e r e d t o f u n c t i o n a s c o n d i

t i o n e d r e in f o r c e m e n t f o r t h e r e s p o n s e t h a t p ro d u c e s them

an d a s d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l i f o r t h e n e x t r e s p o n s e i n t h e

s e q u e n c e .

An a n a l y s i s o f s e q u e n t i a l b e h a v io r i n te rm s o f c h a i n

in g i s c l e a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o many e x a m p le s o f su c h b e h a

v i o r , b u t when t h e r e s p o n s e s do n o t p ro d u c e any e n v i r o n

m e n ta l c h a n g e s , a s i n H u n t e r 's (1 9 2 0 ) te m p o ra l maze (d e

s c r i b e d l a t e r ) , o r a s w i th many k in d s o f human v e r b a l

s e q u e n c e s , th e a n a l y s i s becom es m ore d i f f i c u l t . To m a in

t a i n t h e c h a in i n g m o d e l i t h a s seem ed n e c e s s a r y t o i n f e r

t h e o c c u r r e n c e a n d f u n c t i o n o f s t i m u l i t h a t a r e n o t r e a d

i l y o b s e r v a b le , s u c h a s d i s t i n c t i v e k i n a e s t h e t i c s t i m u l i

r e s u l t i n g from t h e r e s p o n s e s th e m s e lv e s , o r e v e n l e s s

s u b s t a n t i a l (m e n ta l) r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e c o m p o s i t io n o f

t h e p r o p e r s e q u e n c e .

Human r e s e a r c h on t h i s ty p e o f l e a r n i n g i s som ew hat


d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t i n te r m s o f b a s i c b e h a v io r p r o c e s

s e s b o th b e c a u s e i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d t a s k s t h a t d o n o t

i n v o lv e e x t e n s i v e p r i o r l e a r n i n g , an d b e c a u s e t h e h u m an 's

e x t e n s i v e v e r b a l r e p e r t o i r e seem s o f t e n t o p la y a m a jo r

r o l e i n t h e l e a r n i n g . Nonhuman r e s e a r c h w i th s im p le r o r -/

g a n is m s h a s b e e n b e n e f i c i a l i n t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s tu d y o f

o t h e r phenom ena t h a t a r e c o n fo u n d e d b y th e o r d in a r y human

r e p e r t o i r e , an d w o u ld seem u s e f u l i n t h e e x p e r im e n ta l a -

n a l y s i s o f th e ty p e o f s e q u e n t i a l b e h a v io r d i s c u s s e d

a b o v e .

A t p r e s e n t a g r e a t d e a l o f b a s i c r e s e a r c h d a ta i s

a v a i l a b l e on t h e p ig e o n a s a n e x p e r im e n t a l s u b j e c t . Such

s u b j e c t s a r e i n e x p e n s iv e , e a s i l y m a in t a in e d , an d s ta n d a r d

r e s e a r c h e q u ip m e n t i s a v a i l a b l e f o r p ig e o n r e s e a r c h i n

many o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s . T h e se a n im a ls

a l s o h a v e e x c e l l e n t v i s i o n w h ic h m akes i t p o s s i b l e t o u se

h ig h q u a l i t y s t im u lu s c o n t r o l u n i t s i n d e v e lo p in g t h e

s e q u e n c e o f r e s p o n s e s . P r im a te s w o u ld be m ore l i k e h u

m an s, w hose b e h a v io r i s o f m a in i n t e r e s t , b u t p ig e o n s a r e

p re s u m a b ly s im p le r o rg a n is m s i n a d d i t i o n t o b e in g l e s s e x

p e n s iv e an d e a s i e r t o w ork w i t h .

I n w h a t i s p r o b a b ly th e f i r s t w o rk w i th p ig e o n s on

s e q u e n t i a l r e s p o n d in g t h a t , i n i t s f i n a l p h a s e s , i s n o t

e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s a fo rm o f c h a i n i n g , S t r a u b ,

S e id e n b e r g , B e v e r , a n d T e r r a c e (1 9 7 9 ) t r a i n e d t h e i r s u b

j e c t s ( u s in g a fo rw a rd c h a i n i n g p r o c e d u r e ) t o p e c k t h e


c o l o r s g r e e n , w h i t e , r e d an d b l u e i n t h a t o r d e r . A l l

c o l o r s w e re p r e s e n t e d s im u l t a n e o u s ly an d t h e p ig e o n was

r e q u i r e d t o c o r r e c t l y p e c k t h e e n t i r e s e q u e n c e b e f o r e

r e c e i v i n g r e in f o r c e m e n t . I n c o r r e c t p e c k s w e re p u n is h e d

w i th a 20 s e c o n d t im e o u t . R e p e a t p e c k s t o a c o l o r w ere/

n o t t r e a t e d a s e r r o r s a s lo n g a s th e y d id n o t v i o l a t e t h e

c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e . T r a in in g s e q u e n c e s c o n s i s t e d o f random

p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f 15 l i n e a r c o m b in a t io n s o f th e f o u r

c o l o r s . G e n e r a l i z a t i o n t r i a l s i n t r o d u c e d f o u r n o v e l

a r ra n g e m e n ts o f t h e c o l o r s .

A l l t h e p ig e o n s l e a r n e d t o r e s p o n d c o r r e c t l y t o t h e

s e q u e n c e . T he a v e r a g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t r i a l s c o r r e c t l y com

p l e t e d d u r in g th e l a s t 18 s e s s i o n s o f t r a i n i n g w as 0 .5 7

a c r o s s a l l t h r e e s u b j e c t s w i th a low o f 0 .3 6 a n d a h ig h o f

0 .7 7 . S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 ) d e te r m in e d a c h a n c e p e r fo rm

a n c e t o b e l e s s t h a n 0 .0 1 t h u s p l a c i n g t h e i r p e r fo rm a n c e

a t much g r e a t e r t h a n c h a n c e . G e n e r a l i z a t i o n t o new a r r a y s

o c c u r r e d a t 0 .3 2 p r o b a b i l i t y w i th a r a n g e from 0 .0 5 to

0 .6 7 w h ich w as s t i l l a g r e a t e r th a n c h a n c e p e r fo rm a n c e .

E r r o r s w ere a n a ly z e d i n te rm s o f l a t e n c i e s o f r e s p o n

s e s a t e a c h p o s i t i o n o f th e s e q u e n c e , b ack w ard e r r o r s

(p e c k s t o a c o l o r a l r e a d y s e l e c t e d ) a n d fo rw a rd e r r o r s

(p e c k s t o a c o l o r t h a t came l a t e r i n t h e s e q u e n c e ) . T hey

fo u n d t h a t fo rw a rd e r r o r s o c c u r r e d a t a m uch h ig h e r p e r

c e n ta g e th a n b ack w ard e r r o r s (90% a s o p p o s e d t o 10% ).

T hey a l s o fo u n d l a t e n c i e s o f fo rw a rd e r r o r s in c r e a s e d w i th


5

s e q u e n t i a l d i s t a n c e from t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . A v erag e

l a t e n c i e s o f a c o r r e c t p e c k w as 1 .0 0 s e c o n d w h i le t h e

a v e r a g e l a t e n c y o f fo r w a rd e r r o r s one rem o v ed w as 1 .9

s e c o n d s .

The r e s e a r c h o f S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 ) w as p r i m a r i l y

d i r e c t e d a t t h e w ork o f Rumbaugh a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s

(1 9 7 7 ) w h ic h seem ed t o show t h a t c h im p a n z e e s c o u ld com

p o s e an d r e a c t t o s e q u e n c e s o f v e r b a l s t i m u l i t h a t w e re

a n a lo g s o f th e human s e n t e n c e . C r i t i c s o f t h e a p e l a n

g u ag e r e s e a r c h m a in ta in e d t h a t t h e a p p a r e n t s e n te n c e s

w e re s im p ly b e h a v io r a l s e q u e n c e s t h a t h a d n o n e o f th e

l i n g u i s t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f human v e r b a l s e q u e n c e s . Some

o f t h e c h im p s ' b e h a v io r , h o w e v er, was l i k e t h e t y p i c a l

human v e r b a l s e q u e n c e i n b e in g e m i t t e d a s a s e q u e n c e

w i th o u t e a c h r e s p o n s e p r o d u c in g e x t e r n a l s t i m u l i f o r t h e

n e x t r e s p o n s e , by sh o w in g t h a t e v e n p ig e o n s c o u ld l e a r n

t o e m it s u c h s e q u e n c e s , w h ic h c o u ld n o t r e a s o n a b ly be

c a l l e d " s e n t e n c e s , " S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 ) p r o v id e d e v i

d e n c e a g a i n s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c h im p s ' b e h a v io r a s

t r u l y l i n g u i s t i c .

I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s p o s s i b l e r e l e v a n c e t o t h e ap e

la n g u a g e r e s e a r c h , S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 ) i n t e r p r e t e d t h e i r

f i n d i n g s a s s u p p o r t f o r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f t h e c o g n i t i v e

" r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " c o n s t r u c t . They c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e

p ig e o n s a b s t r a c t e d t h e c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e o f c o l o r s o r

" l e a r n e d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " o f th e s e q u e n c e . T h is was


b a s e d on th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w e re no e x t e r n a l c u e s a v a i l

a b l e to g u id e th e p ig e o n s th r o u g h th e s e q u e n c e . T hey f e l t

t h a t th e l a t e n c y d a t a a l s o s u p p o r te d t h i s b a s e d on b o th

t h e e x i s t e n c e o f " a i r p e c k s " and t h e r a p i d i t y o f s u c c e s

s i v e r e s p o n s e s . " A ir p e c k s " a r e t h o s e r e s p o n s e s e m i t

t e d b y t h e p ig e o n w h e re a p e c k w o u ld b e i n i t i a t e d i n th e

d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o r r e c t key b u t w o u ld n o t be o f a h ig h

en o u g h i n t e n s i t y t o c l o s e t h e s w i tc h a n d a c t i v a t e t h a t

k e y . The p ig e o n w o u ld th e n c o n t in u e t o e m i t t h e n e x t

c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e w h ic h w ou ld b e c o u n te d a s an e r r o r s in c e

t h e p r e v io u s r e s p o n s e h a d n o t b e e n r e g i s t e r e d . T h e se

r e s p o n s e s a c c o u n te d f o r th e m a j o r i t y o f t h e fo rw a rd

e r r o r s . The l a t e n c y o f t h e s e e r r o r s w o u ld th e n b e lo n g e r

b e c a u s e t h e p ig e o n w as m ak in g an i n t e r m e d i a r y r e s p o n s e

b e f o r e m ak in g th e f o r w a r d e r r o r . T hey f e l t t h a t t h i s ty p e

o f r e s p o n s e show ed t h a t th e p ig e o n h a d l e a r n e d a r e p r e s e n

t a t i o n o f th e se q u e n c e a s t h e p ig e o n w as a t t e m p t i n g t o

p e c k th ro u g h t h e c o r r e c t c h a i n . The r a p i d i t y o f th e

p ig e o n s ' r e s p o n s e s a l s o s u p p o r te d t h e i r t h e o r y b a s e d on

th e s ta t e m e n t b y L a s h le y (1 9 5 1 ) t h a t c e r t a i n r e s p o n s e s i n

s e q u e n t i a l c h a in in g o c c u r t o o r a p i d l y f o r e a c h r e s p o n s e i n

t h e s e q u e n c e t o be c o n t r o l l e d by s e l f - g e n e r a t e d fe e d b a c k ,

t h u s f u r t h e r p r o v in g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .

An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c a n b e m ade o f t h e p i g e o n s ' s e q u e n

t i a l b e h a v io r w i th o u t t h e " b e n e f i t " o f t h e i n f e r r e d r e p r e

s e n t a t i o n , as f o l l o w s . The t r i a l b e g in s w i t h a n i n t e r -

with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

t r i a l i n t e r v a l w h ere t h e h o u se l i g h t i s o n b u t th e k e y s

a r e u n l i t . A f t e r a v a r i a b l e p e r io d w i th a n a v e ra g e d u r a

t i o n o f 20 s e c o n d s , a l l f o u r k ey s a r e i l l u m i n a t e d , on e

g r e e n , o n e w h i te , one r e d a n d one b l u e . T h e o r d e r o f t h e

k e y s a c r o s s t h e p a n e l v a r i e s ra n d o m ly fro m one t r i a l t o/

t h e n e x t , b u t i r r e s p e c t i v e o f i t s l o c a t i o n , a p e c k o n t h e

g r e e n k e y im m e d ia te ly a f t e r t h e i n t e r t r i a l i n t e r v a l e n d s

w i l l be fo l lo w e d b y a l l k e y s r e m a in in g l i g h t e d (w h ich i s

im p o r ta n t to th e p ig e o n s i n c e o n ly i f th e k e y s re m a in

l i g h t e d i s t h e b i r d g e t t i n g c l o s e r i n t im e t o fo o d )

w h e re a s p e c k s on a n y o f th e o t h e r t h r e e c o l o r s w i l l r e

s u l t in a l l k e y s a n d t h e h o u se l i g h t g o in g d a r k f o r 20

s e c o n d s fo l lo w e d b y a n o th e r i n t e r t r i a l i n t e r v a l . I n

o t h e r w o rd s , p e c k s t o a n y c o l o r b u t g r e e n a r e c l e a r l y

p u n is h e d a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e s e q u e n c e . T h a t t h e k e y a n d

h o u s e l i g h t s s t a y on a f t e r p e c k s t o g r e e n i s n o t e x a c t l y

an e v e n t t h a t c o u ld be c o n s id e r e d a fo rm o f r e in f o r c e m e n t

f o r su c h p e c k s , b u t p e c k in g i s t h e o n l y w ay t h a t fo o d i s

o b t a in e d and i s t h e r e f o r e s t r o n g b e h a v io r i n t h i s s i t u a

t i o n . G iv en t h a t p e c k in g , i n g e n e r a l , i s s t r o n g , a n d

t h a t p e c k in g w h i t e , r e d , a n d b lu e a r e w eak en ed b y t h e

t im e - o u t p u n is h m e n t, t h e c o n t r o l o v e r p e c k in g b y th e

g r e e n k e y , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f i t s l o c a t i o n , c a n b e assum ed

t o b e s t r o n g e r th a n a n y o t h e r fo rm o f c o n t r o l a t t h i s

p o i n t i n th e s e q u e n c e . B u t th e g r e e n k ey c a n n o t be

p e c k e d u n t i l i t i s s e e n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s i g h t o f t h e

r-.‘ :Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

g r e e n key i s a fo rm o f r e in f o r c e m e n t a n d b e h a v io r su c h as

v i s u a l s c a n n in g w h ich h a s r e s u l t e d i n s u c h r e in f o r c e m e n t

i s m o m e n ta r i ly s t r o n g . T hus i f t h e b i r d i s lo o k in g a t

t h e w h i te k e y , p e c k in g i s m o m e n ta r i ly w e a k e r th a n s c a n

n i n g , and t h i s c o n d i t i o n w i l l c o n t in u e u n t i l th e b i r d i s/

l o o k i n g a t t h e g re e n k e y .

The i n i t i a l s t im u lu s c o n d i t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f th e

t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e ' i n t e r t r i a l i n t e r v a l a n d t h e o n s e t o f

a l l f o u r c o l o r s p la y s a d o u b le b e h a v i o r a l r o l e : i t i s a

d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t im u lu s i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f w h ic h p e c k in g

w h i t e , r e d and b lu e h a s b e e n p u n is h e d a n d p e c k in g g r e e n

h a s n o t , w i th t h e r e s u l t t h a t p e c k in g g r e e n i s a t l e a s t

r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g , a n d i t i s a l s o a c o n d i t i o n e d e s t a b

l i s h i n g o p e r a t i o n (a m o t iv a t iv e v a r i a b l e l i k e fo o d d e p r i

v a t i o n w h ich i n c r e a s e s t h e r e i n f o r c i n g v a lu e o f fo o d ,

o n l y i n t h i s c a s e i t i s a l e a r n e d m o t i v a t i v e v a r i a b l e )

(JM ich ae l, 1985) w h ich i n c r e a s e s t h e r e i n f o r c i n g v a lu e o f

s e e i n g g re e n an d th u s i n c r e a s e s t h e m o m en ta ry s t r e n g t h o f

a n y b e h a v io r t h a t h a s r e s u l t e d i n s e e i n g g r e e n —n am ely

v i s u a l s c a n n in g .

A f t e r h a v in g p e c k e d t h e g r e e n k ey o n e o r m ore t im e s ,

( t h a t i s , " f i n d i n g o n e s e l f i n f r o n t o f a n d p e c k in g th e

g r e e n k e y ," ) w i th a l l f o u r k e y s r e m a in in g l i t i s a s t im u

l u s c o n d i t i o n w here p e c k in g w h i te h a s b e e n f o l lo w e d b y th e

k e y s r e m a in in g l i t w h e re a s p e c k in g r e d o r b l u e h a s b e e n

p u n is h e d b y th e t im e - o u t . T h u s , t h e c o n t r o l o v e r p e c k in g


by t h e w h i te k ey , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f i t s l o c a t i o n ( a s o n e

s t a n d s i n f r o n t o f and p e c k s th e g r e e n k e y ) , c a n be a s

sum ed t o be s t r o n g e r t h a n a n y o t h e r fo rm o f c o n t r o l e x

c e p t p e rh a p s c o n t in u in g to p e ck t h e g r e e n k e y , w h ich d o es

n o t h^rm , b u t has n o t r e s u l t e d i n m oving c l o s e r i n t im e

to fo o d an d w ould th u s b e e x p e c te d t o w eak en w i th r e p e t i

t i o n . A g a in h o w ev er, p e c k in g w h i te c a n n o t o c c u r u n t i l

w h i t e i s s e e n , so v i s u a l s c a n n in g b e h a v io r i s s t r o n g un

t i l i t i s d i s p l a c e d by p e c k in g w h i t e . I n o t h e r w o rd s ,

t h e s t im u lu s c o n d i t i o n s c o n s i s t i n g o f h a v in g j u s t p e ck e d

g r e e n w i th t h e k e y and h o u se l i g h t s r e m a in in g o n c o n s t i

t u t e s an SD c h a n g e ( a c h a n g e i n w h a t b e h a v io r i s momen

t a r i l y s t r o n g due t o r e in f o r c e m e n t a n d w h a t b e h a v io r i s

m o m e n ta r i ly weak d u e t o p u n is h m e n t) a n d a c o n d i t i o n e d

e s t a b l i s h i n g o p e r a t i o n ch an g e (a c h a n g e i n w h a t key c o l o r

i s m o m e n ta r i ly r e i n f o r c i n g t o s e e ) .

Now, f i n d i n g o n e s e l f s t a n d i n g i n f r o n t o f an d p e c k

in g th e w h i te key w i th a l l t h e k e y l i g h t s s t i l l on r e p r e

s e n t s a new SD in t h e p r e s e n c e o f w h ic h p e c k in g g r e e n o r

b lu e h a s b e e n p u n is h e d , b u t p e c k in g r e d h a s n o t and w ould

t h u s be e x p e c te d t o be s t r o n g a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e s e

q u e n c e ; an d a s b e f o r e , t h i s s t im u lu s c o n d i t i o n a l s o r e p r e

s e n t s a new c o n d i t i o n e d e s t a b l i s h i n g o p e r a t i o n i n t h e

p r e s e n c e o f w h ich s e e i n g r e d w o u ld be s t r o n g a s a fo rm o f

r e in f o r c e m e n t and th u s s c a n n in g w o u ld b e s t r o n g when lo o k

in g a t t h e o t h e r c o l o r s ; a n d so o n u n t i l t h e fo o d i s d e l i -


v e r e d a n d t h e i n t e r t r i a l i n t e r v a l b e g in s a g a in .

W hat i s n e c e s s a r y f o r a b e h a v i o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

s u c h s e q u e n t i a l r e s p o n d in g i s t o b r i n g i n t h e w e a k e n in g

e f f e c t o f t h e t im e - o u t p u n ish m e n t a s a b a s i s f o r a ty p e

o f d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t im u lu s c o n t r o l , t h e u n iq u e s t im u lu s

s i t u a t i o n (som e o f w h ich a r i s e s fro m th e p i g e o n 's p o s i

t i o n a n d o v e r t b e h a v io r ) t h a t e x i s t s a t e a c h p h a s e o f th e '

s e q u e n c e , a n d t h e s c a n n in g b e h a v io r t h a t i s g e n e r a t e d b y

t h a t s t im u lu s c o n d i t i o n f u n c t i o n i n g a s a m o t i v a t i v e v a r i

a b l e . S uch an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s , o f c o u r s e , s p e c u l a t i v e ,

b u t i n m any r e s p e c t s , l e s s so t h a n t h e o n e f a v o r e d by

S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 ) s i n c e t h e p r o c e s s e s p ro p o s e d a r e , a t

l e a s t i n p r i n c i p l e , o b s e r v a b le , and th e y a r e q u i t e a n a l o

g o u s t o p r o c e s s e s t h a t h av e b e e n w e l l s t u d i e d i n o t h e r

b e h a v i o r a l r e s e a r c h .

R e p r e s e n ta t i o n s an d a p e la n g u a g e r e s e a r c h a s i d e , t h e

w o rk o f S t r a u b e t a l . (1979) c o n s t i t u t e s a v a l u a b l e c o n

t r i b u t i o n t o th e g e n e r a l e f f o r t t o e x te n d b e h a v i o r a l r e

s e a r c h a n d b e h a v i o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o i n c r e a s i n g l y

c o m p le x , a n d th u s i n c r e a s i n g l y human l i k e b e h a v io r . I n

t h i s s p i r i t R ic h a rd s o n and W arzak (1 9 8 1 ) d e v e lo p e d

a n o th e r a r ra n g e m e n t f o r t h e s tu d y o f s e q u e n t i a l b e h a v io r .

S ev en p ig e o n s w ere t r a i n e d ( a g a in u s in g a fo rw a rd c h a i n

i n g p r o c e d u r e ) t o p e c k a s e r i e s o f f o u r c o l o r e d l i g h t s i n

a s p e c i f i c o r d e r . T h is s tu d y a l s o u s e d a f i f t h d a r k k e y

t o i n c r e a s e th e num ber o f p o s s i b l e a r r a y s . The p r o c e d u r e


u s e d b y R ic h a rd s o n a n d W arzak in c lu d e d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e

am o u n t o f fe e d b a c k an d s t im u lu s c u e s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e

p ig e o n . I n t h i s p r o c e d u r e , t h e f i v e k e y s w i th f o u r

c o l o r s w e re s im u l ta n e o u s ly p r e s e n t e d . A lso i n t h e cham

b e r w as a row o f f i v e d a rk k e y s l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y ab o v e

t h e r e s p o n s e k e y s . A p e ck t o a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e key r e

s u l t e d i n a n i n c r e a s e i n th e b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e p e c k e d k ey

a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a m a tc h in g c o l o r i n th e l e f t m o s t u n

o c c u p ie d k e y i n th e row o f d a r k k e y s . T h e r e f o r e , a s t h e

p ig e o n s c o r r e c t l y p e c k e d th ro u g h t h e s e q u e n c e , th e y a l s o

" b u i l t " a c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e on th e u p p e r k e y s . (T h is p r o

c e d u r e i s s i m i l a r t o th e one u s e d b y Rumbaugh (1977) i n

w h ic h "L an a C him panzee" l e a r n e d t o s e l e c t a s t r i n g o f

s y m b o ls , d e p e n d in g o n th e c o n d i t i o n a l c u e s p r e s e n t i n th e

e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t o " b u i l d a s e n te n c e " w i th t h o s e sy m b o ls

t o o b t a i n a d e s i r e d o b j e c t . )

The p ig e o n s w e re r e q u i r e d to c o r r e c t l y c o m p le te t h e

e n t i r e s e q u e n c e b e f o r e r e c e i v i n g r e in f o r c e m e n t . I n c o r

r e c t p e c k s w ere fo l lo w e d by a n o f f s e t o f a l l d i s p l a y s an d

a 0 .5 s e c o n d b u z z e r . T r a in i n g s e q u e n c e s c o n s i s t e d o f th e

p r e s e n t a t i o n o f 10 l i n e a r c o m b in a t io n s o f t h e c o r r e c t s e

q u e n c e p l u s th e d a rk k e y . G e n e r a l i z a t i o n t r i a l s in v o lv e d

t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f 10 n o v e l c o m b in a t io n s .

A l l t h e p ig e o n s i n t h i s s tu d y l e a r n e d t o re s p o n d

c o r r e c t l y u n d e r th e s e r i a l l e a r n i n g p a ra d ig m a t a h ig h

l e v e l o f a c c u r a c y . R ic h a rd s o n an d W arzak (1 9 8 1 ) d e t e r -


m in ed a c h a n c e p e r fo rm a n c e t o b e a p p r o x im a te ly o n c e i n 24

t r i a l s o r 0 .0 4 . C hanges i n a c c u r a c y w hen p r e s e n t e d w i th

t h e n o v e l a r r a y s a v e r a g e d a 21.3% d e c r e a s e i n a c c u r a c y

w i th a r a n g e from 14.7% t o 25.5% .

E r r o r s w ere a n a ly z e d i n te rm s o f f o r w a r d e r r o r s ,/

/

b a c k w a rd e r r o r s , r e p e a t e r r o r s , an d d a r k - k e y e r r o r s ( s e

l e c t i o n o f a d a r k k e y ) . They f o u n d , a s d i d S t r a u b e t a l .

( 1 9 7 9 ) , t h a t fo rw a rd e r r o r s p r e d o m in a te d , t h e r e w ere m ore

o n e - s t e p fo rw a rd e r r o r s th a n tw o - a n d t h r e e - s t e p fo rw a rd

e r r o r s , an d t h a t fo rw a rd e r r o r s h ad lo n g e r l a t e n c i e s th a n

c o r r e c t p e c k s , r e p e a t e r r o r s a n d b a c k w a rd e r r o r s .

R ic h a rd s o n a n d W arzak (1 9 8 1 ) u s e d a c h a in i n g m odel

t o e x p l a i n t h e p e r fo rm a n c e o f c o r r e c t s t r i n g s , w i th t r i a l

o n s e t b e in g th e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t im u lu s f o r p e c k in g

d im -A : b r ig h t - A b e in g t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t im u lu s f o r

p e c k in g d im -B : e t c . T hey f e l t t h a t t h e b r i g h t - d i m d i s

c r i m i n a t i o n c o u ld a c c o u n t f o r t h e h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f

fo r w a r d e r r o r s . R e p e a t e r r o r s ( a l s o c o n s id e r e d b a ck w a rd

e r r o r s ) c o u ld be due t o t h e n a t u r e o f p e c k in g i n p ig e o n s

( p ig e o n s w i l l f r e q u e n t l y p e ck a s t im u lu s s e v e r a l t im e s i n

s u c c e s s io n e v e n when r e p e t i t i v e r e s p o n s e s a r e n e v e r r e i n

f o r c e d ) (R ic h a r d s o n a n d C la r k , 1 9 7 6 ) . R ic h a r d s o n and

W arzak a t t r i b u t e d th e lo n g e r l a t e n c i e s o f fo r w a rd e r r o r s

t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e " a i r - p e c k " r e s p o n s e b y t h e

p ig e o n s a s d i d S t r a u b e t a l . ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

Wr : ■ - ' -


The C hangeover P ro ced u re

T he e x p e r im e n ts o f R ic h a rd s o n a n d W arzak (1 9 8 1 ) ,

a l t h o u g h i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e i r own r i g h t , a r e n o t r e a l l y

r e l e v a n t t o t h e ty p e o f human b e h a v io r m e n tio n e d abo v e

w h e re n o d i s t i n c t i v e e x t e r n a l s t im u lu s c h a n g e s f o l lo w

e a c h r e s p o n s e i n t h e s e q u e n c e . A lth o u g h i n s p i r e d b y th e

w o rk o f S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 ) , b u t u n l i k e t h e i r s ,

R ic h a r d s o n a n d W a rz a k 's r e s u l t s a r e e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t a b l e

a s s im p le c h a in i n g . T h e i r p ro c e d u re i s , i n a s e n s e , a

th ro w b a c k t o a n e a s i e r u n d e r s to o d fo rm o f b e h a v io r .

T he p u rp o s e o f t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t was a l s o to

s t u d y t h e a c q u i s i t i o n an d s t a b l e s t a t e b e h a v io r s o f

p ig e o n s u n d e r a s e r i a l l e a r n i n g p a ra d ig m . The p ro c e d u re

u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y , h o w e v e r, a f f o r d e d e v e n l e s s s t im u lu s

s u p p o r t th a n e i t h e r t h e R ic h a rd s o n a n d W arzak (1 9 8 1 ) o r

S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 ) p r o c e d u r e s . T h is s e r i a l l e a r n i n g

t a s k p r e s e n t e d th e s t i m u l i one a t a t im e a n d r e q u i r e d

t h a t t h e p ig e o n m ake a d e c i s i o n a t e a c h s t im u lu s p r e s e n

t a t i o n a s t o w h e th e r t h a t s t im u lu s w as th e c o r r e c t o r

i n c o r r e c t s t im u lu s t o c o n t in u e t h e c h a i n a n d , i f i n c o r

r e c t , t o s e a r c h f o r t h e c o r r e c t s t i m u l u s u n t i l fo u n d .

T h i s d e c i s io n - m a k in g o c c u r r e d th r o u g h t h e u s e o f a

c h a n g e o v e r k e y w h ic h , when p e c k e d , w o u ld c h a n g e th e

s t i m u l u s p r e s e n t e d .

T h i s p ro c e d u r e m ore c l o s e l y f o l l o w s t h e ex am p le o f


s t i m u l u s s t r i n g i n g p r o v id e d by t h e te m p o r a l m aze (H u n te r ,

1 9 2 0 , 1 9 2 9 ) . The te m p o ra l m aze c o n s i s t e d o f tw o a d j a c e n t

lo o p s s h a r i n g a c e n t r a l p a t h w h ic h l e d aw ay fro m a s t a r t

i n g p o i n t . C o r r e c t p e r fo rm a n c e o n t h i s a p p a r a tu s r e

q u i r e d t h a t s u b j e c t s make a p r e d e te r m in e d num ber o f t u r n s

i n on e d i r e c t i o n and th e n i n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n . A

s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e o f t h i s a p p a r a tu s i s t h a t no s p e c i f i c

s t i m u l i i n th e e x t e r n a l e n v iro n m e n t c h a n g e d d u r in g th e

s e q u e n c e s o t h a t t h e o n ly s t i m u l i c o n t r o l l i n g th e s u b

j e c t ' s r e s p o n s e a t a n y p o i n t w e re th o s e s u r r o u n d in g th e

r e s p o n s e made p r e v i o u s l y .

The s i m i l a r i t y t o th e p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t i s shown i n

t h e c o n s ta n c y o f c u e s p r e s e n t a t an y g iv e n p o i n t . A l

th o u g h t h e c o l o r s t im u lu s p r e s e n t e d c h a n g e d , t h e r e w ere

n o o t h e r s t i m u l i p r e s e n t t o cu e t h e n e x t r e s p o n s e a n d th e

o n ly s t i m u l i c o n t r o l l i n g a r e s p o n s e w e re t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d

w i th t h e r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r e v io u s s t i m u l u s .

The fo r m a t o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y a l s o m akes t h e a c tu

a l d e c is io n - m a k in g b e h a v io r s o f t h e s u b j e c t s m ore e x p l i

c i t . The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o n e s t im u lu s a t a t im e a n d th e

u s e o f a c h a n g e o v e r k e y t o c h a n g e th e a v a i l a b l e s t im u lu s

a l lo w e d t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t ' s r e s p o n s e t o e a c h

s t i m u l u s i n t h e c h a in and a l s o t h e r e s p o n s e o f

" s w i t c h in g " t o o b t a i n th e n e x t s t im u lu s i n t h e c h a in .


METHOD

S u b je c t s

T h re e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y n a iv e W h ite C a rn e a u x p ig e o n s

w e re t h e s u b j e c t s f o r t h i s s t u d y . A l l s u b j e c t s w ere

m a in ta in e d i n a s t a t e o f fo o d d e p r i v a t i o n a t a p p r o x i

m a te ly 80% o f b o d y w e ig h t th r o u g h o u t th e e x p e r im e n t .

A p p a ra tu s

The e x p e r im e n t w as c o n d u c te d i n two o p e r a n t c o n d i

t i o n i n g ch am b e rs c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e r e s p o n s e k e y s , a g r a i n

f e e d e r , a n d a h o u se l i g h t . A w h i te n o i s e was c o n t i n u

o u s l y p r e s e n t an d a f a n p r o v id e d v e n t i l a t i o n . The r e

s p o n s e k e y s , f e e d e r a n d h o u se l i g h t w ere a l l c e n t e r e d on

on e w a l l o f t h e c h a m b e r . The r e s p o n s e k e y s w e re 8 cm

a p a r t an d w e re a l i g n e d in a h o r i z o n t a l ro w ab o v e t h e

g r a i n h o p p e r . T he g r a i n h o p p e r was s i t u a t e d i n t h e lo w e r

r i g h t h an d c o r n e r o f t h e ch am b er w a l l a n d was i l l u m i n a t e d

w hen fo o d w as d e l i v e r e d (S ee F ig u r e 1 ) . A PDP/8A

c o m p u te r b y D i g i t a l E q u ip m en t C o r p o r a t io n c o n t r o l l e d t h e

e x p e r im e n t a l p ro g ram a n d d a t a c o l l e c t i o n .

15


Hooded house lig h t

8 cm 8 cm

ITI end feedbackChangeover

key

Color

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Crain hopper

Figure 1. Schematic Drawing of the Experimental Panel as Viewed by the Subjects.

r*.,Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

P ro ced u re

T e r m in a l E x p e r im e n ta l T ask

F o r t h i s e x p e r im e n t , t h e row o f t h r e e k e y s f u n c

t i o n e d a s f o l l o w s : t h e l e f t k e y wa^ t h e c h a n g e o v e r k e y/

(CO) a n d w as u s e d t o c h a n g e t h e c o l o r w h ich was p r e s e n t

o n th e c e n t e r k e y o r c o l o r k ey (CLR). The r i g h t k e y w as

t h e i n t e r t r i a l i n t e r v a l k e y ( I T I ) w h ic h th e p ig e o n p e ck e d

t o b e g in e a c h t r i a l . The e x p e r im e n ta l t a s k was t o p eck

t h e c o l o r s p r e s e n t e d on t h e CLR key i n t h e s e q u e n t i a l

o r d e r : YELLOW-GREEN-RED u s in g th e CO k e y t o ch an g e t h e

c o l o r p r e s e n t e d o n t h e CLR k ey u n t i l t h e c o r r e c t c o l o r i n

t h e s e q u e n c e was p r e s e n t e d . T he CO k e y was a l s o u s e d t o

c h a n g e th e c o r r e c t c o l o r o n c e i t w as p e c k e d .

A t th e b e g in n in g o f e a c h s e s s i o n , t h e l i g h t e d IT I

k e y w as p r e s e n te d w h i le t h e o t h e r k e y s re m a in e d d a r k . A

p e c k t o th e IT I k e y i n i t i a t e d t h e t r i a l . T he IT I key r e

m a in e d l i t u n t i l p e c k e d b y th e p ig e o n a t w h ic h t im e t h i s

k e y becam e d a r k a n d b o th t h e CO k ey an d th e CLR k e y w ere

s im u l t a n e o u s ly a c t i v a t e d . The CO k e y re m a in e d an am ber

c o l o r d u r i n g th e e n t i r e e x p e r im e n t w h i l e t h e c o l o r on t h e

CLR k e y was ran d o m ly v a r i e d b e tw e e n t h e c o l o r s y e l lo w ,

r e d a n d g r e e n . A c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e w as t o p e c k t h e CLR

k e y f i r s t i n th e p r e s e n c e o f y e l lo w , t h e n i n th e p r e s e n c e

o f g r e e n an d f i n a l l y i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f r e d u s in g th e CO

k e y t o c h a n g e t h e c o l o r p r e s e n t on t h e CLR k e y a n d o b ta in

r r , - -Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

t h e n e x t c o r r e c t c o l o r i n t h e c h a i n . A c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e

t o th e c o lo r k e y r e s u l t e d i n a 0 .3 " d a r k e n in g o f t h e CLR

k e y c o n c u r r e n t w i th t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e c t c o lo r

o n th e a d j a c e n t k e y ( o r I T I k e y ) f o r 0 . 3 " . A c o r r e c t r e

s p o n s e t o t h e ;CO k e y r e s u l t e d i n a c h a n g e i n th e c o lo rt 'p r e s e n t e d on t h e CLR k e y . I n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s t o t h e CLR

k e y r e s u l t e d i n a s t i m u l u s - f r e e t i m e - o u t c o n d i t i o n w here

t h e cham ber w as c o m p le te ly d a r k e n e d f o r 15 s e c o n d s a f t e r

w h ic h t h e IT I l i g h t a g a in came on and t h e p ig e o n c o u ld

s t a r t a n o th e r t r i a l . C o r r e c t l y c o m p le t in g t h e e n t i r e s e

q u e n c e w i th n o i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s t o t h e CLR k e y e a rn e d

a c c e s s t o g r a i n f o r 4 s e c o n d s .

T he s u b j e c t s w e re p r e s e n t e d w i th t h r e e c o n d i t io n s

o f i n c r e a s i n g c o m p le x i ty . D u r in g th e T r a i n i n g C o n d it io n

a l l r e s p o n s e s w ere s t r i c t l y p rogram m ed and a n y i n c o r r e c t

r e s p o n s e s t o e i t h e r CO o r CLR k e y r e s u l t e d i n p u n ish m e n t.

A ls o , a c o r r e c t i o n t r i a l c o n s i s t i n g o f th e s e q u e n c e i n

w h ic h t h e e r r o r o c c u r r e d w as p r e s e n t e d u n t i l th e p ig e o n

h a d c o r r e c t l y c o m p le te d t h a t s p e c i f i c s e q u e n c e . F o llo w

i n g t h i s , t h e s e q u e n c e s w e re a g a i n ra n d o m iz e d . D u rin g

C o n d i t io n I o r t h e F i r s t G e n e r a l i z a t i o n C o n d i t io n , t h e

p ig e o n s c o n t in u e d t o b e p u n is h e d f o r a n y i n c o r r e c t r e

s p o n s e s t o CO o r CLR k e y s b u t t h e c o r r e c t i o n t r i a l s w ere

n o t p r e s e n t e d f o l lo w in g a n e r r o r . F o r C o n d i t io n I I , o r

t h e F i n a l G e n e r a l i z a t i o n C o n d i t i o n , m u l t i p l e r e s p o n s e s to

t h e CO key w e re n o t c o n s id e r e d e r r o r s b u t s im p ly r e s u l t e d


I

19

i n a n o th e r c h an g e o f th e c o l o r on t h e CLR k e y .

N in e d i f f e r e n t random a r r a n g e m e n ts o f t h e t h r e e c o l

o r s w ere u s e d d u r in g th e e x p e r im e n t w i th t h r e e d i f f e r e n t

a r r a n g e m e n ts p e r c o n d i t i o n . The a r r a n g e m e n ts p r e s e n t e d

d u r in g th e t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n and t h e f i n a l g e n e r a l i z a

t i o n c o n d i t i o n ( C o n d i t io n I I ) w ere b a s e d on t h e s i x

p o s s i b l e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e c o l o r s . The a r ra n g e m e n ts

p r e s e n t e d d u r in g th e f i r s t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n c o n d i t i o n

( C o n d i t io n I ) a l s o u s e d t h e CO k e y r e s p o n s e a s an e x t r a

v a r i a b l e . ( See T a b le 1 ) .

T r a i n i n g C o n d i t io n

T he t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n w as d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p h a s e s .

D u r in g P h a se I i n t h e t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n , a l l s u b j e c t s

w e re i n i t i a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d t o e a t fro m t h e h o p p e r . A u to

s h a p in g w as th e n u s e d t o c o n d i t i o n r e s p o n s e s t o a l i t k e y ;

i n t h i s c a s e , t h e IT I k e y . Once t h e s u b j e c t s w ere c o n s i s

t e n t l y r e s p o n d in g to t h e IT I k e y w hen l i t , t r a i n i n g w as

b e g u n on c o m p le t io n o f t h e c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e . A b ack w ard s

c h a in i n g m ethod was u s e d t o - te a c h t h e c o r r e c t c h a in o f

r e s p o n s e s b e g in n in g w i th c o r r e c t l y r e s p o n d in g t o th e CLR

k e y when t h e c o l o r r e d was p r e s e n t . T r a i n i n g o n t h e CO

k e y w as a l s o in c lu d e d a s p a r t o f t h e c h a i n . F o llo w in g

t h i s o r d e r , t h e p ig e o n s w ere f i r s t t r a i n e d t o c o r r e c t l y

p e c k t h e c o l o r k e y w hen i t w as r e d t o o b t a i n fo o d . T hey

t h e n w ere r e q u i r e d t o p e c k t h e CO k e y t o t u r n on th e r e d

r .


5.

20

T a b le 1

S e q u e n c e s o f C o lo rs D u rin g E ach E x p e r im e n ta l C o n d i t io n

C o n d i t io n S e q u e n ce Number S e q u e n c e O rd e r

T r a in i n g 1 Y-G-R

2 R-G -Y -R -G -Y -R

3 G -R-Y -G -R

C o n d i t io n I 4 Y -R-G -R

5 R-Y-G -Y -R

6 G -Y -R-Y -G -R

C o n d i t io n I I 7 R-Y -G -R

8 G -Y -R -G -Y -R

9 Y -R-G -Y -R

c o l o r o n th e CLR k e y , th e n p e c k t h a t k e y t o o b t a i n fo o d .

F o l lo w in g t h i s , t h e f i r s t c o l o r p r e s e n t e d o n th e CLR k e y

w as g r e e n an d th e p ig e o n s n e e d e d t o p e c k t h e CLR k ey when

i t was g r e e n to t u r n on t h e CO k ey a n d th e n p e c k t h e CO

k e y t o c h a n g e th e c o l o r o n th e CLR k e y t o r e d w h ich th e y

c o u ld t h e n p e c k t o o b t a i n f o o d . The p ig e o n s w ere th e n

t r a i n e d t o p e c k t h e CO k e y t o t u r n o n t h e CLR k e y w h ich

w as g r e e n an d th e n c o n t in u e th r o u g h t h e s e q u e n c e . The

sam e b ack w ard c h a in i n g s t e p s w e re u s e d t o t r a i n r e s p o n d

i n g t o t h e CLR k e y when i t was y e l lo w a n d a l s o t o t r a i n

u s in g t h e CO key t o c h a n g e th e y e l lo w c o l o r o n t h e CLR


i t was n e c e s s a r y t o t r a i n t h e p ig e o n s t o r e s p o n d t o th e

CLR key b o th in th e a b s e n c e o f t h e o t h e r k e y a n d i n i t s

p r e s e n c e s o a s t o t e a c h t h e c h a in o f c o l o r s a n d a l s o th e

f u n c t i o n o f th e CO k e y i n o b t a i n i n g t h e n e x t c o r r e c t

c o l o r i n t h e c h a in . A t t h e c o m p le t io n o f t h i s t r a i n i n g/ ■

p h a s e , t h e s u b j e c t s w e re a b l e t o r e s p o n d c o r r e c t l y t o t h e

e n t i r e s e q u e n c e o f s t i m u l i . A c o r r e c t c h a in o f r e s p o n s e s

t o t h i s s e q u e n c e c o n s i s t e d o f f i r s t p e c k in g t h e CLR key

w hen i t w as y e l lo w , t h e n p e c k in g t h e CO k e y t o c h a n g e th e

y e l lo w c o l o r to g r e e n , th e n p e c k in g t h e CLR k e y when i t

w as g r e e n , th e n p e c k in g th e CO k e y t o c h a n g e t h e g r e e n

c o l o r t o r e d an d f i n a l l y p e c k in g t h e CLR k e y when i t was

r e d t o r e c e i v e r e in f o r c e m e n t .

D u r in g P h a se I I i n t h e t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n , th e p i

g e o n s w e re p r e s e n te d w i th a s e q u e n c e i n w h ic h t h e c o l o r s

d i d n o t a p p e a r i n th e c o r r e c t o r d e r . T h i s s e q u e n c e r e

q u i r e d t h a t th e y " p e c k p a s t " o n e o r m ore i n c o r r e c t c o l o r s

u s in g t h e CO key t o c h an g e t h e c o l o r o n th e CLR key u n t i l

t h e c o r r e c t c o l o r in t h e s e q u e n c e a p p e a r e d o n t h e CLR k e y .

A c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e a t t h i s p o i n t c o n s i s t e d o f p e c k in g t h e

CLR key a n d th e n p e c k in g t h e CO k e y t o o b t a i n t h e n e x t

c o l o r i n t h e c h a in . The s e q u e n c e p r e s e n t e d i n P h a se I I

c o n s i s t e d o f t h e t h r e e c o l o r s w h ic h a p p e a r e d o n th e CLR

k e y i n t h e f o l lo w in g o r d e r : G -R -Y -G -R . T h e r e f o r e , t o

c o r r e c t l y c o m p le te t h i s c h a in t h e p ig e o n m u s t p e c k f i r s t

t h e CO k e y t o c h an g e t h e g r e e n c o l o r o n t h e CLR k e y , th e n


p e c k th e CO k e y a g a in t o c h a n g e t h e r e d c o l o r on t h e CLR

k e y . A t t h i s p o i n t t h e y e l lo w c o l o r a p p e a r e d on t h e CLR

k e y and t h e p ig e o n n e e d e d t o p e c k t h a t c o l o r an d th e n

a g a in p e c k th e CO k e y t o c h a n g e t h e y e l lo w c o l o r on t h e

CLR k e y . The n e x t c o l o r u p w as g r e e n , s o t h e p ig e o n/

n e e d e d t o p e c k t h e CLR k e y an d th e p e c k t h e CO key t o

c h a n g e t h e g re e n c o l o r on th e CLR k e y t o r e d . The p ig e o n

c o u ld now p e c k t h e CLR k e y when i t w as r e d a n d r e c e i v e

r e in f o r c e m e n t . Any i n c o r r e c t p e c k s t o e i t h e r th e CO k e y

o r t h e CLR k ey r e s u l t e d i n a 15 s e c o n d t i m e - o u t an d th e n

a r e - p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e q u e n c e . Once th e p ig e o n s w ere

r e s p o n d in g a t a h ig h r a t e o f a c c u r a c y o n t h i s v e r s io n o f

t h e s e q u e n c e , t h i s s e q u e n c e w as p r e s e n t e d i n c o n ju n c t io n

w i th th e f i r s t s e q u e n c e on a random s c h e d u le .

P h a se I I I i n t h e t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f a

t h i r d s e q u e n c e w h ere t h e t h r e e c o l o r s w e re p r e s e n t e d i n a

v a r i e d o r d e r . The p ig e o n s w ere s t i l l r e q u i r e d t o o n ly

re s p o n d t o t h e c o r r e c t o r d e r o f c o l o r s ( y e l lo w f i r s t ,

t h e n g r e e n and f i n a l l y r e d ) . The s e q u e n c e o f c o l o r s

w h ic h a p p e a re d on t h e CLR k e y f o r t h i s v a r i a t i o n w as:

R-G -Y -G -R . T h is s e q u e n c e w as n o t t r a i n e d s e p a r a t e l y b u t

was p r e s e n te d f i r s t o n a random b a s i s w i t h t h e s e q u e n c e

i n P h a se I I . F o l lo w in g t h a t , a l l t h r e e s e q u e n c e s w ere

p r e s e n t e d t o g e t h e r o n a random s c h e d u le .

F o r th e p u r p o s e s o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , e a c h r e s p o n s e

was c o n s id e r e d a " c h o ic e " an d e a c h CO/CLR k e y c o n f i g u r a


t i o n w as c o n s id e r e d a " c h o ic e p o i n t . " The' c o m p u te r

t a l l i e d t h e num ber o f c o r r e c t a n d i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s a t

e a c h c h o ic e p o i n t . C o r r e c t o r i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s i n c l u

d e d n o t o n ly r e s p o n s e s t o CLR k e y s b u t a l s o r e s p o n s e s t o

CO k e y s ; F o r i n s t a n c e , p e c k in g t h e CLR k e y w hen i t wasV

g r e e n a t t h e b e g in n in g o f a t r i a l c o n s t i t u t e d a n e r r o r a s

d i d p e c k in g t h e CO key b e f o r e p e c k in g y e l lo w when t h e CLR

k e y w as y e l lo w a t t h e b e g in n in g o f a t r i a l . P e c k in g t h e

CLR k e y when y e l lo w and th e n th e CO k e y t o c h a n g e t o t h e

n e x t c o l o r c o n s t i t u t e d tw o c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s ( " c h o ic e s " )

t o t h e sam e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . More th a n one p e c k t o e i t h e r

t h e CO k e y o r th e CLR k e y w e re a l s o c o n s id e r e d e r r o r s .

D a ta w ere a l s o c o l l e c t e d on num ber o f i n c o r r e c t

t r i a l s a n d l a t e n c y t o c h o ic e r e s p o n s e s . D a ta w e re a n a

ly z e d i n te rm s o f p e r c e n ta g e o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s a t e a c h

" c h o ic e p o i n t . "

C o n d i t io n I ( F i r s t G e n e r a l i z a t i o n C o n d i t io n )

D u r in g t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h r e e e n t i r e l y n o v e l s e q u e n c e s

o f t h e sam e t h r e e c o l o r s w e re p r e s e n t e d i n a random o r d e r .

T h e se s e q u e n c e s c o n s i s t e d o f c o l o r p r e s e n t a t i o n s o n th e

CLR k e y i n t h e o r d e r s : Y -R-G -R , R -Y -G -Y -R , a n d G-Y-R-Y-

G-R. I n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s t o b o th t h e CO k e y a n d t h e CLR

k e y a g a in r e s u l t e d i n a 15 s e c o n d d a r k e n in g o f t h e cham

b e r , h o w e v e r, c o r r e c t i o n t r i a l s w e re n o lo n g e r p r e s e n t e d

a f t e r an i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e and c o n c lu s io n o f t h e t im e


o u t . T he a d d i t i o n a l f e e d b a c k f o r c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s to

t h e CLR k e y w as c o n t in u e d . The s e q u e n c e s p r e s e n t e d in

t h i s c o n d i t i o n a l l r e q u i r e d th e s u b j e c t t o " p e c k p a s t "

i n c o r r e c t c o l o r s t o f i n d t h e c o r r e c t c o l o r a n d a l s o

in c lu d e d i:he a d d i t i o n a l t a s k o f r e q u i r i n g t h e s u b j e c t t o/

" p e c k p a s t " a c o lo r t h a t h a d a l r e a d y b e e n c o r r e c t l y r e

sp o n d e d t o e a r l i e r i n t h e s e q u e n c e .

T h is c o n d i t i o n w as an i n t e r m e d i a r y s t e p b e tw e e n th e

t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n w i t h i t s many e x p e r im e n ta l c o n t r o l s

a n d th e f i n a l c o n d i t i o n w i th m in im a l e x p e r im e n ta l c o n

t r o l s . T h is c o n d i t i o n a l s o f u n c t i o n e d a s an a d d i t i o n a l

t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n a s t h e p ig e o n s w e re f o r t h e f i r s t t im e

e x p o se d t o s e q u e n c e s w h e re t h e y h a d t o p e c k p a s t o n ly one

i n c o r r e c t c o l o r b e f o r e b e in g p r e s e n t e d w i th a c o r r e c t

c o l o r .

C o n d i t io n I I ( F in a l G e n e r a l i z a t i o n C o n d i t io n )

The f i n a l c o n d i t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f a g a in p r e s e n t i n g

t h r e e n o v e l s e q u e n c e s o f t h e sam e t h r e e c o l o r s . The s e

q u e n c e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n w e re : R-Y-G-R,

G -Y -R -G -Y -R , AND Y -R-G -Y -R . D u r in g t h i s c o n d i t i o n i n c o r

r e c t r e s p o n s e s t o t h e CO k e y d id n o t r e s u l t i n p u n ish m e n t

a n d w ere n o t c o u n te d a s e r r o r s . C o n t in u in g t o p e c k th e

CO k e y s im p ly r e s u l t e d i n a c h a n g e i n t h e c o l o r on th e

CLR k e y . T h e r e f o r e , i t becam e p o s s i b l e f o r a s u b j e c t t o

" m is s " a c o r r e c t c o l o r and th e n " p e c k a ro u n d " th e s e -


q u e n c e u n t i l t h a t c o l o r a g a in becam e a v a i l a b l e , r e s p o n d

c o r r e c t l y t o t h a t c o l o r an d c o n t in u e i n t h e s e q u e n c e .

I n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s t o t h e CLR k e y ( i . e . , r e s p o n d in g t o a

c o l o r o u t o f s e q u e n c e ) c o n t in u e d t o b e t r e a t e d a s e r r o r s

and w ere c o n s e q u a te d w i th a 15 s e c o n d d a r k e n in g o f th e

ch am b er. C o r r e c t io n t r i a l s w e re n o t p r e s e n t e d f o l lo w in g

c o m p le t io n o f t h e p u n is h m e n t c o n t in g e n c y , b u t t h e f e e d

b a c k f o r c o r r e c t c o l o r p e c k s w as c o n t i n u e d .

j j p v ■ ’ ’ ~


RESULTS

A l l t h r e e s u b j e c t s l e a r n e d t h e e x p e r im e n ta l t a s k a n d

g e n e r a l i z e d t o n o v e l p r e s e n t a t i o n s a t a h ig h l e v e l o f

a c c u r a c y . A c cu ra c y w as com pu ted b o th a c c o r d in g t o th e

num ber o f c o r r e c t c h o ic e s m ade p e r s e q u e n c e a n d a c c o r d in g

t o th e num ber o f t r i a l s c o r r e c t l y c o m p le te d p e r s e s s i o n .

P r o b a b i l i t y o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n d in g was co m p u ted a t 0 .5 f o r

c h o ic e r e s p o n d in g a n d from 0 .0 0 2 t o 0 .0 3 f o r c o m p le t io n

o f a c o r r e c t s e q u e n c e d e p e n d in g o n how many r e s p o n s e s

w e re r e q u i r e d f o r c o r r e c t c o m p le t io n o f t h e s e q u e n c e .

A c q u i s i t i o n d a t a on p e r c e n ta g e o f c o r r e c t " c h o ic e "

r e s p o n d in g a r e shown i n F ig u r e 2 f o r P h a s e s I , I I a n d I I I

d u r in g t h e T r a in i n g C o n d i t io n . A l l t h r e e s u b j e c t s show ed

t h e m o st d i s r u p t i o n when P h a se I I w as i n t r o d u c e d . None

o f th e s u b j e c t s s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p le te d 30 s e q u e n c e s (num

b e r o f s e q u e n c e s r e q u i r e d f o r a c o m p le te s e s s i o n ) i n t h e

a l l o t e d am ount o f t im e ( a p p r o x im a te ly 1 h o u r ) on t h i s s e

q u e n ce d u r in g t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n . S u b je c t 1 h a d o n e s e s

s i o n w i th l e s s th a n 30 s e q u e n c e s , S u b je c t 3 h a d tw o s e s

s i o n s a n d S u b je c t 4 h a d s i x . S u b j e c t 4 a l s o r e q u i r e d

s p e c i a l e x p e r im e n te r i n t e r v e n t i o n ( t h e l i t k e y s w e re man

u a l l y c h a n g e d from t h e co m p u te r p a n e l t o s h a p e c o r r e c t

r e s p o n d in g ) b e f o r e i t w as a b l e t o s u c c e s s f u l l y c o m p le te

30 s e q u e n c e s o n P h a se I I .

T h e re was a g a in a d i s r u p t i o n w hen th e s e q u e n c e f o r

26

r . .Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

P h a se I I I w as in t r o d u c e d th o u g h n o t a s s e v e r e a s w i th t h e

s e q u e n c e f o r P h ase I I . S u b je c t s 1 a n d 4 e a c h h a d one

s e s s i o n w i th l e s s t h a n 30 s e q u e n c e s a n d S u b j e c t 3 h ad tw o .

None o f t h e s u b j e c t s r e q u i r e d i n t e r v e n t i o n fro m th e e x p e r

im e n te r t o b e a b le t o c o m p le te t h e s e q u e n c e | o r P h ase I I I ./

T h is s e q u e n c e was p r e s e n t e d f o r 48 s e s s i o n s b e f o r e t h e

p ig e o n s re a c h e d a c o n s i s t a n t a c c u r a c y w h ic h was lo n g e r

th a n a n y o f th e o t h e r s e q u e n c e s e x c e p t f o r t h e f i r s t

s e q u e n c e d u r in g a c q u i s i t i o n .

D a ta f o r th e p e r c e n ta g e o f c o r r e c t c h o ic e s and t h e

p e r c e n ta g e o f c o r r e c t t r i a l s a r e d i s p l a y e d i n F ig u r e 3

f o r C o n d i t io n I an d C o n d i t io n I I . A l l s u b j e c t s w ere a b l e

t o m ake th e t r a n s i t i o n t o n o v e l s e q u e n c e s a n d l e s s e x p e r

im e n te r c o n t r o l ( r e m o v a l o f c o r r e c t i o n t r i a l s f o r C o n d i

t i o n I an d re m o v a l o f p u n ish m e n t f o r c h a n g e o v e r r e s p o n s e s

i n C o n d i t io n I I ) w h i l e m a in t a in in g a n a c c u r a c y t h a t

g r e a t l y e x c e e d e d c h a n c e p e r fo rm a n c e .

C o lo r e r r o r s

T he p e r c e n ta g e o f c o r r e c t c h o ic e s was a l s o b ro k e n

down t o show p a t t e r n s o f r e s p o n d in g b e tw e e n th e t h r e e

c o l o r s . The a v e r a g e p e r c e n t c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e t o y e l lo w ,

g r e e n a n d r e d f o r e a c h s e q u e n c e i s show n i n T a b le 2 .

P e r c e n ta g e o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s t o e a c h c o l o r w as d e t e r

m in ed b y c a l c u l a t i n g th e num ber o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s t o

t h e a c t u a l c o l o r a n d th e num ber o f t im e s t h e s u b j e c t r e -


Sequence 1 Sequence 2 Sequence 3

j.

+»o<uui.ou

<uoi.<uo.

= % correct choice ■+' = % correct t r ia ls

Figure 2. Percentage of Correct Choices and Correct T ria ls for Each Subject During Sequences 1, 2, and 3 o f the Training Condition.


Condition I Condition II100908060- 50-

03 40-30-

*5

oe

c©B

t£

1009080

JO 70■a «oj= 50 m 40.

50. 2 0 -

•E03

C0RRECTCH 0 ICC

CORRECT TRIALS

Figure 3. Percentage of Correct Choices and Correct T rials for Each Subject During Conditions I and II.

r.-, ■•■■■Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

sp o n d ed t o t h e c o l o r b y c o r r e c t l y p e c k in g t h e c h a n g e o v e r

key t o p e c k p a s t t h e c o l o r . B o th r e s p o n s e s w ere c o n s i

d e re d t o b e a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o l o r .

No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s o r t r e n d s w ere d e te r m in e d

to h a v ^ o c c u r r e d . Any d i f f e r e n c e s n o te d b e tw e e n c o l o r s/

and s e q u e n c e s a p p e a re d t o be d u e t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n

c e s among t h e s u b j e c t s . P o o r e r r e s p o n d in g t o a s p e c i f i c

c o l o r d i d n o t h o ld a c r o s s s e q u e n c e s o r c o n d i t i o n s f o r any

p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t . T h e re w e re a l s o no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f

f e r e n c e s b a s e d on l e n g t h o f a s e q u e n c e ( s e q u e n c e l e n g th

v a r i e d fro m f i v e t o n in e r e s p o n s e s r e q u i r e d f o r co m p le

t i o n ) o r p o s i t i o n o f a c o l o r w i t h i n a s e q u e n c e .

L a t e n c i e s

A v e rag e l a t e n c i e s t o a c o r r e c t an d a n i n c o r r e c t r e

sp o n se f o r e a c h s e q u e n c e i s show n i n T a b le 3 . D i f f e r e n

c e s b e tw e e n l a t e n c i e s f o r c o r r e c t a n d i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s

d e c r e a s e d a c r o s s c o n d i t i o n s . L a te n c y o f r e s p o n d in g a p

p e a r e d t o b e b a s e d on d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n i n d i v i d u a l su b

j e c t s r a t h e r t h a n an y c h a n g e s i n s e q u e n c e s o r e x p e r im e n

t a l c o n d i t i o n s .


31

T a b le 2

A v e rag e P e r c e n t o f C o r r e c t C o lo r C h o ic e s f o r E ach S eq u en ce

C o lo r S * ib je c t 1 2 3

S e q u e n ce

4 5 6 7 8 9

Y e llo w 1 94 85 88 97 83 81 100 99 100

3 91 91 38 96 75 75 100 97 100

4 90 87 90 98 83 93 100 99 100

G reen 1 89 91 88 96 96 95 73 90 86

3 83 87 83 87 85 89 77 83 91

4 93 92 91 94 95 95 65 83 92

Red 1 96 95 91 96 97 95 87 82 89

3 98 98 93 95 98 91 87 79 71

4 97 98 93 98 90 98 86 89 96


rRR-.

32

T a b le 3

A v e rag e , H igh a n d Low L a t e n c i e s

T r a in i n g C o n d i t io n C o n d i t io n I C o n d i t io n I I

Seq 1 /2 Seq 2 /3 S eq 4 /5 /6 Seq 7 /8 /9

S u b j e c t c o r / i n c o r c o r / i n c o r c o r / i n c o r c o r / i n c o r

1 Ave 59 94 62 74 73 79 64 67

H ig h 85 172 75 95 89 100 66 72

Low 46 71 54 60 65 60 60 64

3 Ave 79 121 73 81 75 69 65 63

H ig h 115 193 96 124 83 86 67 64

Low 60 80 60 52 71 55 61 62

4 Ave 133 175 93 114 98 115 74 90

H ig h 365 339 118 153 116 146 79 101

’ Low 88 114 75 70 79 89 70 79

r.,' 'Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

DISCUSSION

T he p u rp o s e o f t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t w as t o e x te n d

t h e s tu d y o f s e q u e n t i a l r e s p o n d in g i n p ig e o n s b y u s in g a

c h a n g e o v e r k e y p r o c e d u r e w h ich m ade t h e n e c e s s a r y s t im u

l u s s c a n n in g b e h a v io r o f t h e s u b j e c t s m ore e x p l i c i t an d

t h u s m ore o b s e r v a b le . T h is p u rp o s e w as a c h ie v e d s i n c e

t h e b i r d s l e a r n e d t o p e r fo rm a t a h ig h l e v e l o f a c c u r a c y

a n d g e n e r a l i z e d th e p e r fo rm a n c e t o n o v e l a r r a n g e m e n ts o f

t h e s t i m u l i o n th e c o l o r k e y . T h e se r e s u l t s , a lo n g w i th

t h o s e o f S t r a u b e t a l . (1979) c e r t a i n l y s u p p o r t t h e v ie w

t h a t s u c h s e q u e n t i a l r e s p o n d in g i s n o t l i m i t e d t o hum ans

o r t h e h i g h e r p r i m a t e s . T h is f i n d i n g s h o u ld c o n s t i t u t e

e n c o u ra g e m e n t f o r f u r t h e r e f f o r t s t o s tu d y co m p lex b e h a

v i o r i n l e s s e x p e n s iv e an d e a s i e r m a in ta in e d o rg a n is m s ,

p o s s i b l y ev en th e k in d o f b e h a v io r t h a t u n d e r l i e s human

la n g u a g e .

I n t h i s e x p e r im e n t , a s w i th S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 )

t h e r e w e re n o e x t e r n a l s t im u lu s c h a n g e s p ro d u c e d by e a c h

c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e i n t h e s e q u e n c e , w h ic h m akes t h e o r d i n a r y

c h a i n i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d i f f i c u l t . H ow ever, a b e h a v i o r a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n v e ry s i m i l a r t o t h e one g iv e n e a r l i e r o f

t h e S t r a u b e t a l . (1 9 7 9 ) e x p e r im e n t w o u ld seem t o a p p ly .

H e r e , i n s t e a d o f v i s u a l s c a n n in g c o n s i s t i n g o f m ovem ents

o f t h e h e a d a n d e y e s a c r o s s t h e p a n e l c o n t a i n i n g th e k e y s ,

i t c o n s i s t s o f p e c k in g t h e c h a n g e o v e r k e y . T h is i s a m a-

33


j o r a d v a n ta g e o f t h e p r e s e n t p r o c e d u r e s i n c e su c h s c a n

n in g c a n be m ore e a s i l y o b s e r v e d and e x p e r i m e n t a l l y m a n i

p u l a t e d . The o n ly d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e tw o p r o c e d u r e s

w o u ld seem t o be t h e in c r e a s e d t im e r e q u i r e d f o r s c a n n in g

i n t h e p r e s e n t p ro c e d u re a s com pared w i th t h a t o f S t r a u b

e t a l . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . P re su m a b ly a p ig e o n c a n o b s e r v e t h e f o u r

l i t k e y s i n a f r a c t i o n o f a s e c o n d w hen t h e b e h a v io r

in v o lv e s o n ly eye a n d h e a d m ovem en ts, a l l o f w h ic h h av e

b e e n p r e v i o u s l y w e l l l e a r n e d a n d a r e w e l l m a in ta in e d .

S c a n n in g by p e c k in g t h e c h a n g e o v e r k e y i s s lo w e r a n d o n ly

g r a d u a l l y becom es w e l l p r a c t i c e d . T h i s w o u ld be e x p e c te d

t o h a v e a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t i n t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t u n iq u e

s t i m u l u s c o n d i t i o n i n e a c h s t a g e o f t h e s e q u e n c e o f r e

s p o n s e s v a n is h e s a f t e r e a c h c h a n g e o v e r r e s p o n s e a n d i t s

c o n t r o l w o u ld p re su m a b ly grow w e a k e r w i th t im e s i n c e i t

w as l a s t e x p e r ie n c e d . T h i s , h o w e v e r , d i d n o t a p p e a r t o

b e a m a jo r p ro b le m i n t h e p r e s e n t p r o c e d u r e a s t h e

p ig e o n s w e re a b le t o l e a r n th e s e q u e n c e an d g e n e r a l i z e i t

t o n o v e l a r r a y s w h i le p e r f o r m in g th e i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s e s

a t h ig h s p e e d and a c c u r a c y .

A lth o u g h a d i r e c t c o m p a r is o n w i th t h e p r o c e d u r e o f

S t r a u b e t a l . (1979) i s n o t e a s y b e c a u s e o f a num ber o f

p r o c e d u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , i t seem s c l e a r t h a t t h e i r su b

j e c t s a c h ie v e d t h e i r f i n a l l e v e l o f p e r fo rm a n c e a f t e r

c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s e x p o s u r e t o t h e t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n s

t h a n d i d t h e s u b j e c t s o f t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t . Of


c o u r s e , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n e a s e o f

l e a r n i n g i s d u e to some o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o

e x p e r i m e n t s , b u t t h e i n c r e a s e d demand o n memory o f t h e

p r e s e n t p ro c e d u re seem s t h e m o s t l i k e l y e x p l a n a t i o n .

I t w ou ld seem t h a t t h e n e x t s t e p i n t h i s ^ in e o f i n -/

v e s t i g a t i o n w ould b e to a t t e m p t t o r e f i n e t h e p ro c e d u re

s o a s t o g e n e r a t e e f f e c t i v e s e q u e n t i a l r e s p o n d in g q u ic k

e r , a n d t h u s t o g e n e r a te lo n g e r and m ore co m p lex s e

q u e n c e s . A p o s s i b l e a p p ro a c h w o u ld b e t o p r o v id e th e

b i r d s w i th an o p p o r t u n i t y to " r e f r e s h t h e i r m em o rie s" by

h a v in g a n o th e r key w h ich p e r m i t s a b r i e f d i s p l a y o f t h e

r e l e v a n t l a s t s t im u lu s c o n d i t i o n . T h u s , a f t e r p e c k in g

t h e c h a n g e o v e r key a t t h e b e g in n in g o f a t r i a l u n t i l

y e l lo w a p p e a re d on t h e c o l o r k e y , a n d t h e n p e c k in g t h e

y e l lo w c o l o r k e y t h e b i r d m ust n e x t p e c k t h e c h a n g e o v e r

k e y u n t i l g r e e n a p p e a r s o n th e c o l o r k e y . Assum e t h a t

t h e f i r s t r e s p o n s e o n th e c h a n g e o v e r k e y r e s u l t e d i n r e d

a p p e a r in g o n t h e c o l o r k e y , a n d a l s o a ssu m e t h a t i t to o k

t h e b i r d a few s e c o n d s t o a c h ie v e t h i s p o i n t i n t h e

p e r f o r m a n c e — p o s s i b l y due t o d i s t r a c t i o n s , i r r e l e v a n t

b e h a v i o r , e t c . At t h i s p o i n t i n t im e t h e c o n t r o l by

h a v in g p e c k e d y e l lo w w i th th e k e y a n d h o u s e l i g h t s

s t a y i n g on may h ave becom e w eak . I f t h e r e w as a n o th e r

k e y t h a t c o u ld b e p e c k e d w h ic h w ould b r i e f l y show a

y e l lo w c o l o r som ew here , s u c h p e c k in g m ig h t o c c u r a s lo n g

a s i t w as u s e f u l , b u t w o u ld b e e x p e c te d t o d ro p o u t o f


t h e s e q u e n c e n a t u r a l l y a s t h e b e h a v io r came t o b e e x e c u

t e d w i th o u t i t . I f r e s p o n d in g on th e "memorandum k e y "

d i d n o t d ro p o u t , s u c h r e s p o n d in g c o u ld b e made m ore

e f f o r t f u l b y r e q u i r i n g m u l t i p l e r e s p o n s e s o n i t .

A n o th e r s t e p m ig h t bje t o lo o k a t c o n d i t i o n i n g o b s e r -. /

v in g ( o r s c a n n in g ) r e s p o n s e s . From p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t io n

o f t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t , i t a p p e a r s

t h a t s u b j e c t s w h ich th r o u g h a c c i d e n t a l c o n d i t i o n in g

d e v e lo p e d good o b s e r v in g r e s p o n s e s , r e s p o n d e d m ore

a c c u r a t e l y a n d show ed a h i g h e r r a t e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n

t h a n t h o s e w h ic h d i d n o t . P o s s i b l y a n a n a l y s i s o f th o s e

v a r i a b l e s w h ic h c o n t r o l o b s e r v in g r e s p o n s e s and th e

im p le m e n ta t io n o f a p r o c e d u r e t h a t w o u ld t r a i n t h e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f th o s e r e s p o n s e s w o u ld e n a b le th e c o n s i s

t e n t u s e o f p r o c e d u r e s r e q u i r i n g m ore c o m p l ic a te d b e h a

v i o r fro m p ig e o n s .

I t seem s t h a t e f f o r t s s u c h a s t h o s e d e s c r i b e d ab o v e

w o u ld b e o f v a lu e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e o r e t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a

t i o n s o f s e q u e n t i a l r e s p o n d in g , a n d w o u ld b e e x p e c te d to

c o n t r i b u t e in f o r m a t io n r e l e v a n t t o a n y p o t e n t i a l i n t e r

p r e t a t i o n .


BIBLIOGRAPHY

H u n te r , W. S . (1 9 2 0 ) . The te m p o r a l m aze a n dk i n a e s t h e t i c s e n s o r y p r o c e s s e s i n t h e w h i te r a t . P s y c h o b io lo g y # 2 , 1 -1 7 .

H u n te r , W. S . (1 9 2 9 ) . The s e n s o r y c o n t r o l o f t h e m aze / h a b i t i n th e w h i te r a t . P s y c h o b io lo g y . 3 6 ,

5 0 5 -5 3 7 .

K e l l e r , F . S . , & S c h o e n f e ld , W. N. ( 1 9 5 0 ) . P r i n c i p l e s o f p s y c h o lo g y . New Y o rk : A p p le to n - C e n tu r y - C r o f t s .

L a s h le y , K. S . (1 9 5 1 ) . The p ro b le m o f s e r i a l o r d e r i n b e h a v i o r . I n L. A. J e f f r e s s ( E d . ) , C e r e b r a l m ech an ism s i n b e h a v io r (p p . 2 5 7 -2 7 3 ) . New Y o rk : W ile y .

M ic h a e l , J . (1 9 8 5 ) . M o t iv a te d r e l a t i o n s o r t h e e s t a b l i s h i n g o p e r a t i o n (E O ). U n p u b lis h e d m a n u s c r ip t , W e s te rn M ich ig an U n i v e r s i t y ,K a lam azo o , MI.

R ic h a r d s o n , W. K . , & C la r k , D. B. (1 9 7 6 ) . A c o m p a r is o n o f t h e k e y -p e c k an d t r e a d l e - p r e s s o p e r a n t s i n t h e p ig e o n : D i f f e r e n t i a l r e in f o r c e m e n t o f low r a t es c h e d u le s o f r e in f o r c e m e n t . J o u r n a l o f t h e E x p e r im e n ta l A n a ly s i s o f B e h a v io r . 2 6 . 2 3 7 -2 5 6 .

R ic h a r d s o n , W. K . , & W arzak , W. J . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . S t im u lu ss t r i n g i n g by p ig e o n s . J o u r n a l o f t h e E x p e r im e n ta l A n a ly s i s o f B e h a v io r . 3 6 . 2 6 7 -2 7 6 .

Rum baugh, D. ( E d . ) . (1 9 7 7 ) . L anguage l e a r n i n g by a c h im p a n z e e : The L ana P r o j e c t . New Y o rk : A cadem icP r e s s .

S t r a u b , R. O . , S e id e n b e r g , M. S . , B e v e r , T . G . , &T e r r a c e , H. S . (1 9 7 9 ) . S e r i a l l e a r n i n g i n t h ep ig e o n . J o u r n a l o f t h e E x p e r im e n ta l A n a ly s i s o f B e h a v io r . 3 2 . 1 3 7 -1 4 8 .

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Use of a Changeover Key to Train Serial Learning in the Pigeon

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