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ELSER, Eugene Conrad, 1944- CHARISMATIC (XM4UNICATI0N: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE RHETORICAL BEHAVIORS OF GEORGE FOX, FOUNDER OF THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS.

The Ohio S ta te U n iv e rs ity , Ph .D ., 1972 Speech

U niversity Microfilms, A XEROX C o m p a n y , A nn A rbor, M ichigan

© 1972

EUGENE CONRAD ELSERALL RIGHTS RESERVED

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.

CHARISMATIC COMMUNICATION: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

OF THE RHETORICAL BEHAVIORS OF GEORGE FOX,

FOUNDER OF THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS

DISSERTATION

P r e s e n t e d i n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e DeqreB D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e G r a d u a t e

S c h o o l o f The Oh io S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

By

E uge ne C. E l s e r , B . A . , M.A.

The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y 1972

Approved by

D e p a r t m e n t o f S p e e c h

PLEASE NOTE:

Some pages may have

in d is t in c t p r in t .

Filmed as received.

U n ivers i ty Microf i lms, A Xerox Education Company

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The w r i t e r w i s h e s t o e x p r e s s h i s s p e c i a l a p p r e c i a ­

t i o n t o Dr . J ames L, G o l d e n , m a j o r a d v i s e r , f o r h i s i n ­

v a l u a b l e g u i d a n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s

s t u d y , A p p r e c i a t i o n i s a l s o e x t e n d e d t o D r s , Goodwin F .

B e r q u i s t and W i l l i a m R. Brown f o r t h e i r t h o u g h t f u l

c r i t i c i s m o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t wh ic h g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d

t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

A l s o , I w i s h t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e a s s i s t a n c e g i v e n

t o me by t h e s t a f f s o f t h e H a v e r f o r d C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ,

Q u a k e r C o l l e c t i o n , a n d t h e Union T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y

L i b r a r y , NcAlp in C o l l e c t i o n . W i t h o u t t h e h e l p o f t h e s e

p e o p l e much o f t h e d a t a u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y c o u l d n o t

ha v e been a c q u i r e d .

F i n a l l y , I e x p r e s s my s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o my

w i f e who n o t o n l y b o r e w i t h me d u r i n g t h e t i m e t h i s work

was i n p r o g r e s s , b u t a l s o t y p e d t h e m a n u s c r i p t .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..............................................Pago

i i

C h a p t e r

I . NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY . . . . 1

I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................... .. 1O r i g i n o f t h e S t u d y .................................... 2Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e ..................... 3I s o l a t i n g a nd D e f i n i n g a S i g n i f i c a n tR e s e a r c h P r o b l e m ............................................... 9The P l a n f o r t h e S y s t e m a t i c D i s c o v e r y o f S o u r c e M a t e r i a l . . . . . . . . . 16The D i v i s i o n s o f t h e S t u d y an d T h e i r R e s p e c t i v e F u n c t i o n s .................................... 22

I I . A PRELIMINARY PARADIGM FOR CHARISMATICCOMMUNICATION ......................................................... 26

S i t u a t i o n a l ' D e t e r m i n a n t s o fC h a r i s m a t i c R e sp o n se .................................... 28Phenomena P e r s o n a l l y C r u c i a l t o t h eC h a r i s m a t i c C om m u n ic a t o r .......................... 31The C h a r i s m a t i c C o m m u n i c a t o r ' s S t r a t e g i e s a n d T a c t i c s ............................... 58

I I I . AN INTERPRETIVE SURVEY OF THE RHETORICALSITUATION ................................................................... 78

E a r l y R e f o r m a t i o n M e a s u r e s ..................... 78The E l i z a b e t h a n S e t t l e m e n t . . . . . 81Mo un t in g P u r i t a n D i s c o n t e n t . . . . 85The P u r i t a n R e v o l u t i o n . ..................... 89

IV. THE FORMATION OF THE CHARISMATICCOMMUNICATOR .............................................................. 113

P a r e n t a l F a c t o r s . . . . . . . . . . 114The P u r i t a n E x p e r i e n c e ............................... 120The S p i r i t u a l P i l g r i m a g e .......................... 125

PageThe M y s t i c a l D i m e n s io n ............................... 132E n l i g h t e n m e n t .................................................... 135The C o r n e r s t o n e o f F o x ' s Messagea n d M i n i s t r y .................................................... 141

V. GEORGE FOX'S EARLY COMMUNICATIVEBEHAVIOR .............................................. 150

The S t r a t e g y . . . . . .......................... 150I n c i p i e n t C h a r i s m a t i c M i n i s t r y , , . 159

V I . MATURE CHARISMATIC MINISTRY ..................... 185

The D i v i n e C a l l ............................................... 185S t r a t e g i c I m p l e m e n t a t i o n ..................... 187Fox on T r i a l ......................... 208Fox an d t h e S e e k e r s .................................... 213The S i l e n t M e e t i n g . ......................... ■ 219C h a r i s m a t i c L i e u t e n a n t s . . . . . . 226A d v i c e t o P r e a c h e r s .................................... 227The W r i t t e n Word .......................................... 229

*

V I I . THE ROUTINIZATION OF CHARISMA . . . . 234

I n t r a - I n t e r g r o u p U n i t y . . . . . . 235The O r g a n i z a t i o n a l P h a s e . . . . . 238The I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o fQ u a k e r i s m . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

V I I I . SUMMARY AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS . . . 274

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................... 304

CHAPTER I

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

I n t r o d u c t i o n

T h i s s t u d y s e e k s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r h e t o r i c a l

b e h a v i o r s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f o u n d e r o f t h e

S o c i e t y o f F r i e n d s , Ce o rq e Fox . The s o c i o l o g i s t Wax

Weber c h a r a c t e r i z e d Fox a s " a p r o p h e t w i t h e m o t i o n a l

n u a n c e s . " ' ' W i l l i a m P e n n , a c l o s e f r i e n d and a s s o c i a t e

o f Geo rge F o x , m e m o r i a l i z e d him w i t h t h e s e w o r d s :

He was a man t h a t God en due d w i t h a c l e a r a n d w o n d e r f u l d e p t h , a d i s c e r n e r o f o t h e r s ' s p i r i t s , and v e r y much a m a s t e r o f h i s own.And t h o u g h t h a t s i d e o f h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h l a y n e x t t o t h e w o r l d , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i t , m ig h t s o u n d u n c o u t h and u n f a s h i o n a b l e t o n i c e e a r s , h i s m a t t e r was n e v e r t h e l e s s v e r y p r o f o u n d * and would n o t o n l y b e a r t o be o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d , h u t t h e more i t was s o , t h e more w e i o h t y and i n s t r u c t i n g i t a p p e a r e d . And a s a b r u p t l y and b r o k e n l y a s s o m e t i m e s h i s s e n t e n c e s would f a l l f rom h im , a b o u t d i v i n e t h i n g s , i t i s w e l l known t h e y we re o f t e n a s t e x t s t o many f a i r e r d e c l a r a t i o n s . And, i n d e e d , i t showed beyond a l l c o n t r a d i c t i o n , t h a t God s e n t him? i n t h a t no a r t s o r p a r t s had any s h a r e i n t h e m a t t e r o r manne r o f h i s m i n i s t r y ; and t h a t s o many g r e a t , e x c e l l e n t ,

1 Wax Webe r , Ojn C h a r i s m a and I n s t i t u t i o n B u i l d i n g , e d . by 5 . N. E i s e n s t a d t ( C h i c a g o : The U n i v e r s i t y o fC h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 6 B ) , p . 2 6 2 .

1

2

anrj n e c o s s a r y t r u t h s a s he came f o r t h t o p r e a c h t o m a n k i n d , had t h e r e f o r e n o t h i n g o f man’ s w i t o r wisdom t o recommend t h em . So t h a t a s t o man he was an o r i g i n a l , b u i n g no man’ s c o p y , 1

O r i g i n o f t h e S t u d y

One d a y , now s e v e r a l y e a r s a g o , w h i l e b r o w s i n g

t h r o u g h a u s e d - b o o k s t o r e , I f o u n d a c o p y o f t h e J o u r n a l

o f George F o x . P e r h a p s t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t I s t u m b l e d

upon i t n e a r t h e e a s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a commu n i ty o f

Qu a ke r to w n i n f l u e n c e d my d e c i s i o n t o p u r c h a s e t h e v o l u m e .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , once i n my p o s s e s s i o n , t h e book a p ­

p a r e n t l y l o s t i t s i n i t i a l c h a r m . F o r y e a r s i t r e m a i n e d

u n r e a d , g a t h e r i n g d u s t on a s h e l f o r p a c k e d i n a s h i p ­

p i n g box .

T h e n , w h i l e s e a r c h i n g f o r a M a s t e r ’ s t h e s i s

t o p i c , I a g a i n came upon t h e J o u r n a l . T h i s t i m e I r e a d

t h r o u g h i t and t o my u t t e r a m a z e m e n t , i t was a f a s c i ­

n a t i n g n a r r a t i v e . At f i r s t , I t h o u g h t t h a t a s t u d y o f

Geo rge F o x ’ s p r e a c h i n g w o u l d become my t h e s i s t o p i c , b u t

a s e r i o u s d e t e r r e n t p r o v e d t o be my i n a b i l i t y t o d i s c o v e r

a r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y w h i c h would a d e q u a t e l y a n a l y z e

h i s r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r . T h i s p r o m p t e d me t o p o s t p o n e

1 W i l l i a m P e n n , The R i s e and P r o o r e s s o f t h e P e o p l e C a l l e d Q u a k e r s ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r s a l e a tF r i e n d s ' B o o k - S t o r e , 1 3 7 0 ) , pp . 5 1 - 5 2 , 5 6 - 5 7 , 5 8 , 6 4 - 6 5 ,

t h e s t u d y u n t i l s u c h a t i m e a s I was b e t t e r p r e p a r e d t o

u n d e r t a k e i t ,

From t i m e t o t i m e a s I was c o m p l e t i n g my d o c t o r a l

c o u r s e work i n s p e e c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n . a t t h e Oh io S t a t e

U n i v e r s i t y , I r e t u r n e d t o t h e J o u r n a 1 o f George Fox i n

o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r how t h e v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n a l and mode rn

r h e t o r i c a l an d c o m m u n i c a t i o n m o d e l s and t h e o r i e s e x ­

p l i c a t e d h i s p r a c t i c e s . I n a l l b u t a few p a r t i a l i n ­

s t a n c e s , I Found b u t l i t t l e p o s i t i v e i l l u m i n a t i o n .

F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l and h o m i l e t i c a l b e h a v i o r r e m a i n e d i n ­

d e s c r i b a b l e e x c e p t i n n e g a t i v e comment s s u c h a s , " h i s*

s p e e c h e s ] a c k e d l o g i c a l f o r m s o f s u p p o r t , " o r " h i s

s e r m o n s d i d n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e a c c e p t e d h o m i l e t i c a l

c r i t e r i a f o r B i b l i c a l e x p o s i t i o n . " U n d o u b t e d l y , i t was

t h i s d e s i r e t o f i n d an a d e q u a t e c o n c e p t u a l f r am e wo rk

w i t h w h i c h t o d i s c u s s F a x ' s r h e t o r i c p o s i t i v e l y , c o u p l e d

w i t h t h e h a u n t i n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l p r o b l e m s ,

a n d t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t t o u n d e r s t a n d h i s " c u r i o u s " b e ­

h a v i o r a s a c o m m u n i c a t o r t h a t gave me t h e i m p e t u s an d

i n s p i r a t i o n t o u n d e r t a k e a d i s s e r t a t i o n s t u d y o f t h e

r h e t o r i c a l works o f G e o r g e Fox ,

Re v i ew o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e

Once I s e r i o u s l y b e g a n t o e n t e r t a i n thB t h o u g h t

o f a n a l y z i n g t h e r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s o f George F o x , i t

4 •

was n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e , a s an i n i t i a l p h a s e o f my

r e s e a r c h , w h e t h e r an y s t u d i e s o f f o x ' s c o m m u n i c a t i o n

p r o c e d u r e s e x i s t e d . In o r d e r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , I

e x a m i n e d t h e s t a n d a r d i n d i c e s o f r e s e a r c h i n t h e f i e l d

o f s p e e c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n a nd t h o s e i n r e l a t e d a r e a s

s u c h a s E n g l i s h , h i s t o r y , r e l i g i o n , p h i l o s o p h y , and

s o c i o l o g y . ^

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e s o u r c e s t h e c a t a l o g s o f t h e

New York P u b l i c L i b r a r y , P h i l a d e l p h i a P u b l i c L i b r a r y ,

P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , H a v e r f o r d C o l l e g e

L i b r a r y , ^ N a t i o n a l Un ion C a t a l o g , and t h e B r i t i s h Museum

C a t a l o g we re a l s o s e a r c h e d f o r s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s

p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e r h e t o r i c o f George Fox ,

The e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e i n d i c e s and c a t a l o g s

r e v e a l e d t h a t no t h e s e s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n s h a v e been

^ F r a n k l i n H. Knower , " G r a d u a t e T h e s e s * An I n d e x o f G r a d u a t e R e s e a r c h i n S p e e c h , " Spe e ch M o n o g r a p h s , I I - XXXVI ( 1 9 3 5 - 1 9 6 9 ) ? J . J e f f e r y Aue r , " D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a ­t i o n s i n Spee ch* Work i n P r o g r e s s , " S p e e c h M o n o g r a p h s , XXVII-XXXVI ( 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 G 9 ) ; D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s (Ann A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s )» 31 v o l s . , 1 9 3 8 - 1 9 7 1 ?Am er i can D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n s (Ann Arbor* U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s ) , 35 v o ' l s . , 1 9 3 3 - 1 9 6 8 ? F r a n k l i n H. Knoiuer , " B i b l i o g r a p h y o f C om m u n i c a t i o n D i s s e r t a t i o n s in Am er i can S c h o o l s o f T h e o l o g y , " S p e e c h M o n o g r a p h s , XXX ( 1 9 6 3 ) ; U l i l l i a m T o o h e y , and W i l l i a m D. Thompson , e d . , R e c e n t H o r n ! l e t i c a 1 T h o ug h t t _A B i b l i o g r a p h y , 1 9 3 5 - 1965 ( N a s h v i l l e * Abingdon P r e s s , 1 967 ) "

2The a u t h o r h a s v i s i t e d t h e H a v e r f o r d C o l l e g e L i b r a r y f o u r t i m e s i n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s r e s e a r c h a n d t h e c o l l e g e ' s " Q u a k e r C o l l e c t i o n " i s t h e f i n e s t i n A m e r i c a .

c o m p l e t e d on George Fox by s c h o l a r s i n t h e f i e l d o f

s p e e c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n . N e i t h e r do any m o n o g r a p h s p e r ­

t a i n i n g t o Fox a p p e a r i n t h e n a t i o n a l s p e e c h j o u r n a l s . ^

The one p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n i s a s t u d y o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e

p a t t e r n s o f l a n g u a g e u s a g e among t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

Q u a k e r s , b e c a u s e i t c o n t a i n s an o c c a s i o n a l r e f e r e n c e

t o F o x , ^ i n a r e a s o t h e r t h a n s p e e c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n ,

f o u r u n p u b l i s h e d d i s s e r t a t i o n s we re f o u n d w h i ch d i r e c t l y

r e f e r t o George Fox , At t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ,

B e r k e l e y , i n 1 9 5 4 , Ru th MacCannon L a v a r B , i n t h e E n g l i s h

D e p a r t m e n t , s t u d i e d , "ThB E a r l y L e t t e r s o f George F o x , "3

T h i s i s a f i n e l i t e r a r y s t u d y o f some o f F o x ’ s m o s t i n ­

t e r e s t i n g e p i s t l e s . The main c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h i s work

i s t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a more r e a d a b l e e d i t i o n o f F o x ’ s

e a r l i e s t l e t t e r s , many o f w h i ch a r e y e t u n p u b l i s h e d .

Two y e a r s l a t e r i n H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f

R e l i g i o n , A r t h u r 0 . R o b e r t s r e s e a r c h e d , " G e o r g e F o x ’ s

1 A c a r e f u l s e a r c h was made o f t h e Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , and S p e e c h Monographs i n p a r t i c u l a r ,

^ R i c h a r d Bauman, " A s p e c t s o f 1 7 t h C e n t u r y Qu ak e r R h e t o r i c , " Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , LVI ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 7 0 ) , 6 7 - 7 4 ,

3 Ruth MacCannan L a v a r e , "The E a r l y L e t t e r s o f George Fox" ( u n p u b l i s h e d Ph .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t B e r k e l e y , 1 9 5 4 ) ,

C o n c e p t o f t h e C h u r c h , " ! T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s p a r t i c u ­

l a r l y u s e f u l b e c a u s e . i t c l e a r l y e x p l a i n s t h e n a t u r e o f

Fo x * s r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t o f t h e

C h u r c h i n t e r m s o f h i s m a j o r d o c t r i n e s .

A n o t h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n , " G e o r g e F o x ' s T e a c h i n g on

R e d e m p t i o n a n d S a l v a t i o n , " was c o m p l e t e d i n t h e D e p a r t ­

men t o f R e l i g i o n a t Ya l e U n i v e r s i t y i n 1956 by Thomas

Canby J o n e s . ^ J o n e s f e l t " t h a t i n t e r p r e t e r s o f t h e

m e s s a g e o f George Fox i n t h e l a s t f i f t y y e a r s h a v e n o t

c o r r e c t l y o r f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e c e n t r a l r o l e w h i c h

C h r i s t a n d t h e work o f r e d e m p t i o n p l a y e d , i n h i s [ F o x ' s -]

w o r k . T h e r e f o r e , he p r o p o s e d t o e x a m i n e t h e s o t e r i -

o l o g y ( d o c t r i n e o f s a l v a t i o n ) o f Geo rge Fox , H i s s t u d y

i s p r i m a r i l y a t h e o l o g i c a l e x p o s i t i o n o f a s a m p l i n g o f

George F o x ' s w r i t i n g s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s upon

t h o s e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p e r s o n an d s a v i n g work o f J e s u s

C h r i s t , i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f F o x ' s

s o t e r i o l o g y . ^ A l t h o u g h J o n e s f e l t t h a t h i s a n a l y s i s

! A r t h u r 0 . R o b e r t s , " G e o r g e F o x ' s C o n c e p t o f t h e C h u r c h " ( u n p u b l i s h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 5 6 ) ,

2Thomas Canby J o n e s , " G e o r g e F o x ' s T e a c h i n g on R e d e m p t i o n and S a l v a t i o n " ( u n p u b l i s h e d Ph .D , d i s s e r t a ­t i o n , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 5 6 ) ,

3 l b i d . , p , 7 ,

4 l b i d , , p p . 6 -B,

7

was ha m p e re d by F o x ' s " F u z z y and a m b i g u o u s " t h o u g h t , ho

s t i l l r e a c h e d t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e t h e o l o g y o f Geo rge

Fox c o u l d b e s t be u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n a s o t e r i o l o g i c a l

F r a m ew or k . ^ I f J o n e s i s c o r r e c t i n . t h i s c o n c l u s i o n ,

i t m i g h t be h e l p f u l t o some d e g r e e i n c o m p r e h e n d i n g

F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s .

The l a s t d i s s e r t a t i o n t o be c o m p l e t e d on Fox was

done by P a u l P, G i l m a r t i n i n t h e C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y o f

A m e r i c a ' s D e p a r t m e n t o f R e l i g i o n . I t i s e n t i t l e d ,

" G e o r g e F o x ' s C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e R o l e o f Communi ty i n

D i s c e r n m e n t o f S p i r i t s , An E c u m e n i c a l S t u d y , " and was

c o m p l e t e d i n 1 9 6 7 , 2 T h i s s t u d y s o u g h t t o i n v e s t i g a t e

t h e e x p e r i e n c e s an d p r a c t i c e s o f t h e e a r l y Q u a k e r s and

t h e w r i t i n g s o f George Fox i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h a v i ew

t o g i v e thB " C a t h o l i c r e a d e r " a " d e e p e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f

t h e d i s c e r n m e n t o f s p i r i t s , "3 Ulhi le i t wo u ld a t f i r s t

a p p e a r t h a t G i l m a r t i n ' s r e s e a r c h w h i c h c o m p a r e d t h e

C a t h o l i c t e a c h i n g s o f I g n a t i u s o f L o y o l a w i t h George

1 1 b i d . , pp . 6 - 7 , 2 6 8 .

2 p a u l P . G i l m a r t i n , " G e o r g e F o x ' s C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Ro le o f Communi ty in D i s c e r n m e n t o f S p i r i t s , An E c u m e n i c a l S t u d y " ( u n p u b l i s h e d P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y o f A m e r i c a , 1 9 6 7 ) ,

^ I b i d . , p . 2 .

4

Fox c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e n o t h i n g t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

r h e t o r i c , a s e c o n d t h o u g h t s e em ed more p r o m i s i n g .

S i n c e Fox was a p r o p h e t i c t y p e o f i n d i v i d u a l , b e l i e v i n g

i n and t e a c h i n g h i s c o n v e r t s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f i m m e d i a t e

r e v e l a t i o n a s t h e b a s i s f o r p r e a c h i n g , i t s oon became

n e c e s s a r y f o r some means t o be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r d e t e r ­

m i n i n g t h e " t r u e " f rom t h e " f a l s e " p r o p h e c i e s . The

means e s t a b l i s h e d we re a t l e a s t i n p a r t t h e d i s c e r n ­

men t o f s p i r i t s .

Among t h e p u b l i s h e d w o r k s , t h e r e a r e a l a r g e

number o f b o o k s and a r t i c l e s w h i c h d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y

p e r t a i n t o Geo rge Fox a s t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e Qua ke r Move­

m e n t . S i n c e Fox was f i r s t and f o r e m o s t a C h r i s t i a n

m i n i s t e r , F u n c t i o n i n g i n t h e r o l e o f a p r o p h e t i c p r e a c h e r ,

i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t h i s b i o g r a p h e r s and h i s t o r i a n s

make f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e t o h i s a b i l i t y , p o w e r , and s u c ­

c e s s i n p r e a c h i n g . How eve r , f r om a r h e t o r i c a l o r com­

m u n i c a t i o n a n a l y s t ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e i r w r i t i n g s a r e

g e n e r a l l y s u p e r f i c i a l , c u r s o r y , and a n e c d o t a l w i t h r e g a r d

t o h i s c o m m u n i c a t i v e b e h a v i o r . T h es e a u t h o r s t e n d t o

e m p h a s i z e t h e l i f e , t r i u m p h s and s u f f e r i n g s , o f t h e

p r o p h e t r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t u d y o f t h e p r o p h e t ’ s r h e t o r i c .

N a t u r a l l y , some o f t h e s e b o o k s a b o u t Fox a r e more h e l p f u l

t o t h e r h e t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h e r t h a n o t h e r s and w h i l e no

d e t a i l e d r e v i e w o f t h e s e works w i l l be a t t e m p t e d a t t h i s

t i m e , r e f e r e n c e w i l l be made t o t hem i n t h e c o u r s e o f

my own a n a l y s i s o f F o x ' s r h e t o r i c .

I s o l a t i n o and D e f i n i n g a S i g n i f i c a n t R e s e a r c h P r o b l e m

A f t e r my r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l e d a

s e r i o u s gap i n r h e t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h on George F o x , I f e l t

c o n f i d e n t t o p r o c e e d w i t h my p r e l i m i n a r y s t u d i e s , T h i s

n e x t p h a s e o f r e s e a r c h t o o k t h e form o f i s o l a t i n g and

d e f i n i n g t h e s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m I would c o n c e n ­

t r a t e upon i n t h e l i g h t o f what a p p e a r e d mos t s i g n i f i c a n t

t o me a b o u t F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r f o r t h e a d v a n c e ­

men t o f k n o w l e d g e .

When a p p r o a c h i n g t h e s t u d y o f an h i s t o r i c a l

F i g u r e l i k e Geo rge F o x , t h e r h e t o r i c a l a n a l y s t mus t

f o c u s h i s a t t e n t i o n upon one o r a t t h e m o s t a f ew m a j o r

q u e s t i o n s among t h e many wh i ch c o u l d e a s i l y be a s k e d .

I t i s i n d e e d a r e f l e c t i o n upon t h e c r i t i c ' s c r e a t i v e

s e n s i t i v i t y t o r e s e a r c h t h o s e p r o b l e m s whose s o l u t i o n

w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e mo s t w o r t h w h i l e k n o w l e d g e .

A s p e e c h , f o r i n s t a n c e , i s n o t j u s t any k i n d o f h i s t o r i c a l f a c t , i t i s a human f a c t , I t i s n o t o n l y an h i s t o r i c a l h a p p e n i n g b u t a l s o i t i s a l w a y s a r e f l e c t i o n o f a l l t h o s e f a c e t s o f human p e r s o n a l i t y w h i ch d i s t i n g u i s h man a s a m e a n i n g - s e e k i n g , m e a n i n g - c o m m u n i c a t i n g a n i m a l . A s p e e c h e x p r e s s e s a s p e a k e r ' s s e n s e o f h i m s e l f , h i s s e n s e o f h i s s u b j e c t , h i s

10

s e n s e o f t h o s e t o whom he s p e a k s , an d a s e n s e o f t h e t i m e a nd p l a c e i n w h i ch he s p e a k s .H e n c e , a s p e e c h may he p r o f i t a b l y c r i t i c i z e d f rom an y h u m a n i s t i c p a r s p e c t i v e - - p o l i t i c a l , . p s y c h o l o g i c a l , m o r a l , l o g i c a l , l i t e r a r y , and so o n , A p r i n c i p a l t a s k o f t h e c r i t i c i s t o r e a l i z e w h i ch p e r s p e c t i v e i s mo s t r e l e v a n t t o t h e comment he would make, O b v i o u s l y t h e r e a r e s p e e c h e s t h a t w a r r a n t comment f r om more t h a n one p e r s p e c t i v e , ^

S p e c i f i c a l l y i n t h e c a s e o f George F o x , e s p e c i a l l y

i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t o n l y a m e a g e r amoun t o f

c r i t i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s been u n d e r t a k e n , t h e r h e t o r i c a l

c r i t i c m i g h t s e e k t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

F o x ' s s p e e c h m a k i n g a nd t h e n u m er o u s s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

s e c t s s u c h a s t h e R a n t e r s o r p e r h a p s t h e ' C h u r c h o f

E n g l a n d and t h e P u r i t a n s . The c r i t i c c o u l d t r a c e t h e

i n f l u e n c e o f F o x ' s r h e t o r i c upon t h e s o c i a l and

p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d ( 1 6 2 4 - 1 6 9 1 ) w h i ch c o i n c i d e s

w i t h F o x ' s l i f e t i m e o r even an y r e a s o n a b l e s e g m e n t o f

t h e p e r i o d . I f t h e c r i t i c ' s i n t e r e s t we re a r o u s e d by

t h e q u e s t i o n o f how do s o c i a l and t h e o l o g i c a l i d e a s

become m o d i f i e d t h r o u g h s p e e c h m a k i n g , a s t u d y o f F o x ' s

o r a t o r y c o u l d e a s i l y s a t i s f y t h a t p u r p o s e . F o r t h e

c r i t i c , t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l e f f o r t s c o u l d

be u s e d t o r e v e a l t h e a d e q u a c y o f r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y i n

a c c o u n t i n g f o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n p u b l i c a d d r e s s . A l s o ,

^ W a l t e r R. F i s h e r , " m e t h o d i n R h e t o r i c a l C r i t i c i s m , " ■S o u t h e r n S p e e c h J o u r n a l , XXXV ( W i n t e r , 1 9 6 9 ) , 1 0 6 - 0 7 .

11

t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f a s p a e c h o r s e r i e s o f s p e e c h e s c o u l d

r e v e a l o r c o n f i r m t h e s t a n d a r d s o f e x c e l l e n c e i n p u b l i c

a d d r e s s . F i n a l l y , t h e c r i t i c m i g h t s e e k t o c o n c e n t r a t e

upon F o x ' s a u d i e n c e s and hope t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r e x ­

p e c t a t i o n s o f Fox and how t h e y r e s p o n d e d t o t h e m e s s a g e s

p r e s e n t e d t o t hem a s s t i m u l i .

Each o f t h e s e p u r p o s e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o many

o t h e r s d e s c r i b e d by W a l t e r F i s h e r , Bower A l y , and

L a w re n c e R o s e n f i e l d a r e l e g i t i m a t e q u e s t i o n s f o r t h e

c r i t i c t o a s k , and e a c h was a p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s

s t u d y , 1 Howeve r , none o f t h e s s p u r p o s e s were u l t i m a t e l y

c h o s e n o s t h e main f o c u s o f t h i s w o r k , a n d y e t , t h e

r e a d e r w i l l r e c o g n i z e a s he moves t h r o u g h t h e m a t e r i a l

t h a t s e v e r a l o f them werB a d o p t e d a s s e c o n d a r y a i m s .

F o r t h i s s t u d y t h e p r i m a r y f o c u s s h a l l be t h e r h e t o r i c a l

t a s k s and s t r a t e g i e s o f George Fox , The b a s i c q u e s t i o n

g u i d i n g my a n a l y s i s s h a l l b e , how d o e s ja p e r s o n w i t h

c h a r i s m a t i c p r o p h e t i c t e n d e n c i e s s u c h a s a r e e x h i b i t e d

i n Geo rg e Fox e n d e a v o r t o c o m m u n i c a t e h i s i m m e d i a t e , 2

i n t u i t i v e , a n d / o r m y s t i c a l k n o w l e d g s t o h i s a u d i e n c e

^ I b i d , , pp , 1 0 7 - 0 8 ; Bower A l y , "The H i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a n P u b l i c A d d r e s s a s a R e s e a r c h F i e l d , " Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XXIX ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 4 3 ) , 3 0 9 - 1 0 ; LawrBnc8 W. R o s e n f i e l d , "The Anatomy o f C r i t i c a l D i s c o u r s e , "S p e e c h m o n o g r a p h s , XXXV ( M a r c h , 1 9 6 8 ) , 5 0 - 6 9 ,

2 The< D i c t i o n a r y o f P h i l o s o p h y and P s y c h o l o g y d e f i n e s

12

so a s t o s o I v e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t h e r h e t o r i c a l p ro b l e m

( t a s k s ) a s i t i s c o n c e i v e d and p e r c e i v e d by t h e s p e a k e r

o r w r i t e r . T h i s means t h a t w h i l e t h i 3 a u t h o r s h a l l

t h e l o p i c a l o r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f " i m m e d ia c y " a n d " m e d i a c y " a s f a l l o w s :

From a l o g i c a l o r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w a c o g n i t i o n i s i m m e d i a t e when i t r e q u i r e s no p r o o f } and i t i s m e d i a t e when i t r e q u i r e s p r o o f ,

I s e e an i n k - p o t b e f o r e me on t h e t a b l e : Ip e r c e i v e i t a s h a v i n g an e x i s t e n c e d i s t i n c t f r om a nd i n d e p e n d e n t o f my own e x i s t e n c e , b o t h b o d i l y a nd m e n t a l . T h i s c o g n i t i o n i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y m e d i a t e i n a s m u c h a s i t i s a p r o d u c t o f p r e v i o u s m e n t a l p r o c e s s . P s y c h i c a l l y i t i s i m m e d i a t e , i n a s m u c h a s I am n o t a w a r e , i n t h e moment o f p e r c e p t i o n , o f i t s d e p e n d e n c e on g r o u n d s o r r e a s o n s , But l e t some one q u e s t i o n o r deny t h a t t h e i n k - p o t e x i s t s a s I p e r c e i v e i t . I may t h e n t h i n k i t n e c e s s a r y t o j u s t i f y my p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t by a s s i g n i n g r e a s o n s f o r i t . I may b e g i n by s a y i n g t h a t t h e i n k - p o t e x i s t s i n t h e m an ne r I a f f i r m , b e c a u s e I p e r c e i v e i t a s e x i s t ­i n g i n t h i s m a n n e r . T h i s i s t o a s s i g n a p h y s i c a l f a c t . The d o u b t e r may t h e n p r o c e e d t o unmask t h e whole b a t t e r y o f s u b j e c t i v e i d e a l i s m , a n d bombard my p o s i t i o n . In t h e e nd I may f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p a s e r i e s o f c o m p l i c a t e d a r g u m e n t s t o e s t a b l i s h w h a t , i n t h e f i r s t i n ­s t a n c e , came b e f o r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s an im­m e d i a t e da tu m. In t a k i n g t h i s c o u r s e I a d m i t t h a t wha t was t h e p s y c h i c a l l y i m m e d i a t e da tum r e a l l y r e q u i r e d j u s t i f i c a t i o n by g r o u n d s and r e a s o n s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , I a d m i t t h a t i t i s l o g i c a l l y m e d i a t e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , I m i g h t ha v e a d o p t e d a d i f f e r e n t c o u r s e , I m i g h t have r e s o l u t e l y r e f u s e d t o a r g u e , a f f i r m i n g t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i n k s t a n d i s f o r me a s e l f - e v i d e n t f a c t w h i c h r e q u i r e s no p r o o f , and t h a t a l l a r g u m e n t s t o t h e c o n t r a r y m u s t , f r om t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c a s e , be i r r e l e v a n t o r n o n s e n s i c a l , I s h o u l d t h e n be m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t my p e r c e p t u a l j u d g m e n t i s l o g i c a l l y i m m e d i a t e .

13

h o p e f u l l y a l w a y s r e m a i n a w a r e o f t h e f a c t t h a t com­

m u n i c a t i o n i s a dynamic p r o c e s s , he w i l l s e l e c t o n l y

an " a s p e c t , " a "moment" o r a " p e r m u t a t i o n " o f t h e t o t a l

p r o c e s s f o r h i s p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n , As R o s e n f i e l d

a r g u e d :

I f we s c h e m a t i z e an i n s t a n c e o f p u b l i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n e n c o u n t e r e d by t h e c r i t i c , we i n t u i t i v e l y r e c o g n i z e f o u r g r o s s v a r i a b l e s : t h e s o u r c e ( s ) o r c r e a t e r ( s ) o f t h e m e s s a g e , ' t h e m es sa ge i t s e l f , t h e c o n t e x t o r e n v i r o n ­men t i n w h i c h t h e m e s s a g e i s r e c e i v e d ( i n ­c l u d i n g b o t h t h e r e c e i v e r s and t h e s o c i a l " l a n d s c a p e " w h i c h sp a w n s t h e m e s s a g e ) , and t h e c r i t i c h i m s e l f (who , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s t u d y o f p u b l i c a d d r e s s o f t h e p a s t , i s i n a s e n s e a u n i q u e r e c e i v e r ) . F o r t h e s a k e o f c o n v e n i e n c e , l e t u s l a b e l t h e v a r i a b l e s "S" ( s o u r c e ) , "I'll" ( m e s s a g e ) , "E" ( e n v i r o n m e n t ) , a n d "C" ( c r i t i c ) . O b v i o u s l y , i n a t o t a l i n ­t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e a c t a l l f o u r v a r i a b l e s a r e r e l e v a n t . But e q u a l l y o b v i o u s f rom p a s t c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e , s u c h a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g a n a l y s i s w i l l be r a r e i f n o t im­p o s s i b l e f o r t h e s i n g l e c r i t i c . We a r e t h e r e f o r e f o r c e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t c r i t i c s w i l l ha v e t o c o n c e n t r a t e on some p e r m u t a t i o n o f t h e f o u r v a r i a b l e s a s a means o f m a k i n g t h e i r c r i t i c a l t a s k s m a n a g e a b l e .

The c r i t i c t h e r e f o r e o c c u p i e s h i m s e l f w i t h some c o m b i n a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s w h i c h f o c u s on t h e m e s s a g e : S-M, M-E, M-C, S-ffl -E, S-ffl-C, o rM-E-C. T h es e a r e c o m b i n a t i o n s wh ic h c o n s t i t u t e g e n u i n e c r i t i c a l o p t i o n s . 1

T h a t p e r m u t a t i o n w i t h w h i c h I s h a l l p r i m a r i l y d e a l i s

t h e s p e a k e r - m e s s a g e o r p e r h a p s t o be e v e n more e m p h a t i c

1 R o s e n f i e l d , "The Anatomy o f C r i t i c a l D i s c o u r s e , "p . 5 8 .

14

t h a n R o s e n f i e l d , t h e s p e a k o r - p u r p o s e - m e s s a g e (S -P -M)

r e l a t i o n s h i p . Howeve r , a s R o s e n f i e l d s t a t e d , a b s o l u t e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n on any one p e r m u t a t i o n i s v i r t u a l l y im­

p o s s i b l e and p e r h a p s i m p r a c t i c a l . T h e r e f o r e , r e f e r e n c e

w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y be made t o t h e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e

c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s i n c l u d i n g t h e r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n ,

a u d i e n c e , e f f e c t s , a nd t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e y hav e w i t h

one a n o t h e r , ^

Whi l e t h e c h o i c e t o e m p h a s i z e o n l y a s i n g l e

p e r m u t a t i o n was t o soma e x t e n t i n f l u e n c e d by e x p e d i e n c y ,

s i n c e any a d e q u a t e a t t e m p t a t d e s c r i b i n g t h e e n t i r e com­

m u n i c a t i v e p r o c e s s o f f o x wou ld be c o n s i d e r a b l y be yo n d

t h e r e a s o n a b l e s c o p e o f t h i s p r e s e n t w o r k , i t s h o u l d

n o t be a s su m e d t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m f o r

i n v e s t i g a t i o n was p u r e l y a r b i t r a r y . I t i s ho pe d t h a t

t h e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s w i l l

r e v e a l t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e

p r o c e s s s e l e c t e d w i l l a f f o r d a s i g n i f i c a n t i n s i g h t and

p e r h a p s p r o v i d e a c l e a r e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a p r o v o c a t i v e

a s p e c t o f r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r a s i t i s t y p i f i e d i n t h e

r h e t o r i c o f George Fox , T h i s a s p e c t b e i n g t h e com­

m u n i c a t i o n o f " s u b j e c t i v e " and " i m m e d i a t e " k n o w l e d g e

1 My a n a l y s i s w i l l a t t i m e s a p p e a r t o r e s e m b l e t h e "S-M-E" p e r m u t a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r .

15

a s o p p o s e d t o t h a t w h i c h i s " o b j e c t i v e " an d " m e d i a t e . " " *

S i n c e I am n e i t h e r a t r a i n e d p h i l o s o p h e r n o r p s y c h o l o ­

g i s t , I s h a l l n o t a t t h i s t i m e become i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e

s u b t l e t i e s o f t h s d e b a t e o v e r t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e s e

r e s p e c t i v e p o s i t i o n s . H o w ev e r , t h e r e a d e r w i l l soon

d i s c o v e r t h a t 1 have a c c e p t e d t h e r e a l i t y o f i n t u i t i v e

k n o w l e d g e , i f o n l y b e c a u s e George f o x d i d an d i t i s

f r om h i s p o i n t o f v i e w t h a t I w i s h t o d e s c r i b e and

u n d e r s t a n d h i s c o m m u n i c a t i v e t r a n s a c t i o n s .

The a u t h o r h o l d s t h e o p i n i o n t h a t p e o p l e a c t

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e a l i t y — r i g h t o r

w r o n g , f a c t o r i l l u s i o n . F o r George Fox a nd many o t h e r

r e l i g i o n i s t s a n d s e c u l a r i s t s , b o t h s i m i l a r a n d d i s ­

s i m i l a r t o h i m , t h e m y s t i c a l , i n t u i t i o n a l , a n d s u b ­

j e c t i v e d i m e n s i o n s o f l i f e a r e a b s o l u t e r e a l i t i e s and

t h e s e c o n c e p t s hav e i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i v e

T D i c t i o n a r y o f P h i l o s o p h y a nd P s y c h o l o g y , I I , 6 1 1 . The D i c t i o n a r y o f P h i l o s o p h y a n d P s y c h o l o g y d e ­f i n e s s u b j e c t i v i t y a s o p p o s e d t o o b j e c t i v i t y i n t h e o l o g y a s s

T h a t t e n d e n c y w h i c h s e e k s t h e o r g a n an d c r i t e r i a o f r e l i q i o u s t r u t h i n t h e i n t i m a t i o n s o f t h e i n n e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s r a t h e r t h a n i n h i s t o r y an d o b j e c t i v e r e v e l a t i o n s .

The s u b j e c t i v e t e n d e n c y d o m i n a t e s m y s t i c i s m a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f ro m s c h o l a s t i c i s m and r a t i o n a l i s m : a l s o q u i e t i s m and a l l f o r m s o f r e l i g i o u s p r o f e s s i o n i n wh i ch t h e l a s t a p p e a l i s t o t h e i n n e r s p i r i t .

A K i e r k e g a a r d i a n d e f i n i t i o n o f s u b j e c t i v i t y i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r .

16

b e h a v i o r t o a t l e a s t some d e g r e e . I t i s t h e r e f o r e t h e

c o n t e n t i o n o f t h i s w r i t e r t h a t j u s t a s i t h a s p r o v e n

s i g n i f i c a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d how men c o m m u n i c a t e o b j e c t i v e

t r u t h , i t i s e q u a l l y a s v i t a l t o a p p r e c i a t e how s u b ­

j e c t i v e t r u t h i s c o m m u n i c a t e d ,

George Fox wou l d c e r t a i n l y n o t be c o n s i d e r e d

t y p i c a l o f a l l t h o s e who h o l d a s u b j e c t i v i s t ' s p o i n t o f

v i e w n o r y e t o f t h o s e c a l l e d m y s t i c s , e v e n a s no s i n g l e

c o m m u n i c a t o r o f o b j e c t i v e t r u t h may be c o n s i d e r e d

p e r f e c t l y t y p i c a l . Howeve r , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t an

a n a l y s i s o f t h e r h e t o r i c o f George Fox w i l l r e v e a l some

i n f o r m a t i o n wh ic h w i l l hB l p u s b e t t e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e

c o m m u n i c a t i v e p r o c e s s , H o p e f u l l y t h i s s h a l l be a ccom­

p l i s h e d by f i r s t d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e n a t u r e and s i g n i f i ­

c a n c e o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e r o l e i n t h e c a r e e r o f an

i m p o r t a n t l e a d e r who h a s g e n e r a l l y been o v e r l o o k e d by

r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c s an d s e c o n d l y by c a s e s t u d y i n g George

F o x ' s c o m m u n i c a t i v e b e h a v i o r s i n o r d e r t o b e g i n u n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g how one man s o u g h t t o s o l v e h i s r h e t o r i c a l

p r o b l e m o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g s u b j e c t i v e t r u t h .

The P l a n f o r t h e S y s t e m a t i c D i s c o v e r y o f S o u r c e m a t e r i a l

To g a t h e r t h e e v i d e n c e n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y t h i s

s t u d y f o r w a r d , t h e w r i t e r t h o u g h t i t w i s e t o d i v i d e

t h e s e a r c h i n t h r e e b a s i c a r e a s : 1 ) t h e g e n e r a l s o u r c e s

17

on f o x ' s l i f e , 2 ) t h e g e n e r a l s o u r c e s on F o x ' s

r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n * and 3 ) t h e s p e c i f i c s o u r c e s o f

t h e tuorks o f Fox .

C l u e s l e a d i n g t o a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s we re f o u n d i n :

t h e D i c t i o n a r y o f N a t i o n a l B i o g r a p h y ; S m i t h ' s , D e s c r i p ­

t i v e C a t a l o o u e o f F r i e n d s ' B o o k s ; W i n g ' s S h o r t - T i t l e

C a t a l o g u e * 1647 - 1 7 0 0 ; K e e l e r ' s B i b l i o g r a p h y o f B r i t i s h

H i s t o r y , S t u a r t P e r i o d , 1 6 0 3 - 1 7 1 4 ; G r o s e ' s 5e l e c t

B i b l i o o r a p h y o f B r i t i s h H i s t o r y , 1 6 6 0 - 1 7 6 0 ; t h e L i b r a r y

o f C o n g r e s s C a t a l o g ; t h e N a t i o n a l Union C a t a l o g ; t h e

B r i t i s h Museum C a t a l o o u e ; t h e E v a n s ' , Amer i can B i b l i o g ­

r a p h y ; t h e C a t a l o c u G o f t h e MeAlpin C o l l e c t i o n o f

B r i t i s h H i s t o r y a nd T h e o l o o y ; t h e C a t a l o g o f P r i n t e d

Books o f t h e F p i p e r S h a k e s p e a r e L i b r a r y ; t h e Gu ide t o

P h o t o c o p i e d H i s t o r i c a l M a t e r i a l s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

a nd C a n a d a ; t h e An n u a l C a t a l o o u e o f George F o x ' s P a p e r s ;

a n d t h e c a r d c a t a l o g s o f t h e Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,

P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , P h i l a d e l p h i a P u b l i c

L i b r a r y , New York P u b l i c L i b r a r y , and t h e H a v e r f o r d

C o l l e g e L i b r a r y ; i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s o f

p e r t i n e n t i n d i v i d u a l b o o k s .

G e n e r a l S o u r c e s on t h e L i f e o f Fox

The l i f e e x p e r i e n c e s o f an o r a t o r p l a y a m a j o r

r o l e i n i l l u m i n a t i n g a n y c r i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f h i s

1 8

c o m p e t o n c e . I n s i g h t g a i n e d by e x a m i n i n g F o x ' s p e r s o n a l

b a c k g r o u n d s h o u l d be i n v a l u a b l e t o t h e c r i t i c e n d e a v o r i n g

t o a c q u i r e an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f h i s t h i n k i n g and an u n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g o f h i s speochfTiaking, F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e l i f e o f

Geo rge Fox ha3 been thB o b j e c t o f a g r e a t d e a l o f r e ­

s e a r c h , W hi l e t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y c o n t a i n s a more com­

p l e t e l i s t i n g o f b i o g r a p h i c a l s t u d i e s , I s h a l l h e r e

m e n t i o n s e v e r a l w h ic h a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l t o t h e

r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c .

B o t h t h e K e e l e r an d Grose b i b l i o g r a p h i e s s p e c i f y

Thomas H o d g k i n ' s , George F o x , ( B o s t o n , 1 8 9 6 ) , a s t h e

" b e s t s h o r t l i f e " b i o g r a p h y o f Fox , O t h e r v a l u a b l e

s o u r c e s wo u ld i n c l u d e H. D. M o n a g h a n ' s , " Dea r G e o r g e " ;

Geo roe F o x , Man and P r o p h e t , ( P h i l a d e l p h i a * 1 9 7 0 ) j

A, 0 . R o b e r t s ' , T h r o ug h F l a m i n g S w o r d ; Pi S p i r i t u a l

B i o o r a p h y o f Georoe F o x , ( P o r t l a n d s 1 9 5 9 ) j t h e Ru fu s

|Y|. J o n e s s t u d i e s , The S t o r y o f George F o x , (New Yo r k ,

1 9 0 4 ) , a n d George F o x s S e e k e r and F r i e n d , (New York ,

1 9 3 0 ) ? a n d l a s t l y , H a r r y Emer son W i l d e s ' , V o i c e o f t h e

L o r d , ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1 9 6 5 ) , In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e com­

p l e t e b i o g r a p h i e s t h e r e a r e many b i o g r a p h i c a l s k e t c h e s

i n a w ide v a r i e t y o f m a g a z i n e s and j o u r n a l s .

P e r h a p s b e f o r e we l e a v e t h i s s e c t i o n , t h r e e

o t h e r s o u r c e s s h o u l d be f u r t h e r s i n g l e d o u t . The f i r s t .

W i l l i a m P e n n ' s , The R i s e and P r o g r e s s o f t h e P e o p l e

C a l l e d Q u a k e r s , i s o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s i n c e P e n n , a

c l o s e a s s o c i a t e o f F o x , i s h e r e r e f l e c t i n g upon F o x ' s

l i f e and u s i n g i t f o r an e x am p le t o , f u t u r e Quake r

p r e a c h e r s . Tho l a s t two w o r k s , A, N. B r a y s h a w ' s ,

P e r s o n a l i t y o f Ceo roe F o x , ( L o n d o n , 1 9 3 3 ) , and R. K n i g h t

The P s y c h o l o g y o f George F o x , (New York , 1 9 2 3 ) , a l t h o u g h

somewha t d a t e d o f f e r an i n t e r e s t i n g i n s i g h t i n t o t h e

man Geo rge Fox w h i c h t h e o t h e r s t u d i e s do n o t p r o v i d e .

The G e n e r a l S o u r c e s on F o x ' s R h e t o r i c a l S i t u a t i o n

S i n c e s p e e c h e s do n o t o c c u r i n i s o l a t i o n b u t a r e

t h e r e s u l t o f s p e a k e r , a u d i e n c e , and s i t u a t i o n i n t e r ­

a c t i o n , i t i s i m p e r a t i v e f o r t h e r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c t o

i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l , a nd s o c i a l e n ­

v i r o n m e n t i n wh ic h Fox l i v e d . Some o f t h e s o u r c e s p r o ­

v i d i n g t h i s b a c k g r o u n d m a t e r i a l a r e * The Ca m br id g e

H i s t o r y o f t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e ; The C a m b r i d g e modern

H i s t o r y ? W i l b u r K. J o r d a n ' s , D e v e l o p m e n t o f R e l i g i o u s

T o l e r a t i o n i n E n g l a n d ; M a s o n ' s , L i f e o f M i l t o n ; M a ca u l ay

H i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d ; T r e v e l y a n ' s , E n g l a n d u n d e r t h e

S t u a r t s ; B a s i l W i l l e y ' s , S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y B a c k g r o u n d ;

Leo F . S o l t ' s , S a i n t s i n Arms; W i l l i a m H a l l e r ' s two

b o o k s , The R i s e o f P u r i t a n i s m , a nd L i b e r t y an d R e f o r ­

m a t i o n i n t h e P u r i t a n R e v o l u t i o n ; G. F. N u t t a l l ' s , The

20

Holy S p i r i t i n P u r i t a n i s m ; 10. C. B r a i t h w a i t e * s tuio

v o l u m e s , The Be g in n i n n s o f Q u a k e r i s m , and The Second

P e r i o d o f Q u a k e r i s m ; Ru fu s 01. J o n e s ' s t u d i e s , S p i r i t u a l

R e f o r m e r s o f t h e S i x t e e n t h and S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s ,

a n d S t u d i e s i n M y s t i c a l R e l i g i o n ; and A r n o l d L l o y d ' s

Qu a ke r S o c l a 1 Hi s t o r y .

In g e n e r a l t h e s e bo oks we re s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e :

1 ) t h e y a r e r e c o g n i z e d a s s c h o l a r l y , 2) t h e y have b e ­

come s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s o u r c e s f o r w r i t e r s on George

F o x , 3 ) t h e y a r e v a r i e d i n t h e i r e m p h a s i s , a nd 4 ) t h e y

p r o v i d e a n s w e r s t h e a u t h o r was s e e k i n g .

The S p e c i f i c S o u r c e s o f t h e Works o f Fox

In o r d e r t o make a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e

b o o k s , s e r m o n s , and e p i s t l e s o f Geo rge F o x , i t was

n e c e s s a r y t o l o c a t e : 1 ) t h o s e t e x t s w h i c h gav e r e a s o n ­

a b l e a s s u r a n c e a s t o t h e i r a u t h e n t i c i t y , and 2 ) t h o s e

w h i c h we re a v a i l a b l e a s i n d i v i d u a l s o u r c e s a n d / o r

r e l a t i v e l y c o m p l e t e and a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o l l e c t i o n s o f

F o x ' s w o r k s . T he s e c r i t e r i a we re p r i n c i p a l l y s a t i s f i e d

by u s i n g o n l y t h o s e s o u r c e s a t t r i b u t e d t o Fox by S m i t h ' s ,

D e s c r i p t i v e C a t a l o g u e o f F r i e n d s * B o o k s : Don a l d W i n g ' s ,

S h o r t T i t l e C a t a l o o u B , 1 641 - 1 7 0C1 t o r Hen ry J . C a d b u r y ' s

e d i t i o n o f t h e Annua l C a t a l o o u e o f Geo roe F o x ' s P a p e r s .

I n a d d i t i o n * t o t h e many i n d i v i d u a l t e x t s c i t e d by t h e s e

21

b i b l i o g r a p h e r s , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o l l e c t i o n was r ecommended

by t h e D i c t i o n a r y o f Na t .Iona 1- B i o g r a p h y t The Wo r k s o f

Georoe F o x , B v o l s , ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1031),"1 i n c l u d i n g

Vo I s , I — 11 * A J o u r n a l o r H i s t o r i c a l Accou n t o f t h e

L i f e . . . o f George F o x ;2 V a l , I I I , The G r e a t M y s t e r y

o f t h o G r e a t Whore U n f o l d e d , . . , Wi th S a u l 1s E r r a n d

t o D a m a s c u s ; 3 V o l s , 1V-VI , G o s p e 1 T r u t h D e m o n s t r a t e d ,

i n £j C o l l o c t i o n o f D o c t r i n a l B o o k s a nd V o l s . V I I - V I I I ,

A Do U n c t i o n o f Many S e l e c t a nd C h r i s t i a n E p i s t l e s ,

L e t t e r s , an d T e s t i m o n i e s , 5

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e E l l u iood T e x t , t h r e e o t h e r

s c h o l a r l y e d i t i o n s o f t h e Fox J o u r n a l a r e a l s o u s e f u l

b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n c l u s i o n o f many o f F o x ' s e p i s t l e s .

The f i r s t , known a s t h e C a m b r i d g e e d i t i o n o f t h e J o u r n a l

( 1 9 1 1 ) , was p r i n t e d v e r b a t i u m e t l i t e r a t i u m . f rom t h e

^ S m i t h ' s D e s c r i p t i v e C a t a l o g u e n o t e s t h a t " t h i s i s a u n i f o r m r e p r i n t o f a l l Goo, F o x ' s p r i n c i p a l w o r k s . . . . " I , 692 . H e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s W o rk s .

^ T h i s e d i t i o n was a r e p r i n t o f t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n by Thomas E l l w o o d , 1 6 9 4 . H e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s E l l w o o d , J o u r n a l . I n t h i s work a Londons W. P h i l l i p s , 18 27 r e p r i n t was u s e d .

^ H e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s G r e a t M y s t e r y .

^ H e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s G o s p e 1 T r u t h . In t h i s uiork t h e London: T, S o w l e , 1706 e d i t i o n was c i t e d .

^ H e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s E p i s t l e s .

22

o r i g i n a l S p e nc e MS.1 w h e r e a s t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f 1694

was e d i t e d and a l t e r e d a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e b a s e d upon t h e

same m a n u s c r i p t s , The s e c o n d , r e f e r r e d t o o s t h e S h o r t

J o u r n a l ( 1 9 2 5 ) , ^ a l s o p r i n t e d v e r b a t i u m e t l i t e r a t i m n

was c o m p i l e d f ro m e t h e r m a n u s c r i p t s and t h e r e f o r e p r o ­

v i d e d f u r t h e r i n s i g h t s . A t h i r d , t h e N i c k a l l s ' e d i t i o n

o f t h e J o u r n a l ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 3 r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s o f

mod e rn s c h o l a r s h i p i n r e l y i n g upon t h e p r e v i o u s e d i t i o n s

o f t h e J o u r n a l p l u s o t h e r m a n u s c r i p t i t e m 3 a n d d i a r i e s .

F i n a l l y , a c o l l e c t i o n o f m a n u s c r i p t s known a s

t h e S w a r t h m o o r MSS. we re a l s o e x a m i n e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r

r i c h n e s s i n p r i m a r y s o u r c e m a t e r i a l n e t a v a i l a b l e i n

p r i n t e d f o rm . Th es e s e v e n v o l u m e s c o n t a i n a c o l l e c t i o n

o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1400 e a r l y Qu ak e r l e t t e r s .

T h e s e , t h e n , we re t h e m a j o r s o u r c e s c o n s u l t e d

f o r t h e r h e t o r i c a l w o rk s o f Geo rge Fox ,

The D i v i s i o n s o f t h e S t u d y an d T h e i r R e s p e c t i v e F u n c t i o n s

The f o l l o w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n r e f l e c t s t h e

s t u d y d e s i g n f o r m u l a t e d t o make p o s s i b l e a d e s c r i p t i o n

a n d a n a l y s i s o f Geo rge F o x ' s r h e t o r i c : 1) t h e n a t u r e

^ H e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s C a m b r i dg e J o u r n a l ,

^ H e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s S h o r t J o u r n a l ,

^ H e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l .

23

an d p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y , 2 ) a p r e l i m i n a r y p a r a d i g m For

c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 3) . an i n t e r p r e t i v e s u r v e y o f

t h e r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , 4 ) t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e

c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r , 5) George F o x ' s co mmun ica ­

t i v e b e h a v i o r , 6) F o x ' s m a t u r e c h a r i s m a t i c m i n i s t r y ,

7 ) t h o r o u t i n i z a t i a n o f c h a r i s m a , and B) t h e g e n e r a l '

summary a nd c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h e s t u d y .

C h a p t e r I was d e s i g n e d t o f u r n i s h t h e r e a d e r w i t h

i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n a t u r e an d p u r p o s e o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n .

I t i n c l u d e d t h e t r e a t m e n t o f s u c h m a t t e r s a s* 1 ) t h e

o r i g i n o f t h e s t u d y , 2 ) a r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e ,

3 ) t h e p r o b l e m f o r r e s e a r c h an d i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e ,

4 ) a p l a n f o r t h e s y s t e m a t i c d i s c o v e r y o f s o u r c e

m a t e r i a l s , and 5 ) a d i v i s i o n o f t h e s t u d y and t h e

r e s p e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s o f e a c h c h a p t e r .

C h a p t e r I I i s a t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e

n a t u r e a nd c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f " c h a r i s m a t i c r h e t o r i c . "

ThB p a r a d i g m t a k e s i t s i n s p i r a t i o n f rom many d i v e r s e

s o u r c e s i n c l u d i n g s o c i o l o g y , p r o p h e t i c a nd m y s t i c a l

r e l i g i o n , p s y c h o l o g y , e x i s t e n t i a l p h i l o s o p h y , and

r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y . The m o de l was d e s i g n e d t o s e r v e a

h e u r i s t i c f u n c t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r h e t o r i c a l b e ­

h a v i o r s o f George Fox .

24

I n C h a p t e r I I I , t h e r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , i n

w h i c h Fox Found h i m s e l f an d by wh ich he was i n f l u e n c e d ,

i s s u r v e y e d and i n t e r p r e t e d . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i s

g i v e n t o t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' s r e l i g i o u s d i s ­

e q u i l i b r i u m i n c l u d i n g t h e P u r i t a n R e v o l u t i o n and t h e

e m e r g e n c e oF t h e r a d i c a l s e c t s d u r i n g t h e I n t e r r e g n u m .

Such g r o u p s a s t h e M u g g l e t o n i a n s , F i f t h mona rchy men,

F a m i l i s t s , R a n t e r s , and t h e S e e k e r s a r e a l l b r i e f l y

e x a m i n e d i n o r d e r t o show t h e r e l i g i o u s s p i r i t o f t h e

e r a .

C h a p t e r IV i n t r o d u c e s t h e r e a d e r t o George Fox .

Ho w ev e r , I t d o e s much m o r e . I t I n v e s t i g a t e s t h e b a c k ­

g r o u n d o f Fox i n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r t h e e v e n t s i n h i s

l i f e w h i c h m o s t l i k e l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o h i s b e i n g p e r ­

c e i v e d a s c h a r i s m a t i c . W hi l e h i s c h i l d h o o d and

p u r i t a n i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d , t h e main f o c u s

o f t h e c h a p t e r i s upon h i s p e r s o n a l s p i r i t u a l p i l ­

g r i m a g e , t h e n a t u r e o f h i s e v e n t u a l e n l i g h t e n m e n t s , a nd

h i s r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f m in d .

C h a p t e r V e x a m i n e s t h e e a r l y m i n i s t r y o f F o x , i n

h i s i n c i p i e n t c h a r i s m a t i c s t a g B , I t b e g i n s t o a n s w e r

t h e q u e s t i o n , "How d i d Geo rge Fox c o m m u n i c a t e , " T h i s

i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by s u m m a r i z i n g h i s r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g i e s ,

and t h e n a n a l y z i n g t h e o r a c u l a r n a t u r e o f h i s d i s c o u r s e s ,

25

h i s t h e o r y o f " s p e a k i n g t o c o n d i t i o n s , " h i s r h e t o r i c a l

u s e o f t h e B i b l e , an d f i n a l l y , t h e s i g n s o f ' h i s

c h a r i s m a .

C h a p t e r \ ll c o n t i n u e s t o u n c o v e r how Fox t r a n s ­

f o r m e d h i s p r i v a t e v i s i o n s i n t o a c h a r i s m a t i c movemen t .

A f t e r r e v i e w i n g F o x ' s d i v i n e c a l l , t h i s c h a p t e r s t u d i e s

h i s r h a t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r s i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s , i n t e r ­

p e r s o n a l , g r o u p , and p u b l i c a d d r e s s . L a s t l y , i t l o o k s

a t F o x ' s a c t i v i t i e s among t h e S e e k e r s o f n o r t h e r n

E n g l a n d a n d how f r e e l y t h e y r e s p o n d e d t o h i s c h a r i s ­

m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p .

C h a p t e r VI I d e s c r i b e s t h s t r a n s i t i o n o f t h e

c h a r i s m a t i c movement i n t o a S o c i e t y o f F r i e n d s , I t

s t u d i e s b o t h t h e i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s w h i c h

made t h e r o u t i n i z a t i o n o f F o x ' s c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y

a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e . I n c l u d e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s a l s o a

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c h a n g e s i n F o x ' s r h e t o r i c w h i c h

h e l p e d t o f u r t h e r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f Q u a k e r i s m .

The f i n a l C h a p t e r M i l l s e r v e s t h e s t a n d a r d

f u n c t i o n o f s u m m a r i z i n g , d r a w i n g g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s ,

a n d mak i ng r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y .

«

CHAPTER I I

A PRELIMINARY PARADIGM FOR CHARISMATIC COMMUNICATION

T h i n c h a p t e r i s a t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t oF t h e

n a t u r e and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f wha t I have t e r m e d " c h a r i s ­

m a t i c r h e t o r i c . " I t tal<Bs i t s i n s p i r a t i o n From many

d i v e r s e s o u r c e s i n c l u d i n g s o c i o l o g y , p r o p h e t i c and

m y s t i c a l r e l i g i o n , p s y c h o l o g y , e x i s t e n t i a l p h i l o s o p h y ,

and r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y . In p a r t i c u l a r two a u t h o r s , Max

Uleber and S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , a r e F r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d

t o i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s , Howeve r , t h e r e a d e r i s

c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t e x p e c t i n g a s y s t e m a t i c e x p o s i t i o n o r

g e n e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i r w o r k s . R a t h e r , one w i l l

f i n d t h a t I h a v e c h o s e n c e r t a i n o f t h e i r p e r t i n e n t i d e a s

o n l y a s t h e p o i n t o f my d e p a r t u r e i n o r d e r t o f o r m u l a t e

i n d e p e n d e n t l y a p r e l i m i n a r y p a r a d i g m f o r c h a r i s m a t i c

c o m m u n i c a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , s i n c e t h e o b j e c t i v e o f

t h e c h a p t e r i s n o t e x e g e t i c a l , t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n

d o e s n o t F a i t h f u l l y r e f l e c t t hB c o r p u s o f any one m a n ' s

t h i n k i n g . R a t h e r , t h e r e w i l l be a s i f t i n g a n d s y n t h e ­

s i z i n g o f c o n c e p t s w h i c h w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e n e g l e c t o f

some i d e a s and t h e a c c e n t u a t i o n o f o t h e r s . A l s o , thB

26

27

r e a d e r i s c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t a n t i c i p a t i n g a s y s t e m a t i c

t h e o r y o f c h a r i s m a t i c r h e t o r i c , f o r s u c h a p r o d i g i o u s

t a s k , i f i t we re n o t b e y o n d t h e a u t h o r ' s a m b i t i o n o r

a b i l i t y , wou ld s u r e l y e x t e n d b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s

p r o j e c t . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d e x p e c t t o become

a c q u a i n t e d w i t h s e v e r a l "moment s" o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s a n d , h o p e f u l l y , t h e f i n a l p r o d u c t

w i l l p r o v i d e a more w o r k a b l e t o o l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d

r e s e a r c h , t h a n wou ld h a v e p r e v i o u s l y been p o s s i b l e .

A f t e r due c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m s r e l e v a n t

t o d e v e l o p i n g a p r e l i m i n a r y p a r a d i g m o f c h a r i s m a t i c

r h e t o r i c , t h e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e a s p e c t s e m e r g e d a s r e ­

q u i r i n g a mos t c a r e f u l r h e t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n : t h e

s i t u a t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c r e s p o n s e s

t h o s e phenomena p e r s o n a l l y c r u c i a l a n d r e l e v a n t t o t h e

c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r i n h i s r o l e a s c o m m u n i c a t o r s and

l a s t l y , t h e s t r a t e g i e s and t a c t i c s e m p l o y e d by t h e

c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r a s he m e a n i n g f u l l y s e e k s t o

r e l a t e h i s m e s s a g e t o h i s a u d i e n c e ,

"'One s h o u l d a l s o be a d v i s e d t h a t w h i l e n o t e s s e n ­t i a l , i t was mos t e x p e d i e n t t o d i s c u s s c h a r i s m a t i c com­m u n i c a t i o n i n r e l i g i o u s r a t h e r t h a n s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c a t e ­g o r i e s s i n c e much o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e r e a d i l y l e n d s i t s e l f t o t h e f o r m e r and s u c h c a t e g o r i e s a r e im­m e d i a t e l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e s t u d y o f a s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o m m u n i c a t o r . I n t h e c a s e o f more modern f i g u r e s o ne may c h o o s e t o b u t i n my o p i n i o n n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e v i s e t h e c a t e g o r i e s h e r e i n s u g g e s t e d , ~

28

S i t u a t i o n a l D e t e r m i n a n t s o f C h a r i s m a t i c Re s p o n s e

S i n c e a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n

w h i c h f o l l o w s h e r e a f t e r , a s w e l l a s t h e a c t u a l a n a l y s i s

u n d e r t a k e n l a t e r , may g i v e t h e d e c i d e d i m p r e s s i o n t h a t

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r i s t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f

C a r l y l e ' s h e r o , t h e m o l d e r o f man a n d make r o f h i s t o r y ,

i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o t e m p e r t h i s e m p h a s i s by h e r e

s t r e s s i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n a l n e e d s o r " c a l l * ' f o r c h a r i s ­

m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p . T h i s i s t o i m p l y t h a t t h e o c c u r r e n c e

o f a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r i s a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y a t t r i b u t ­

a b l e t o c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o r c r i t i c a l

h i s t o r i c a l v a r i a b l e s . In t h e l i g h t c f t h i s b e l i e f , t h a t

l e a d e r s h i p i s p r i m a r i l y a l a t e n t f o r c e w a i t i n g t o be

summoned by a c o l l e c t i v e i m p u l s e , Ann R u th t t l i l l n e r i n

h e r s t u d y o f c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p c o n s i d e r e d t h i s

phenomenon i n t e r m s w h ic h she r e f e r r e d t o a s " t h e

f r u s t r a t i o n - e r u p t i o n f o r m u l a . " She o b s e r v e d t h a t

w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o a c a l l f o r l e a d e r s h i p , i t c a n be s i m p l y s t a t e d a s f o l l o w s : i n d i v i d u a l sa n d i n d i v i d u a l s - i n - g r o u p s have c e r t a i n n e e d s t h a t i n n o r m a l t i m e s a r e s a t i s f i e d i n n o r m a l w a y s , i . e . , t h r o u g h i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t h e i r s o c i e t i e s f o r m e e t i n g t h e s e n e e d s * i n a b n o r m a l t i m e s o r u n d e r a b n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e y a r e d e p r i v e d o f t h e n o r m a l and e x p e c t e d g r a t i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e n e e d s ; d e p r i v a t i o n and f r u s t r a t i o n d e s t r o y t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d c a u s e t h em t o s e e k i n s t e a d

29

f o r an i n d i v i d u a l a s t h e sym bo l and means o f f u l F i l l m e n t . ^

S i n c e t h e p o t e n t i a l s t r o s s - p r o d u c i n g F a c t o r s a r e

m u l t i f a r i o u s , any c a t a l o g u i n g a t t e m p t uiould p r o v e q u i t e

i m p r a c t i c a b l e and somewhat m e a n i n g l e s s , b u t f o r p u r e l y

i l l u s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s a c u r s o r y o v e r v i e w o f t h e s e p h e ­

nomena w h i c h may p r e c i p i t a t e a c r i s i s b e t w e e n t h e s o c i o -

p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e e d s oF t h e p e o p l e and t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f

t h e i n s t i t u t i o n t o s a t i s f y t h o s e n e e d s w o u l d g e n e r a l l y

i n c l u d e some o f t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t a n c e s : i n d u s t r i a l i z a ­

t i o n , t h e s p r e a d o f l i t e r a c y , d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n , and w a r , 2

As a d i s t r o s s - p r o d u c i n g ph en om en on , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n

i s f r e q u e n t l y i n d i c a t e d a s a m a j o r d i s e q u i l i b r a t i n g

f o r c e . I t g e n e r a t e s r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s ,

c o m p l e x i t y o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , l o s s o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , and

t h e c o n f u s i o n o f r o l e s t h r o u g h c o m p e t i t i v e and c o o p e r a ­

t i v e e c o n o m ic g a m e s m a n s h i p , C l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i s t h e s p r e a d o f l i t e r a c y t h r o u g h

p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and mass c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h i s e x p o s u r e

t o new i d e a s r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t f o r m e r c e r t a i n t i e s ,

B a s i c v a l u e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y b r o u g h t i n t o c o n f l i c t .

1 Ann Ru t h U l i l l n e r , C h a r i s m a t i c P o l i t i c a l L e a d e r s h i p ( P r i n c e t o n : C e n t e r o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , P r i n c e t o nU n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 3 5 ,

2 I b i d . , pp , 3 6 - 4 4 ,

30

S i m i l a r t u r m o i l may a l s o r e s u l t From p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o ­

v e r s y s u c h a s d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n by w h i c h m a n a r c h i a l

p o w e r s g i v e way t o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t t h u s

b r i n g i n g g r a v e u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l n a t u r e

o f a u t h o r i t y . Even more a n x i e t y - p r o d u c i n g i s t h e c r i s i s

o f war a nd i t s c o n c o m i t a n t phenomena o f e c o n o m i c h a r d ­

s h i p s , , s o c i a l d i s l o c a t i o n , and t h e g e n e r a l l y h e i g h t e n e d

c l i m a t e o f e m o t i o n a l i s m a s e v i d e n c e d by s t r o n g f e e l i n g s

o f n a t i o n a l i s m , p a t r i o t i s m , h e r o i c s a c r i f i c e o r p e r h a p s

t h e more n e g a t i v e p o l a r i z i n g a t t i t u d e s o f a p a t h y , d i s ­

i l l u s i o n m e n t , a nd e ve n r e s e n t m e n t t o w a r d t h o s e i n

g o v e r n m e n t a l a u t h o r i t y . Q u i t e n a t u r a l l y a s a c o r o l l a r y

o f war one mus t a l s o m e n t i o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r n a l

v i o l e n c e o r i n s u r r e c t i o n a s an i n s t i g a t o r o f i n c r e a s e d

a n x i e t y .

S t i l l o t h e r c r i s i s - p r o d u c i n g phenomena m i g h t be

p e r s e c u t i o n , p h y s i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e s , f e e l i n g o f o p p r e s s i o n ,

u n e m p l o y m e n t , p o v e r t y , f e a r , and t h e w a n i n g o f r e l i g i o n . * *

Ulhen s u c h s i t u a t i o n s a s t h e s e come i n t o e x i s t e n c e , when

c r i s e s hav e i n t e n s i f i e d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e s t a t u s

q u o , t h e n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r i n ­

c r e a s e s an d one may s a y t h a t t h e p e o p l e have be en p r e ­

p a r e d t o f o l l o w t h e l e a d e r .

1 R o b e r t C. T u c k e r , "The T h e o r y o f C h a r i s m a t i c L e a d e r s h i p , " D a e d a l u s , XCVII (Summer , 1 9 6 8 ) , 7 4 4 - 4 5 .

31

In a d d i t i o n t o thB s i t u a t i o n c o n d i t i o n i n g t h e

p e o p l e t o c a l l f o r o c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r # i t s h o u l d

a l s o be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e s

t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r ' s r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r ,

The main p o i n t mado h e r e i s t h a t a s i t u a t i o n i n s o f a r a s

i t i s r h e t o r i c a l , i . e . , i n s o f a r a s i t r e q u i r e s and i n - '

v i t c s d i s c o u r s e w h i c h i s c a p a b l e o f i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e

s i t u a t i o n i n o r d e r t o a l t e r i t s r e a l i t y , e x e r c i s e s a c o n ­

t r o l o v e r t h e r h e t o r i c a l r e s p o n s e i n much t h e same way

a s a p r o b l e m c o n t r o l s i t s s o l u t i o n , * * T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t

t h e r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n a nd i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r h e t o r i c a l

e x i g e n c e ( s ) o f t h e s i t u a t i o n w i l l f u n c t i o n a s t h e " o r g a n ­

i z i n g p r i n c i p l e " o f t h e e n t i r e c o m m u n i c a t i v e e n d e a v o r .

As s u c h t h e s i t u a t i o n may s p e c i f y t h e a u d i e n c e t o be

a d d r e s s e d , t h e c o n s t r a i n t s t o be e m p l o y e d , t h e c h a n g e t o

be e f f e c t e d , and t h e p u r p o s e , t h e m e , m a t t e r , and s t y l e

a s w e l l a s o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r ' s r h e t o r i ­

c a l b e h a v i o r . ^

Phenomena P e r s o n a l l y C r u c i a l To The C h a r i s m a t i c Commun ica to r

I do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t one c a n s e r i o u s l y d o u b t t h e

i m p o r t a n c e o f s i t u a t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a n t s i n f o s t e r i n g t h e

1 L loy d F , B i t z e r , "The R h e t o r i c a l S i t u a t i o n , " P h i l o s o p h y & R h e t o r i c , I ( W i n t e r , 1 9 6 8 ) , 6 ,

^ I b i d . , pp . 7 , 10 ,

32

d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s , b u t n e i t h e r do I

b e l i e v e t h a t t h o s e f a c t o r s a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y s u f f i c i e n t

f o r s u c h l e a d e r s h i p , I t a p p e a r s r e a s o n a b l e t h a t a more

c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e wou ld c o n s i s t o f a d d i t i o n a l p h e n o m e n a . 1

T h e r e f o r e , I s h a l l f i r s t c o n c e n t r a t e upon t h o s e phenomena

w h ich a r e p e r s o n a l l y c r u c i a l t o t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r '

i n h i s r o l e a s c o m m u n i c a t o r , In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n s p e c i a l

a t t e n t i o n w i l l be p l a c e d upon su c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r ’ s r e c e p t i o n o f t h e m e s s a g e ,

h i s s e n s e o f m i s s i o n , a nd h i s p e r s o n a l s e n s e o f

authority.^ The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e a s p e c t s f o r a

p a r a d i g m o f c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n was o r i g i n a l l y

c a l l e d t o my a t t e n t i o n by t h e s o c i o l o g i s t , Max Weber .

He s a i d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f c h a r i s m a ( g i f t o f g r a c e ) i s

b o r r o w e d f rom t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y and

t h a t a s he u s e d i t

t h e t e r m " c h a r i s m a ” w i l l be a p p l i e d t o a c e r t a i n q u a l i t y o f an i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y by v i r t u e o f w h i c h he i s s e t a p a r t f r om o r d i n a r y men a nd t r e a t e d a s endowed w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l , s u p e r h u m a n , o r a t l e a s t s p e c i f i c a l l y e x c e p t i o n a l p o w e r s o r q u a l i t i e s . T hes e a r e s u c h a s a r e n o t a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e o r d i n a r y p e r s o n , b u t a r e r e ­g a r d e d a s o f d i v i n e o r i g i n o r a s e x e m p l a r y , and on t h e b a s i s o f them t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n e d i s t r e a t e d a s a l e a d e r . In p r i m i t i v e

I W i l l n e r , C h a r i s m a t i c P o l i t i c a l L e a d e r s h i p , pp. 37, 44-45.

^ I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s would n o t be a s c r u c i a l i f one were c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r i n t h e r o l e o f w a r r i o r o r . s o m e o t h e r r o l e .

33

c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h i s p e c u l i a r k i n d o f d e f e r e n c e i s p a i d t o p r o p h e t s . . , , 1

The p r o p h e t i c c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r may bo e i t h e r a r e -

new er o f a r e l i g i o n o r a f o u n d e r o f a r e l i g i o n b u t he

mu s t hav e e x p e r i e n c e d a d i v i n e c a l l and i n c o n t r a ­

d i s t i n c t i o n t o p r i e s t s an d s c r i b e s ( o t h e r f o r m s o f

a u t h o r i t y ) he mu s t p r o c l a i m h i s way o f s a l v a t i o n t h r o u g h

a p e r s o n a l r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e t r u t h an d h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n

i s g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by " v i t a l e m o t i o n a l p r e a c h ­

i n g " r a t h e r t h a n d i d a c t i c s , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r i t

i s d i s s e m i n a t e d by t h e s p o k e n wo rd , t h e p a m p h l e t , o r9

an y o t h e r l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n .

The R e c e p t i o n o f t h e Message

Lo t u s f i r s t c o n s i d e r t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a

p a r a d i g m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n W e b e r ' s s u g g e s t i o n

t h a t c h a r i s m a t i c r h e t o r i c i s b a s e d upon a " p e r s o n a l

r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e t r u t h , " In f u r t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l s u p ­

p o r t f o r t h i s p o i n t i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e D a n i s h

p h i l o s o p h e r So r e n K i e r k e g a a r d a l s o c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r e c e i v i n g a r e v e l a t i o n i n t h e f o r m a ­

t i o n o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r o r a s he c h o s e

1 Max Webe r , On C h a r i s m a and I n s t i t u t i o n B u i l d i n g , e d . by S. I\!. E i s e n s t a d t ( C h i c a g o ! U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 19GB) , p . 48 ,

Z l b i t i . . pp . 2 5 3 - 5 4 , 2 6 0 - 6 1 ,

34

t o c a l l h i m , an a p o s t l e , a s p e c i a l i n d i v i d u a l , an

e x t r n o r d i n a r i u s , As he s t a t e d :

By t h e f a c t o f h i s r e v e l a t i o n , by h i s new d o c t r i n e , by s t a n d i n g u n d e r t h e d i r e c t o u t ­p o u r i n g o f t h e S p i r i t , M a q i s t e r A d l e r (]a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f K i e r k e g a a r d ] m i g h t e a s i l y become aware o f b e i n g p l a c e d a s a p a r t i c u l a r o r p e c u l i a r i n d i v i d u a l a l t o g e t h e r o u t s i d e t h e u n i v e r s a l , a l t o g e t h e r e x t r a o r d l n e m a s e x t r a o r d i n a r i u s , 1

W h e t h e r r e f e r r e d t o a s a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r , p r o p h e t ,

a p o s t l e , o r o x t r a o r d i n a r i u s , t h i s i n d i v i d u a l a p p e a r s t o

be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by what l i n d b l o m t e r m e d " t h e r e v e l a t o r y

s t a t e o f m i n d , T h i s e x p r e s s i o n , w h i l e n o t com­

p l e t e l y s a t i s f a c t o r y , i s more d e s i r a b l e t h a n t h e more

common t e r m s s u c h a s e c s t a t i c , i n s p i r e d , i n t u i t i v e , o r

c r e a t i v e b e c a u s e i t p e r m i t s t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a l l d e g r e e s

o f m e n t a l e x a l t a t i o n f rom t h e e c s t a t i c v i s i o n a r y e x ­

p e r i e n c e s t o t h o s e w h i c h a p p r o x i m a t e wha t i s g e n e r a l l y

r e f e r r e d t o a s n o r m a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , 3 As an e x a m p l e o f

^ S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , On A u t h o r i t y an d R e v e l a t i o n , t r a n s , by W a l t e r Lowr io ( P r i n c e t o n * P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ) , pp . 2 0 - 2 1 ,

2 j . L in d b l o m , P r o p h e c y i n A n c i e n t I s r a e 1 ( P h i l a ­d e l p h i a * F o r t r e s s P r e s s , 196277 p. 1 7 3 .

3U s i n g t h e more t e c h n i c a l l a n g u a g e o f p s y c h o l o g y one m i g h t d e s c r i b e i t r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t l y , t h u 3 : " t h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i n s p i r a t i o n i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e i s t h a t c e r t a i n i d e a s , i m a g e s , e m o t i o n s , i m p u l s e s f r o m t h e s u b ­c o n s c i o u s , s u b l i m i n a l , u n c o n s c i o u s , . . . a r i s e i n t h e mind so s p o n t a n e o u s l y and s o i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f r e f l e c t i o n and m e d i t a t i o n , t h a t t h e i n s p i r e d p e r s o n f e e l s a s t h o u g h h i s i d e a s we re c om in g n o t f r o m h i m s e l f , b u t f r o m a n o t h e r r e a l m . . . . I b i d . , p . 34 .

35

how c l o s o s u c h s t a t e s may coma t o n o r m a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,

W i l l i a m James a f f i r m e d t h a t

t h e s i m p l e s t r u d i m e n t o f m y s t i c a l e x ­p e r i e n c e wou ld seem t o be t h a t d e e p e n e d s e n s e o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a maxim o r f o r m u l a w h i ch o c c a s i o n a l l y sw ee p s o v e r o n e . " I ' v e h o a r d t h a t s a i d n i l my l i f e , " we e x c l a i m , " b u t I n e v e r r e a l i z e d i t s f u l l m e a n in g u n t i l now. " "When a f e l l o w - m o n k , " s a i d L u t h e r , "on n day r e p e a t e d t h o wo rd s o f t h e C r e e d ? ' I b e l i e v e i n t h e f o r g i v e n e s s o f s i n s , * I saw t h e S c r i p t u r e i n an e n t i r e l y new l i g h t * and s t r a i g h t w a y 1 f e l t a s i f I we re b o r n a n e w . " ”!

As i s g e n e r a l l y known p h i l o s o p h e r s o f a l l a g e s

a w a r e o f t h e s e i l l u m i n a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s ha ve drawn

a t t e n t i o n t o c e r t a i n d i s t i n c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f

k n o w l e d g e . P l a t o d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e tw e e n k n o w l e d g e o f

t h e e t e r n a l r e a l i t i e s and kn o w l e d g e o f v i s i b l e t h i n g s .

He a l s o h i n t e d a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e

r e a c h e d by d i a l e c t i c an d t h a t a t t a i n e d by an i n t u i t i o n

o f t h e s o u l . S p i n o z a d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h r e e t y p e s o f

c o g n i t i o n . The f i r s t , o p i n i o o r i m a q i n a t o - - t h e o r d i n a r y

p e r c e p t i o n and t h e u n i v e r s a l e d e r i v e d t h e r e f r o m ? s e c o n d ,

r a t i o — i d e a s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , and?

t h i r d , s c i e n t i a i . n t u i t i v a - - t h B i n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e .

K a n t d i v i d e d k n o w le d ge i n t o P u r e R e a s o n , w h i c h y i e l d s

s c e p t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s , a n d P r a c t i c a l R e a s o n , w h i c h o f f e r s

1 W i l l i a m J a m e s , The V a r i e t i e s o f R e l i g i o u s Ex­p e r i e n c e (New York i Modern L i b r a r y , 1 9 0 2 ) , p . 3 7 3 ,

c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e b a s i c t r u t h s o f F r e e d o m , God, e nd

I m m o r t a l i t y , James and R u s s e l l d i s t i n g u i s h e d " k n o w l e d g e

o f a c q u a i n t a n c e " f rom " k n o w l e d g e a b o u t ; " R i t s c h l ,

" j u d g m e n t s o f e x i s t e n c e " f rom " j u d g m e n t s o f v a l u e ; " and

B e r g s o n s t r o n g l y e m p h a s i z e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n

" t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h o u n d e r s t a n d i n g " and " t h e k n o w l e d g e

o f i n t u i t i o n , " ^ S i m i l a r a t t e m p t s t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e ­

t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t ways o f know in g c o u l d e a s i l y be

p o i n t e d o u t f rom among t h e w o r l d ’ s l e a d i n g r e l i g i o u s

l e a d e r s a n d m y s t i c s b u t i t d o e s n o t a p p e a r n e c e s s a r y t o

d e v e l o p a n y o f t h e s e e p i s t e m o l o g i e s . How eve r , i t i s

a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t c h a r i s m a t i c com­

m u n i c a t o r s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h i s i n t u i t i v e f a c t o r .

As may be a p p a r e n t , t h i s i n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e i s

a c h i e v e d by a method a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t f r om t h e

p r o c e s s e s o f d i s c u r s i v e r e a s o n i n g , i . e . , kn o wl e d g e by

d e d u c t i o n an d i n d u c t i o n . As J ames m a i n t a i n e d i n s p e a k ­

i n g o f t h e " n o e t i c q u a l i t y " o f i n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e :

A l t h o u g h so s i m i l a r t o s t a t e s o f f e e l i n g , m y s t i c a l 3 t a t e s seem t o t h o s e who e x p e r i e n c e t hem t o be a l s o s t a t e s o f k n o w l e d g e . They a r e s t a t e s o f i n s i g h t i n t o d e p t h s o f t r u t h u n ­p lumbed by t h e d i s c u r s i v e i n t e l l e c t . They a r e i l l u m i n a t i o n s , r e v e l a t i o n s , f u l l o f

V o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s s e e Thomas H, H u g h e s , The P h i l o s o p h i c B a s i s o f M y s t i c i s m ( E d i n b u r g h * T. & T, C l a r k , 1 93Y j" , pp . 11 □-’4 5 ,

37

s i a n i f i c a n c e and i m p o r t a n c e , a l l i n a r t i c u l a t e t h o u g h t h e y r e m a i n ; and a s a r u l e t h e y c a r r y w i t h them a c u r i o u s s e n s e o f a u t h o r i t y f o r a f t e r t i m e . 1

In o t h e r w o r d s , s i n c e t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r r e ­

c e i v e s h i s kn ow le dg e t h r o u g h a n o n - d i s c u r s i v e p r o c e s s ,

he may h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t y i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g i t

d i s c u r s i v e l y . T h e r e have been s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s t o

a c c o u n t f o r t h e i n c o m m u n i c a b i l i t y o f wha t I s h a l l h e r e

t e rm " s u b j e c t i v e t r u t h , S u c h e x p l a n a t i o n s i n c l u d e

e m o t i o n t h e o r y and t h e s p i r i t u a l b l i n d n e s s t h e o r y .

The f i r s t i s s p e a k e r - o r i e n t e d and i n e s s e n c e a s s e r t s

t h a t t h e " t r u t h " i s s i m p l y " t o o d e e p f o r ' w o r d s . " The

s e c o n d i s a u d i e n c e - o r i e n t e d and c l a i m s t h a t i t i s im­

p o s s i b l e f o r an " u n i n i t i a t e d " h e a r e r t o " f r a m e an i d e a "

o f wha t i s c o m m u n i c a t e d , T h a t t h e r e i s a m e a s u r e o f

t r u t h i n t h e s e t h e o r i e s c a n n o t be d e n i e d b u t t h a t t h e i r

r a t h e r s i m p l i s t i c a p p r o a c h c o m p l e t e l y e x p l a i n s t h e

phenomenon o f i n e f f a b i l i t y i s d o u b t f u l . * *

S u s a n n e L an ge r s u g g e s t e d t h a t k n o w l e d g e r e c e i v e d

by i n t u i t i o n may be mo s t a d e q u a t e l y c o m m u n i c a t e d by a

n o n - d i s c u r s i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l s y m bo l i s m s u c h a s one

1 J a m e s , V a r i e t i e s o f R e l i o i o u s E x p e r i e n c e , p . 3 7 1 ,

^ S u b j e c t i v e t r u t h i n t h e K i e r k e g a a r d i a n s e n s e w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r .

**For a c r i t i c i s m o f t h e s e and o t h e r t h e o r i e s s e e Ul, T, S t a c e , M y s t i c i s m and P h i l o s o o h v ( P h i l a d e l p h i a * J . 8 . L i p p i n c o t t Company, 1 9 6 0 ) , pp . 2 7 7 - 3 0 6 ,

38

e n c o u n t e r s i n t h e a r t s w h e r e i n " r e l a t i o n ' s d e t e r m i n i n g a

v i s u a l s t r u c t u r e a r e g r a s p e d i n one a c t o f v i s i o n "

r a t h e r t h a n i n a t e m p o r a l l i n e a r s e q u e n c e ,1 T h i s c r e a t e s

a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i l e mma f o r t h e c h a r i s m a t i c s p e a k e r . On

t h e one h a n d , t h e p r o c e s s by wh ich he becomes k n o w l e d g e ­

a b l e s e v e r e l y h a n d i c a p s h im , a t l e a s t i n i t i a l l y , i n

p l a y i n g t h e e x c l u s i v e r o l e o f l o g i c i a n . On t h e o t h e r

h a n d , t h e f a c t t h a t h i s i n s i g h t s a r e more t h a n j u s t

d e e p f e e l i n g s b u t a l s o c o n t a i n a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h d e g r e e

o f o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t , he c a n n o t s i m p l y p l a y t h e r o l e o f

a r t i s t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r

f e o l s c o m p e l l e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e s u b j a c t i v e - o b j e c t i v e

k n o w l e d g e w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e b e i n g u n a b l e t o do i t

p r o p o s i t i o n a l l y . He mus t r h e t o r i c a l l y s t r u g g l e t o

t r a n s f o r m h i s k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s l a r g e l y p r e s e n t a t i o n a l

i n t o t h e d i s c u r s i v e mode b u t w i t h o u t t o t a l l y d e p r i v i n g

t h e l i s t e n e r o f t h e C e s t a l t e n e x p e r i e n c e . B e c a u s e

L a n g e r ' s s t u d y o f s y m b o l i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s so r e l e v a n t

t o a l l o f my r e m a r k s t h u s f a r , I s h a l l q u o t e a l e n g t h y

p o r t i o n o f h e r c o n c l u s i o n .

I n s u c h a t i m e [ o f d e p r i v a t i o n an d f r u s t r a - t i o n ^ p e o p l e a r e e x c i t e d a b o u t a ny g e n e r a l c o n ­v i c t i o n s o r i d e a l s t h e y may h o v e . N u m b e r l e s s h y b r i d r e l i g i o n s s p r i n g u p , m y s t e r i e s , c a u s e s , i d e o l o g i e s , a l l p a s s i o n a t e l y e m b r a c e d and

I S u s a n n e K, L o n g e r , P h i l o s o p h y i n a New Key (New Yor k : M e n t o r P r e s s , New Amer i can L i b r a r y , 1 9 5 1 J , pp . 8 5 -91 .

39

b a d l y a r g u e d . A v ag ue l o n g i n g For t h e o l d t r i b a l u n i t y makes n a t i o n a l i s m l o o k l i k e s a l v a t i o n , and a r o u s e s t h e mos t F a n t a s t i c b u r s t s o f c h a u v i n i s m and s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s ? t h e d e p r e c a t i o n and d i s t o r t i o n o f l e a r n i n g ? and i n p l a c e o f o r t h o d o x s e r m o n s , t h a t s y s t e m a t i c p u r v e y i n g o f l o o s e , h a l f - b a k e d i d e a s wh ic h o u r g e n e r a t i o n knows a s " p r o p a g a n d a , " No wonder t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s l o o k i n g a t t h i s pandemonium o f s e l f - a s s e r t i o n , s e l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n , and s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l f a n t a s y , v i e w i t a s a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e Age o f R e a s o n .

A p h i l o s o p h y t h a t knows o n l y d e d u c t i v e o r i n d u c t i v e l o g i c a s r e a s o n , and c l a s s e s a l l o t h e r human f u n c t i o n s a s " e m o t i v e , " i r r a t i o n a l , and a n i m a l i a n , c an s e e o n l y r e g r e s s i o n t o a p r e - l o g i n a l s t a t e i n t h e p r e s e n t p a s s i o n a t e and u n ­s c i e n t i f i c i d e o l o g i e s .

But a t h e o r y o f mind whoso k e y n o t e i s t h e s y m b o l i f i c f u n c t i o n i s n o t o b l i g e d t o draw t h a t b i f u r c a t i n g l i n e b e t w e e n s c i e n c e a n d f o l l y . I t c a n s e e t h e s e r u c t i o n s and u p h e a v a l s o f t h e mode rn n i n d n o t a s l a p s e s o f r a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t , c a u s e d by a n i m a l i m p u l s e , b u t a s t h e e x a c t c o n t r a r y — a s a new p h a s e o f s a v a g e d o m , i n d e e d , b u t i n s p i r e d by t h e r a t i o n a l n e e d o f e n v i s a o e - ment an d u n d e r s t a n d i n g . The s p r i n g s o f E u r o p e a n t h o u g h t have r u n d r y - - t h o s e d e e p s p r i n g s o f i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t f u r n i s h t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t s f o r a who le i n t e l l e c t u a l o r d e r , t h e f i r s t d i s c e r n ­m e n t s , t h e g e n e r a t i v e i d e a s o f o u r W e l t a n s c h a u u n g . New c o n c e p t u a l f o r m s a r e c r o w d i n g t hem o u t , b u t a r e t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e m y t h i c a l p h a s e , t h e " i m p l i c i t " s t a g e o f s y m b o l i c f o r m u l a t i o n . I'Je c a n n o t a n a l y z e t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h o s e v a s t s y m b o l s - - R a c e , U n i t y , M a n i f e s t D e s t i n y , H u m a n i t y - - o v e r w h i ch we f i g h t s o r u t h l e s s l y ; i f we c o u l d , i t wo u ld mean t h a t t h e y wore a l r e a d y f u r n i s h i n g d i s c u r s i v e t e r m s , c l e a r i s s u e s , a nd we wo u ld a l l be b u s y p h i l o s o ­p h i z i n g i n s t e a d o f w a g i n g h o l y w a r s . We wo u ld hav e t h e new w o r l d t h a t h u m a n i t y i s d r e a m i n g o f , a nd would be e a g e r l y b u i l d i n g t h e e d i f i c e o f k n o w l e d g e o u t o f new i n s i g h t s . I t i s t h e s a m e , e f f i c i e n t , w o r k - a - d a y b u s i n e s s o f f r e e m i n d s — d i s c u r s i v e r e a s o n i n g a b o u t w e l l - c o n c e i v e d p r o b l e m s — t h a t i s d i s t u r b e d o r a c t u a l l y s u s p e n d e d i n t h i s a p p a r e n t age o f u n r e a s o n ; b u t t h e f o r c e w h i c h g o v e r n s t h a t age i s s t i l l t h e f o r c e o f

40

m i n d , t h e i m p u l s e t o w a r d s y m b o l i c f o r m u l a ­t i o n , e x p r e s s i o n , and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e ,

The c o n t i n u a l p u r s u i t o f m e a n i n a s - - w i d e r , c l e a r e r , more n e n o t i a b l e , more a r t i c u l a t e m e a n i n q s - - i s p h i l o s o p h y , . I t p e r m e a t e s a l l m e n t a l l i f e : s o m e t i m e s i n t h e c o n s c i o u sform o f m e t a p h y s i c a l t h o u g h t , s o m e t i m e s i n t h e f r e e , c o n f i d e n t m a n i p u l a t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h e d i d e a s t o d e r i v e t h e i r more p r e c i s e , d e t a i l e d i m p l i c a t i o n s , an d s o m e t i m e s - - i n t h e q r e a t e s t c r e a t i v e p e r i o d s - - i n t h e form o f p a s s i o n a t e m y t h i c a l , r i t u a l , and d e v o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n . 1

A F i n a l b u t i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n w h i ch n e e d s

f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e

m e s s a g e i s w h e t h e r c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r s d e l i b e r a t e l y

em p l oy any e x t e r n a l m e t h o d s i n o r d e r t o e v o k e o r i n ­

t e n s i f y t h e i r r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f mind . I t i s a w e l l -

known f a c t t h a t many i f n o t a l l t h e m y s t i c s f o l l o w e d

more o r l e s s r i g i d l y p r e s c r i b e d r u l e s f o r m e d i t a t i o n a n d

c o n t e m p l a t i o n i n o r d e r t o p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r r e ­

c e i v i n g r e v e l a t i o n s . 2 o t h e r t h a n t h e s e common m e t h o d s

some p e o p l e have u s e d n a r c o t i c d r u g s , i n t o x i c a t i n g

d r i n k s , f a s t i n q , s e l f - w o u n d i n g , m u s i c , d a n c i n g , p e r ­

p e t u a l r e i t e r a t i o n o f s u g g e s t i v e w o r d s , and t h e p e r ­

s i s t e n t s t a r i n g a t c e r t a i n o b j e c t s t o h e i g h t e n t h e i r

^ I b i d . , p p . 2 4 5 - 4 7 .

2 a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e p r a c t i c e s may be f o u n d i n H u g h e s , P h i l o s o p h i c B a s i s o f m y s t i c i s m , p p . 1 4 7 - 6 6 .

t

41

r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f mind. '* Howeve r , wha t p a r t , i f a n y ,

t h e s e p l a y i n c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s s t i l l an

ope n q u e s t i o n .

The C h a r i s m a t i c C o m m u n i c a t o r ' s S e n s e o f M i s s i o n

In p a r t a s a p r o b a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e r e v e l a ­

t o r y s t a t e o f mind b u t c e r t a i n l y c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f h a v i n g been c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a " p o w e r "

b e y o n d o n e s e l f , i s t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r ' s c a l l

t o p r o c l a i m h i s m es sa g e and h i s c o n s c i o u s s e n s e o f

m i s s i o n . I t may be r em em be red t h a t UJebor i n h i s o r i g i n a l

d i s c u s s i o n o f c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e y

m u s t have " e x p e r i e n c e d a d i v i n e c a l l . " ^ A r e v e l a t i o n

o r i l l u m i n a t i n g i n s i g h t wou ld q u i t e o b v i o u s l y i n a nd o f

i t s e l f n o t q u a l i f y one a s a c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r ,

s i n c e h i s t o r y r e c o r d s t h e t e s t i m o n y o f many i n d i v i d u a l s ,

s u c h a s A u g u s t i n e B ak e r and G e r t r u d e M o r e , ^ who r e ­

c e i v e d a r e v e l a t i o n b u t f e l t no c o m p u l s i o n t o c h a n g e

t h e w o r l d . R a t h e r , t h e y we re q u i t e c o n t e n t a nd e ve n

a n x i o u s t o w i t h d r a w f rom t h e w o r l d and l e a d m o n a s t i c

^ L i n d b l o m , P r o p h e c y i n A n c i e n t I s r a e 1 , pp , 5 8 - 6 0 ; J a m e s , V a r i e t i e s o f f t o l i o i o u s E x p e r i e n c e , pp . 3 7 3 - 9 6 , p a s s i m .

2oJebBr, 0,n C h a r i s m a , pp . 2 5 3 - 5 4 .

^ F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e and o t h e r E n g l i s h m y s t i c s s e e G e r a l d i n e E. Ho dg so n , E n o l i s h M y s t i c s ( L on d on i A. R. Mowbray & Co. L t d . , 1 9 2 2 ) ,

42

l i v e s o f m e d i t a t i o n and c o n t e m p l a t i o n . But f o r t h e

c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r , w i t h t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f a c e r t a i n

t r u t h m u s t a l s o come thB s t r o n g s e n s e o f d u t y and

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h a t t r u t h i n m es sa g e

f o r m so t h a t i t w i l l a l t e r r e a l i t y , In o t h e r w o r d s ,

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r i s n o t o n l y a p r i v a t e

r e c i p i e n t o f t r u t h b u t a p u b l i c p r D c l a i m e r o f i t . He

f r e q u e n t l y c l a i m s t h a t he i s i m p e l l e d by a f o r c e w h i c h

c a n o n l y be d e s c r i b e d a s an " i m p u l s i o n i r r e s i s t i b l e , * ’1

T u c k e r m e n t i o n e d t h a t

a l t h o u g h c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s may v a r y i n t y p e , t h e r e a p p e a r t o be c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s common t o them a s a c l a s s . N o t a b l e among t h e s e i s a p e c u l i a r s e n s e o f m i s s i o n , c o m p r i s i n g a b e l i e f b o t h i n t h e movement an d i n t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e c h o s e n i n s t r u m e n t t o l e a d t h e movement t o i t s d e s t i n a t i o n . The c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r t y p i c a l l y r a d i a t e s a b u o y a n t c o n f i d e n c e j.n t h e r i g h t n e s s and g o o d n e s s o f t h e a im s t h a t he p r o c l a i m s f o r t h e movemen t , i n t h e p r a c t i ­c a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t t a i n i n g t h e s e a i m s , and i n h i s own s p e c i a l c a l l i n g and c a p a c i t y t o p r o v i d e t h e r e q u i s i t e l e a d e r s h i p .

T h i s l e d T u c k e r t o h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

c o m m u n i c a t o r ^ h e i g h t e n e d s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e i n h i s m i s s i o n

a n d m e s s a g e may be a key e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e e x t r e m e

a n d i n t e n s e d e v o t i o n w h i ch h i s a n x i e t y - r i d d e n f o l l o w e r s

g i v e t o t h e movement a nd i t s l e a d e r , ^

1 L i n d b l o m , P r o p h e c y i n A n c i e n t I s r a e l , p p , 4 4 - 4 5 ,

2 T u c k e r , " T h e o r y o f C h a r i s m a t i c L e a d e r s h i p , " p . 749 .

3 I b i d ,

43

In t h i s g e n e r a l r e s p e c t one f u r t h e r p o i n t s h o u l d

be n o t e d , Weber d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f a

c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r * a s w i t h o t h e r r e v e l a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s ,

e x c e e d s human r e a s o n . T h i s means t h a t t h e c a l l t o

c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p a l m o s t a l w a y s c o n t r a d i c t s t h e

r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r o f an o r d e r e d s o c i e t y . I t i g n o r e s

t h e n o r m a l r u l e s and e x p e c t e d c h a n n e l s f o r s e l e c t i n g a

new l e a d e r . -'

The C h a r i s m a t i c C o m m u n i c a t o r ' s T a s k s

Once t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r i s c h o s e n ,

s e v e r a l g e n e r a l t a s k s may be o b s e r v e d t o ' f a l l . u p o n h im .

The m o s t o b v i o u s wo u l d be t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o c l a i m

f a i t h f u l l y , i n a m o s t d i r e c t and s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d m a n n e r ,

t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t o f h i s r e v e l a t i o n . T h i s i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c a s e when t h e b u r d e n o f t h e m es sa ge

i s unknown t o t h e a u d i e n c e he i s a d d r e s s i n g , K i e r k e g a a r d

n o t o n l y f e l t t h a t d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t s h o u l d be u s e d when

p e o p l e werB a l m o s t t o t a l l y u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e c o n t e n t

b u t a l s o w h e n e v e r t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r t h o u g h t he ha d t o

c l e a r up a ny m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p t , 2

^ W e be r , Ori C h a r i s m a , p , 54 , An e x a m p l e o f t h i s w o u l d be J e s u s * s e l e c t i o n o f f i s h e r m e n r a t h e r t h a n p r i e s t s f o r h i s a p o s t l e s .

2 S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , C o n e l u d i n q U n s c i e n t i f i c P o s t ­s c r i p t , t r a n s , by D av id P . Swenson an d W a l t e r Lowr i e ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 ) , p, 2 4 1 .

44

I t s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , be c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h i s

d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t h a s n o t h i n g i n common w i t h an a p o l o ­

g e t i c d e f e n s e by w h i c h a p h i l o s o p h i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , o r

p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m i s made more p l a u s i b l e b u t r a t h e r i t

s h a r e s more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h a d o g m a t i c a s s e r t i o n

a n d a t e s t i m o n y o f a w i t n e s s , ^

P e r h a p s i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , a l t h o u g h i t m i g h t

c o n c e i v a b l y be t r e a t e d a s a s e p a r a t e t a s k , on e o u g h t t o

m e n t i o n t h e r o l e p l a y e d by t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r , h i m s e l f ,

i n h e i g h t e n i n g t h e n e e d o r a w a r e n e s s o f s i t u a t i o n a l

f a c t o r s w h i ch c a l l f o r c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p . As

U l i l l n e r s a y s :

To f o c u s and c h a n n e l t h e d i v e r s e i n t e r e s t s a n d d i v e r s e g r i e v a n c e s o f d i v e r s e g r o u p s i n a s o c i e t y i n a common a p p e a l a n d u n i f y s e g m e n t e d s t r a t a o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n i n p u r s u i t o f a common g o a l r e q u i r e c r e a t i v e a c t s o f l e a d e r s h i p . What t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r i n i t i a l l y p r o v i d e s i s a d o c t r i n e e a s i l y s u s c e p t i b l e o f a c c e p t a n c e , one t h a t d e f i n e s t h e s i t u a t i o n an d i t s c a u s e s i n c o m p e l l i n g t e r m s , one t h a t a b s o l v e s p e o p l e o f b l ame a n d p r o j e c t s i t on a g e n t s e x t e r n a l t o t h e m , a n d one t h a t h o l d s o u t a g e n e r a l g o a l a n d o f f e r s c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n t h a t s e em s m e a n i n g ­f u l t o m a n y . 2

The c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r ' s b a s i c t a s k , t h e r e f o r e ,

a p p e a r s t o be h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a nd i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f

1 K i e r k e g a a r d , Or A u t h o r i t y a n d R e v e l a t i o n , p p . 5 9 - 6 0 ,

2 W i l i n e r , C h a r i s m a t i c P o l i t i c a l L e a d e r s h i p , pp . 4 6 - 4 7 , «

45

t h e p o p u l a r f e l t n e e d i n o r d e r t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e

c r i s i s , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e d i r e c t l y p r o c l a i m i n g a

" b e t t e r way" t h a n t h a t p r e s e n t l y b e i n g o f f e r e d by t h e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t ,

A s e c o n d t a s k o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r i s

t h e n e c e s s i t y t o d i s p e l i l l u s i o n s . 1 G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g ,

t h e i l l u s i o n c o n s i s t s o f t h e l i s t e n e r ' s c o n f u s i o n o f

t h e o b j e c t i v e I c v g I w i t h t h e s u b j e c t i v e l e v e l , o r t h e

c o n c e p t u a l w i t h t h e e x i s t e n t i a l . In o t h e r words t h e

c o m m u n i c a t o r m u s t g u a r d a g a i n s t p e o p l e j o i n i n g h i s

movement s o l e l y on t h e b a s i s o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l a s s e n t

t o t h e c h a r i s m a t i c p r o g r a m w i t h o u t t h e commi tmen t o f

t h e i r " w h o l e p e r s o n " t o an e x p e r i e n t i a l i n v o l v e m e n t .

The t a s k i s a k i n t o t h e one f a c e d by t h e p s y c h o a n a l y s t

whose p a t i e n t s hav e " a c c u r a t e c o n c e p t s a b o u t t h e i r

p r o b l e m s b u t a r e f a r f r o m e x p e r i e n c i n g , o r f e e l i n g , o r

f a c i n g them an d w o r k i n g t h em t h r o u g h . "2 O r , i t i s t h e

c o n d i t i o n o f h e l p i n g a man who a d h e r e s t o a f o r m a l

t h e o l o g i c a l c r e e d i n t o a c t u a l l y b e i n g r e l i g i o u s . T h u s ,

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r mus t r h e t o r i c a l l y s o l v e

^ T h i s t a s k t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t h i r d i s g e n e r a l l y b u t a d e q u a t e l y d e a l t w i t h i n M i c h a e l G a l a t i , "A R h e t o r i c f o r t h e S u b j e c t i v i s t i n a World o f U n t r u t h : The T a s k san d S t r a t e g y o f S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , " Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , L\l ( D e c e m b e r , 1 9 5 9 ) , 3 7 5 - 7 8 ,

^E ugene T. G e n d l i n , E x p e r i e n c i n q and t h e C r e a t i o n o f Mean ing (Now York: f r e e P r e s s o f G l e n c o e , 1 9 6 2 ) ,p . 2 3 1 .

46

K i e r k e g a a r d * s d i l emma o f mak in g one " t o become a

C h r i s t i a n , , , uihBri one i s a C h r i s t i a n o f s o r t s ,

A t h i r d t a s k i s t h a t o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g " s u b j e c t i v e

t r u t h " o r s i m p l y " s u b j e c t i v i t y , " T h i s t a s k i s c l e a r l y

• r e l a t o d t o t h e s e c o n d i n s o f a r as one c o n c e i v e s o f d i s ­

p e l l i n g i l l u s i o n s t o be a n e g a t i v e g o a l o f d i s c o u r s e

a n d s u b j e c t i v i t y , i t s p o s i t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t . Q u i t e

o b v i o u s l y , b o t h d i s p e l l i n g i l l u s i o n s and s u b j e c t i v i t y

a r e p r e d i c a t e d upon t h e s u c c e s s f u l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f

t h e f i r s t t a s k , t h a t i s , t h e y assume t h a t t h e m e s s a g e

h a s be en d i r e c t l y s t a t e d by t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r and c o r ­

r e c t l y u n d e r s t o o d by t h e a u d i e n c e . Whi l e a d e f i n i t i v e

s t a t e m e n t a b o u t s u b j e c t i v i t y mus t a w a i t f u t u r e c r i t i c a l

s t u d i e s o f how c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r s p e r s o n a l l y

an d p r a c t i c a l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h i s t a s k , Raymond And e r son

h a s g a t h e r e d f ro m t h e w o r k s o f K i e r k e g a a r d s e v e r a l

p o s s i b l e a s p e c t s o f s u b j e c t i v i t y w h i c h may p r o v i d e us

w i t h some d i r e c t i o n i n t h i s a r e a . S u b j e c t i v i t y , i n t h e

f i r s t p l a c e , i m p l i e s a r e s o l u t i o n t o r e l a t e o n e s e l f t o

an e t h i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s i d e a l i t y t h r o u g h a s e n s e o f

i n w a r d n e s s o r t h e t u r n i n g o f o n e ' s a t t e n t i o n and c o n c e r n

i n w a r d t o w a r d t h e q u a l i t y o f o n e ' s own l i f e . In

I S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , The P o i n t o f V i e w , t r a n s , by W a l t e r Lowr i e ( L on do n : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 9 ) ,p . 4 3 .

47

c o n t r a s t w i t h i n d i f f e r e n c e , d e t a c h m e n t , a n d o b j e c t i v i t y ,

s u b j e c t i v i t y s u g g e s t s a p a s s i o n a t e c o n c e r n , an i n t e n s e

p u r p o s e , a p r o c e s s o f s t r i v i n g , and an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n

o f t h e v o l i t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y . F i n a l l y ,

s u b j e c t i v i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

f r e e d o m an d a c c o u n t a b i l i t y i n c o n t r a s t w i t h f a t a l i s m ,

a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o f o r g o i m m e d i a t e s a t i s f a c t i o n i n f a v o r

o f l o n g - t e r m c o m m i t m e n t s .1 T h e s e d i m e n s i o n s o f s u b ­

j e c t i v i t y a r e h e l p f u l b u t s h o u l d o n l y be v i e w e d a s

t e n t a t i v e , f o r t h e t r u e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h i s t a s k c a n

o n l y be r e a l i z e d a s f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e r s c o m p i l e an d

a n a l y z e t h e i r d a t a on i n d i v i d u a l c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r s .

The C h a r i s m a t i c C o m m u n i c a t o r ' s C h a r i s m a

C l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f b e i n g c a l l e d

a n d g i v e n a t a s k i s t h a t o f b e i n g e q u i p p e d o r q u a l i f i e d

f o r t h e t a s k t o w h i c h one i s c a l l e d . I t i s w i t h t h i s

l a t t e r e x p e r i e n c e t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f c h a r i s m a a s an e n ­

dowment w i t h p o w e r s a n d q u a l i t i e s w h i c h a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y

e x c e p t i o n a l an d n o t a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e o r d i n a r y p e r s o n ,

i s m o s t c l e a r l y r e l a t e d . 2 I t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e a s t o

^Raymond Eugene A n d e r s o n , " K i e r k e g a a r d ' s T h e o r y o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n " ( u n p u b l i s h e d Ph .D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a , 1 9 5 9 ) , pp . 3 5 - 3 7 ,

^Uleber , On. C h a r i s m a , p . 48 .

48

w h e t h e r t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r a c t u a l l y p o s s e s s e s

s p e c i a l g i f t s o r i f he i s o n l y so p e r c e i v e d by h i s

f o l l o w e r s , W hi l e t hB f o r m e r c o n d i t i o n mus t i n a l l

l i k e l i h o o d be s a t i s f i e d t o some e x t e n t , t h e u l t i m a t e

f a c t o r i n t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e l e a d e r i s c l e a r l y d e ­

p e n d e n t upon t h e l a t t e r , Weber e m p h a s i z e d t h e i n t e r ­

a c t i o n b e t w e e n p o s s e s s i o n and p e r c e p t i o n when he

s p e c i f i e d :

I t i s r e c o g n i t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h o s e s u b ­j e c t t o a u t h o r i t y w h i c h i s d e c i s i v e f o r t h e v a l i d i t y o f c h a r i s m a . T h i s i s f r e e l y g i v e n an d g u a r a n t e e d by w h a t i s h e l d t o be a " s i g n " o r p r o o f , o r i g i n a l l y a l w a y s a m i r a c l e , , , .1

I f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s c a n

be s o l e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s u n i v e r s a l l y

p o s s e s s e d by t h e s e r a r e i n d i v i d u a l s a p a r t f r om how t h B y

a r e p e r c e i v e d , r e s e a r c h e r s have b e e n u n a b l e t o i s o l a t e

a " c h a r i s m a t i c c l u s t e r " o f a t t r i b u t e s o r a " c h a r i s m a t i c

p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e . "2 Ho w ev e r , s t u d e n t s o f c h a r i s m a h a v e

f o u n d i t p r o f i t a b l e t o s e a r c h f o r some " s h a r e d c h a r a c t e r ­

i s t i c s " o r a t l e a s t q u a l i t i e s w h i c h a r e f r e q u e n t l y p r o ­

j e c t e d and a t t r i b u t e d t o l e a d e r s w h i c h a r e p e r c e i v e d a s

c h a r i s m a t i c . In p r i m i t i v e t imBS c h a r i s m a t i c p e o p l e had

n u m e r o u s p e c u l i a r i t i e s r e g u l a r l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e m . In

I b i d . , p . 49 ,

^ W i l l n e r , C h a r i s m a t i c P o l i t i c a l L e a d e r s h i p , p . 4 ,

49

a d d i t i o n t o t h e f a c u l t y f o r w o r k i n g m i r a c l e s , t h e r e a r e

p l e n t i f u l i n s t a n c e s o f " o r g i a s t i c e c s t a s y " d u r i n g w h i c h

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c i n d i v i d u a l p e r f o r m e d d i v e r s e a c t s , s u c h

a s s u p e r h u m a n p h y s i c a l f e a t s i n t h e e c s t a t i c f i t . They

a l s o e x p e r i e n c e d more p a s s i v e t r a n c e s d u r i n g w h ic h t h e y

r e p u t e d l y e x e r c i s e d g i f t s o f c l a i r v o y a n c e , t e l e p a t h y ,

a n d t h o u g h t r e a d i n g by w h i c h a l l t h e s e c r e t s o f man and

t h e u n i v e r s e c o u l d be r e v e a l e d t o t hem. Even t h e i r

c l o t h e s we re b e l i e v e d t o p o s s e s s m a g i c a l p o w e r s . L a s t l y ,

i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e i r v e r y w o rd s

we re t h o u g h t t o be s u p e r h u m a n l y c h a r g e d w i t h e x c e p t i o n a l

e n e r g y and p o w e r , so t h a t w h a t e v e r t h e y s a i d had t o be

e f f e c t i v e b e c a u s e t h e i r w o r d s we re l i t e r a l l y a s s u m e d t o

be c r e a t i v e .

T o d a y , one d o e s n o t u s u a l l y f i n d s u c h d e s c r i p t i o n s

o f modBrn c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s * q u a l i t i e s , y e t I b e l i e v e

t h a t t h e r e a d e r may f i n d s e v e r a l c u r i o u s s i m i l a r i t i e s

( a l t h o u g h I ha v e n o t i n t e n t i o n a l l y s o u g h t t o draw any

p a r a l l e l s ) b e t w e e n t h e l i s t o f p r i m i t i v e a t t r i b u t e s an d

t h e one c o m p i l e d i n a r e c e n t s t u d y o f modern p o l i t i c a l

c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s w h i c h I s h a l l h e r e b r i e f l y s u m m a r i z e .

F i r s t , i n g e n e r a l , i t a p p e a r s t h a t l e a d e r s who h a v e

^ L i n d b l o m , P r o p h e c y i n A n c i e n t I s r a e 1 , p p . 4 8 - 5 1 ,

5D

a c h i e v e d c h a r i s m a t i c r e s p o n s e s had a h e t e r o g e n e o u s

f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d i n one o r more d i m e n s i o n s , s u c h a s

s o c i a l c l a s s , e t h n i c a f f i l i a t i o n , p r o v e n a n c e ( r u r a l -

u r b a n ) , o r e d u c a t i o n . They a l s o t e n d e d t o have e x p o s u r e

t o a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . I t was h y p o t h e ­

s i z e d t h a t s u c h b a c k g r o u n d s p r o v i d e d a " p l u r a l p o s s i b i l i t y

o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " w h i c h e n h a n c e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o com­

m u n i c a t e w i t h s u n d r y g r o u p s . A n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

was t h e i r " e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e g r e e o f v i t a l i t y " o r

" p r o d i g i o u s e n e r g y , " T y p i c a l a r e t h e a c c o u n t s o f

l e a d e r s l i k e C a s t r o who r e p o r t e d l y worke d e i g h t e e n t o

t w e n t y h o u r s a d a y d u r i n g t h e e a r l y m o n th s o f h i s r e g i m e ,

a n d men l i k e Nkrumah a n d S u k a r n o who by t h e i r u n t i r i n g

e n e r g y b r o u g h t t h e i r a s s i s t a n t s t o t h e p o i n t o f c o l l a p s e .

S t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t c h a r i s m a t i c l o a d e r s m a i n t a i n an

e x c e p t i o n a l " p r e s e n c e o f m ind" u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f e x ­

t r e m e s t r e s s o r c h a l l e n g e . They a r e a c c o r d i n g l y p e r ­

c e i v e d a s a l w a y s b e i n g f u l l o f c o n f i d e n c e , c o u r a g e o u s ,

a n d i n c o n t r o l o f e v e r y s i t u a t i o n . They a l s o p o s s e s s

t h e c a p a c i t y t o p r o j e c t an " i m a g e o f u n u s u a l m e n t a l

a t t a i n m e n t s . " T h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e y a r e t r u e

i n t e l l e c t u a l s g i v e n t o s e r i o u s s t u d y , b u t o n l y t h a t

w h i l e p r i m a r i l y men o f a c t i o n , t h e y do have t h e a b i l i t y

t o c a l l f o r t h a t w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n

51

f rom many d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s , t h u s s t a r t l i n g t h o s e

s t a n d i n g by w i t h t h e i r " k n o w l o d g e a b i l i t y . " E i t h e r t h e y

a r e a b l e t o a d a p t s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s i n n o v e l ways o r

e l s e t h e y o r i g i n a t e and employ new i d e a s a t an a s t o n ­

i s h i n g r a t e , I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t c h a r i s ­

m a t i c l e a d e r s a r e f r e q u e n t l y " n a i v e a b o u t e c o n om ic and

f i n a n c i a l a f f a i r s , " They t e n d t o a ssume t h a t somehow

t h e r e s o u r c e s w i l l a l w a y s be a v a i l a b l e when n e e d e d and

t h e r e f o r e l e t o t h e r s w o r r y a b o u t t h e means . In p a s s i n g

i t s h o u l d a l s o be o b s e r v e d t h a t many o f t h e s e l e a d e r s

havo t h o a b i l i t y t o e l i c i t a p h e n o m e n a l , a l m o s t p a t h o ­

l o g i c a l d e g r e e o f d e v o t i o n and s e l f s a c r i f i c e f rom

women, f i n a l l y , o n l y one p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e c an and

s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d . Aga in an d a g a i n a m a g n e t i c ,

h y p n o t i c , p e r s u a s i v e , and p e n e t r a t i v e power i s i m p u t e d

t o t h o c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ' s " e x t r a o r d i n a r y e y e s . " 1

As a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d , t h i s l i s t o f a m a z i n g f e a t s

and p u b l i c i z e d m y th s a b o u t mode rn c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s

may i n d e e d be t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e q u i v a l e n t s t o thB s u p e r ­

human d e e d s o f a n o t h e r t i m e . Then a g a i n , p e r h a p s , one

may h e l p t o e x p l a i n t h e o t h e r . However t h i s may b e , i t

s h o u l d h e r e a g a i n be s t r e s s e d , t h a t a t t h e i r b e s t t h e s e

1 W i l l n e r , C h a r i s m a t i c P o l i t i c a l L e a d e r s h i p , pp . 6 1 - 7 1 .

52

l i s t s o f r e p o r t e d a t t r i b u t e s a r e i n c o m p l e t e and o n l y

g e n e r a l l y a c c u r a t e . I t w ou l d be s h e e r f o l l y t o s u p p o s e

t h a t any l e a d e r c o u l d be s i n g l e d o u t a s c h a r i s m a t i c

m e r e l y b e c a u s e he " m a t c h e d " t h e l i s t . R a t h e r i t would

be f a r s a f e r t o c o n c l u d e t h a t b e f o r e a l e a d e r s h o u l d

bo c l a s s i f i e d a s c h a r i s m a t i c , t h o e v i d e n c o s h o u l d i n ­

d i c a t e t h a t he was " b e l i e v e d t o bo o m n i s c i e n t , om**

n i p o t e n t , o r o t h e r w i s e p o s s e s s e d o f a t t r i b u t e s t h a t i n

h i s c u l t u r e a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c a t e g o r y o f s a v i o r s ,

p r o p h e t s , o r d e m i g o d s and [ t h a t he^| i s t e n d e d t h e

e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h i s c a t e g o r y o f

i n d i v i d u a l s .

The C h a r i s m a t i c C o m m u n i c a t o r ' s A u t h o r i t y

The n o t i o n o f c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p i s c l e a r l y

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h W e b e r ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y

i n t o t h r e e g e n e r a l t y p e s on t h e b a 3 i s o f t h e i r c l a i m s

t o l e g i t i m a c y . The f i r s t t y p e , r a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y ,

r e s t s upon a b e l i e f i n t h e l e g a l i t y o f r u l e s an d on t h e

r i g h t o f t h o s e p r o m o t e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n s i n

a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h o s e r u l e s t o i s s u e commands . T r a ­

d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y i s b a s e d upon " an e s t a b l i s h e d b e l i e f

i n t h e s a n c t i t y o f i m m e m o r i a l t r a d i t i o n s . " L a s t l y ,

I b i d . , p . 19 .

53

c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y r e s t s upon " d e v o t i o n t o t h e

s p e c i f i c and e x c e p t i o n a l s a n c t i t y , h e r o i s m o r e x ­

e m p l a r y c h a r a c t e r o f an i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n , a n d o f t h e

n o r m a t i v e p a t t e r n s o r o r d e r r e v e a l e d o r o r d a i n e d by

him,"** I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y

d i f f e r s f rom t h e l e g a l a n d t r a d i t i o n a l t y p e s i n t h a t

t h e l a t t e r tuio a u t h o r i t i e s a r e p a r t o f an e s t a b l i s h e d

o r d e r an d t h e y o b t a i n power i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e

r o l e t h e y o c c u p y i n t h e s y s t e m . The f o r m e r , on t h e

c o n t r a r y , l o c a t e s i t s a u t h o r i t y i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l and

i n h i s p e r s o n a l a b i l i t y tD g a i n s u p p o r t f o r h i s m i s s i o n .

W h i l e t h e l a t t e r two t e n d t o be r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e f o r m s

o f a u t h o r i t y , t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ' s a u t h o r i t y i s

c o n s t a n t l y c o n t i n g e n t upon h i s a b i l i t y t o g i v e " p r o o f "

o f h i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . I t s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d t h a t

t h e " p r o o f " o r e v i d e n c e t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l i s i n d e e d

p o s s e s s e d o f c h a r i s m a i s a c t u a l l y n o t h i n g more t h a n t h e

m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h e " g i f t s " j u s t d i s c u s s e d . The

d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e s e s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s i s a b s o l u t e l y

e s s e n t i a l t o t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ' s

m i s s i o n , s i n c e p r e s u m a b l y i t i s t h r o u g h t h e s e q u a l i t i e s

t h a t he w i l l m e s s i a n i c a l l y p r o v i d e f o r t h e s i t u a t i o n a l

^ W e b e r , Oil C h a r i s m a , pp . 4 6 - 4 7 .

4

54

n e e d s aF h i s f o l l o w e r s . S h o u l d ho f a i l f o r a p e r i o d o f

t i m e t o p r o d u c e t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o o f s , he may f e e l

" f o r s a k e n by h i s pod" and h i s f o l l o w e r s wou ld c e a s e t o

h o n o r him a s s a v i o r . ^ T h i s a p p a r e n t l y l e n d s c r e d e n c e t o

t h e i d e a t h a t much o f t h e f a n a t i c a l d e v o t i o n and w h o l e ­

h e a r t e d o b e d i e n c e w h i c h f o l l o w e r s g i v e a p r o v e n c h a r i s ­

m a t i c l e a d e r , may be a t t r i b u t a b l e t o h i s i n s p i r a t i o n a l

m e s s a g e o f h o p e , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e p o p u l a r n o t i o n o f

h i s b e i n g a " m a g i c a l c h a r m e r . " I n o t h e r w o r d s , h i s

commands a r e o b e y e d n o t b e c a u s e o f who he i s by v i r t u e

o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , b u t b e c a u s e o f wha t he c a n d o , i . e . ,

he i s v i e w e d a s a b l e t o a c c o m p l i s h wha t he p r o m i s e s . Or

a s Weber a d v i s e d *

Above a l l , h o w e v e r , h i s d i v i n e m i s s i o n mus t ’ p r o v e ' i t s e l f i n t h a t t h o s e who f a i t h f u l l y s u r r e n d e r t o him m us t f a r e w e l l . I f t h e y do n o t f a r e w e l l , he i s o b v i o u s l y n o t t h e m a s t e r s e n t by t h e gods.2

Howeve r , l e f t t h i s way, s u c h a c o n c l u s i o n i s some­

wha t m i s l e a d i n g , f o r a l t h o u g h t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r may

be a wa re t h a t many f o l l o w him b e c a u s e o f t h e hopB w h i c h

he o f f e r s , he d o e s n o t p r i m a r i l y a p p e a r t o g r o u n d h i s

a u t h o r i t y , and e x p e c t o b e d i e n c e on t h e b a s i s o f h i s

1 1 b i d . , p . 22 .

2 l b i d . , pp . 2 2 - 2 3 .

55

u t i l i t a r i a n g i f t s o r ( w h a t may he t e r m e d ) h i s " b e h a v i o r a l

p r o o f s " o f c h a r i s m a . R a t h e r , t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r

e x p e c t s d e v o t i o n t o h i s m i s s i o n and m es sa g e b e c a u s e o f

wha t he i s , i . e . , he e x p e c t s o b e d i e n c e b e c a u s e he c o n ­

s i d e r s h i m s e l f d i v i n e l y c a l l e d and e n d u e d , a nd h e n c e ,

q u a l i t a t i v e l y and e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t f rom a l l o t h e r

men. As Weber p u t i t :

, , . Where c h a r i s m a i s g e n u i n e , i t i s n o t t h i s Cs *-°n Dr p r o o f ] w h i c h i s t h e b a s i s o f t h e c l a i m t o l e g i t i m a c y . T h i s b a s i s l i e s r a t h e r i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n t h a t i t i s t h e d u t y o f t h o s e who have be en c a l l e d t o a c h a r i s m a t i c m i s s i o n t o r e c o g n i z e i t s q u a l i t y and t o a c t a c c o r d i n g l y . P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y t h i s " r e c o g n i ­t i o n " i s a m a t t e r o f c o m p l e t e p e r s o n a l d e v o ­t i o n t o t h e p o s s e s s o r o f t h e q u a l i t y , a r i s i n g o u t o f e n t h u s i a s m , o r o f d e s p a i r and hope .

No p r o p h e t h a s e v e r r e g a r d e d h i s q u a l i t y a s d e p e n d e n t on t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h s m a s s e s t o w a r d him.1

Wi th t h i s s t r o n g e m p h a s i s upon p e r s o n a l q u a l i t a t i v e

a u t h o r i t y , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e s p i r i t o f c h a r i s ­

m a t i c d i s c o u r s e i s : " I t i s w r i t t e n . . b u t I s a y

u n t o you , . . . " Such r h e t o r i c i s b o t h i n n o v a t i v e and

r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n i t s r e p u d i a t i o n o f t h e p a s t . I t i s

a l i e n t o t h e r e v e r e d r a t i o n a l r o u t i n e o f t h e b u r e a u ­

c r a t i c an d p a t r i a r c h a l f o r m s o f a u t h o r i t y . I t p r e a c h e s

new modes o f l i f e , t h o u g h t , and o b l i g a t i o n . The

56

c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r ’ s m es sa g e commands and demands .

I t o f f e r s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t an u l t i m a t u m * r e f o r m a t i o n

o r r e v o l u t i o n , ^

I draw two f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r a p a r a d i g m

o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n f rom t h i s i d e a t h a t a c h a r i s m a t i c

l e a d e r p o s s e s s e s a q u a l i t a t i v e l y u n i q u e p e r s o n a l

a u t h o r i t y . F i r s t , w i t h t h i s p o s i t i o n , when he v e r b a l l y

m a n i f e s t s h i s a u t h o r i t y , t h e m e s s a g e w h ic h he s p e a k s

becomes a p a r t a k e r o f h i s u n i q u e n e s s . The i n d i v i d u a l ’ s

a u t h o r i t y i s n a t u r a l l y g e n e r a l i z e d o r t r a n s f e r r e d t o

h i s u t t e r a n c e . T h i s c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a man’ s

wo rd s and t h e man h i m s e l f , w h i l e on t h e one h a n d , some­

wha t f o r e i g n t o W e s t e r n t h o u g h t w h i c h a b s t r a c t e d t h e

m e a n i n g o f t h e word "wor d" t o i m p l y p r i m a r i l y an i n -i

t e l l e c t u a l i d e a , i s on t h e o t h e r h a n d , much c l o s e r t o

t h e E a s t e r n c o n c e p t w he re t h e "wor d" i s " , , . a n e x ­

p r e s s i o n o f t h e w i l l more t h a n o f t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e !

, . . , a command r a t h e r t h a n an i n s t r u c t i o n " and i t

a l w a y s i m p l i e s d e e d o r a c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n j u s t t h o u g h t .

The West t e n d s t o s e p a r a t e wha t a man s a y s f rom wha t he

i s and w h a t he may d o , b u t t h e E a s t makes no s u c h d i s ­

t i n c t i o n . ^ Such c o m m u n i c a t o r s c o u l d e a s i l y come t o

1 1 b i d . , p . 51 .

^Domenico G r a s s o , P r o c l a i m i n q God* s mes sage ( N o t r e Dame: U n i v e r s i t y o f N o t r e Dame, 1 9 6 5 ) , pp . 3 - 4 .

57

e x p e c t t h e i r m e s s a g e s o r commands and demands t o be

o b e y e d s o l e l y b e c a u s e t h e words p o s s e s s an i n h e r e n t

dynamism w h i c h makes t h e i r t r u t h e f f e c t u a l # s e l f -

e v i d s n c i n g , o r c e r t i f y i n g w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f e x t e r n a l

e v i d e n c e and l o g i c a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n .

L a s t l y , a s e c o n d i m p l i c a t i o n d e r i v e d f rom t h e

u n i q u e q u a l i t y o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r mus t be

wha t K i e k e g a a r d r e f e r r e d t o a s " t h e p a r a d o x o f a u t h o r i t y , "

A p a r a d o x i s a r a t i o n a l l y i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e f a c t , and

c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y i s e s s e n t i a l l y p a r a d o x i c a l b e c a u s e

i t i s u l t i m a t e l y be y on d p r o o f . As K i e r k e g a a r d a r g u e d ,

i t c a n n e i t h e r be c e r t i f i e d by m i r a c l e s n o r by l o g i c a l

a n a l y s i s . ^

The d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y i s t h e q u a l i t a t i v e l y d e c i s i v e f a c t o r , I t i s n o t by a p p r a i s i n g a e s t h e t i c a l l y o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t I m us t and c a n r e a c h t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t e r o o he who ha s t a u g h t t h i s d o c t r i n e was c a l l e d by a r e v e l a t i o n , e r o o he i s an a p o s t l e . The o r d e r o f s e q u e n c e i s e x a c t l y t h e r e v e r s e : t h eman c a l l e d by a r e v e l a t i o n , t o whom was e n ­t r u s t e d a d o c t r i n e , a r g u e s f rom t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s was a r e v e l a t i o n , f rom t h e f a c t t h a t he h a s a u t h o r i t y . I am n o t o b l i g e d t o o b e y P a u l b e c a u s e he i s c l e v e r o r e x c e p t i o n a l l y c l e v e r , b u t I mus t s u b m i t t o P a u l b e c a u s e he h a s d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y ; i n an y c a s e i t i s P a u l ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o t a k e c a r e t o p r o d u c e t h i s i m p r e s s i o n , w h e t h e r a ny b o d y w i l l s u b m i t t o h i s a u t h o r i t y o r no , P a u l mus t n o t a p p e a l t o h i s

i K i o r k e g a a r d , On A u t h o r i t y and R e v e l a t i o n , pp . 5 7 - 5 6 , 1 0 0 - 1 9 ,

50

c l e v e r n e s s , For t h e n he i s a Fool} . , ,Wo, he mus t a p p e a l t o h i s d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y ,. . . , he mus t p r e v e n t a l l a e s t h e t i c and p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y d i r e c t e d o b j e c t i o n s a g a i n s t , t h e c o n t e n t o r Form oF t h e d o c t r i n e , 1

I f i t i s t r u e t h a t c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r s a c t c o n ­

s c i o u s l y o r even u n c o n s c i o u s l y b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n ­

s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p a r a d o x i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e i r a u t h o r i t y

one s h o u l d a n t i c i p a t e t h a t t h e y wou ld a s s i d u o u s l y p r e ­

c l u d e and f o r e s t a l l a l l l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r

m e s s a g e s . F u r t h e r , t h e b a s i c o r mos t f u n d a m e n t a l " p r o o f "

t h a t one c o u l d e x p e c t a c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r t o

o f f e r f o r h i s a u t h o r i t y and v a l i d i t y o f d o c t r i n e would

be h i s own d o g m a t i c a s s e r t i o n and p e r h a p s s s K i e r k e g a a r d

c o n c e d e s , " a t t h e m o s t by h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o s u f f e r

e v e r y t h i n g f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e d o c t r i n e , " a l t h o u g h i n a

s t r i c t s e n s e t h e l a t t e r s h o u l d n o t even be c o n s i d e r e d

a s a p r o o f o f t h e d o c t r i n e ' s r i g h t n e s s b u t s i m p l y a

" r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e d o c t r i n e . "2

The C h a r i s m a t i c C o m m u n i c a t o r ' s S t r a t e g i e s and T a c t i c s

H a v i n g now c o m p l e t e d t h e s u r v e y o f t h o s e phenomena

p e r s o n a l l y mos t c r u c i a l an d r e l e v a n t t o t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

c o m m u n i c a t o r , l e t u s t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o h i s s t r a t e g i e s

1 I b i d . » pp . 1 0 7 - 0 8 .

2 I b i d . , pp . 1 1 0 , 1 1 0 .

5 9

a nd t a c t i c s t h r o u g h wh ic h he e n d e a v o r s t o r e l a t e h i s

m e s s a g e m e a n i n g f u l l y t o h i s a u d i e n c e . In one s e n s e , t h e

F o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h

m a k i n g somewhat more e x p l i c i t wha t h a s a l r e a d y been

i n t i m a t e d . Fo r i n s t a n c e , t h e t a s k s o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

c o m m u n i c a t o r i m p l y h i s two o v e r a l l s t r a t e g i e s , I n r e v i e w

and summary t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s a r e t t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n

o f a s a l v a t i o n a n d / o r j u d g m e n t F o r m u l a , and s e c o n d , t h e

e n h a n c e m e n t o f s u b j e c t i v i t y i n c l u d i n g t h e p r e v e n t i o n

and d e s t r u c t i o n o f i l l u s i o n . In o r d e r t o i m p l e m e n t

t h e s o s t r a t e g i e s , thB c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r may em­

p l o y a number o f t a c t i c s . S e v e r a l o f t h e s e s h a l l be

s u g g e s t e d a s r e l e v a n t t o t h e two b a s i c s t r a t e g i e s .

D i r e c t D i s c o u r s e

The f i r s t s t r a t e g i c g o a l w h i c h t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

c o m m u n i c a t o r m u s t a t t a i n i s t h e p u b l i c p r o c l a m a t i o n o f

t h o o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t o f h i s r e v e l a t i o n t o an a u d i e n c e

whose f e l t n e e d he c an a r t i c u l a t e , The f a c t t h a t

c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r s u s e d i s c o u r s e t o p r o c l a i m _a

m es sa g e r a t h e r t h a n t e a c h a t h e o r y mu s t be s t r e s s e d .

Wh i l e a s s um e d t o be f o u n d e d upon an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

r e a l i t y o r a W e l t a n s c h a u u n g , a m e s s a g e a s a mode o f

d i s c o u r s e i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n s o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m s o f

human t h o u g h t by d i s c o v e r i n g s e l f - e v i d e n t p r i n c i p l e s

60

and o r g a n i z i n g r a t i o n a l p r o o f s i n o r d e r t o c i r c u m s c r i b e

t h e " l a w s o f r e a l i t y , " Such a t t e m p t s a t s y s t e m a t i z a ­

t i o n a r e t h e t a s k o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r who i s c o n t e n t t o

o r d e r t h e c h a o s o f r e a l i t y . The c h a r i s m a t i c comm un ica ­

t o r , r a t h e r t h a n r e s i g n i n g o r r e s t r i c t i n g h i m s e l f t o

s e e r e a l i t y " a s i t i s , " p r o c l a i m s a m e s s a g e wh ic h

v e n t u r e s t o o v e r t h r o w an e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n in o r d e r

t o c r e a t e a n o t h e r r e a l i t y . The m e s s a g e i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y

b e c a u s e i t i s a r e v o l t a g a i n s t an e s t a b l i s h e d r e a l i t y .

B u t , a b o v e a l l t h e m es sa ge c r e a t e s hope f o r t h e d e ­

p r e s s e d t h a t t h e r e a l i t y o f t h i n g s c an become b e t t e r .

A m e s s a g e d o e s n o t s e e k t o s a l v o a t h e o r e t i c a l d i l emma

b u t a s i t u a t i o n a l o n e . A s y s t e m i s a d v a n c e d by a p r o ­

f e s s o r who h a s a n a l y z e d t h e d a t a and p r o v e s t h e t r u t h

o r e r r o r o f t h e t h e o r y . A m e s s a g e i s s u c c e s s f u l b e ­

c a u s e i t p r o c l a i m s v a l u e s w h i c h a r e a t t r a c t i v e and

f a s c i n a t i n g . I t a p p e a r s t o g a i n p o p u l a r i t y , e s p e c i a l l y

i n i t s i n n o v a t i v e s t a g e s , l e s s by e v i d e n c e and l o g i c a l

d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a n t h r o u g h a mas s p s y c h o l o g i c a l p h e ­

nomenon b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s " t h e r h e t o r i c o f c o n t a g i o n . "

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t e n s e e x u b e r a n t e m o t i o n a l b u o y a n c y

and a s s u r e d n e s s w h i c h t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r and

h i s e a r l i e s t f o l l o w e r s r a d i a t e s e r v e s a s a m a g n e t i c

a t t r a c t i o n , a t y p e o f e v i d e n c e a n d p r o o f , t o d e s p e r a t e

61

l i s t e n e r s . 1 Howeve r , t h i s c o n t a g i o u s r h e t o r i c a s a

means o f s e c u r i n g p o p u l a r a c c e p t a n c e o f t h o m e s s a g e ' s

o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t i s a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t - l i v e d phenomenon .

P r e d o m i n a n t i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f a c h a r i s m a t i c move­

m e n t , i t d i m i n i s h e s i n i m p o r t a n c e a s c h a r i s m a i s r o u -

t i n i z e d , a t w h ic h p o i n t t h e l e a d e r and e s p e c i a l l y h i s

f o l l o w e r s r e s o r t t o a r g u m e n t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e o r more

c o e r c i v e m e t h o d s in o r d e r t o a c h i e v e mass a d o p t i o n o f

t h e i r d o c t r i n e . 2

As t o wha t t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e s e m e s s a g e s , i t i s

t h e o r i z e d t h a t t h e y w i l l c o n t a i n an a n n o u n c e m e n t o f

j u d g m e n t a n d / o r s a l v a t i o n . As t h e movement d e v e l o p s ,

t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t f r e q u e n t l y comes t o i n c l u d e i n s t r u c t i o n s

on p r i m a r i l y p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r s , o f t e n a p p e a r i n g a s

r u l e s o f c o n d u c t . T h e s e m e s s a g e s a r e u s u a l l y i n t r o d u c e d

by some a l l u s i o n t o t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t ' s " O t h e r " s o u r c e

a n d u n i q u e a u t h o r i t y , s u c h a s t h e p r o p h e t i c " T h u s s a i t h

t h e L o r d . " In p r i m i t i v e t i m e s t h e c o m p l e t e a n n o u n c e ­

men t was b u t a s h o r t p o i n t e d s t a t e m e n t . ^ Even i n t h e

1 G r a s s o , P r o c l a i m i n g C o d ' s M e s s a g e , pp . 1 8 - 1 9 ,1 6 8 - 6 9 ,

2 A d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r o u t i n i z a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a may be f o u n d i n W eb e r , On C h a r i s m a , pp . 5 4 - 6 1 ,

^ C l a u s W e s t e r m a n n , B a s i c Forms o f P r o p h e t i c S p e e c h , t r a n s . by Hugh C l a y t o n W hi t e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a * W e s t m i n s t e r ' P r e s s , 1 9 6 7 ) , pp . 2 4 , 93 .

62

more modern c h a r i s m a t i c m e s s a g e s t h e s e s h o r t , a l m o s t

o r a c u l a r p r o n o u n c e m e n t s are ' s t i l l more o r l e s s i n

e v i d e n c e . T he s e b a s i c u n i t s may be t h o u g h t o f a s t h e

p r e m i s e s o r p r o p o s i t i o n s upon w h i c h t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

movement i s f ou nd ed * h o w e v e r , i t wou ld be more a p p r o ­

p r i a t e t o r e f e r t o t h e s e u n i t a r y p r o c l a m a t i o n s a s

f o r m u l a s s i n c e t h e y a r e n o t a b l y more p r e s c r i p t i v e t h a n

d i d a c t i c i n n a t u r e , ^

Wi th t h e p a s s i n g o f t i m e , m e s s e n g e r s became

t h i n k e r s a s w e l l a s t r a n s m i t t e r s . They p e r c e i v e d t h e m ­

s e l v e s a s w e l l en o ug h a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e " O t h e r " s o u r c e

s o a s t o be a b l e t o e l a b o r a t e upon o r g i v e e x p o s i t i o n o f

t h e b a s i c a n n o u n c e m e n t . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n a m es sa g e

d i r e c t l y a n n o u n c i n g j u d g m e n t , t o t h e b a s i c u n i t o f

r e v e l a t i o n may bo a d d e d a d e s c r i p t i o n o f i t s l i k e l y

c o n s e q u e n c e s . A n o t h e r e l e m e n t f r e q u e n t l y i n c l u d e d i n

j u d g m e n t s p e e c h e s i s t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e j u d g m e n t and

t h i s a c c u s a t i o n may i t s e l f u n d e r g o a s e r i e s o f f u r t h e r

d e v e l o p m e n t s . 2 The e x p a n s i o n o f t h e b a s i c a n n o u n c e m e n t

i n s u c h t e r m s a s c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s i n c l u d i n g t h e

^ T u c k B r , " T h e o r y o f C h a r i s m a t i c L e a d e r s h i p , "p . 7 5 1 .

2 W e s t e r m a n n , B a s i c Forms o f P r o p h e t i c S p e e c h , pp . 1 7 1 - 1 8 9 ,

63

i nnumerab l e? i n h e r e n t v a r i a t i o n s , c h a r a c t e r i z e one t y p e

o f d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e . In t h o s e d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e s w h i ch

p r o c l a i m a s a l v a t i o n Fo r m u l a t h e e x p a n s i o n u s u a l l y

s u b s t i t u t e s e x h o r t a t i o n For t h e a c c u s a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t

oF t h e j u d g m e n t s p e e c h . ^

The d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i s p o i n t may be somewhat m i s ­

l e a d i n g i n s a F a r a s i t g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t e a c h

m e s s a g e d e v e l o p s a s i n g l e theme b a s e d upon t h e F o r m u l a r y

a n n o u n c e m e n t . Such i s n o t o r d i n a r i l y t h e c a s e , s i n c e

i n many i n s t a n c e s a s e r i e s oF f o r m u l a s w i t h no common

s u b j e c t a r e s t r u n g t o g e t h e r w i t h e a c h p a r t i c u l a r f o r m u l a

h a v i n g i t s own i n d e p e n d e n t e x p a n s i o n . One w r i t e r , t h e

S w i s s t h e o l o g i a n K a r l B a r t h , h a s s u g g e s t e d ( a l t h o u g h

n o t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c h a r i s m a t i c s p e a k e r s ) t h a t s i n c e

t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r i s an e x p o s i t o r o f a w r i t t e n o r o r a l

r e v e l a t i o n and n o t a l e c t u r e r , he n e e d n o t c o n c e r n

h i m s e l f w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f an y p a r t i c u l a r t heme o r

u n i t y o f t h e e n t i r e d i s c o u r s e . P r o p e r i n t r o d u c t i o n s

( i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l s e n s e ) he c o n s i d e r s t o be

u n n e c e s s a r y and a w a s t e o f t i m e , s i n c e t h e i m m e d i a t e

s i t u a t i o n o u g h t t o p r o v i d e a s u f f i c i e n t i n t r o d u c t i o n o r

a u d i e n c e p r e p a r a t i o n Fo r t h e m e s s a g e . A p r e m e d i t a t e d

1 1 b i d . , p . 90 ,

64

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n o r a r r a n g e m e n t o f i d e a s s h o u l d

be a v o i d e d by t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r b e c a u s e t h e u n i t y o f t h e

d i s c o u r s e s h o u l d a r i s e f r o m t h e r h y t h m an d p r o p o r t i o n

o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n o r f o r m u l a r y p r e s c r i p t i o n s . F i n a l l y ,

t h i s t y p e o f m e s s a g e r e q u i r e s no s e t c o n c l u s i o n , f o r

t f 113 a p p l l c a t i o s h o u l d ha v e been an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h o

e x p l i c a t j o . 1 W i t h o u t i n t e n d i n g t o do s o , I t h i n k t h a t

B a r t h h a s p r e s e n t e d a r a t h e r a p t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h a t

mode o f c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h i c h I have t e r m e d

d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e o r p r o c l a m a t i o n .

I n d i r e c t D i s c o u r s e

D i r e c t d i s c o u r s e i s u s e f u l t o t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

c o m m u n i c a t o r w h e n e v e r he w a n t s t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t o f

h i s m e s s a g e a c c e p t e d and u n d e r s t o o d . A n o t h e r r h e t o r i c a l

p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r , e m e r g e s once t h e r e v e l a t i o n i s p u b ­

l i c i z e d , B e c a u s e t h e movement i s p o p u l a r o r h a s g a i n e d

w id e s u p p o r t , many a t t a c h t h e m s e l v e s t o i t w i t h o u t e v e r

p e r s o n a l l y a c t u a l i z i n g t h e r e v e l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s .

T h e s e p e o p l e a r e c o n f u s e d a b o u t t h e n e c e s s a r i l y v i t a l

n a t u r e o f t h e a u t h e n t i c r e s p o n s e t o c h a r i s m a t i c com­

m u n i c a t i o n . B e ca u se t h e y a g r e e w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e

c o n t e n t o f t h e m e s s a g e , t h e y s u f f e r t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t

^ K a r l B a r t h , Pr e a c h i n g o f t h e G o s p e 1 ( P h i l a ­d e l p h i a : W e s t m i n s t e r P r e s s , 1963 ) , pp . 5 6 - 5 9 , 7 6 - 8 2 ,

t h e y ha v e i p s o f a c t o a p p r o p r i a t e d t h e s u b j e c t i v e , when

i n e s s e n c e t h e y a r c t o t a l l y v o i d o f a l l p a s s i o n a t e i n ­

v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e c h a r i s m a t i c movement . The same

n e c e s s i t y t o d i s p e l t h e i l l u s i o n , a l t h o u g h a r i s i n g f rom

d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e s , may be f ou n d among t h e i n ­

d i f f e r e n t who f e e l t h a t t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r i s

n o t r e a l l y a d v o c a t i n g a n y t h i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y b u t o n l y

more e x t r e m e l y wha t i s a l r e a d y w i d e l y a c k n o w l e d g e d , ThB

c o m m u n i c a t o r s h o u l d n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f

t h i s t a s k f o r K i e r k e g a a r d f e l t t h a t t h e r h e t o r t o o o f t e n

, . . t a k e s no h e ed o f t h e f a c t t h a t ani l l u s i o n i s n o t an e a s y t h i n g t o d i s p e l .S u p p o s i n g now i t i s a f a c t t h a t m o s t p e o p l e , when t h e y c a l l t h e m s e l v e s C h r i s t i a n s , a r e u n d e r an i l l u s i o n — how do t h e y d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t an e n t h u s i a s t ? f i r s t an d f o r e m o s t , t h e y do n o t b o t h e r a b o u t him a t a l l , t h e y do n o t so much a s l oo k a t h i s b o o k , t h e y i m m e d i a t e l y l a y i t a s i d e , , , o r , i f he e m p l o y s t h e l i v i n g w o r d , t h e y go r o u n d by a n o t h e r s t r e e t and do n o t h e a r him. As t h e n e x t s t e p , t h e y s p i r i t him o u t o f t h e way by c a r e f u l l y d e f i n i n g t h e who le c o n c e p t , a n d s e t t l e t h e m s e l v e s s e c u r e l y i n t h e i r i l l u s i o n s t h e y make him a f a n a t i c , h i s C h r i s t i a n i t y an e x a g g e r a t i o n - - i n t h e end he r e m a i n s t h e o n l y o n e , o r one o f t h o f e w , who i s n o t s e r i o u s l y a C h r i s t i a n , , . w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r s a r e a l l s e r i o u s C h r i s t i a n s , 1

When a c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r c o n f r o n t s an

i n d i f f e r e n t o r c o n f u s e d a u d i e n c e w h i c h knows and a c c e p t s

t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t b u t i s u n d e r t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t

66

i t i s a l r e a d y s u b j e c t i v e , K i e r k e g a a r d s u g g e s t e d t h a t

o n l y i n d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e i s a p p l i c a b l e . ' * In a l l l i k e l i ­

hood t h e r e a r c s e v e r a l m e t h o d s o f i n d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e !

h o w e v e r , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e y r e m a i n u n s y s t e m a t i 2e d .

As one p o s s i b l e e x a m p lo o f t h e i n d i r o c t m e t ho d o f com­

m u n i c a t i o n , K i e r k e g a a r d s u g g e s t s S o c r a t e s ' m a i e u t i c

a p p r o a c h t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e l i s t e n e r i s d i a l e c t i c a l l y

a s s i s t e d i n d i s c o v e r i n g o r a c q u i r i n g a more i n t i m a t e

r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l

k n o w l e d g e a l r e a d y w i t h i n h i m , 2 ( T h i s e s s e n t i a l know­

l e d g e may have b e e n i n i t i a l l y r e c e i v e d t h r o u g h d i r e c t

d i s c o u r s e o r one may h o l d t o t h e S a c r a t i c d o c t r i n e o f

r e c o l l e c t i o n i n w h i c h a l l l e a r n i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be

a t y p o o f r e m e m b e r i n g . ) C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l

t a c t i c o f i n d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n d o e s n o t i n c r e a s e t h e

l i s t e n e r ' s k n o w l e d g e , f o r he a l r e a d y knows more t r u t h

t h a n he h a s d e c i s i v e l y a p p r o p r i a t e d , b u t r a t h e r t h e com­

m u n i c a t o r mus t s t i m u l a t e t h e l i s t e n e r i n t o a s e l f - a c t i v e

r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e t r u t h . K i e r k e g a a r d ' s own m e t h o d o f

i n d i r e c t i o n i s r o o t e d i n t h e c o n c e p t o f a m b i g u i t y w h i ch

makes t h e a c t u a l m e a n in g o f a d i s c o u r s e d i f f i c u l t t o

1 K i e r k e g a a r d , C o n e l u d i n o U n s c i e n t i f i c P o s t s c r i p t , pp . 2 2 9 - 3 0 , 2 4 0 - 4 1 .

Z l b i d , , pp . 2 2 3 - 2 4 .

67

d e t e r m i n e , He nc e , t h e l i s t e n e r , i f he i s g o i n g t o g a i n

a n y t h i n g f rom t h e m es sa g e mus t s t r u g g l e t o d i s c o v e r i t

f o r h i m s e l f , In o t h e r w o r d s , a m b i g u i t y makes i t d i f ­

f i c u l t t o a p p r e h e n d t h e m e a n i n g t o o e a s i l y , 1 The am­

b i g u i t y may be h e i n h t e n e d i n two ways* e i t h D r t h e d i s ­

c o u r s e may be made a m b i o u o u s o r t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r h im­

s e l f . The f o r m e r i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e p a r a d o x i c a l

j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s o r t h r o u g h o t h e r c l e v e r

l i t e r a r y means s u c h a s d i a l o g u e s and p a r a b l e . The

l a t t e r i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by mak ing t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r a p p e a r

odd o r e v e n " f r e a k i s h * ' t h r o u g h some u n u s u a l b e h a v i o r

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i s d i s c o u r s e . In b o t h t h e s e c a s e s i t

i s a n a l y t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t t h e r h e t o r i c a l

e v e n t e x a c t l y . The g o a l o f i n d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e i s t o

b r i n g a b o u t an e x i s t e n t i a l c r i s i s by f o r c i n g t h e

l i s t e n e r t o make a p e r s o n a l c h o i c e o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n and i n s o d o i n g , K i e r k e g a a r d b e l i e v e d

t h a t t h e l i s t e n e r t r u l y r e v e a l s h i m s e l f and i n d i c a t e s

w h e t h e r he i s o b j e c t i v e l y o r s u b j e c t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o

t h e t r u t h . As he commen ted t

A c o n t r a d i c t i o n p l a c e d d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t o f a man— i f o n l y one con g e t him t o l o o k upon i t - - i s a m i r r o r j w h i l e he i s j u d g i n g , wha t d w e l l s w i t h i n him mu s t be r e v e a l e d . I t i s a

1 I b i d , , p. 326,

68

r i d d l e , h u t w h i l e he i s n u o s s i n o , wha t d w e l l s w i t h i n him i s r e v e a l e d by haw hB n u e s s e s ,The c o n t r a d i c t i o n p u t s b e f o r e him a c h o i c e , an d w h i l e he i s c h o u s i n o , he h i m s e l f i s r e - , v e a l e d .1

C d i f y i n q D i s c o u r s e

Howeve r , a s c e r t a i n a s K i e r k e g a a r d was t h a t t h e

i n d i r e c t m e th od i s an a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t a c t i c f o r

d i s p e l l i n g i l l u s i o n s , he a l s o t h o u g h t t h a t s u c h a

m e t h o d m u s t be f o l l o w e d up w i t h a more d i r e c t form o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n wh ich ho r e f e r r e d t o a s e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e ,

T h i 3 mode o f d i s c o u r s e s h o u l d be u s e d when t h e l i s t e n e r

i s r e c e p t i v e and e n t h u s i a s t i c b u t n e e d s t o be g i v e n

f u r t h e r o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e e n h a n c e m e n t o f h i s s u b ­

j e c t i v i t y . 2 in a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e

c o m b i n e s e l e m e n t s f rom b o t h d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t com­

m u n i c a t i o n . In form i t i s r e l a t i v e l y d i r e c t b e c a u s e i t

n e e d n o t em p l oy s u c h t a c t i c s a s a m b i g u i t y t o p r o d u c e i n ­

w a r d n e s s , y e t i t i s n e v e r a s d i r e c t a s a r g u m e n t a t i v e

a n d p e r s u a s i v e d i s c o u r s e . Howeve r , i n p r o c e s s e d i f y i n g

d i s c o u r s e i s i n d i r e c t b e c a u s e i t e n c o u r a g e s n o t p r i ­

m a r i l y i n t e l l e c t u a l a c c e p t a n c e o f o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t b u t

‘t S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , T r a i n i n g i n C h r i s t i a n i t y , t r a n s , by W a l t e r Low r i e ( P r i n c e t o n * P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 944 ) , p . 1 2 6 .

^ K i e r k B g a a r d , C o n c l u d i n o U n s c i e n t i f i c P o s t s c r i p t , p p . 2 2 9 - 3 0 , - 2 4 0 - 4 1 .

69

p e r s o n a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n on t h e l i s t e n e r ' s par t .** In

o t h e r w o r d s , d i r o o t d i s c o u r s e i s u s e f u l w i t h an a u d i e n c e

w h i c h i s u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e m e s s a g e .

I n d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e i s u s e f u l when t h e a u d i e n c e knows t h e

o b j e c t i v e t r u t h b u t l a c k s s u b j e c t i v i t y t h r o u g h e i t h e r

c o n f u s i o n o r i n d i f f e r e n c e . E d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e i s u s e f u l

when t h e a u d i e n c e knows t h e m e s s a g e ' s b a s i c c o n t e n t and

i s e n t h u s i a s t i c i n n a t u r e b u t r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n

f o r i n c r e a s e d s u b j e c t i v i t y .

K i e r k e g a a r d ' s t h e o r y o f e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e may

be m o s t c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d when i t i s c o m p a r e d w i t h

i n f o r m a t i v e , a r g u m e n t a t i v e , and p e r s u a s i v e d i s c o u r s e .

F o r much o f t h i s c o m p a r i s o n I am i n d e b t e d t o Raymond

A n d e r s o n ' s r e s e a r c h on K i e r k e g a a r d ' s t h e o r y o f c om m un ica ­

t i o n , L e c t u r i n g , a c c o r d i n g t o K i e r k e g a a r d ' s t h e o r y ,

d e a l s w i t h o b j e c t i v e t r u t h o r t r u t h a s a q u a l i t y o f

p r o p o s i t i o n s , In t h i s s e n s e t r u t h i s t h e c o n f o r m i t y

o f t h o u g h t w i t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r e m p i r i c a l r e a l i t y .

E d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , d e a l s w i t h s u b ­

j e c t i v e t r u t h o r t r u t h a s a q u a l i t y o f p e r s o n s . Here

t r u t h i s t h e c o n f o r m i t y o f a m a n ' s l i f e w i t h h i s

t h o u g h t , s p e c i f i c a l l y h i s e t h i c a l and r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s .

1 I b i d . , p , 71 ,

70

C o n s e q u e n t l y , a d i lemma .is p o s e d i n wh ic h k n o w in g t h e

t r u t h may be u n t r u t h . L e c t u r i n g , by e x c l u s i v e d i s c o u r s e

on an o b j e c t i v e l e v e l , e n c o u r a g e s t h e l i s t e n e r t o

e s c a p e t h e i n t e r n a l a n o u i s h oF be co m in g s u b j e c t i v e .

The s p e a k e r who would e d i f y m u s t a l w a y s r emember t h a t

mos t p e o p l e wou ld r a t h e r d e a l w i t h s u b j e c t i v e i d o a l i t y

o b j e c t i v e l y , i . e . , a s an i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o b l e m r a t h e r

t h a n a p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m . They would r a t h e r v e n t u r e i n

s e a r c h o f more k no w l e d g e t h a n t o a c t w i t h p a s s i o n i n

v i r t u e o f wha t t h e y a l r e a d y u n d e r s t a n d . T h e r e f o r e ,

w h i l e l e c t u r i n g may i n d e e d a s s i s t t h e l i s t e n e r t o u n d e r ­

s t a n d t h e c o n c r e t e a b s t r a c t l y , e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e m us t

h e l p him t o " u n d e r s t a n d " t h e a b s t r a c t c o n c r e t e l y , 1

As w i t h l e c t u r i n g , a r g u m e n t a t i o n , a s a means o f

c o m m u n i c a t i n g s u b j e c t i v i t y i s s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d . The

p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n For t h i s , a c c o r d i n g t o K i e r k e g a a r d ' s

t h e o r y , i s t h a t any d i s c o u r s e w h i c h a r g u e s f o r a

p a r t i c u l a r mode o f e x i s t e n c e o r i n t r i n s i c v a l u e o f t h e

" g o o d l i f e , " m u s t do so by v i r t u e o f an e x t r a - l o g i c a l

f a c t o r , an a p r i o r i comm i tm en t b e c a u s e t h e c l a i m i s

u l t i m a t e l y n o t w a r r a n t a b l e on a l o g i c a l b a s i s . H e n c e ,

t h e v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s a r i s i n g i n s u c h m a t t e r s c an

1 A n d e r s o n , " K i e r k e g a a r d ' s Th eo ry o f Communica­t i o n , " pp . 4 5 - 6 6 ,

71

n e v e r be r e s o l V B d t h r o u g h r a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n f o r t h e

b a s i s o f a l l s u c h a r g u m e n t s r e l a t i v e t o t h e n a t u r e o f

t h e good i s n o t u l t i m a t e l y g r o u n d e d i n r e f l e c t i o n h u t

i n human need,** T h e r e f o r e , t h e e d i f y i n g s p e a k e r o u g h t

t o r e c o n c i l e h i m s e l f t o t h e n e c e s s i t y o f mak ing c o n ­

t a c t w i t h t h e l i s t e n e r i n t e r m s o f p e r s o n a l n e e d r a t h e r

t h a n i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n v i c t i o n . As s u c h , e d i f y i n g d i s ­

c o u r s e w i l l f r e q u e n t l y a p p e a r t o be n o t h i n g b u t f o o l i s h ­

n e s s t o t h o s e who f e e l no n e e d f o r i t . I t w i l l h av e

c o g n i t i v e an d n o e t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o n l y t o t h e l i k e -

i n t e r e s t e d , t h o s e who u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i s c o u r s e t o be

t h e v e r b a l e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r m u t u a l n e e d and s h a r e d

i n w a r d n e s s . A s e c o n d s h o r t c o m i n g o f a r g u m e n t a t i v e d i s ­

c o u r s e t o o c c a s i o n s u b j e c t i v i t y and c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h t h e a d m i s s i o n t h a t o n e ' s v i e w o f l i f e u l t i m a t e l y

r e p r e s e n t s deep p e r s o n a l n e e d r a t h e r t h a n t h e a c h i e v e ­

men t o f o n e ' s i n t e l l e c t i s K i e r k e g a a r d ’ s t h e o r y o f

b e l i e f . I t i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e r e i s a

p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n o n e ' s a w a r e n e s s o f e v i ­

d e n t i a l s u p p o r t f o r a p r o p o s i t i o n and t h e s t r e n g t h o f

o n e ' s b e l i e f i n t h a t p r o p o s i t i o n . Such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

c o n c e i v e s o f b e l i e f i n t e r m s o f an o b j e c t i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l

i T h e " n e e d " r e f e r r e d t o h e r e i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r s p i r i t u a l r a t h e r t h a n s o c i o l o g i c a l o r p h y s i c a l .

72

f u n c t i o n , a s an " a p p r o x i m a t i o n - k n o w l e d g e , " K i e r k e g a a r d

wou l d a c c o p t t h i s d e f i n i t i o n f o r e m p i r i c a l b e l i e f s and

a s u s e f u l i n a r g u m e n t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e , m e r e l y s e e k i n g

a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s . How eve r , e x i s t e n t i a l

b e l i e f i s n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l s

c e r t a i n t y . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e w e ak e r t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s

t h e more i n t e n s e t h e e x i s t e n t i a l b e l i e f . Such an i n ­

t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n c e i v e s o f b e l i e f a s an a c t o f t h e w i l l ,

an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y wh ich i s o c c a s i o n e d

o r s t i m u l a t e d by c o n f r o n t i n g t h e l i s t e n e r w i t h m u t u a l l y

e x c l u s i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s o r a c h o i c e b e t w e e n p o s s i b i l i t i e s

w h i c h i s n o t n e c e s s i t a t e d by knowledge . ' *

In K i e r k e g a a r d ' s t h e o r y , p e r s u a s i o n i s a l s o d i s ­

t i n g u i s h e d f rom e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e . P r i m a r i l y , p e r ­

s u a s i o n may be t h o u g h t o f i n t e r m s o f e x t e r n a l c o n d u c t ,

w h i l e e d i f i c a t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t i v e p r o ­

c e s s w h i c h p r e c e d e s c o n d u c t . T h e r e f o r e , i n s o f a r a s

p e r s u a s i v e d i s c o u r s e i s a me thod o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g c e r t a i n

d e f i n i t e r e s u l t s by way o f i n f l u e n c i n g t h o u g h t a n d

a c t i o n , i t d i f f e r s f r om e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e wh ic h i s c o n ­

c e r n e d w i t h t h e s u b j e c t i v e q u a l i t y o f t h o u g h t and a c t i o n .

B e c a u s e o f t h i s d i f f e r e n t e m p h a s i s e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e

1 A n d e r s o n , " K i e r k e g a a r d 1s T h eo r y o f Communica­t i o n , " pp . 7G-113 .

73

makes m i n i m a l u s e o f m o t i v e , e m o t i o n a l , and p e r s o n a l

a p p e a l s . W hi l e i t i s t r u e t h a t e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e d o e s

i n h e r e n t l y i n c l u d e a p p e a l s b a s e d upon human m o t i v e s ,

i t d o e s n o t emp loy them i n t h e same manne r a s d o e s

p e r s u a s i v e d i s c o u r s e . P e r f e c t e d s u b j e c t i v i t y i s

a c h i e v e d by c o n f r o n t i n g t h e l i s t e n e r w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

o f r e l a t i n g h i m s e l f t o an a b s o l u t e i d e a l i t y w h i ch mus t

be c h o s e n f o r i t s e l f a l o n e and n o t a s a means f o r a t ­

t a i n i n g o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g s o m e t h i n g e l s e . E d i f y i n g

d i s c o u r s e a l s o s t i r s t h e e m o t i o n s b u t n o t by r e l a t i n g

" t o u c h i n g s t o r i e s " o f m o t h e r , home, o r w h a t e v e r b u t by

g e n e r a t i n g an i n w a r d p a t h o s , s t r u g g l e , o r e x i s t e n t i a l

c r i s i s by c a l l i n g t h e l i s t e n e r t o s e l f e x a m i n a t i o n ,

p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n , and a p p r o p r i a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e

a b s o l u t e i d e a l i t y . L a s t l y , t h e e d i f y i n g s p e a k e r wou ld

n o t p e r s o n a l l y e n d e a v o r t o i m p r e s s h i s a u d i e n c e . In

f a c t h i s h o n o r e d r e p u t a t i o n and p e r s o n a l p e r s u a s i v e n e s s

may be a h i n d r a n c e t o t h o s e who wou ld a c c e p t t h e o u t ­

wa rd form o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r ' s l i f e s t y l e

w i t h o u t b e i n g t r u l y i n w a r d l y r e l a t e d t o h i s r e commended

i d e a l i t y , ^

I n a d d i t i o n t o wha t h a s now been s u g g e s t e d

by way o f c o m p a r i s o n , a few f i n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s

1 1 b i d . , pp . 123-71 .

74 .

n e e d t o be made . What t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r t h r o u g h e d i f y i n g

d i s c o u r s e e s s e n t i a l l y s a y s i s :

Do n o t c h e c k y o u r s o u l * s f l i g h t , do n o t g r i e v e t h e b e t t e r p r o m p t i n n s w i t h i n y o u , do n o t d u l l y o u r s p i r i t w i t h h a l f w i s h e s and h a l f t h o u g h t s , a s k y o u r s e l f , a nd c o n t i n u e t o a s k u n t i l you f i n d t h e a n s w e r ; f o r one may have known a t h i n g many t i m e s and a c k n o w l e d g e d i t , one may ha ve w i l l e d a t h i n g many t i m e s and a t t e m p t e d i t , and y e t i t i s o n l y by t h e deep i n w a r d m o v e m e n t s , o n l y by t h e i n d e s c r i b a b l e e m o t i o n s o f t h e h e a r t , t h a t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e you a r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t wha t you have known b e l o n g s t o y o u , t h a t no power c an t a k e i t f rom yo u ; f o r o n l y t h e t r u t h w h i c h e d i f i e s i s t r u t h f o r you. ' I

In h e l p i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l become s u b j e c t i v e , t h e e d i f y i n g

s p e a k e r mus t p o r t r a y t h e p r o c e s s o f s t r i v i n g t o w a r d

i d e a l i t y . The s t r o s s i s a l w a y s an how t h e i n d i v i d u a l

r e l a t e s h i m s e l f t o t h e i d e a l i t y r a t h e r t h a n on what he

f i n a l l y d e c i d e s t o d o . S u b j e c t i v i t y i s n o t e n h a n c e d by

g i v i n g t h e l i s t e n e r i n f o r m a t i o n on how t o c o n d u c t h i m s e l f

b u t by a f f o r d i n g him t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f b e c o m in g v i ­

c a r i o u s l y c o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h an h i s t o r i c a l o r f i c t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r o r e v e n t h e s p e a k e r h i m s e l f who i s s u b j e c t i v e .

T h i s i s done by m a k i n g t h e s u b j e c t i v e l i f e so t r a n s p a r e n t

t h a t i t s e x i s t e n t i a l s t r i v i n g i s e x h i b i t e d . T h i s d i s ­

c o u r s e i s i n t i m a t e , c l o s e ‘t o l i f e , and f o r t h i s r e a s o n

I S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , E i t h e r / O r , t r a n s , by W a l t e r L o w r i e , I I ( P r i n c o t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,1 9 4 4 ) , 29 4 ,

75

i t t e n d s t o be d e s u l t o r y , e p i s o d i c , and n o t u n l i k e t h e

s t r e a m - o f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s t e c h n i q u e o f some n o v e l i s t s .

In a d d i t i o n , K i e r k e g a a r d p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r i l y

c o p i o u s b e c a u s e i t w i l l embody a s much o f r e f l e c t i o n a s

a p e r s o n h a s "uihen e x i s t i n g i n h i s t h o u g h t , "1 In t h i s

r e s p e c t K i e r k e g a a r d f u r t h e r r e m a r k e d t h a t e d i f y i n g d i s ­

c o u r s e i s an e x i s t e n t i a l i n d i v i d u a l t a l k i n g a l o u d t o

h i m s e l f . I f a n y o n e s h o u l d o v e r h e a r s u c h a man c o n ­

v e r s i n g w i t h h i m s e l f , i t m i g h t be a p r o f o u n d l y moving

e x p e r i e n c e . The d i s c o u r s e m ig h t l a c k t h e b e a u t y and

sy m m et r y o f t h e r h e t o r ' s c a r e f u l l y p r e p a r e d s p e e c h , y e t

I t wou l d be p e n e t r a t i n g , p o w e r f u l , and m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y ,

e d i f y i n g . ^ T h r o u g h t h i s means t h e e d i f y i n g c o m m u n i c a t o r

s e e k s t o b r i n g h i s d i s c o u r s e a s c l o s e t o l i f e a s p o s s i b l e

and t h e r e b y h e l p s t h e l i s t e n e r t o d i s c o v e r wha t c a n

h a r d l y be d e s c r i b e d o r p r o v e d - - t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n

n o t e x i s t i n g a nd e x i s t i n g ,

f i n a l l y , i t mus t be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e

s u c c e s s o f e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e d e p e n d s n o t o n l y on t h e

^ K i e r k e g a a r d , C o n e l u d i n q U n s c i e n t i f i c P o s t s c r i p t ,p, 68 .

2 S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , S t a p e s on L i f e 1s Way, t r a n s , by W a l t e r Lowr i e ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1 9 4 0 ) , p . 4 2 0 . A l s o , S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , f o r S e l f E x a m i n a t i o n , t r a n s , by Edna and Howard Hong ( M i n n e a p o l i s : A u gs b u r g P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1 9 4 0 ) , p. 5.

76

c o m m u n i c a t o r b u t a l s o on t h e l i s t e n e r . In h i s P u r i t y

o f He a r t , K i e r k e g a a r d s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e n a t u r a l way t o

l i s t e n t o a d i s c o u r s e i s t o c o n s i d e r o n e s e l f a s s e a t e d

i n t h e a u d i e n c e a nd t h e one who i s g i v i n g t h e d i s c o u r s e ,

a s an a c t o r on t h e s t a g e , In t h i s f r a m e o f m i n d , t h e

l i s t e n e r i s f r e e t o c r i t i c i s e b o t h t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e

d i s c o u r s e and t h e t e c h n i q u e o f t h e one who d e l i v e r s i t .

B u t , K i e r k e g a a r d i n s i s t e d t h a t t h i s i s n o t t h e r i g h t

way t o l i s t e n t o e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e . And u n t i l t h i s

m e t h o d o f l i s t e n i n g i s a l t e r e d , e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e i s

l i k e l y t o have l i t t l e r e s u l t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t o l i s t e n

c o r r e c t l y one m u s t r a d i c a l l y s h i f t r o l e s . The l i s t e n e r

mu s t a l l o w h i m s e l f t o be e x a m i n e d by t h e c o n t e n t o f

t h e d i s c o u r s e an d r e f r a i n f r om c r i t i c i s m ; t h e n , i f t h e

e l e m e n t o f s u b j e c t i v i t y i s p r e s e n t i n t h e d i s c o u r s e ,

t h e r e i s a t l e a s t thB p o s s i b i l i t y o f e d i f i c a t i o n . * *

The s t a t e m e n t o f c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s now

s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p l e t e f o r o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s . From

t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n l e t u s p a s s on t o a s u b ­

s t a n t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s k e l e t a l p a r a d i g m . The

f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r by e m p h a s i z i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n a l

^ S o r e n K i e r k e g a a r d , P u r i t y o f H e a r t , t r a n s . by D o u g l a s V. S t e e r e (New Yor k : H a r p e r & B r o t h e r sP u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 3 8 ) , pp . 1 6 0 - 6 7 .

77

d a t e r m i n a n t s o f c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e t s t h e

s t a g e f o r c o m p r e h e n d i n g t h e r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r o f

Geo rge Fox,

CHAPTER I I I

AN INTERPRETIVE SURVEY OF THE RHETORICAL SITUATION

Th ose r e a d e r s who a r e u n f a m i l i a r w i t h E n g l i s h

r e l i q i a u s h i s t o r y s h o u l d F i n d t h i s c h a p t e r p a r t i c u l a r l y

h e l p f u l i n p r o v i d i n g them w i t h a m e a n i n g f u l c o n t e x t i n

w h i c h t o u n d e r s t a n d and e v a l u a t e t h e r h e t o r i c and

c h a r i s m a o f George Fox , How eve r , even more s i g n i f i ­

c a n t l y , t h e a u t h o r h a s by c r i t i c a l l y e d i t i n g t h e h i s ­

t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e o f f e r e d h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a .

T h i s s h o u l d by i m p l i c a t i o n r e v e a l many o f t h e f a c t o r s

w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' s r e l i g i o u s

d i s e q u i l i b r i u m , a l s o t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f t h e r h e ­

t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n w h i c h were p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

much o f Geo rge F o x ' s b e h a v i o r a s a c o m m u n i c a t o r .

E a r l y R e f o r m a t i o n m e a s u r e s

The D e p a r t u r e

The " R e f o r m a t i o n " came t o E n g l a n d i n 1534 when

P a r l i a m e n t s e v e r e d u n i o n w i t h Rome and r e c o g n i z e d Hen ry

V I I I a s t h e " s u p r e m e head" o f t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d by

e n a c t i n g t h e f i r s t Ac t o f S u p r em acy . T h a t t h e s e a c t i o n s

79

were more p o l i t i c a l l y t h a n r e l i g i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d n e e d s

h a r d l y t o be d e b a t e d , ' ' Be cause Henry a t t a c k e d L u t h e r a n i s m »

t h e Pope i n 1521 ha d e n t i t l e d Hen ry t h e " D e f e n d e r o f t h e

F a i t h . " Now, f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r , H e n r y , a s t h e g u i d i n g

f a r c e i n t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d s c a r c e l y t u r n e d f rom

C a t h o l i c i s m . ^ In 1539 he p a s s e d t h r o u g h P a r l i a m e n t t h e

S i x A r t i c l e s wh ic h d e f i n e d t h e A n g l i c a n f a i t h . They

w e re q u i t e C a t h o l i c i n d o c t r i n e . E m ph a s i s was s t i l l

p l a c e d upon s u c h t e n e t s a s t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n , c l e r i c a l

vows o f c h a s t i t y , an d p r i v a t e m a s s e s , ^ Howeve r , r e f o r m a ­

t i o n had begun i n E n g l a n d ,

F i r s t S t e p s F o r w a r d

When Edward l/I was c o r o n a t e d a s t h e boy K ing o f

E n g l a n d ( 1 5 4 7 ) p r o g r e s s t o w a r d P r o t e s t a n t i s m r a p i d l y

a d v a n c e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r E d w a r d ' s P r o t e c t o r , Edward

S e y m o ur , Duke o f S o m e r s e t , and John D u d l e y , t h e Duke o f

N o r t h u m b e r l a n d . S t e p s we re t a k e n t o r e p e a l r e p r e s s i v e

l a w s w h i ch were u s e d t o c h e c k t h e g r o w t h and i n f l u e n c e

1 A. F. P o l l a r d , Hen ry V I I I ( i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n ? London : Longmans , Green and Company L t d . , 1 9 5 1 , )pp . 2 6 0 - 6 4 ,

^ I b i d . , pp . 9 8 - 1 0 0 , See a l s o J . J . S c a r i s b r i c k , Henry V I I I ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 6 9 ) ,pp . 1 1 5 - 1 7 ,

• ^ P o l l a r d , Hen ry V I I I , pp . 3 1 0 - 1 3 . See a l s o H, Maynard S m i t h , Henry V I I I and t h e R e f o r m a t i o n ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n and Company L t d . , 1 9 6 2 ) , pp . 1 6 4 - 6 7 .

80

o f t h e s m a l l P r o t e s t a n t m i n o r i t y , S o m e r s e t n o t o n l y

u r g e d t h e r e p e a l oF a l l h e r e s y l a w s , b u t a l l o w e d F r ee

p u b l i c a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n o f thB S c r i p t u r e s , Communion

i n t h e P r o t e s t a n t t r a d i t i o n w i t h t h e C a t h o l i c i n t e r p r e ­

t a t i o n o f t h e Mass o p t i o n a l , and E n g l i s h r e p l a c i n g

L a t i n i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e s e r v i c e s , * * Th ese d e v e l o p m e n t ' s

a t t r a c t e d f o r e i g n r e f o r m e r s t o E n g l a n d , su c h a s M a r t i n

B u c e r and P e t e r M a r t y r , who so i n s p i r e d r e l i g i o u s d e b a t e

t h a t S o m e r s e t u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f A r c h b i s h o p Cranmer

t h o u g h t i t n e c e s s a r y t o p a s s t h r o u g h P a r l i a m e n t an Act

o f U n i f o r m i t y w h i c h i mp os ed upon t h e C h u r c h t h e F i r s t

Book o f Common P r a y e r i n E n g l i s h ( 1 5 4 9 ) , 2

Whan N o r t h u m b e r l a n d s u c c e e d e d S o m e r s e t , F u r t h e r

P r o t e s t a n t r e f o r m was c a r r i e d o u t . Some High C h u r c h

b i s h o p s were d e p r i v e d o f t h e i r s e e s . The c l e r g y were

p e r m i t t e d t o m a r r y . A l t a r s were r e p l a c e d by communion

t a b l e s . The o l d L a t i n s e r v i c e b o o k s we re r emoved f rom

t h e c h u r c h e s . T h e s e c h a n g e s r e s u l t e d i n a s e c o n d Act

o f U n i f o r m i t y and a r e v i s i o n o f t h e Book o f Common

^ H e s t e r W. Chapman, The L a s t T udo r K i n q t A S t u d y o f Edward VI ( L o n d o n t J o n a t h a n C a p e , 1 9 5 8 j ^ p. 13*9.See a l s o A. F , P o l l a r d , E n g l a n d u n d e r P r o t e c t o r S o m e r s e t (Neui Yorks R u s s e l l & R u s s e l l , 1 9 6 6 ) 7 pp . 6 1 - 6 5 .

2UI. K. J o r d a n , The D ev e l o p m en t o f R e l i g i o u s T o l e r a t i o n i n E n g l a n d . I ( G l o u c e s t e r , M a s s , i P e t e r i i m i t h , 19 6 5 7 7 6 9 - 7 2 . See a l s o P o l l a r d , E n g l a n d u n d e r P r o t e c t o r S o m e r s e t , pp . 9 1 - 1 0 8 .

01

P r a y e r ( 1 5 0 2 ) w h i c h was more a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e r a d i c a l

P r o t e s t a n t s . A l s o , a t t h e same t i m e t h e o f f i c i a l c r e e d

o f t h e A n g l i c a n C h u r c h was d e f i n e d i n F o r t y - t w o A r t i c l e s

o f R e l i g i o n w h i ch were a m b i g u o u s l y e x p r e s s e d . T h i s i n -

d e c i s i v e n e s s e n a b l e d t h o s e who were a l m o s t C a t h o l i c s ,

a s w e l l a s L u t h e r a n s and C a l v i n i s t s t o r e m a i n w i t h i n

t h e C h u r c h ,

R e s u r g e n c e o f C a t h o l i c i s m

H ow eve r , t h e a d v a n c e o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n E n g l a n d

uias d r a m a t i c a l l y s t o p p e d when Mary T u do r became Queen

( 1 5 5 3 ) , She o r d e r e d o v e r 300 P r o t e s t a n t ' s b u r n e d t o

d e a t h , She s u c c e e d e d i n r e s t o r i n g C a t h o l i c i s m a s t h e

o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n a nd w i t h t h e a i d o f P a r l i a m e n t r e ­

u n i t e d t h e E n g l i s h C h u r c h t o t h e Roman, w h i l e a t t h e

same t i m e r e p e a l i n g a l l o f E d w a r d ' s r e l i g i o u s l e g i s l a ­

t i o n , U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r Mary, h e r e x t r e m e i n t o l e r a n c e

o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m was n o t a g r e e a b l e t o t h e p e o p l e o f

E n g l a n d who c o n t i n u e d t o s y m p a t h i z e w i t h and r e s p e c t

t h e r e f o r m a t i o n mov eme n t . ^

The E l i z a b e t h a n S e t t l e m e n t

Some co m p r o m is e was d e f i n i t e l y i n o r d e r a s a new

Q ue en , E l i z a b e t h I , a s c e n d e d t h e t h r o n e ( 1 5 5 8 ) , The

1 H. F . M. P r e s c o t t , Mary T ud o r (New York« The M a c m i l l a n Company , 1 9 5 4 ) , pp. 1 9 4 - 2 0 7 , 2 9 9 - 3 1 3 ,

£ l i z a b e t h a n C h u r c h S e t t l e m e n t was t h e r e s u l t , By 1559

t h e Queen r e s t o r e d t h e 1552 v e r s i o n o f t h e Bool< o f

Common P r a y e r w i t h some c o n s e r v a t i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n s .

A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s m e a s u r e was t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e

Ac t o f U n i f o r m i t y w h i ch a s s u r e d t h e u se o f t h e new

l i t u r g y a s t h e o n l y l e g a l form o f w o r s h i p t h r o u g h o u t t h e

E n g l i s h C h u r c h . P o p u l a r c o n f o r m i t y t o t h e s e r e s o l u t i o n s

was s o u g h t by l e v y i n g f i n e s upon a l l who a b s e n t e d t he m ­

s e l v e s f r o m t h e S e r v i c e s o f t h e C h u r c h , ^ In g o v e r n i n g

t h e C h u r c h , E l i z a b e t h F o l l o w e d t h e e x am p le s e t by h e r

f a t h e r , Hen ry V I I I , and i n s t i t u t e d an Act o f Su p r em acy

w h i c h r e - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e A n g l i c a n C h u r c h u n d e r t h e

su p r e m e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e c r o w n , w i t h t h e o l d e p i s c o p a l

s y s t e m m a i n t a i n e d , 2 E l i z a b e t h , i n d o c t r i n a l m a t t e r s ,

was p r e p a r e d t o a l l o w t h e c l e r i c s a good d e a l o f l e e w a y .

The a c t u a l A n g l i c a n dogma was p a s s e d by a C o n v o c a t i o n

o f c l e r g y m e n i n 1571 an d was r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e T h i r t y -

n i n e A r t i c l e s . A g a i n , t h e s e were o n l y a r e v i s i o n o f

t h e A r t i c l e s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 552 .

The p r i n c i p a l c r e e d s o f A n g l i c a n i s m were now

b a s i c a l l y P r o t e s t a n t , b u t t h e i r p h r a s i n g a t c r u c i a l c o n ­

t r o v e r s i a l p o i n t s was p u r p o s e l y va g u e so t h a t t h e more

"I J o r d a n , The D e v e l o p m e n t o f R e l i g i o u s T o l e r a t i o n ,I , 8 2 - 8 9 .

2 J . E, N e a l e , E l i z a b e t h _I and Her P a r l i a m e n t s . 1559 1581 (New York ; S t , M a r t i n ' s P r e s s , 1 9 5 B ) , p . 46 p a s s i m .

83

moderate? C a t h o l i c s , who d i d n o t h o l d s t r o n g l y t o p a p a l

o b e d i e n c e , m i g h t a t t e n d t h e n a t i o n a l Ch u r c h w i t h o u t

v i o l a t i n g t h e i r c o n s c i e n c e s , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e

mos t P r o t e s t a n t s , w h e t h e r t h e y we re i n f l u e n c e d by

W i t t e n b e r g o r G e n e v a , c o u l d i n t e r p r e t t h e c r e e d s t o

s u i t t h e i r own c o n v i c t i o n s , " * No s p e c i f i c l e g a l p r o -

v i s i o n s we re made f o r t h e p u n i s h m e n t o f h e r e s y , b u t t h e

r a d i c a l P r o t e s t a n t s e c t s and t h e e x t r e m e C a t h o l i c s who

c o u l d n o t a c c e p t c o m p r o m i s e were e i t h e r p u n i s h e d u n d e r

t r e a s o n a b l e A c t s o r h a r a s s e d by f i n e s . ^

I t s h o u l d h e r e be i n d i c a t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e

A n g l i c a n C h u r c h was now p r e d o m i n a n t l y P r o t e s t a n t i n

n a t u r e , i t was s t i l l c l o s e r t o C a t h o l i c i s m t h a n any o f

t h e r e f o r m e d c h u r c h e s on t h e c o n t i n e n t . A l s o , w i t h t h e

g r o w t h o f C a l v i n i s m , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o w a r d t h e t u r n o f t h e

c e n t u r y , t h e r e was a m o u n t i n g d i s c o n t e n t m e n t w i t h t h e

E l i z a b e t h a n S e t t l e m e n t , T h es e C a l v i n i s t s t h o u g h t t h e

B i b l e was t h e b a s i c a u t h o r i t y r a t h e r t h a n t h e C h u r c h o r

t r a d i t i o n . They r e s e n t e d t h e p r e s c r i b e d c l e r i c a l d r e s s

a s p e r p e t u a t i n g i n t h e p o p u l a r mind t h e t h o u g h t o f t h e

m i n i s t r y a s a s p i r i t u a l e s t a t e o f p e c u l i a r p o w e r s and

1 1 b i d . , pp . 2 0 3 - 0 7 .

2 J o r d a n , The D e v e l o p m e n t o f R e l i o i o u s T o l e r a t i o n ,I , 160.

04

h e n c e , n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r i e s t h o o d o f a l l b e ­

l i e v e r s . They t h o u g h t t h a t k n e e l i n g a t t h e r e c e p t i o n

o f t h e L o r d ' s S u p p e r i m p l i e d a d o r a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l

p r e s e n c e o f C h r i s t i n t h e e l e m e n t s , and t h e u s e o f t h e

s i g n o f t h e c r o s s i n b a p t i s m t h e y r e g a r d e d a s s u p e r ­

s t i t i o u s . B e c a u s e t h e s e men d e s i r e d t o " p u r i f y " t h e

C h u r c h , t h e y came t o be c a l l e d " P u r i t a n s " by t h e e a r l y

1 5 6 0 ' s . 1

As t h e y g a i n e d s t r e n g t h i n P a r l i a m e n t t h e y l e g a l l y

s o u g h t t o c r e a t e a C h r i s t i a n s t a t e m o de l e d a f t e r Geneva

w h e r e t h e c i v i l power was f o r c e d t o r e m a i n s u b o r d i n a t e

t o t h e r e l i g i o u s power w i e l d e d by t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n

C h u r c h . They a l s o w a n t e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o i n t e r f e r e i n

t h e p r i v a t e l i v e s o f t h e p e o p l e t o i n s u r e g o d l y b e ­

h a v i o r . I n E n g l a n d t h e c rown s t o o d s q u a r e l y i n t h e i r

p a t h . The m on a r c h was g o v e r n o r o f t h e C h u r c h . She had

i n h e r h a n d s t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e h i g h e r c l e r g y , and

t h r o u g h a s p e c i a l c o m m i s s i o n s e t up f o r t h e e n f o r c i n g

o f Ch u r c h d i s c i p l i n e , t hB C o u r t o f High C o m m i s s i o n , s h e

was a b l e t o make c e r t a i n t h a t b i s h o p s a n d p r i e s t s

a d h e r e d t o t h e A n g l i c a n f o r m s and d i d no p r o s e l y t i z i n g

1|tf. H. Frere , The Engl i sh Church in the Reions o f E l i z a b e t h and James _I, Vol. V of A His tory of the E n g l i s h Church, ed. by W. R, W. Stephens , and Will iam Hurvt ( B v o l s . ; London: Macmillan and Company, L t d . ,1 9 0 4 ) , pp . 1 1 0 - 1 4 .

85

f o r P r e s b y t e r . i a n - C a l v i n i s m , She c o n t i n u e d t o r e f u s e

P a r l i a m e n t t h e p e r m i s s i o n t o d i s c u s s C h u r c h m a t t e r s ,

b u t when on one o r two o c c a s i o n s t h e y b r a v e d h e r d i s ­

p l e a s u r e , she a l w a y s h a d t h e l a s t w o r d - - t h e r o y a l v e t o

o f any m e a s u r e t h e y m i g h t pass , ' *

T h e r e f o r e , some o f t h e moro r a d i c a l l y m inded

P u r i t a n s r e j e c t e d t h e i d e a o f s e c u r i n g a t r u e P r o t e s t a n t

r e f o r m a t i o n f rom w i t h i n t h e C h u r c h a nd b e g a n g a t h e r i n g

t h e i r own i n d e p e n d e n t c o n g r e g a t i o n s . As S e p a r a t i s t s

t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d v a r i o u s t h e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s . C e r ­

t a i n l y t h e e a r l i e s t S e p a r a t i s t s were b a s i c a l l y C a l ­

v i n i s t s , b u t r e s e a r c h a l s o r e v e a l s t h a t many b e l i e f s i n

a more m y s t i c a l r e l i g i o n o f t h e s p i r i t we re a l s o b e ­

g i n n i n g t o i n f l u e n c e i n c r e a s i n g numb er s o f E n g l i s h l a y ­

men and p r e a c h e r s , ^

M o un t i n g P u r i t a n D i s c o n t e n t

M o n a r c h a l An tagon i sm

He n ce , uthBn J a m es I became King ( 1 6 0 3 ) , he e n ­

c o u n t e r e d a much more a g g r e s s i v e C a l v i n i s m and r e f o r m

1 I b i d . , pp . 2 7 6 - 7 7 . See a l s o J o r d a n , The D e v e l o p ­m en t o f R e l i g i o u s T o l e r a t i o n , I , 2 3 3 - 3 4 ,

2 W i l l i a m H a l l e r , The R i s e o f P u r i t a n i s m (New York* H a r p e r & Row, 1 9 3 8 ) , pp , 1 7 1 - 2 2 5 . See a l s o R uf us M. J o n e s , S t u d i e s i n M y s t i c a l R e l i g i o n (L on do n : Macm i l l anan d C o . , L i m i t e d , 1 9 0 9 ) , p p , 3 9 6 - 4 0 7 ,

8 6

movement t h a n a ny o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s had c o n f r o n t e d ,

James was a s t r o n g a d v o c a t e o f t h e " D i v i n e R i g h t o f

K i n g s , " He had no i n t e n t i o n o f a g r e e i n g w i t h P u r i t a n

p e t i t i o n s f o r r e f o r m arid t h e r e b y s a c r i f i c e some o f h i s

own a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e s t a t e c h u r c h , "1 On t h e one h a n d ,

James a b o l i s h e d t h e f i n e s w h i ch had b e en l e v i e d a g a i n s t

t h o s e who d i d n o t a t t e n d A n g l i c a n C h u r c h s e r v i c e s . T h i s

was a move d e s i g n e d t o r e l i e v e t h e C a t h o l i c s e s p e c i a l l y ,

b u t i t a l s o a f f e c t e d some o f t h e r a d i c a l P u r i t a n s ,

Howeve r , so many a b s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s t h a t J ames became

a l a r m B d and had t o r e - i n s t i t u t e t h e f i n e s . On t h e

o t h e r h a n d , i n 1 6 1 8 , James i s s u e d h i s f am ou s Book o f

S p o r t s w h i c h commended games and d a n c e s on S u n d a y , a

p r a c t i c e d i r e c t l y c o u n t e r t o P u r i t a n m o r a l i t y . ^ F u r t h e r ,

he s o u g h t t o r e s t r i c t t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h e P u r i t a n

c l e r g y and i s s u e d a p r o c l a m a t i o n a g a i n s t u n l i c e n s e d

p r e a c h i n g w h i c h had become p o p u l a r among t h e P u r i t a n s

^G. P, V. A k r i g g , J a c o b e a n P a o e a n t o r t h e C o u r t o f K i n q J ames I ( C a m b r i d g e ! H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 7 7 p p . 3 0 3 - 0 7 .

^ I b i d . , pp , 3 0 7 - 0 8 , See a l s o George M a ca u l a y T r e v e l y a n , E n g l a n d u n d e r t h e S t u a r t s , Vo l . 1/ o f H i s t o r y of E n g l a n d , e d , by S i r C h a r l e s Oman ( 2 1 s t e d . j fl v o l s . t London: Me thuen & Company L t d . , 1 9 4 9 ) ,pp . B6-B7.

^ F r e r e , The E n g l i s h C h u r c h , p , 381 , See a l s o T r e v e l y a n , E n g l a n d u n d e r t h e 5 t u a r t s , pp , 1 4 0 - 4 1 .

87

a s an e f f e c t i v e means f o r p r o p a g a t i n g t h e i r b e l i e f s , ^

By t h e en d o f h i s r e i g n , J a m e s , t h r o u g h i m p r o p r i e t y

and s t u b b o r n n e s s , s u c c e e d e d i n s e r i o u s l y a l i e n a t i n g

t h e P r o t e s t a n t e l e m e n t i n E n g l a n d . .

C h a r l e s I and Laud ism

Uihen C h a r l e s I became K ing ( 1 6 2 5 ) t h e P u r i t a n

r e s i s t a n c e t o " p o p e r y " i n t h e C h u r c h had g a i n e d c o n ­

s i d e r a b l e momentum. C h a r l e s * p o l i c y was even l e s s s u c ­

c e s s f u l t h a n J a m e s ' . He n o t o n l y s u b s c r i b e d t o t h e

" D i v i n e R i g h t " d o c t r i n e , and r e i s s u e d t h e Book o f S p o r t s ,

b u t e v en more s t r o n g l y s o u g h t t o o p p o s e t h e P u r i t a n s by

e n f o r c i n g h i s a n t i - P u r i t a n l aws t h r o u g h t h e u n p o p u l a r

p r e r o g a t i v e c o u r t s , t h e C o u r t o f High Com mis s ion and

t h e S t a r Ch a m b e r , w h i l e l aws a g a i n s t C a t h o l i c s were

s c a r c e l y e n f o r c e d a t a l l , C h a r l e s a l s o f a v o r e d t h e new

A r m i n i a n s c h o o l o f d i v i n i t y and i n p a r t i c u l a r W i l l i a m

L a u d . 2

Laud was a High C h u r c h A n g l i c a n , an A n g l o - C a t h o l i c ,

who i n C a l v i n i s t e y e s c o u l d h a r d l y be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f rom

a Roman C a t h o l i c . Wi th P a r l i a m e n t d i s m i s s e d by C h a r l e s

( 1 6 2 9 - 4 0 ) , Laud was f r e e t o e n f o r c e c o n f o r m i t y t o t h e

V r e r e , The E n g l i s h C h u r c h , p . 3 82 .

2 Thomas B a b i n g t o n M a c a u l a y , H i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d ,I (Neui Yorks E v e r y m a n ' s L i b r a r y , 1 9 0 6 ) , 5G-63 .

B0

s t r i c t e s t f orm o f A n g l i c a n r i t u a l and p r a c t i c e . H i s

p l a n was t o s m o t h e r P u r i t a n i s m by p r e v e n t i n g i t s e v e r y

p o s s i b l e means o f e x p r e s s i o n . He e x p e l l e d f rom t h e

C h u r c h a l l c l e r g y s u s p e c t e d o f P u r i t a n l e a n i n g s ? he

c e n s o r e d t h e p r e s s ; and he u s e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t ’ s

a u t h o r i t y t o s u p p r e s s a l l m e e t i n g s f o r r e l i g i o u s p u r ­

p o s e s o u t s i d e t h e e s t a b l i s h e d C h u r c h . Unde r t h i s s t e a d y

p r e s s u r e , t h e gap b e tw ee n P u r i t a n an d H igh Churchman

w i d e n e d and became a more c o n s c i o u s a n t a g o n i s m . ^

R e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e s and p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i e s became

c u r i o u s l y a l l i e d , a s men o f v a r i e d s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t

s i l e n t l y r a n g e d t h e m s e l v e s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o K i ng and

C h u r c h . ^ P u r i t a n i s m now r e p r e s e n t e d a c o m p l e x o f i d e a s ,

s e n t i m e n t s , and r e s e n t m e n t s , h e l d i n v a r y i n g p r o p o r t i o n .

T h e s e men who r e l u c t a n t l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e p r e s c r i b e d

A n g l i c a n l i t u r g y , b u t i n w a r d l y c o n t r i v e d r e v e n g e a g a i n s t

t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by some o r a l l o f

t h e f o l l o w i n g — by a C a l v i n i s t b e l i e f i n p r e d e s t i n a t i o n ;

a s t r i c t m o r a l i t y t h a t showed i t s B l f i n s t e r n s i m ­

p l i c i t y o f l i f e and d i s a p p r o v a l o f Su n d a y games ; a

g r o w i n g h a t r e d o f r i t u a l i s t i c c h u r c h s e r v i c e s , o f a l l

^ T r e v e l y a n , E n g l a n d u n d e r , t h e S t u a r t s , pp . 1 4 9 - 7 3 . See a l s o H. R. T r e v o r - R o p e r , A r c h b i s h o p Laud ( 2 n d e d . ; Hamden, C o n n . ! Archon B o o k s , 1 9 6 2 ) , pp . 6 8 - 7 1 , 1 0 1 - 0 8 ,

^ M a c a u l a y , H i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d , I , 6 6 - 6 9 ,

89

b i s h o p s and o f L aud ’ s h a n d - p i c k e d c l e r g y ; an d an e q u a l l y

s t r o n g h a t r e d o f r o y a l d e s p o t i s m . A l s o , some we re e x ­

p l o r i n g t h e m y s t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d d i m e n s i o n s o f r e l i g i o u s

e x p e r i e n c e a s t h e y came u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f men l i k e

t h e l e a r n e d A n g l i c a n d i v i n e , John E v e r a r d , and h i s

t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e German R e f o r m a t i o n ' s m y s t i c a l

• 1. • 1w r i t i n g s .

The P u r i t a n R e v o l u t i o n

When i n November , 1 6 4 0 , C h a r l e s was f o r c e d t o

summon what came t o be r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e Long P a r l i a m e n t

i n o r d e r t o r e - e s t a b l i s h t h e r o y a l f i n a n c e s , i t p r o v e d

t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e m i l i t a n t P u r i t a n s t o o r g a n i z e

t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e K ing and h i s a r c h b i s h o p . Thus

b e g a n a p e r i o d ( 1 6 4 2 - 6 0 ) o f C i v i l War , Commonwea l th ,

and u l t i m a t e l y P r o t e c t o r a t e u n d e r D l i v e r C ro m w e l l ,

Laud was s e n t t o t h e T ow er , l a t e r t o be e x e c u t e d , t h e

p r e r o g a t i v e c o u r t s a b o l i s h e d , and a l i m i t e d m on a r c h y

i n s t i t u t e d . The P u r i t a n m a j o r i t y t h e n i n s t i g a t e d a

’’r o o t an d b r a n c h " a t t a c k on t h e e p i s c o p a l s y s t e m and

c l a i m e d an e x e c u t i v e a u t h o r i t y f o r i t s e l f t h a t made

P a r l i a m e n t a b s o l u t e . 2 D i v i s i o n s c o n s e q u e n t l y b e g a n t o

^ H a l l e r , The R i s e o f P u r i t a n i s m , pp . 2 0 6 - 0 8 .

^ T r e v e l y a n , E n g l a n d u n d e r t hB S t u a r t s , pp . 1 8 7 - 9 7 ,206.

90

a p p e a r i n t h e r a n k s oF Commons. Those w i l l i n g t o j o i n ,

t h o P u r i t a n s i n c h e c k i n g r o y a l a b s o l u t i s m d i d n o t want

t o t r a n s f e r i t t o P a r l i a m e n t . Those a n x i o u s t o c h e c k

t h e power oF L a u d ' s High Ch u r c h b i s h o p s b e c a u s e o f

t h e i r s u s p e c t e d C a t h o l i c t e n d e n c i e s , r e s i s t e d t h e

P u r i t a n a t t e m p t s t o e l i m i n a t e c o m p l e t e l y t h e P r a y e r

Book. P u r i t a n and P a r l i a m e n t a r i a n now waged a c i v i l

war a g a i n s t A n g l i c a n and R o y a l i s t ( 1 6 4 2 - 4 6 ) . ^ The

P u r i t a n s , t h r o u g h t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f O l i v e r C r o m w e l l ,

h i s New Model Army, and a C o v e n a n t w i t h t h e S c o t s ,

e v e n t u a l l y f o r c e d C h a r l e s t o s u r r e n d e r i n 1 64 6 . Howeve r ,

a s t h e p r i c e o f t h e S c o t t i s h A l l i a n c e , P a r l i a m e n t a g r e e d

t o make P r e s b y t e r i a n i s m t h e s t a t e r e l i g i o n o f E n g l a n d .

I t was a com pr om ise t h a t s a t i s f i e d many P u r i t a n s , t h o u g h

f ew tuere r e a l l y P r e s b y t e r i a n i n t h e S c o t t i s h s e n s e .

P r e s b y t e r i a n i s m

Once i n t h e s e a t o f a u t h o r i t y t h e s e P r e s b y t e r i a n s

demanded u n i f o r m i t y o f w o r s h i p . They ho ped t o e s t a b l i s h

i n E n g l a n d a t h e o c r a c y m o d e l e d a f t e r t h e Old T e s t a m e n t

an d Geneva . The o f f i c i a l s t a t e r e l i g i o n w h i ch e m er ged

was d e t e r m i n i s t i c , l e g a l i s t i c , a n d a n t a g o n i s t i c t o thB

m y s t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o God. In g e n e r a l t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n s

^ I b i d . , pp , 2 0 8 - 1 4 . See a l s o M a c a u l a y , H i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d I , 7 4 - 8 5 ,

e m b r a c e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e o l o g i c a l a n d e c c l e s i a s t i c a l

s t a n c e . F i r s t , t h e Old and New T e s t a m e n t S c r i p t u r e s

were h e l d t o be t h e Ulord o f God and a s s u c h t h e o n l y

r u l e o f f a i t h and o b e d i e n c e . S e c o n d , t h e man who ha d

n e v e r h e a r d [ o r read"] t h e g o s p e l c o u l d n o t b e l i e v e i n

C h r i s t , n o r c o u l d he e v e r be s a v e d r e g a r d l e s s o f how

d i l i g e n t he m i g h t be i n o r d e r i n g h i s l i f e a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e l i g h t o f n a t u r e . N e x t , God showed a s p e c i a l l o v e

t o H i s £ l e c t who t h o u g h u n d e s e r v i n g i n t h e m s e l v e s had

t h e i r w i l l s " p o w e r f u l l y d e t e r m i n e d " so t h a t t h e y would

f r e e l y a c c e p t G o d ' s g r a c e . A l l o t h e r men, t h o u g h t h e y

m i g h t - b e c a l l e d t o r e p e n t a n c e by t h e m i n i s t r y o f t h e

Word we re i n e f f e c t u n a b l e t o r e s p o n d t o G o d ' s g r a c e

a n d , h e n c e , c o u l d n e v e r t r u l y become C h r i s t i a n s e ve n

t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t become members o f t h e v i s i b l e C h u r c h .

F o u r t h , w h i l e o n l y s e l e c t p e o p l e c o u l d r e a d t h e B i b l e

p u b l i c l y t o a c o n g r e g a t i o n , y e t B vo r yo ne was r e q u i r e d t o

r e a d i t w i t h r e v e r e n t e s t e e m i n t h e p r i v a c y o f h i s own

home. F i n a l l y , t h e Word o f God was t o be p r e a c h e d o n l y

by t h o s e s u f f i c i e n t l y g i f t e d , a p p r o v e d , and c a l l e d t o

t h a t o f f i c e . 1 T h i s l a s t p o i n t s h o u l d ha ve f u r t h e r

1 The L a r o e r C a t e c h i s m Agreed Upon by t h e Assemb ly o f D i v i n e s a t W e s t m i n s t e r , 1648 ( G l a s g o w ; P r i n t e d by John B r y c e , 1 7 6 2 ) , a n s w e r s t o q u e s t i o n s 4 ; 60} 67 -6 8} 1 5 6 - 5 7 j 158 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

t

a m p l i f i c a t i o n . No man mas a l l o w e d t o p r e a c h t h e g o s p e l

u n t i l he had b e en o r d a i n e d by an a c t o f t h e p r e s b y t e r y ,

t h e s p i r i t u a l o v e r s e e r s o f c h u r c h a f f a i r s . No s i n g l e

c o n g r e g a t i o n mas p e r m i t t e d t o u s u r p t h e p r e s b y t e r s '

po we r s o f o r d i n a t i o n by o r d a i n i n g i t s own m i n i s t e r .

A l l c a n d i d a t e s f o r o r d i n a t i o n were e x p e c t e d t o demon­

s t r a t e t h e i r q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e m i n i s t r y by r e a d i n g

f rom t h e Hebrew and Greek T e s t a m e n t s and t r a n s l a t i n g

some p o r t i o n o f them i n t o L a t i n . They were a l s o e xa m in e d

i n t h e o l o q y , l o g i c , a nd p h i l o s o p h y . L a s t l y , t h e c a n d i ­

d a t e s were e x p e c t e d t o d e l i v e r an o r a l e x p o s i t i o n o f an

a s s i g n e d p a s s a g e o f S c r i p t u r e i n a d d i t i o n t o c o m p o s i n g

a d i s c o u r s e i n L a t i n upon an a s s i g n e d commonp lace o r

c o n t r o v e r s y i n r e l i g i o n an d be a b l e t o w i t h s t a n d a

d i a l e c t i c a l i n q u i r y o f t h e i r t h e s e s . 1

He n ce , i t may be o b s e r v e d t h a t w h i l e P r e s b y ­

t e r i a n i s m d i s p o s e d o f A n g l i c a n i s m w i t h i t s e p i s c o p a c y ,

i t d i d n o t e l i m i n a t e an h i e r a r c h i c a l s y s t e m o f c h u r c h

g o v e r n m e n t n o r d i d i t a l l o w l i b e r t y and f r e e d o m o f

w o r s h i p a t t h e e x p e n s e o f f o r c e d u n i f o r m i t y . T y p i c a l

o f t h e r e p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s t a k e n by P a r l i a m e n t a g a i n s t

^ "Th e W e s t m i n s t e r Form o f Ch u r c h Gove rnmen t " i n The W e s t m i n s t e r D i r e c t o r y , e d , by Thomas Le i shman (Londons W i l l i a m B lackwood and S o n s , 1 9 0 1 ) , pp . 1 9 2 - 2 0 5 ,

93

t h e f e r m e n t i n g s e c t a r i a n s p i r i t was t h e B l a s phe my Act

o f 1648 , The o r d i n a n c e d i v i d e d h e r e s i e s i n t o two

c a t e g o r i e s . Those i n t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y were c o n s i d e r e d

m os t s e r i o u s . B e l i e f s l a b e l l e d a s m a j o r h e r e s i e s i n ­

c l u d e d a n t i t r i n i t a r i a n i s m , e r r o n e o u s t e a c h i n g s a b o u t t h e

e x i s t e n c e and n a t u r e o f God and C h r i s t , d i s b e l i e f i n

t h e p h y s i c a l r e s u r r e c t i o n o f C h r i s t , m i s c o n c e p t i o n s

a b o u t t h e f i n a l j u d g m e n t , and d e n i a l o f t h e B i b l e a s

t h e Word o f God. P e r s o n s a d v o c a t i n g s u c h h e r e s i e s c o u l d

be i n d i c t e d upon t h e o a t h o f two w i t n e s s e s b e f o r e two

j u s t i c e s . I f c o n v i c t e d , t h e o f f e n d e r was g i v e n two

c h o i c e s : r e c a n t a t i o n o r d e a t h . L e s s e r h e r e s i e s wore

t e a c h i n g t h a t a l l men s h a l l be s a v e d , t h a t man h a s a

f r e e w i l l , t h a t t h e r e i s a p u r g a t o r y , t h a t t h e s p i r i t

i s s u p e r i o r t o t h e Word, t h a t a man n e e d b e l i e v e o n l y

t h a t w h i c h i s r e a s o n a b l e , t h a t t h e s a c r a m e n t s a r e n o t

B i b l i c a l , t h a t i n f a n t b a p t i s m i s u n s c r i p t u r a l a n d u s e ­

l e s s , t h a t t h e c h u r c h e s o f E n g l a n d a r e n o t t r u e c h u r c h e s ,

t h a t t h e i r m i n i s t e r s a r e n o t t r u e m i n i s t e r s , o r t h a t

P r e s b y t e r i a n i s m i s a n t i c h r i s t i a n . A g a i n , two w i t n e s s e s

c o u l d i n d i c t a man. B u t , c o n v i c t i o n a nd r e f u s a l t o

r e c a n t i n t h i s c a s e mea n t i m p r i s o n m e n t u n t i l s u c h a t i m e

a s t h e h e r e t i c had a c h a n g e o f h e a r t . However , i t

s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t i n b o t h t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s t h e law

94

a p p l i e d n o t t o t h o s e h o l d i n g s u c h b e l i e f s i n p r i v a t e

c o n s c i e n c e b u t o n l y t o t h o s e p e o p l e who s o u g h t t o a d ­

v a n c e t h e i r d o c t r i n e by " p r e a c h i n g , t e a c h i n g , p r i n t i n g ,

o r w r i t i n g , " ^

C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t was n o t l o n g b e f o r e d i s s a t i s f i e d

r e l i g i o u s z e a l o t s s u c h a s t h o s e who composed t h e New

Model Army were s e n s i n g a l o n g w i t h M i l t o n t h a t "New

P r e s b y t e r i s b u t Old P r i e s t w r i t L a r g e , T h i s m i l i t a r y

o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d be en r e c r u i t e d f rom among t h e m o s t e x ­

t r e m e P r o t e s t a n t s , men whose i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c l o v e o f

r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m made t hem o p p o s e any s t a t e - c o n t r o l l e d

C h u r c h , They were I n d e p e n d e n t s , d i f f e r i n g among t h e m ­

s e l v e s i n t h e o l o g i c a l v i e w s , b u t u n i t e d i n t h e c o n ­

v i c t i o n t h a t e a c h c o n g r e g a t i o n mus t be f r e e t o d e t e r m i n e

i t s own r e l i g i o n , ^

Now, t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n P a r l i a m e n t , f l u s h e d w i t h a

s e n s e o f v i c t o r y , made two s e r i o u s m i s t a k e s . I t p e r s e ­

c u t e d A n g l i c a n s , on t h e one h a n d , t h u s e m b i t t e r i n g t h e

d e f e a t e d R o y a l i s t s , On t h e o t h e r h a n d , f o r g e t t i n g who

had won t h e w a r , i t a l s o p a s s e d p e r s e c u t i n g a c t s a g a i n s t

^ J o r d a n , The D e v e l o p m e n t o f R e l i q i o u s T o l e r a t i o n ,I I I , 1 1 2 - 1 4 .

^ L a s t l i n e o f t h e s o n n e t jln t h e New F o r c e r s o f C o n s c i e n c e u n d e r t h e Long P a r l i a m e n t .

^M ac ' a u l ay , H i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d , I , 9 0 - 9 4 ,

95

t h e I n d e p e n d e n t s and p r o p o s e d t o d i s b a n d t h e Neui Model

Army w i t h o u t i t s h a c k p a y . The r e s u l t was a s e c o n d

b r i e f c i v i l w a r , w i t h R o y a l i s t s , P a r l i a m e n t a r y P r e s b y ­

t e r i a n s , and S c o t s i n a c u r i o u s a l l i a n c e a g a i n s t t h e

I n d e p e n d e n t s , The l a t t e r , l e d by C r o m w e l l , we re a g a i n

v i c t o r i o u s , And n o t t o be c h e a t e d o f t h e f r u i t s o f

v i c t o r y , t h e a rmy c h i e f s now t o o k c o n t r o l . In D e cem b er ,

1 6 4 8 , t h e y f o r c i b l y p u r g e d P a r l i a m e n t o f i t s P r e s b y ­

t e r i a n member s , l e a v i n g o n l y a s m a l l m i n o r i t y (Rump

P a r l i a m e n t ) who c o u l d be t r u s t e d t o do wha t t h e army

w i s h e d . ^

I n d e p e n d e n c y o r C o n g r e g a t i o n a l i s m

Thus I n d e p e n d e n c y o r C o n g r e g a t i o n a l i s m became t h e

r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m o f n a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e . T hes e men

m a i n t a i n e d t h a t e a c h c o n g r e g a t i o n s h o u l d have maximum

f r e e d o m f rom a l l s t a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e and minimum e x t e r n a l

e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o n t r o l . Wh i l e t h e g e n e s i s o f t h e i n ­

d e p e n d e n t s p i r i t i n E n g l a n d c an be t r a c e d b a c k t o t h e

l a t e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n t h e B r o w n i s t , B a r r o w i s t ,

R o b i n s o n i a n , an d J a c o b i a n m o v e m e n t s , ^ t h e n a t u r e o f

^ T r e v e l y a n , E n g l a n d u n d e r t h e S t u a r t s , pp . 2 4 4 - 7 B ,

^ G e o f f r e y F . N u t t a l l , V i s i b l e S a i n t s : The Con-q r e g a t i o n a l Way, 1 6 4 0 - 1 6 6 0 ( O x f o r d s B a s i l B l a c k w e l l , 1 9 5 7 ) , pp 7 3 - 9 .

96

I n d e p e n d e n c y d u r i n g t h e I n t e r r e g n u m i s m o s t c l e a r l y e x ­

p r e s s e d i.n _A P e c . l a r a t i o n o f t h e F a i t h and O r d e r Owned

a n d P r a c t i c e d i n t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n a l C h u r c h e s i n E n g l a n d

( 1 6 5 8 ) , and a p p e n d e d t o i t , The I n s t i t u t i o n o f C h u r c h e s

a n d thB O r d e r A p p o i n t e d i n Them by J e s u s C h r i s t . ** The

C o n g r e g a t i o n a l i s t s we re q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e P r e s b y ­

t e r i a n s d o c t r i n a l l y , b u t t h e y t e n d e d t o w a r d more i n ­

d i v i d u a l i s t i c c o n c e p t s i n t h e i r a t t i t u d e s c o n c e r n i n g

c h u r c h p o l i t y a n d m i n i s t e r i a l a p p o i n t m e n t s . As Con­

g r e g a t i o n a l i s t s d r i f t e d away f rom t h e A n g l i c a n s a c e r d o t a l

s y s t e m and t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n o r d e r , t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s

f o r t h e m i n i s t r y we re d e f i n e d i n more c h a r i s m a t i c t e r m s .

P a s t o r s were e x p e c t e d t o be c h o s e n an d g i f t e d f o r t h e

work o f t h e m i n i s t r y by t h e Ho ly 5 p i r i t , Howeve r ,

w h i l e t h i s s p i r i t u a l o r d i n a t i o n was n e c e s s a r y , i t was

n o t deemed s u f f i c i e n t t o s a n c t i o n a man a s an o f f i c i a l

m i n i s t e r . The c o n g r e g a t i o n ha d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o

e x e r c i s e a c h a r i s m a t i c d i s c e r n m e n t i n e l e c t i n g o r c a l l i n g

a P a s t o r . T h i s d o u b l e c a l l i n g , d i v i n e and c o n g r e g a ­

t i o n a l , i s w e l l e x p r e s s e d by W i l l i a m B a r t l e t .

Now t h i s c a l l i n t h e s e d a y s i s n o t o n l y i n t e r n a lf rom God, i n q u a l i f y i n g a man, and m a k i n g him

^ I n W i l l i s t o n W a l k e r , c o m p . , The C r e e d s and P l a t f o r m s o f C o n o r e o a t i o n a l i s m (New York : C h a r l e sS c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s , 1 8 9 3 ) , pp . 3 5 4 - 4 0 8 ,

97

w i l l i n g t o t h o wo r k , b u t e x t e r n a 1 , f rom t h o s e he i s t o t a k e t h e c h a r g e o f , whose p r e r o g a t i v e i t i s , t h e y ha v e r e c e i v e d f rom C h r i s t t o c h o o s e t h e i r own o f f i c e r s , . . , Now t h o f . i r s t o f t h e s e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t w i t h o u t t h e l a s t , and Cod h a t h so j o i n e d them t o g e t h e r , t h a t i t we re no l e s s t h a n h i g h p r e s u m p t i o n i n any t o s e p a r a t e t h e m . ^

A l l t h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f

p r e a c h i n g t h e g o s p e l s h o u l d be d e n i e d t o l a y m en . The

C o n g r e g a t i o n a l p l a t f o r m on p o l i t y e x p r e s s l y s t a t e d t h a t

a l t h o u g h i t be i n c u m b e n t on t h e P a s t o r s a n d T e a c h e r s o f t h e C h u r c h e s t o be i n s t a n t i n P r e a c h i n g t h e Word, by way o f O f f i c e s y e t t h e work o f P r e a c h i n g t h o Word i s n o t so p e c u ­l i a r l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e m , b u t t h a t o t h e r s a l s o g i f t e d and f i t t e d by t h o h o l y G h o s t f o r i t , and a p p r o v e d . . . may p u b l i c l y , o r d i n a r i l y a n d c o n s t a n t l y p e r f o r m i t ; s o t h a t t h e y g i v e t h e m s e l v e s up t h e r e u n t o . 2

H e r e i n i s an i m p o r t a n t d i v e r g e n c e f r o m t h e A n g l i c a n and

P r e s b y t e r i a n m a n n e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m

w h i c h was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i n t h e r i s e and

d e v e l o p m e n t o f n u m e r o u s o t h e r S e p a r a t i s t g r o u p s , I n d e e d ,

t h e u n o r t h o d o x s e c t s w h i c h had b e en h a r a s s e d , r e p r e s s e d ,

a n d p e r s e c u t e d by t h e L a u d i a n and P r e s b y t e r i a n r e g i m e s ,

now, d u r i n g t h e C r o m w e l l i a n e r a s p r e a d l i k e w i l d f i r e ,

1 W [ i l l i a m ! B a r t l e t , A Model o f t h e P r i m i t i v e C o n o r s n a t i o n a l Way ( L o n d o n : P r i n t e d by 111. E. f o r H.O v e r t o n , 1647)", p . 1 2 1 ,

2” The I n s t i t u t i o n o f Churches a n d the O r d e r A p p o i n t e d i n Them by J e s u s C h r i s t 1' i n The C r e e d s a n d P l a t f o r m s o f C o n g r e g a t i o n a l i s m , comp, by W i l l i s t o n W a l k e r , p , 405 ,

The B a p t i s t s

Numbered amono t h e more c o n s e r v a t i v e S e p a r a t i s t s

were t h e P a r t i c u l a r and G e n e r a l B a p t i s t s . The P a r t i c u l a r

B a p t i s t s came i n t o b e i n g d u r i n g t h e 1 6 3 B ' s when a g r o u p

oT mon s e c e d e d f rom an I n d e p e n d e n t c h u r c h o v e r t h e i s s u e

o f b e l i e v e r ' s b a p t i s m , By 1644 a g r o u p o f t h e s e c h u r c h e s

i n London p u b l i s h e d a c o n f e s s i o n o f t h e i r f a i t h i n o r d e r

t h a t t h e y m ig h t be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f rom t h e numero us s e c t s

w h i ch we re s p r i n g i n g up i n E n g l i s h s o i l . ^ C o n c e r n i n g

w a t e r b a p t i s m t h e y w r o t e t h a t i t

, . . i s an O r d i n a n c e o f t h e new T e s t a m e n t ,g i v e n by C h r i s t , t o be d i s p e n s e d ( a ) o n l y upon p e r s o n s p r o f o s s i n o f a i t h o r t h a t a r e D i s c i p l e s , o r t a u g h t , uiho upon a p r o f e s s i o n o f f a i t h , o u g h t t o be b a p t i z e d ( b ) t h e way and manne r o f t h e d i s p e n s i n g o f t h i s O r d i n a n c e ( c ) t h e S c r i p t u r e h o l d s o u t t o be d i p p i n g o r p l u n g i n g t h e who le body u n d e r w a t e r . , . . 2

Howeve r , t h e y s t i l l r e t a i n e d t h e C a l v i n i s t i c t h e o l o g y , -

and t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n a l f o rm o f c h u r c h g o v e r n m e n t .

The G e n e r a l B a p t i s t s we re more u n o r t h o d o x b e c a u s e

t h e y a d v o c a t e d an A r m i n i a n t h B o l o g y j t h a t i s , t h e y em­

p h a s i z e d t h e g u i l t l e s s n e s s o f i n f a n t s , t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y

o f t h e a t o n e m e n t , an d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s a l v a t i o n f o r

a l l men i n g e n e r a l . In a d d i t i o n , t h e y a l s o r e j e c t e d

J . f f l c C l a t h l i n , c o m p . , B a p t i s t C o n f e s s i o n s o f f a i t h ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : Amer i can B a p t i s t P u b l i c a t i o nS o c i e t y , 1 9 1 1 ) , pp . 1 6 0 - 6 9 ,

2"A C o n f e s s i o n o f F a i t h o f Seven C o n g r e g a t i o n s . . , i n London , 1644" i n I b i d . , p . 185 ,

i n f a n t b a p t i s m by i m m e r s i o n . The f i r s t G e n e r a l B a p t i s t

C h u r c h on E n g l i s h s o i l was f o u n d e d i n 1612 by Thomas

H o l w y s , who was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s p i r e d by h i s t e a c h e r

Jo h n Smyth, Smyth was a C am br id ge g r a d u a t e who had

e m i g r a t e d t o H o l l a n d i n 1 GOB in o r d e r t o a v o i d p e r s e ­

c u t i o n f o r h i s o a r l y s e p a r a t i s t v i e w s . Some o f S m y t h ' s

e a r l y t e a c h i n g s i n c l u d e d a m i n i m i z a t i o n o f t h e u s e o f

S c r i p t u r e i n t h e w o r s h i p s e r v i c e s o f t h o s e c h u r c h e s

e n d e a v o r i n g t o r e v i v e p r i m i t i v e C h r i s t i a n i t y , s i n c e he

r e a s o n e d , t h e e a r l y C h u r c h d i d n o t have t hem and r e a d i n g

t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s m ig h t q u e n c h t h e s p o n t a n e i t y

o f t h e S p i r i t . He a l s o o b j e c t e d t o t h e r e a d i n g o f

s e r m o n s , t h e s i n g i n g o f p s a l m s f rom a b o o k , and t h e

a l l o w a n c e o f n o n - C h r i s t i a n s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o thB m a i n ­

t e n a n c e o f t h e c h u r c h , ' ' The a c t u a l b e l i e f s o f t h e

G e n e r a l B a p t i s t s a r e s e t f o r t h i n t h e i r " B r i e f Con­

f e s s i o n o f F a i t h , 1 6 6 0 , " Wi th r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e o f

t h e m i n i s t r y among t h e m , t h e f o l l o w i n g a r t i c l e s a r e t h e

m o s t i l l u m i n a t i n g . C o n c e r n i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n and

t r a i n i n g f o r t h e m i n i s t r y t h e y s a i d t

T h a t s u c h who f i r s t o r d e r l y comes i n t o , and a r e b r o u g h t up i n t h e S c h o o l o f C h r i s t ' s C h u r c h , a nd w a i t i n g t h e r e , comes t o d e g r e e s o f

l A [ l f r e d j C [ l a i r 1 Unde rwood , H i s t o r y o f t h e E n g l i s h B a p t i s t s ( L o n d o m The B a p t i s t Un ion P u b l i c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t , K i n g s g a t e P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 ) , pp . 3 3 - 3 6 , 46 ,

100

C h r i s t i a n i t y , r i q h t l y q u a l i f i e d and c o n s i d e r a b l y g i f t e d by G o d ' s S p i r i t ; o u g h t t o e x e r c i s e t h e i r c i i f t s n o t o n l y i n t h e C h u r c h , b u t a l s o ( a s o c c a s i o n s e r v e s ) t o p r e a c h t o t h e Wor ld ( t h e y b e i n g a p p r o v e d o f by t h e C h u r c h so t o do), . . and t h a t among s u c h some a r e t o be c h o s e n by t h e C h u r c h , an d o r d a i n e d by F a s t i n g , P r a y e r , and L a y i n g on o f H a n d s , f o r t h e work o f t h e M i n i s t r y , , . . Such 30 o r d a i n e d , ( a n d a b i d i n g f a i t h f u l i n t h e i r work ) we own a s M i n i s t e r s o f t h e G o s p e l ; b u t a l l s u c h who come n o t f i r s t t o r e p e n t o f t h e i r s i n s , b e ] i a v e on t h e Lord J e s u s , and s o B a p t i z e d i n h i s name f o r t h e r e ­m i s s i o n o f S i n s , b u t a r e o n l y b r o u g h t up i n t h e S c h o o l s o f humane l e a r n i n g , t o t h e a t t a i n ­i n g humane a r t s , and v a r i e t y o f l a n g u a g e s , w i t h many v a i n c u r i o s i t i e s o f s p e e c h , . , . s e e k i n g r a t h e r t h e o a i n o f l a r g e r e v e n u e s , t h a n t h e g a i n o f s o u l s t o God; s u c h (we s a y ) we u t t e r l y d e n y , b e i n g s u c h a s have n e e d r a t h e r t o be t a u g h t t h e m s e l v e s , t h a n f i t t o t e a c h o t h e r s , . .

As a r e s u l t o f t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e y were f r e q u e n t l y a t t a c k e d

f o r e n c o u r a g i n g i l l i t e r a t e p r e a c h e r s t o e n t e r t h e min ­

i s t r y . The c h a r g e ha d t r u t h i n i t f o r nu m b er e d among

t h e i r p r e a c h e r s we re t r a d e s m e n , s u c h a s t a i l o r s , b r e w e r s ,

and w e a v e r s b u t a s R u fu s J o n e s s a y s , " I t was v a s t l y t o

t h e c r e d i t o f t h e s e p r i m i t i v e B a p t i s t s t h a t t h e y r e ­

d i s c o v e r e d how t o b r i n g t h e g i f t s o f l aymen and un ­

s c h o o l e d members i n t o p l a y f o r s p i r i t u a l e n d s . " ^ The

G e n e r a l B a p t i s t s b e l i e v e d t h a t m i n i s t e r s who h a d f r e e l y

1"A B r i e f C o n f e s s i o n o r D e c l a r a t i o n o f F a i t h , 166D" i n B a p t i s t C o n f e s s i o n s o f F a i t h , comp, by W. J , M c G l o t h l i n , A r t i c l e 5 , p . 1 1 3 .

^ R u f u s M. J o n e s , S t u d i e s i n M y s t i c a l R e l i o i o n , p , 4 1 8 . The P a r t i c u l a r B a p t i s t s a l s o a p p e a r t o have g i v e n g r e a t l i b e r t y t o t h e i r l a y members i n p r e a c h i n g .

r e c e i v e d t h e i r s p i r i t u a l g i f t s o u g h t t o s h a r e them

f r e e l y w i t h o t h e r s an d d e p e n d o n l y upon v o l u n t a r y c o n ­

t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e i r l i v i n g r a t h e r t h a n " t i t h e s o r any

f o r c e d Ma i n t e n a n c e . F i n a l l y , W h i t l e y , i n h i s i n t r o ­

d u c t i o n t o thB M i n u t e s o f t h o G e n e r a l B a p t i s t C h u r c h e s

i n E n g l a n d . i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were tuio p r a c t i c e s

among t h e s e s e p a r a t i s t B a p t i s t s w h i ch more c l o s e l y r e ­

s e m b l e d E p i s c o p a l r a t h e r t h a n C o n g r e g a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s .

F i r s t , t h e y b e l i e v e d i n a m i n i s t r y o f M e s s e n g e r s o r

A p o s t l B S w h i c h w h i l e c o n s i d e r e d i n f e r i o r t o t h e f i r s t

A p o s t l e s we re s u p e r i o r t o t h e o r d i n a r y p r e a c h e r o f t h e

g o s p e l . They had t h e a u t h o r i t y t o p r e a c h t o a l l p e o p l e ,

a t a l l t i m e s , and i n a l l p l a c e s a s t h e y w e re a f f o r d e d

t h e o p p o r t u n i t y . B u t , m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e y had a

s p e c i a l power o f j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h o s e c h u r c h e s wh ic h

t h e y h e l p e d t o f o u n d . L a s t l y , and t o some e x t e n t

p o s s i b l y g r o w i n g o u t o f t h e f o r m e r p o i n t , t h e v a r i o u s

G e n e r a l B a p t i s t c o n g r e g a t i o n s s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t E n g l a n d

we re n o t c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f e a c h o t h e r . They

we r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y l i n k e d t o g e t h e r i n t o l o c a l

1"A B r i e f C o n f e s s i o n o r D e c l a r a t i o n o f F a i t h ,1 660' ' i n B a p t i s t C o n f e s s i o n s o f F a i t h , comp, by W. J . M c G l o t h l i n , A r t i c l e 1 6 , p . 1 17 .

102

A s s o c i a t i o n s and e v e n i n t o on s G e n e r a l Assemb ly f o r

t h e e n t i r e k i n g d o m . 1

R a d i c a l S e c t s

The M u g n l c t o n i a n s Among t h e more r a d i c a l s e c t s wh i ch

t h r i v e d i n E n g l a n d d u r i n g t h e I n t e r r e g n u m were t h e

M u g g l e t o n i a n s , t h e F i f t h Monarchy Men, t h e F a m i l i s t s ,

a n d t h e R a n t e r s , Tho M u g g l e t o n i a n s t o o k t h e i r name

f ro m Lodowick M u g g l e to n who t o g e t h e r w i t h Jo hn Reeve

f o u n d e d t h e s e c t , In 1652 Reeve e x p e r i e n c e d a r e v e l a ­

t i o n by w h i ch he was a p p o i n t e d t h e m e s s e n g e r o f a new

d i s p e n s a t i o n , an d M u g g l e to n was t o be h i s m o u t h p i e c e .

In h i s r o l e a s p r o p h e t , Mu g g l e to n c l a i m e d t h a t no man

c o u l d g a i n f a v o r w i t h God u n l e s s he b e l i e v e d i n him and

R e e v e , He a l s o t h o u g h t t h a t he p e r s o n a l l y h a d t h e power

t o r e m i t and r e t a i n t h e s i n s o f m a n k i n d and any man

o n c e condemned by M u g g l e t o n c o u l d n e v e r be f o r g i v e n e ve n

by God H i m s e l f , F i n a l l y , M u gg l e to n t h o u g h t i t u n l a w f u l

t o b e a r a rms o r t o t a k e an oath.2 The h i s t o r i a n M a ca u l ay

t h o u g h t o f M u g g l e t o n a s a "mad t a i l o r , [ w h a l w a n d e r e d

1W, T. W h i t l e y , e d . , M i n u t e s o f t h e G e n e r a l A ss e m b l y o f t h e G e n e r a l B a p t i s t C h u r c h e s i n E n g l a n d , w i t h K i n d r e d R e c o r d s (2 v o l s , * London: P r i n t e d f o r t h eB a p t i s t H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y by t h e K i n g s g a t e P r e s s , [ 1 9 0 8 1 ) , I , x x v i - x x x i ,

2 C. E. W h i t i n g , S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h P u r i t a n i s m f r o m t h e R e s t o r a t i o n t o t h e R e v o l u t i o n , 1 6 6 0 - 1688 (New York : M a cm i l l a n Company, 1 9 3 1 ) , pp . 2 4 2 - 5 5 ,

103

f r om p o t h o u s e t o p o t h o u s e , t i p p l i n g a l e , and d e n o u n c i n g

e t e r n a l t o r m e n t s a g a i n s t a l l t h o s e who r e f u s e d t o b e ­

l i e v e on h i s t e s t i m o n y t h a t t h e Supreme B e i n g was o n l y

s i x f e e t h i g h , and t h a t t h e su n uias. j u s t f o u r m i l e s From

t h e o a r t h . ’1'!

The F i f t h Monarchy Men The F i f t h Mona rchy Men we re

m i l i t a n t m i l l e n a r i a n s ; t h a t i s , t h e y l i t e r a l l y b e l i e v e d

t h a t C h r i s t wou l d r e i g n t o g e t h e r w i t h H i s s a i n t s upon

t h e e a r t h f o r a t h o u s a n d y e a r s . T h e i r i d e a s we re p r i ­

m a r i l y d e r i v e d f rom t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s o f D a n i e l and

R e v e l a t i o n . T h e i r b e l i e f was t h a t f o u r g r e a t m o n a r c h i e s

had r e i g n e d upon t h e e a r t h - - A s s y r i a , P e r s i a , G r e ec e and

Rome. The f i f t h and l a s t g r e a t m on a r c hy wou l d be t h e

Kingdom o f C h r i s t w h i c h t h e y t h o u g h t t o be i m m i n e n t .

Many, i n c l u d i n g some o f t h e New Model A r m y ' s o f f i c e r s

h o p e d t h a t C r o m w e l l ' s r e i g n wou l d i s s u e i n t h e f i f t h

m o n a r c h y . As t i m e p a s s e d many g r ew d i s i l l u s i o n e d . The

e x t r e m e t r u e b e l i e v i n g s a i n t s who had dr awn t h e sw or d

a g a i n s t K i n g a nd b i s h o p now v i o l e n t l y o p p o s e d t h e

P r o t e c t o r s h i p o f C r o m w e l l , They waged a h o l y w a r ,

r i s i n g i n r e b e l l i o n a number o f t imBS ( 1 6 5 7 , 1 6 6 1 ) much

*! M a c a u l a y , H i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d , I , e d . by C h a r l e s H a r d i n g F i r t h ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n and C o . , L i m i t e d ,1 9 1 3 ) , 144 .

t o t h e d i s t r e s s a n d a n n o y a n c e o f t h o s e i n a u t h o r i t y ,

b u t by tine l a t e r y e a r s o f C h a r l e s IX, t h e y had a l l b u t

d i s a p p e a r e d a s a m i l i t a n t s e c t . ^

The Pami l i s t s The F a m i l i s t s , o r t h e F a m i l y o f Love a s

t h e y were f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d , a r e i m p o r t a n t t o t h i s

s t u d y b e c a u s e t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e common m a n ' s a p p r o a c h

t o a m y s t i c a l r e l i g i o n n o t e x p r e s s e d p r i m a r i l y i n i n ­

d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s b u t r a t h e r " t h r o u g h s o c i a l g r o u p s ,

f u s e d t o g e t h e r by a common e x p e r i e n c e i n t o s m a l l

s p i r i t u a l f e l l o w s h i p s , "2 W hi l e r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t many o f

t h a i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n o r t h o d o x

c h u r c h e s , b r a n d e d t hem a " m o n s t r o u s h e r e s y " and a l s o

b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e r e we re among t hem some f a n a t i c s who

wo u ld hav e c o n s i d e r e d t h e " f a m i l y o f I o v b " more s u g ­

g e s t i v e o f e a r t h l y and p h y s i c a l l o v e t h a n h e a v e n l y and

s p i r i t u a l commun ion , J o n e s a r g u e s t h a t t h e i r w r i t i n g s

do n o t i n d i c a t e t h e a d v o c a c y o f any s u c h c a r n a l p r a c t i c e s .

On t h e c o n t r a r y , F a m i l i s m was n o t o n l y c l e a n a n d p u r e

b u t b a s i c a l l y a s e r i o u s a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f some

p e o p l e t o f r e e t h e m s e l v e s f r om t h e fo rm an d l e t t e r t y p e

^ W h i t i n g , S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h P u r i t a n i s m , pp . 2 3 4 - 4 1 ,

^ R u f u s M. JonBS, m y s t i c i s m a n d Democracy i n t h e E n g l i s h Commonweal th ( C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1 9 3 2 ) , p . 1 2 1 .

105

o f r e l i g i o n , e r a d i c a t e s i n f rom human n a t u r e , a n d b e ­

come m y s t i c a l l y u n i t e d w i t h God,^ The F a m i l y o f L ove ,

a c c o r d i n g t o J a n o s , was f o u n d e d on t h e C o n t i n e n t by

H e n r y N i c h o l a s , whose w r i t i n g s were e v e n t u a l l y t r a n s l a t e d

i n t o E n g l i s h and became t h e c h i e f s o u r c e o f E n g l i s h

Fa rn i l i s i n a f t e r 1 5 7 5 , In i t s e a r l y s t a g e s i t s m e s s a g e

was p r o p a g a t e d by a " f r a t e r n i t y " o f b e l i e v e r s who worke d

a t t h e i r t r a d e s a s t h e y t r a v e l e d . They a p p e a r t o ha v e

b e e n m o s t s u c c e s s f u l among thB common p e o p l e o f E n g l a n d ,

D u r i n g t h o Commonweal th e r a t h e y were c r i t i c a l o f

t h e e x i s t i n g c h u r c h e s b e c a u s e t h e y we re s p i r i t u a l l y im-

p o v e r i s h e d - - h o l d i n g f o r t h a l e g a l i s t i c form o f r e l i g i o n ,

" a r g u e d f rom t e x t s and d e f e n d e d by t e x t s , " b u t v o i d o f

a h e a r t - f e l t r e l i g i o n b a s e d upon p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e ,

They c o m p l a i n e d t h a t t h e c h u r c h e s " p l e a d e d f o r s i n " by

e x c u s i n g s i n f u l a c t s on t h e g r o u n d s o f a weak human

n a t u r e . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e F a m i l i s t s p r e a c h e d h o l y l i v i n g

a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f human n a t u r e .

T h i s i d e a l t h e y b e l i e v e d c o u l d be a t t a i n e d n o t by e t h i ­

c a l r e f o r m a t i o n b u t by m y s t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . In

o r d e r t o p r o d u c e an a t m o s p h e r e w h i c h e n h a n c e d t h e l i k e ­

l i h o o d o f m y s t i c a l e n c o u n t e r s , t h e F a m i l i s t s p r a c t i c e d

1 I b i d . , p . 1 2 3 . See a l s o W h i t i n g , S t u d i e s i n E n o l i s h P u r i t a n i s m , p, 2 8 7 ,

106

g r o u p s i l e n c e when t h e y g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r f o r w o r s h i p .

The p e r i o d s o f d e e p s i l e n c e c r e a t e d an a i r o f e x p e c t a n c y

a s e a c h w o r s h i p p e r uias e n c o u r a g e d t o m e d i t a t e upon t h e

u n i o n o f God an d man.

The c h i e f w e a k n e s s o f t h e F a m i l y o f Love was i t s

e x c e s s i v e b u r e a u c r a c y . I t was e p i s c o p a l l y r a t h e r t h a n

d e m o c r a t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d w i t h " a h i g h e s t B i s h o p , " " t w e n t y

f o u r E l d e r s , " " A r c h b i s h o p s , " and t h r e e l o w e r o r d e r s o f

p r i e s t s . J o n e s c l a i m s t h a t many p e o p lB who w o u l d ha ve

o r d i n a r i l y be en a t t r a c t e d t o t h e m y s t i c i s m o f t h e

F a m i l i s t s were d i s t r a c t e d by i t s e x t e r n a l s y s t e m . The

r e s u l t was t h a t t h e F a m i l y o f Love e v e n t u a l l y d i s b a n d e d

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y b u t i t s c e n t r a l i d e a l s g a i n e d i n

p o p u l a r i t y , ^

ThB R a n t e r s Df a l l t h e s e c t s t h a t became p r o m i n e n t

d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s t h e m o s t e x t r e m e was t h e R a n t e r s .

A c c o r d i n g t o S c h o f i e l d , t h e B l a s phe m y Act o f 1650 was

s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t e n d e d t o c u r b t h e e x c e s s e s o f t h e R a n t e r s

and i n t h e Act a r e s t a t e d some o f t h e i r b e l i e f s . They

a p p a r e n t l y p r o f e s s e d ( o r were t h o u g h t t o p r o f e s s ) t h a t

t h e y were e q u a l w i t h God, t h a t t h e r e i s n e i t h e r Heaven

n o r H e l l , s a l v a t i o n n o r d a m n a t i o n , b u t t h a t t h e y a r e a l l

^ J o n e s , W y s t i c i s m and D e m o c r a c y , pp . 1 2 6 - 3 1 ,

107

ono a n d t h e same t h i n g , t h a t a c t s o f u n c l e a n n e s s , p r o ­

f a n e s w e a r i n g , and d r u n k e n n e s s a r e n o t f o r b i d d e n i n t h e

Word o f God, and t h a t t h o s e who commi t t h e g r e a t e s t s i n s

a r e m o s t . l i ke God,^ T h e i r A n t i n o m i a n l i b e r t i n i s m i s

a l s o d i s c e r n i b l e f r o m a t r a c t p u b l i s h e d i n 1 65D by

G i l b e r t R o u l s t o n , e n t i t l e d The R a n t e r s B i b l e o r [ a s t h e

f u l l t i t l e r e a d s ! S e v e n s e v e r a 1 R e l l q i o n s by t hem he Id

and m a i n t a i n e d . W i t h t h e f u l l p a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e i r

s t r a n p e S e c t s an d S o c i e t i e s ; , , . t h e i r b l a s p h e m o u s

O p i n i o n o f o u r Lo rd a nd S a v i o u r J e s u s C h r i s t , a n d t h e i r

b u r n i n g o f h i s b l e s s e d Word , , . . ; t h e i r d r i n k i n g o f

h e a l t h s t o t h e Dev i 1 , , . , ; t h e i r S a v a g e O p i n i o n t o

l i e w i t h any man * s w i f e , e i t h e r i n h o u s e s , f i e I d s , o r

s t r e e t s , i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f h u n d r e d s o f p e o p l e . , , . 2

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i r m e e t i n g s f o r ‘' w o r s h i p " i s

s h o c k i n g e v e n f o r t h e n o n - p u r i t a n i c a l mode rn r e a d e r .

T h i s t i m e o f m e e t i n g b e gan a b o u t f o u r o f t h e c l o c k i n t h e a f t e r n o o n , and was c o n t i n u e d by some u n t i l n i n e o r t o n o f t h e c l o c k t h e n e x t d a y ; w h i c h t i m e was s p e n t i n d r u n k e n n e s s ,

*1R u s s e l l G i l b e r t S c h o f i e l d , "The R a n t e r s i n S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y E n g l a n d ; T h e i r P r i n c i p l e s and P r a c t i c e s " ( u n p u b l i s h e d Ph .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , H a r v a r d D i v i n i t y S c h o o l , 1 9 4 9 ) , p . 38 ,

^ G i l b e r t R o u l s t o n , The R a n t e r s B i b l e ( L o n d o n ; P r i n t e d by J . C . , 1 6 5 0 ) . R o u l s t o n d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f a s " a L a t e F e l l o w - R a n t e r , "

1 DC

u n c l e a n n e s s , b l a s p h e m o u s w o r d s , f i l t h y s o n g s , a n d m ix e d d a n c e s o f men and women s t a r k n a k e d .

I c a n n o t l e a r n , t h a t i n any o f t h e i r m e e t i n g s , t h e y hav e u s e d e x h o r t a t i o n s , e x c e p t s u c h a s t e n d o n l y t o t h e mak ing o f a d e r i s i o n and s c o f f , a t a l l t h a t i s commended i n t h e . h o l y and s a c r e d S c r i p t u r e s t o be good and holy,* d e s p i s i n g t h e word and o r d i n a n c e s , when t h e y h e a r them s p o k e n o f j an d t h e i r R i n g - l e a d e r , Copp (when he was f i t t e r t o ha v e gone t o be d a nd s l e p t , t h a n t o have s p o k e n i n a p u b l i c p l a c e ) b e s t o w e d an h o u r ' s t i m e i n b e l c h i n g f o r t h . i m p r e c a t i o n s , c u r s e s , and o t h e r s u c h l i k e s t u f f , a s i s n o t f i t t o be o n c e named am ong s t C h r i s t i a n s , , , .

U l h i t i n g a d d s t h a t t h e R a n t e r s gave h oe d t o no e x t e r n a l

a u t h o r i t y b e l i e v i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o be c o m p l e t e l y " l e d by

t h e S p i r i t . " They a c t e d i n t h e manne r t h e y d i d b e c a u s e

t h e y s u p p o s e d , t h a t God p a i d no a t t e n t i o n t o o u t w a r d

a c t i o n s b u t o n l y l o o k e d upon t h e h e a r t . I n one s e n s e

t h e i d e a o f R a n t e r i s m s h o u l d n o t c o m p l e t e l y s u r p r i s e u s

f o r t h e y r e p r e s e n t o n l y i n t h e mos t e x t r a v a g a n t d e g r e e

t h e a n t i a u t h o r i t a r i a n s p i r i t o f t h e e r a .

The S p i r i t o f t h e S e e k e r s

B e f o r e t h i s c h a p t e r i s c o n c l u d e d , one a d d i t i o n a l

f o r g a t h e r i n g o f b e l i e v e r s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d . The

S e e k e r s we r e n o t r e a l l y a C h u r c h , n o r S e c t , n o r e v e n a

The Routing o f the Ranters ([[London: Publ i shedby A ut h o r i ty , and P r in t e d by B. A. , 1650?3)> pp. 2 - 3 . See a l s o The Ranters Creed (London: P r i n t e d ’ by James ffloxon,1 6 5 1 ) .

^UJhi ' t ing , S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h P u r i t a n i s m , pp . 2 7 2 -73.

109

movemen t b u t p e r h a p s o n l y a s t a t e o f mind o r r e l i g i o u s

t e n d e n c y i n E n g l a n d d u r i n g t h e l a t e s i x t e e n t h and

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . The p e o p l e who became S e e k e r s

w e re g e n e r a l l y d i s i l l u s i o n e d a b o u t t h e s t a t e o f s p i r i t ­

u a l i t y w i t h i t s l a c k o f a p o s t o l i c a u t h o r i t y an d power

i n t h e c h u r c h e s o f t h e i r da y . T h e i r d i s c o u r a g e m e n t

p r o m p t e d t hem t o become r e b e l s a g a i n s t o r g a n i z e d r e ­

l i g i o n a s t h e y p a s s i v e l y w a i t e d f o r a t r u l y a p o s t o l i c

C h u r c h - - " t h e C h u rc h o f t h e S p i r i t . " ^ I t i s p o s s i b l e t o

t r a c e t h e h e r i t a g e o f E n g l i s h S e e k e r s e n t i m e n t s t o t h e

C o n t i n e n t a l m y s t i c s an d " s p i r i t u a l r e f o r m e r s " s u c h a s

Mans Den ck , S e b a s t i a n F r a n k* C a s p e r S c h w e n c k f e I d ,

S e b a s t i a n C a s t e l l i o , D i r c k C o o r n h e r t z , a n d o t h e r s who

e x p r e s s e d g r e a t c o n c e r n f o r t h e i n v i s i b l e Ch u r c h w i t h

i t s l i f e a nd s p i r i t i n t h e h e a r t s o f men. They had

v e r y l i t t l e c o n c e r n f o r t h e v i s i b l e C h u r c h w i t h i t s

c o n s t a n t c o n t e n t i o n s o v e r c r e e d s , o r d i n a t i o n s , and

rituals,^ As a l r e a d y i n t i m a t e d , t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e s e

men we re t r a n s l a t e d a nd i n t r o d u c e d i n t o E n g l a n d by t h e

C a m b r i d g e s c h o l a r , Jo h n E v e r a r d ,

Of t h e Commonweal th S e e k e r s one c o n t e m p o r a r y

s a i d t h a t "many have w r a n g l e d s o l o n g a b o u t t h e C h u r c h

1 J o n e s , M y s t i c i s m and D e m o c r a c y , p, 59 .

2 I b i d . , pp. 6 0 - 6 5 ,

t h a t a t l a s t t h e y ha v e q u i t e l o s t i t , a nd go u n d e r t h e

name o f C x p e c t e r s o r S e e k e r s , and do deny t h a t t h e r e i s

an y C h u r c h , o r t r u e m i n i s t e r , o r any o r d i n a n c e s . " ^

C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y s e p a r a t e d t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e u s u a l

means f o r d e v e l o p i n g an d m a i n t a i n i n g f a i t h . R e m a in i n g

g e n e r a l l y u n g a t h e r e d , t h e y came t o g e t h e r " o n t h e F i r s t -

d a y s , an d a t o t h e r t i m e s , a s t h e i r h e a r t s a r e drawn

f o r t h , an d o p p o r t u n i t y i s o f f e r e d , " They ha d t h r e e

main p u r p o s e s f o r m e e t i n g t o g e t h e r . F i r s t , t h e y e n ­

c o u r a g e d one a n o t h e r i n t h e f a i t h "b y m u t u a l c o n f e r e n c e ,

a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e s . " S e c o n d l y , t h e y

p r a y e d f o r a f u r t h e r r e v e l a t i o n o f God, T h i r d l y , t h e y

w a i t e d f o r t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e t r u e a p o s t o l i c

m i n i s t r y and w o r s h i p i n t h e S p i r i t , They we re c o n s c i o u s

o f a s p i r i t u a l and m i n i s t e r i a l i n s u f f i c i e n c y , p e r c e i v i n g

t h e m s e l v e s a s " S h e e p u n f o l d e d , and a s S o l d i e r s u n r a l l i e d .

They a c k n o w l e d g e d no " v i s i b l e T e a c h e r , b u t t h e Ulord and

Works o f God. " Th ose o f t h e i r number who d i d upon

o c c a s i o n v e r b a l l y m i n i s t e r , b e h a v e d " t h e m s e l v e s a s p e r ­

s o n s h a v i n g n e i t h e r power o r g i f t t o go one b e f o r e

a n o t h e r , by way o f E m in en c y o r Authority.

^ E [ p h r a i m ] P [ a g i t t 3 » H e r e s i o q r a p h y (London* P r i n t e d by 01. O k e s , 1 6 4 5 ) , p. 128 ,

^ [ J o h n J ackson* ] , A S o b e r Word t o a S e r i o u s P e o p l e ( L ond on s P r i n t e d by j . C o t t r e l , f o r J ames Noe 11 , 1 6 5 1 ) , pp . 2 - 3 .

111

T h i s f r ame o f mind l e d t o a v e r y l i b e r a l an d

e q u a l i t a r i a n manner o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g among t h e m s e l v e s .

T h e i r c o d e was a s f o l l o w s : .

L e t a s p i r i t o f m e e k n e s s r u n i n t h e a r t e r y of ' P r e n c h l n n and P r i n t i n g : Let n o t p a s s i o n s ,e u i~l s p e a k i n g , r a i l i n g s , wh ich i n f l a m e and do n o t e d i f y , be h e a r d am on g s t u s , . . .

L e t t h e r e be f r e e d e b a t e s , and op e n c o n ­f e r e n c e s , and c o m m u n i c a t i o n f o r a l l , an d o f a l l s o r t s t h a t w i l l , c o n c e r n i n g d i f f e r e n c e i n s p i r ­i t u a l s t whe re d o o r s a r e n o t s h u t , t h e r e w i l l be no b r e a k i n g them o p e n : so where d e b a t e s a r e f r e e , t h e r e i s a way o f v e n t and e v a c u a t i o n . , . ,

Let us n o t , being under no f u r th e r degree of th e r e v e l a t i o n o f Truth, . , . assume any power o f i n f a l l i b i l i t y to each other; so as to forCB up a l l to our l i g h t or degree o f knowing or p r a c t i c i n g ; . . . for a n o t h e r ' s ev id en ce i s as dark to me as mine to h i s , . , . t i l l the Lord e n l i g h t e n us both for d i s c e r n i n g a l i k e ;So a s when t h e r e i s no power i n u s t o make t h a t a p p e a r t o a n o t h e r w h i ch a p p e a r s t o U£, t h e r e c a n be no r e a s o n a b l e e q u i t y f o r any e n f o r c i n g o r c o m p e l l i n g i n s p i r i t u a l s .

L e t n o t one d e s p i s e a n o t h e r f o r g i f t s , p a r t s , l e a r n i n g : l e t t h e S p i r i t be h e a r d s p e a k i n t h e m e a n e s t : l e t n o t t h e S c r i b e o r D i s p u t e r o f t h e Law d e s p i s e t h e F i s h e r m a n , n o r t h e y d e s p i s e them b e c a u s e S c r i b e s and P i s p u t e r s : t h e S p i r i t i s i nP a u l a s w e l l a s P e t e r ; i n b o t h a s w e l l a s o n e .1

The m i n i s t r y t h a t e x i s t e d among t h e S e e k e r s was by

p u b l i s h e r s o r d e c l a r e r s , men who s p o k e o f t h a t w h i ch

t h e y had s e e n o r h e a r d , b u t t h B i r p r e a c h i n g was f e l t

t o be w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t o f s u p e r n a t u r a l a p o s t o l i c

^ J o h n S a l t m a r s h , "The Smoke i n t h e Temple" i n Some D r op s o f t h e V i a l (Londons G i l e s C a l v e r t , 1 6 4 6 ) , pp . 2 - 5 .

1 1 2

a u t h o r i t y . What t h e y a n x i o u s l y a w a i t e d an d F u l l y e x ­

p e c t e d t o a r i s e i n t h e n e a r F u t u r e was a p r o p h e t l i k e

t h e F i r s t a p o s t l e s who wou ld r e v i v e a p r i m i t i v e Form

oF C h r i s t i a n i t y . Such a p r e a c h e r , t h e y b e l i e v e d , would

hav e h i s m es sa ge c o n F i r m e d by God w i t h m i r a c u l o u s s i g n s . ^

In a r e a l s e n s e , i t may be s a i d t h a t t h e S e e k e r s were

l i k e s h i p s upon t h e s e a , e x p e c t a n t l y a w a i t i n g t h e

h e a v e n l y i n s p i r a t i o n t o F i l l t h e i r s a i l s and c a r r y t hem

b e y o n d t h e h o r i z o n .

So i t i s t h a t o u r a t t e n t i o n mus t now t u r n From

many c h u r c h e s , From many s e c t s , and From s e e k e r s t o j u s t

one movemen t , j u s t one man, j u s t one s e e k e r , For i t i s

i n t h e g r a p h i c words oF R. A. Knox, " w i t h t h e a i r oF

a l i b e r a t o r , s t r i d e s i n t h e g i a n t F i g u r e oF George F o x , " ^

I b i d . , p . 13 , See a l s o [ J a c k s o n l , jA S o b e r Word t o a. S e r i o u s P e o p l e , pp . 2 2 - 2 0 ,

^ R. A. Knox, E n t h u s i a s m i J\ Chao t o r i n t h e H i s t o r y oF Ro l i o i o n l [QxFord: C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 5 0 ) ,p . 14 2 .

CHAPTER IV

THE FORMATION OF THE CHARISMATIC COMMUNICATOR

In t h e r a t h e r c o m m o n p l a c e , s m a l l M i d l a n d v i l l a g e

o f D r a y t o n i n L e i c e s t e r s h i r e , George Fox was b o r n some­

t i m e i n J u l y 1 6 2 4 , t h e o l d e s t o f f i v e c h i l d r e n . Of h i s

e a r l y y e a r s we know r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e . I n d e e d , t h e

b e s t s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e s e m a t t e r s

i s F o x ' s own J o u r n a l . Y e t , f o r two b a s i c r e a s o n s even

t h i s p e r s o n a l a c c o u n t i s n o t d e s i r a b l e a s one wo u l d

h o p e . F i r s t , i t i s n o t a t r u e j o u r n a l o r d i a r y o f e v e n t s

f a i t h f u l l y r e c o r d e d day by day a s t h e y o c c u r r e d . R a t h e r ,

i t m a i n l y c o n s i s t s o f t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n o f mem or ab l e

h a p p e n i n g s w h i ch t h e t h e n a l r e a d y v e n e r a b l e f a t h e r o f

Q u a k e r i s m d i c t a t e d t o h i s s t e p s o n - i n - l a w a r o u n d t h e

y e a r 1 6 7 5 . Added t o t h i s i s a c o l l e c t i o n o f n u m e r o u s

l e t t e r s and o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t p a p e r s w h i c h a r e i n t e r ­

s p e r s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a r r a t i v e i n a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e s

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e y e a r i n w h i ch t h e y u/ore w r i t t e n .

S e c o n d , t h e h i s t o r i c a l v a l u e i s f u r t h e r l i m i t e d b e c a u s e

t h e J o u r n a l i s p r i m a r i l y a r h e t o r i c a 1 a u t o b i o g r a p h y .

The d a t a w h i c h Fox d o e s p r e s e n t i s h i g h l y s e l e c t e d ,

113

114

e d i t e d , a n d i n t e r p r e t e d f o r t h e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o fA

g a i n i n g a d h e r e n t s t o t h e Q u a k e r m o v e m e n t . 1 H o w ev e r ,

t h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f a c t s we do p o s s e s s a r e

u n r e l i a b l e f o r t o my k n o w l e d g e no s i g n i f i c a n t i n ­

a c c u r a c i e s have b e e n u n c o v e r e d i n t h e J o u r n a l . ^

P a r e n t a l F a c t o r s

Of G e o r g e ' s p a r e n t s , W i l l i a m Penn t o l d u s t h a t

Fox was " d e s c e n d e d o f h o n e s t a nd s u f f i c i e n t p a r e n t s ,

uiho e n d e a v o u r e d t o b r i n g him u p , a s t h e y d i d t h e r e s t

o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n , i n t h e way and w o r s h i p o f t h e n a t i o n : ^

e s p e c i a l l y h i s m o t h e r , who was a woman a c c o m p l i s h e d

a b o v e mos t o f h e r d e g r e e i n t h e p l a c e w he r e whe l i v e d , " *

U n l i k e m o s t o f t h e i r n e i g h b o r s i n D r a y t o n , Wary and

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p . 1 .

^ F o r a more e x a c t s t a t e m e n t o f t i m e a n d p l a c e o f w r i t i n g , a u t h e n t i c i t y , and p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e p r e s s o f t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e J o u r n a 1 w h ic h i s co mposed oF t h e S p e n c e PflS., s e e t h e " E d i t o r ' s I n t r o d u c t i o n " t o t h e C a m b r i d g e J o u r n a l , I , x x x i - x l , For a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l HSS. u s e d i n c o m p i l i n g t h e J o u r n a 1 , t h e r e a d e r i s d i r e c t e d t o t h e " P r e f a c e " o f t h e W i c k a i l s , J o u r n a 1 , pp . v i i - x i i i ,

one would e x p e c t , t h e Fox f a m i l y g e n e r a l l y c o n f o r m e d t o t h e w a r s h i p o f t h e n a t i o n a l C h u r c h , T h i s means t h a t t h e f i r s t 1 7 - 1 0 y e a r s o f G e o r g e ' s l i f e we re u n d e r t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f L a u d ' s E p i s c o p a l i a n i s m . H ow eve r , a s w i l l be s e e n , t h e Fox f a m i l y was a l s o s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h t h e e m e r g i n g P u r i t a n i s m ,

* W i l l i a m P e n n , The Fi ise and P r o o r e s s o f t h e P e o p l e C a l l e d Q u a k e r s ^ P h i l a d e l p h i a ! F o r S a l e a t F r i e n d s * B o o k - S t o r e , 10 7 0 ) T p. 52 ,

115

C h r i s t o p h e r Fox we re l i t e r a t e . S i n c e George l e a r n e d t o

r e a d w i t h o u t b e n e f i t o f a f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , he p r o b a b l y

was t a u g h t a t home by h i s m o t h e r # a f u n c t i o n S u s a n n a h

W es l e y a l s o p r o v i d e d f o r h e r f a m i l y a c e n t u r y l a t e r .

Few s p e c i m e n s o f F o x ’ s h a n d w r i t i n g e x i s t t o d a y . Of

t h o s e t h a t do , one o b s e r v e r c h a r i t a b l y d e s c r i b e d h i s

h a nd a s " h e a v y and v i g o r o u s , n o t w i t h o u t c h a r a c t e r , y e t

n o t t h e w r i t i n g o f a s c h o l a r l y m a n , " ^ F o r t h i s r e a s o n

Fox wou l d " u s u a l l y , e v e n i n h i s T r a v e l s , d i c t a t e t o h i s

A m a n u e n s i s , wha t he wou ld ha v e c o m m i t t e d t o W r i t i n g . " ^

W i l l i a m S e w o l , a D u t c h h i s t o r i a n o f Q u a k e r i s m , w r i t i n g

a t t h e en d o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , c o n f i r m e d t h i s

p r a c t i c e and i n f o r m e d u s o f t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f F o x ’ s

a m a n u e n s e s ,

F o r t h o u g h i t c a n ' t be d e n i e d , t h a t he was no e l e g a n t w r i t e r , n o r qood s p e l l e r , y e t i t i s t r u e , t h a t h i s c h a r a c t e r s b e i n g t o l e r a b l e , h i s w r i t i n g was l e g i b l e , and t h e m a t t e r t r e a t e d uia3 i n t e l l i g i b l e , t h o u g h h i s s t y l e was n o t l i k e t h a t o f a s k i l f u l l i n g u i s t , And a l b e i t he e m p l o y e d o t h e r s , b e c a u s e h i m s e l f was no q u i c k w r i t e r , y e t g e n e r a l l y t h e y we re y o u n g l a d s , who a s t h e y d u r s t n o t have a t t e m p t e d t o a l t e r h i s words

. ^Sea t h e " I n t r o d u c t i o n " t o The J o u r n a 1 o f Jo h n Wes l e y by B i s h o p G e r a l d Kennedy (New Yor k : C a p r i c o r nB o o k s , 1 9 6 3 ) , p. v i i i .

^ I s a a c S h a r p , "The H a n d w r i t i n g o f Geo rge F o x , " J o u r n a l •o f F r i e n d s ’ H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , I ( 1 9 0 3 - 0 4 ) , 9 ,

^Thomas E l l w o o d , Tho H i s t o r y o f t h e L i f e o f Thomas E l l w o o d ( 3 r d o d . ; London: P r i n t e d by Luke H i n d e ,1 7 6 5 ) 7 P. 292 ,

and p h r a s e s , s o t h e y wou ld n o t hav e been s k i l ­f u l en ou gh t o r e f i n e h i s s t y l e . T h i s I d o n ' t w r i t e f rom h e a r s a y , b u t h a v e s e e n i t a t s u n d r y t i m e s , 1

Fox u n d o u b t e d l y e n d e a v o r e d t o make t h e m o s t o f h i s

l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n , b u t h i s u n i v e r s i t y - t r a i n e d o p p o n e n t s

w e r e a l w a y s q u i c k i n t r y i n g t o u n d e r m i n e h i s good s e n s e

by c r i t i c i z i n g h i s r e l a t i v e i l l i t e r a c y . C h a r l e s L e s l i e

a r g u e d t

The h a n d w r i t i n g o f George Fox ( f o r I have s e e n i t ) i s a s ba d a s h i s s p e l l i n g , b o t h e q u a l t o h i s s e n s e a n d l e a r n i n g : j u d g e t h e n w ha tl i c k i n g t h e r e mus t be t o p r i n t any t h i n g t h a t he w r o t e ! when , a f t e r b e i n g t h e p r e t e n d e d a u t h o r o f so many b o o k s , he shews u s how he c o u l d w r i t e and s p e l l E n g l i s h , 2

I t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t Fox d i d n o t ha v e t h o b e n e f i t o f

a b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n f o r i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n j e c t u r e , i f

n o t c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e , t h a t a d d i t i o n a l a c a d e m i c t r a i n ­

i n g m i g h t have g i v e n him g r e a t e r r h e t o r i c a l v e r s a t i l i t y .

H o w ev e r , i t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d e x a m p l e s o f u n i v e r ­

s i t y p e o p l e s u c h a s U l i l l i am P e n n , Samuel F i s h e r , Thomas

T a y l o r , ' and F r a n c i s H o w g i l l who j o i n e d w i t h Fox and t h e

Q u a k e r movement r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e l e a d e r ' s a c a d e m i c

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . A f t e r i n t e n s i v e l y s t u d y i n g t h e

’' w i l l i a m S e w e l , H i s t o r y o f the. P i s e , I n c r e a s e , a n d P r o o r e s s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n P e o p l e C a 1 l e d Qua k e r s , I [ P h i 1- a d e . l p h i a : B. & I . K i t e , and 5, P i k e , 1 BiT) , 59 ,

^ C h a r l e s L e s l i e , "An Answer t o t h e S w i t c h , " i n The T h e o l o o i c a .1 Works o f t h e Rev. C h a r l e s L e s l i e , VI

117

b a c k g r o u n d s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y s i x t y o f t h e f i r s t Q u a k e r

p r e a c h e r s , E. E. T a y l o r c o n c l u d e d t h a t " o v e r h a l f . . «

may be d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g b e e n i n a good m a t e r i a l

p o s i t i o n i n l i f e , a s h a v i n g ha d a s u p e r i o r e d u c a t i o n ,

a n d a s p o s s e s s i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e i n t h e d i s t r i c t s

i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e d . " ’*

Among t h e g r e a t m a s s e s o f E n g l i s h m e n t o whom F o x ' s

r h e t o r i c a l a p p e a l s we re p r i m a r i l y d i r e c t e d , I have f o u n d

no e v i d e n c e t h a t h i s k n o w l e d g e a b i l i t y was e v e r s e r i o u s l y

c h a l l e n g e d . In f a c t , t h e r e a d e r w i l l so o n d i s c o v e r t h a t

Fox was g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d by t h o p o p u l a c e a s an

a u t h o r i t y on t h e B i b l e , be y on d even t h e O x f o r d and

C a m b r i d g e m i n i s t e r s . T h a t Fox knew l i t t l e o f l o g i c and

l i t e r a t u r e d i d n o t s e r i o u s l y t h r e a t e n h i s r e p u t a t i o n a s

a r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r among t h e common p e o p l e . N a t u r a l l y ,

a s t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r i m p l i e d , t h e e d u c a t e d m i n i s t r y

wou ld ha ve meant a g r o a t d e a l among t h e A n g l i c a n s and

P r e s b y t e r i a n s b u t a c t u a l l y c o u n t e d f o r v e r y l i t t l e among *

t h e S e e k e r s .

I f George l e a r n e d h i s ABC's a t home, t h e r e we re

o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , George d e s c r i b e d

h i s m o t h e r a3 an " u p r i g h t woman" and o f " t h e s t o c k o f

1 E r n e s t E. T a y l o r , The V a l i a n t S i x t y ( L o n d o n i B a n n i s d a l e P r e s s , 1 9 5 1 ) , p. 70 .

t h e m a r t y r s . W h i l e t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e u n c e r t a i n t y

a b o u t Mary L a g o ' s h e r i t a g e , B r a i t h w a i t e s u g g e s t s t h a t

i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y she was a d e c e n d e n t oF f o r e b e a r e r s

who ha d b e e n m a r t y r e d i n t h e n e a r b y p a r i s h o f M a n c e t t e r9

d u r i n g Mary T u d o r ' s r e i g n . F o r o u r p u r p o s e s , i t i s

l e s s i m p o r t a n t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a c c u r a c y o f Mary L a g o ' s

g e n e a l o g y t h a n i t i s t o n o t e t h a t s h e i m p l i c i t l y b e ­

l i e v e d t h a t s h e came f rom t h e s t o c k o f m a r t y r s . Tho im­

p a c t o f t h i s upon George i s a g a i n ope n t o c o n j e c t u r e ,

b u t i n any e v e n t , i t s e ems l i k e l y t h a t t h e s p i r i t o f

p r o t e s t was c h e r i s h e d i n t h e Fox h o u s e h o l d . T h i s i s

s u g g e s t e d by W i l l i a m P e n n ' s p i c t u r e oF M a r y ' s a t t i t u d e

t o w a r d h e r s o n ' s p e c u l i a r r e l i g i o u s b e h a v i o r a s " t e n d e r

a n d i n d u l g e n t o v e r h i m , so t h a t f r om h e r he met w i t h

l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y , " * ^

F i n a l l y , c o n c e r n i n g s o c i a l s t a t u s , i t i s p o s s i b l e

t h a t Mary was r e l a t e d t o t h e l o c a l l y p r o m i n e n t P u r e f o y

f a m i l y . I f t h i s be t r u e , t h e r e i s a s t r o n g l i k e l i h o o d

t h a t young Geo rge was named a f t e r D r a y t o n ' s mo s t

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p. 1 .

^ W i l l i a m C, Q r a i t h w a i t e , The B e g i n n i n g s o f Q u a k e r i s m ( L o nd o n : M a c m i l l a n a nd C o . , L i m i t e d , 1 9 1 2 ) ,p . 29 .

119

o u t s t a n d i n g g e n t l e m a n , S i r Geo rge P u r e f o y , . the s q u i r e

o f t h e l o c a l p a r i s h , ' *

OF t h e p a t e r n a l s i d e o f G e o r g e ' s F a m i l y , l i t t l e

i s a c t u a l l y known. H i s f a t h e r , C h r i s t o p h e r , was a

w e av e r by p r o f e s s i o n . George c h a r a c t e r i z e d him a s an

" h o n e s t man . " I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t

George i n r e t r o s p e c t c l a i m e d t h a t " a S e e d o f God" was

i n h i s f a t h e r . The m e t a p h o r i n d i c a t e s t h a t Fox c o n ­

s i d e r e d h i s f a t h e r ’ s r e l i g i o u s f a i t h more s u b s t a n t i a l

t h a n j u s t a f o r m a l i t y . T h e re i s , h o w e v e r , no e v i d e n c e

t h a t C h r i s t o p h e r e v e r became a f o r t h r i g h t f o l l o w e r o f

h i s s o n ' s r e l i g i o n , b u t i n h i s own b e l i e f s he was

s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p r e s s i v e t o e a r n t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n

" R i g h t e o u s C h r j s t e r " f r om h i s neighbors.^ i t i s i n ­

t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t Fox i n 1G52, when he was e n t e r i n g

t h e f u l l p h a s e o f h i s c h a r i s m a t i c m i n i s t r y , w r o t e a

l e t t e r t o h i s p a r e n t s i n wh i ch he i m p a s s i o n a t e l y e n ­

c o u r a g e d them t o become more s p i r i t u a l ,

To t h a t o f God i n you b o t h I s p e a k , and do b e s e e c h you b o t h f o r t h e L o r d ' s s a k e , ha r e t u r n w i t h i n , and w a i t t o h e a r t h e v o i c e o f t h e Lord t h e r e ; and w a i t i n g t h e r e , a n d k e e p i n g c l o s e t o

** I b i d . See a l s o H a r r y Emer son O l i l d e s , Vo ic e o f t h e L o r d ; A B i o g r a p h y o f Geo rge £ o x ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y l v a n i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ) , pp . 1 4 - 1 5 .

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p. 1 .

1 2 0

t h e L o rd , a d i s c e r n i n g w i l l g r o w , t h a t ye may d i s t i n g u i s h t h e v o i c e o f t h e s t r a n g e r , whan ye h e a r i t . Oh! be f a i t h f u l , be f a i t h f u l t o t h e Lo rd i n t h a t ye l<nowj f o r i n t h e b a c k s l i d e r t h e Lo rd h a t h no p l e a s u r e , n e i t h e r s h a l l t h e i r d a m n a t i o n s l u m b e r . Ohl be f a i t h f u l ! Look n o t b a c k , n o r be t o o f o r w a r d , f u r t h e r t h a n ye hav e a t t a i n e d ; f o r ye have no t i m e , b u t t h i s p r e s e n t t i m e s t h e r e f o r e p r i z e y o u r t i m e f o r y o u r s o u l s * s a k e . And s o , grow up i n t h a t w h i ch i s p u r e , a n d keep t o t h e o n e n e s s ; t h e n s h a l l my j o y be f u l l . 1

The P u r i t a n E x p e r i e n c e

C e r t a i n I d i o s y n c r a s i e s

From F o x ' s b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s f a m i l y , w h i c h

h a s n o t i n c l u d e d any d e t a i l s a b o u t h i s b r o t h e r s and

s i s t e r s , we may now t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o some v e r y

s i g n i f i c a n t e x p e r i e n c e s i n h i s e a r l y l i f e t o g e t h e r w i t h

some r e l e v a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t t h e m . A c c o r d i n g t o

P e n n , Fox f rom a c h i l d , " a p p e a r e d o f a n o t h e r f r a m e o f

niind t h a n t h e r e s t o f h i s b r e t h r e n ; b e i n g more r e l i g i o u s ,

i n w a r d , s t i l l , s o l i d , and o b s e r v i n g be yon d h i s y e a r s .

T h i s ma rke d s t r a i n o f P u r i t a n i s m e v e n Fox c o n s i d e r e d

a t y p i c a l i n l a t e r l i f e .

In my v e r y young y e a r s I had a g r a v i t y and s t a y e d n e s s o f mind and s p i r i t n o t u s u a l i n c h i l d r e n . . . ,

When I came t o e l e v e n y e a r s o f a g e , I knew p u r e n e s s a nd r i g h t e o u s n e s s ; f o r w h i l e I was a

1 F o x , E p i s t l e s , No. 5 ( 1 6 5 2 ) , p . 19 ,

^ P e n n , R i s e a nd P r o g r e s s , p . 52 .

1 2 1

c h i l d I uias t a u g h t how t o wa lk t o be k e p t p u r s .The Lord t a u g h t me t o be F a i t h f u l i n a l l t h i n g s , an d t o a c t f a i t h f u l l y two w ay s , v i z . i n w a r d l y t o God a nd o u t w a r d l y t o man, a nd t o k e e p t o ’ y e a ' and ' n a y ' i n a l l t h i n g s . f o r t h e Lord showed me t h a t t h o u g h t h e p e o p l e o f t h e w o r l d have m o u th s f u l l o f d e c e i t a nd c h a n g e a b l e w o r d s , y e t I was t o k e e p t o ' y e a ' an d ' n a y ' i n a l l t h i n g s ; and t h a t my words s h o u l d be f ew and s a v o u r y , s e a s o n e d w i t h g r a c e ; a nd t h a t I m i g h t n o t e a t and d r i n k t o make m y s e l f w a n t o n b u t f o r h e a l t h , u s i n g t h e c r e a t u r e s i n t h e i r s e r v i c e , a s s e r v a n t s i n t h e i r p l a c e s , t o t h e g l o r y o f him t h a t h a t h c r e a t e d t h e m . . ,

T h i s p a r a g r a p h r e v e a l s some v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g i d i o s y n ­

c r a s i e s a s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t i n t h e l i f e o f young Fox

w h i c h n e e d t o be b r o u g h t b e f o r e o u r a t t e n t i o n b e c a u s e

t h e y a r e g e r m i n a l t o many o f h i s l a t e r r h e t o r i c a l b e ­

h a v i o r s . F i r s t , a t t h e e a r l y a g e o f e l e v e n , Fox c l a i m e d

t o ha ve p o s s e s s e d t h e r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f m in d . "The

Lo rd t a u g h t me" and " t h e Lord showed me" we re t o be

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e s For t h e r e m a i n d e r o f h i s

l i f e . ^ S e c o n d , t h e r e m a r k a b l e s y n t h e s i s b e t w e e n t h e

s o c i a l a c t i v i s m and t h e r e l i g i o u s m y s t i c i s m o f h i s

g o s p e l f o u n d e a r l y e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s b e h a v i o r " o u t w a r d l y

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , pp . 1 - 2 .

2 A g a i n , t h o r e a d e r mus t be a l e r t e d , I t i s im­p o s s i b l e t o know w h e t h e r young Fox a t age B l o v e n a c t u a l l y p e r c e i v e d h i s . i n s i g h t s a s r e v e l a t i o n s . But t h i s much i s c e r t a i n , when a t age f i f t y he d i c t a t e d h i s J o u r n a l , he c e r t a i n l y w a n t e d t o c o n v e y t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t he f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e d r e v e l a t i o n s v e r y e a r l y i n l i f e .

1 2 2

t o man" a nd " i n w a r d l y t o God," A l s o , t h e i n t e g r i t y o f

h i s word t o a b i d e a l w a y s by h i s " y e a " o r " n a y " a p p e a r e d .

L a t e r t h i s p r o h i b i t e d him From t a k i n g o a t h s and s w e a r i n g .

F i n a l l y , he a l r e a d y b e l i e v e d t h a t he s h o u l d k e e p h i s

s p e e c h p l a i n , t h u s , g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c i n g h i s r h e t o r i c a l

s t y l e . *1 Now, i t i s m os t p r o b a b l e t h a t Fox was com­

p l e t e l y i n c a p a b l e o f c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t i n g any o f t h e s e

i d e a s a t a g e e l e v e n . Yet e v e n s o , t h e h e i g h t e n e d t e n d ­

e n c y o f t h e i m p r e s s i o n a b l e y o u t h ' s p u r i t a n i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y

t o w a r d h i s l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t i s a mos t s i g n i f i c a n t com­

p o n e n t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e m e s s e n g e r

and t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f h i s m e s s a g e ,

H o n e s t y i n B u s i n e s s

D u r i n g t h e n e x t few y e a r s , h i s r e l a t i v e s t h o u g h t

t h a t a young man w i t h G e o r g e ' s d i s p o s i t i o n wo u ld make

an e x c e l l e n t m i n i s t e r , b u t l a t e r t h e F a m i l y was p e r s u a d e d

t o ha v e him a p p r e n t i c e d t o a s h o e m a k e r i n a n e i g h b o r i n g

v i l l a g e , who a l s o r a i s e d s h e e p . I t was t h e l a t t e r f o rm

o f e m p lo y m en t t h a t Penn t h o u g h t m o s t s u i t e d F o x ' s

t e m p e r a m e n t o f " i n n o c a n c y and s o l i t u d e , R e f l e c t i n g

^ F o r a s t a t e m e n t by Fox c o n c e r n i n g " p l a i n s p e e c h " s e e F o x , F o i s t l e s , No, 111 ( 1 6 5 6 ) , pp . 1 1 0 - 1 1 2 ,

2p e nn , R i s e and P r o g r e s s , p. 52 ,

123

upon t h o s e d a y s o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , f o x a s s e r t e d t h a t

a l t h o u g h t h e " b a y s an d r u d e p e o p l e " wou ld l a u g h a t him

f o r h i s r e l i g i o u s s c r u p l e s , t h e p e o p l e g e n e r a l l y came t o

a p p r e c i a t e h i s b a s i c h o n e s t y i n b u s i n e s s d e a l s . T h e n ,

hB a d d e d w i t h an a i r o f s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e a n d v i n d i c t i v e ­

n e s s , t h a t a s l o n g a s he r e m a i n e d w i t h h i s e m p l o y e r ,

b u s i n e s s p r o s p e r e d , b u t when he l e f t , t h e man " b r o k e

and came t o n o t h i n g . " ^ f o x o b v i o u s l y i n c l u d e d t h i s

j u d g m e n t i n h i s J o u r n a l f o r r h e t o r i c a l i m p a c t ; t h a t i s ,

t o s u g g e s t t o t h e r e a d e r t h a t t h e r e was a s u p e r n a t u r a l ,

c h a r i s m a t i c e f f i c a c y a l r e a d y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h him a s a

young man.

D r i n k i n g H e a l t h s

T h r o u g h o u t t h e s e y e a r s , Fox became i n c r e a s i n g l y

d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o f p e o p l e i n g e n e r a l , t h e

g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f whom he w e n t t o c h u r c h w i t h on Su nda y .

However , n o t u n t i l he was a b o u t n i n e t e e n d i d he b e g i n t o

b a l k a g a i n s t t h o s e who b o a s t e d a s t r o n g p u b l i c p r o f e s s i o n

o f f a i t h . T h i s i n c l u d e d a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h o s e who,

i n t h e m i d s t o f C i v i l War, h a d j umped on t h e P u r i t a n

bandwagon a s i t r o l l e d o v e r A n g l i c a n and R o y a l i s t a l i k e ,

A c r i s i s p r e c i p i t a t e d one day when Fox j o i n e d two

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p . 2 ,

124

p r o f e s s o r s o f r e l i g i o n f o r a g l a s s o f b e e r , a p p a r e n t l y

d e s i r i n g t h e i r c o m p a n i o n s h i p . A f t e r t h e y ha d

q u e n c h e d t h e i r t h i r s t , F o x ' s c o m p a n i o n s be gan t h e

E l i z a b e t h a n c u s t o m o f d r i n k i n g t o one a n o t h e r ' s h e a l t h .

They s u g g e s t e d t h a t whoe ve r c o u l d n o t k e e p p a c e i n t h e

d r i n k i n g a n d by i m p l i c a t i o n r e f r a i n f r om g e t t i n g d r u n k ,

t h a t one m u s t pay f o r a l l t h e b e e r . Fox who was a p ­

p a r e n t l y u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e p r a c t i c e became o u t r a g e o u s l y

a g i t a t e d t h a t p r o f e s s e d C h r i s t i a n s s h o u l d b e h a v e i n s u c h

a m a n n e r . 2 Most w o u l d ha ve d i s m i s s e d t h e i n c i d e n t a s

i n s i g n i f i c a n t b u t n o t George Fox . He n u r s e d h i m s e l f i n t o

a f i e r c e f r e n z y . T h a t n i g h t he c o u l d n o t s l e e p . As he

p o r t r a y e d i t ,

, . . s o m e t i m e s [ l " l w a l k e d up and down, a n ds o m e t i m e s p r a y e d and c r i e d t o t h e L o r d , whos a i d u n t o me, ' T h o u s e e s t how young p e o p l e go t o g e t h e r i n t o v a n i t y ’ and o l d p e o p l e i n t o t h e e a r t h ; and t h o u must f o r s a k e a l l , b o t h young and o l d , an d k e e p o u t o f a l l , and be a s a s t r a n g e r u n t o a l l . 3

^ P r o f e s s o r s i s t h e t e r m Fox u s e s t o d e s c r i b e t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r C h u r c h o r S e c t , who o u t w a r d l y s u b s c r i b e t o a f o rm o f f a i t h b u t a r e i n w a r d l y r a p e d o f r e a l i t y a n d , h e n c o , s u f f o r t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e y a r e C h r i s t i a n s .

2 Fox's g e n e r a l c r i t i c i s m of t h e p r a c t i c o o f " d r i n k ­i n g h e a l t h s " may be f o u n d i n George F o x , " C o n c e r n i n g t h e F i r s t S p r e a d i n g o f t h e T r u t h , " i n E p i s t l e s , p . 11 .

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p. 3 .

125

So i t was t h a t i n S e p t e m b e r , 1 6 4 3 , George Fox " a t t h e

command o f God" a s he e x p r e s s e d i t , s e p a r a t e d h i m s e l f

f r om a l l h i s r e l a t i o n s and s e v e r e d f e l l o w s h i p w i t h young

and o l d a l i k e i n a b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n t h a t i s c u r i o u s l y

t y p i c a l o f c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s . 1

The S p i r i t u a l P i l g r i m a g e

Fox i n h i s s p i r i t u a l p i l g r i m a g e was i n i t i a l l y

l e d t o d i s a s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f f r o m t h e " r u d e p e o p l e " o f

t h e w o r l d and f o l l o w t h e p u r i t a n r o a d . Now, he no

l o n g e r p e r m i t t e d h i m s e l f t o t r a v e l i n t h e company o f

p r o f e s s o r s o f r e l i g i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a s C i v i l War r a g e d

i n E n g l a n d , Fox e n t e r e d a p e r i o d o f s o l i t a r y s p i r i t u a l

c o n f i n e m e n t and c o n f l i c t a s a P u r i t a n ' s p u r i t a n . I t i s

n o t e w o r t h y t h a t up t o t h i s s t a g e i n F o x ' s c h a r i s m a t i c

d e v e l o p m e n t , h i s main c o n c e r n had been o v e r t h e e x t e r n a l

b e h a v i o r and t h e a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s b e t w e e n wha t

p e o p l e c l a i m e d t h e y b e l i e v e d a n d t h e way t h e y b e h a v e d .

The p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s t r e s s t h r o u g h w h i c h he was y e t t o

p a s s w ou l d add t o t h e e t h i c a l a nd s o c i a l a w a r e n e s s and

an i n c r e a s i n g e m p h a s i s upon s u b j e c t i v i t y ,

From P l a c e t o P l a c e

Fox now t r a v e l l e d i n s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d , g o i n g f rom

town t o t ow n , a l w a y s i s o l a t i n g h i m s e l f f rom o t h e r p e o p l e ,

1'W e b e r , On C h a r i s m a , p . 21 .

126

an d s t a y i n g i n a n y one p l a c e o n l y so l o n g a s he was a

s t r a n g e r . From t i m e t o t i m e p r o f e s s o r s o f r e l i g i o n

t r i e d t o b e f r i e n d him b u t Fox was " a f r a i d o f t h e m , "

s e n s i n g t h a t " t h e y d i d n o t p o s s e s s wha t t h e y p r o f e s s e d ,

E v i d e n t l y he f e l t t h a t r e m a i n i n g i nc o m m un ic ad o wou ld

mos t s u i t a b l y s e r v e h i s p a i n e d c o n d i t i o n . D u r i n g t h i s

s e e k e r s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t , Fox c e r t a i n l y p o s s e s s e d no

m e s s a g e f o r o t h e r s , b u t was c l e a r l y s e a r c h i n g f o r a n s w e r s

t o h i s own p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s . A f t e r some m o n th s he

a r r i v e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n London a nd was d i s t u r b e d

by t h e s t a t e o f r e l i g i o n he o b s e r v e d . T h e r e he h a d an

u n c l e , a B a p t i s t . ThesB B a p t i s t s Fox d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g

a t t h a t t i m e q u i t e " t e n d e r , " t h a t i s , t h e y we re o pe n

and s e n s i t i v e t o a s p i r i t u a l r e l i g i o n . Howeve r , he was

u n a b l e t o u n b u r d e n h i m s e l f t o them a n d t h e y i n t u r n c o u l d2

n o t o f f e r him a ny b e f i t t i n g a s s i s t a n c e .

From R e l a t i v e t o R e l a t i v e

Around t h i s t i m e , p e r h a p s h a v i n g s e c o n d t h o u g h t s

a b o u t l e a v i n g h i s f a m i l y , Fox d e c i d e d t o r e t u r n home.

R e l a t i v e s m e e t i n g him n o t e d h i s s p i r i t ' s v e x a t i o n .

How eve r , t h e y i n s e n s i b l y p r e s c r i b e d m a r r i a g e an d m i l i t a r y

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p. 4 .

^ I b i d ,

127

s e r v i c e a s r e m e d i e s f o r h i s c o n d i t i o n . T h e i r l a c k o f

s p i r i t u a l d i s c e r n m e n t o n l y c o n f i r m e d F o x ' s s u s p i c i o n

o f o t h e r p e o p l e ' s i n a b i l i t y t o be o f an y w o r t h w h i l e

h e l p t o h im.^

From P r i e s t t o P r i e s t

Fox now s o u g h t t h e c o u n s e l and f e l l o w s h i p o f

n u m e r o u s r e p u t a b l e m i n i s t e r s f r om v a r i o u s c h u r c h e s i n

t h e hope o f g a i n i n g some r e l i e f f r om h i s p s y c h o - s p i r i t u a l

' ' s o r r o w and t r o u b l e s , " One o f t h e f i r s t w i t h whom he

s p o k e was N a t h a n i e l S t e p h e n s , D r a y t o n ' s l o c a l p r i e s t a t

t h a t t i m e . S t e p h e n s was an O x f o r d - t r a i n e d P r e s b y t e r i a n

w i t h s t r o n g P u r i t a n s y m p a t h i e s . He s u b s c r i b e d t o t h e

common b e l i e f s i n i n f a n t b a p t i s m and t i t h i n g , a r g u e d

a g a i n s t I n d e p e n d e n t s a nd B a p t i s t s i n t h e s e m a t t e r s ,

and m a i n t a i n e d t h e s t a n d a r d C a l v i n i s t i c d o c t r i n e s o fo

t o t a l d e p r a v i t y and p r e d e s t i n a t i o n . * T w e n t y - o n e y e a r

o l d George Fox e n j o y e d h i s s e s s i o n s w i t h t h e p r i e s t ,

a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s and b e i n g q u e r i e d i n r e t u r n . Most

l i k e l y Fox l e a r n e d a g r e a t d e a l o f t h e o l o g y d u r i n g t h e s e

t i m e s b u t P r i e s t S t e p h e n s a l s o l e a r n e d f rom F o x ' 3 k e e n

n a t u r a l i n s i g h t s . As W i l l i a m Penn s t a t e d , "The a n s w e r s

^ I b i d . , pp, 4 - 5 ,

^Thomas H o d g k i n , Ge o r p o Fox ( B o s t o n : H o u g h t o n ,M i f f l i n and Company, 1 89 ^ ) , p, 13 ,

he wou ld g i v e , and t h e q u e s t i o n s he wou ld p u t upon

o c c a s i o n , m a n i f e s t e d £ h i s Frame o f mind^ t o t h e a s t o n ­

i s h m e n t o f t h o s e t h a t h e a r d him e s p e c i a l l y i n d i v i n e

t h i n g s , " ^ T h i s c a p a c i t y t o p r o j e c t an image o f u n u s u a l

m e n t a l a t t a i n m e n t s and t h e r e b y s t a r t l e h i s a u d i t o r s

who d i d n o t e x p e c t s u c h " k n a w l e d g e a b i l i t y " f r om an u n ­

s c h o o l e d man was e v i d e n c e d by Fox t h r o u g h o u t h i s l i f e .

I t g r e a t l y e n h a n c e d h i s s t a t u r e a s a c h a r i s m a t i c p e r s o n ,

f o r p e o p l e w e re i n c l i n e d t o r e a s o n t h a t i f F o x ' s wisdom

was n o t l e a r n e d f rom a c a d e m i c i a n s t h e n " s u r e l y " i t mu s t

be o f a s u p e r n a t u r a l o r i g i n , ^ Fox c l a i m e d t h a t t h e

p r i e s t was a t f i r s t so i m p r e s s e d w i t h h i s a n s w e r s t h a t

he p u b l i c l y a p p l a u d e d G e o r a e ' s wi sdom. In f a c t , F o x ' s

i d e a s were so c h a l l e n g i n g t h a t R e v e r e n d S t e p h e n s u s e d

them a s t h e b a s i s f o r h i s Sunday s e r m o n s . The s e n s i t i v e

Geo rge Fox a d m i t t e d t h e r e a f t e r , t h a t b e c a u s e o f t h i s

l a t t e r p r a c t i c e he d i d n o t l i k e t h e l o c a l p r i e s t . In

t h i s i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t Fox was b e g i n n i n g t o f e o l t h a t

a m i n i s t e r ' s s e r m o n s o u g h t t o o r i o i n a t e f r om a h i g h e r

s o u r c e t h a n weekday c o n v e r s a t i o n s . L a t e r , when Fox b e ­

came n o t o r i o u s f o r o p e n l y c r i t i c i z i n g many o f t h e

<1' P e n n , R i s e and P r o g r e s s , p . 52.

2 l n J e s u s ' d a y , t h e J e w s ' a l m o s t r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , "How Knoweth t h i s man l e t t e r s , h a v i n g n e v e r l e a r n e d , " c a r r i e d t h e same c h a r i s m a t i c i m p l i c a t i o n .John 7 : 1 5 ,

129

f u n d a m e n t a l t e a c h i n g s o f t h e C a l v i n i s t i c a l l y i n c l i n e d

n a t i o n a l C h u r c h , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r i e s t s ' p r a c t i c a l

t h e o l o g y , S t e p h e n s became a " g r e a t p e r s e c u t o r " o f F ox ,^

F i n d i n g i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s t h a t S t e p h e n s was

u n a b l e t o m i n i s t e r t o h i s n e e d s , Fox s e t o u t i n s e a r c h

o f a p r i e s t who had some a n s w e r s f o r h im . He was o v e r ­

w h e l m i n g l y d i s a p p o i n t e d . One c l e r g y m a n t o l d him t o " t a k e

t o b a c c o and s i n g p s a l m s . " T h i s same man l a t e r r e v e a l e d

F o x ' s c o n f i d e n t i a l r e m a r k s t o t h e s e r v a n t s so t h a t

F o x ' s t r o u b l e s became common g o s s i p " among t h e m i l k -

l a s s e 3 , " Soon t h e r e a f t e r , Fox f ou n d a n o t h e r p r i e s t

w i t h whom t o s h a r e h i s s p i r i t u a l p l i g h t . The r e l a t i o n ­

s h i p f l o u r i s h e d u n t i l , by c h a n c e , w h i l e c o n v e r s i n g t o ­

g e t h e r i n t h e g a r d e n , Fox a c c i d e n t a l l y s t e p p e d i n t o a

f l o w e r b e d , " a t w h i c h t h e man was i n s u c h a r a g e a s i f

h i s h o u s e had be en on f i r e , " Thus r e l a t e d F o x , " A l l o u r

d i s c o u r s e was l o s t , and I we n t away i n s o r r o w , w o r s e

t h a n I was when I c a m e . " F i n a l l y , one " p r i e s t i n h i g h

a c c o u n t " t h o u g h t t h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t Fox n e e d e d was a

good p h y s i c . S e e i n g t h a t h i s r u n n i n g f rom m i n i s t e r t o

m i n i s t e r was a v a i n c o n s o l a t i o n , Fox c o n c l u d e d , " I

t h o u g h t them m i s e r a b l e c o m f o r t e r s , and I saw t h e y we re

1 | \ l i c l < a l l s , J o u r n a l , p. 5.

1 3D

a l l a s n o t h i n g t o me, f o r t h e y c o u l d n o t r e a c h my c o n ­

d i t i o n . M T o t a l l y d i s m a y e d a t t h e i n e p t i t u d e o f t h e

p r o f e s s i o n a l p r i e s t h o o d , a d d e d t o t h e e v i d e n t l a c k o f

u n d e r s t a n d i n g by p r o f e s s o r s a n d f a m i l y , George b e g a n t o

h a v e p o s s i b l e s u i c i d a l i n c l i n a t i o n s , d e s p a i r i n g o f l i f e ,

a nd w i s h i n g t h a t he had n e v e r b e e n b o r n . ^

The S o l i t a r y C h r i s t i a n

H i s c o n f i d e n c e i n o t h e r s s t r i p p e d by t h e s e u n ­

f o r t u n a t e e x p e r i e n c e s , Fox w e n t i n t o i n c r e a s e d s o c i a l

s e c l u s i o n . At t h e same t i m e , he was c o n s t r a i n e d t o

l i v e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e t r u t h o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a s he

was b e g i n n i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d f o r m u l a t e i t . F o r i n ­

s t a n c e , when i n v i t e d t o m a r r i a g e c e r e m o n i e s he r e f u s e d

t o a t t e n d b u t w o u l d l a t e r v i s i t t h e youn g c o u p l e t o s e e

i f he c o u l d a s s i s t t hem i n a n y way. He r e f r a i n e d f rom

t h e C h r i s t m a s f e s t i v i t i e s o f 1 6 4 5 , c h o o s i n g r a t h e r t o

s p r e a d c h e e r a n d good w i l l by g o i n g among t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d

widows a n d a i d i n g i n t h e i r n e c e s s i t i e s , ^ F o x ' s p r a c t i c e

o f i s o l a t i o n c o n t i n u e d c o n s t a n t , f o r a y e a r l a t e r he

d e p i c t e d h i s b e h a v i o r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r :

Now d u r i n g a l l t h i s t i m e I was n e v e r j o i n e d i n p r o f e s s i o n o f r o l i o i o n w i t h a n y , b u t gave up

1 I b i d . , p p . 5 - 6 ,

2 I b i d . , p . 7 .

131

m y s e l f t o t h e L o r d , h a v i n g F o r s a k e n a l l e v i l company , a n d t a k e n l e a v e o f f a t h e r an d m o t h e r and a l l o t h e r r e l a t i o n s , and t r a v e l l e d up and down a s a s t r a n g e r i n t h e e a r t h , w h i ch way t h e Lord i n c l i n e d my h e a r t , t a k i n g a c ha m be r t o m y s e l f i n t h e town whe re I c a m e , and t a r r y i n g s o m e t i m e s a m o n t h , s o m e t i m e s m o r e , s o m e t i m e s l e s s i n a p l a c e . F o r I d u r s t n o t s t a y l o n g i n any p l a c e , b e i n g a f r a i d b o t h o f p r o f e s s o r and p r o f a n e , l e s t , b e i n g a t e n d e r young man , I s h o u l d be h u r t by c o n v e r s i n g much w i t h e i t h e r .F o r wh i ch r e a s o n I k e p t m y s e l f much a s a s t r a n g e r , s e e k i n q h e a v e n l y wisdom and g e t t i n g k n ow le d g e f ro m t h e L o r d , and was b r o u g h t o f f f r om o u t w a r d t h i n g s t o r e l y w h o l l y on t h e Lord a l o n e . 1

T h i s p a s s a g e c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h e f r a m e o f F o x ' s mind

d u r i n g t h i s f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d i n h i s l i f e . He was d i s ­

t r e s s e d an d a f r a i d , a s t r a n g e wo nde r t o t h o s e who m u s t

h a v e o b s e r v e d h im , a l o n e and s e e k i n g f o r p e a c e o f m i n d ,

a l m o s t d a i l y b e c o m i n g more and more i n t r o v e r t e d and

s u b j e c t i v e i n h i s p e r s o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n . From t i m e t o

t i m e a s he moved a b o u t hie wou ld come upon " t e n d e r

p e o p l e , " t h o s e who we re s e n s i t i v e t o h i s p r o b l e m s and

i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d s h a r e d them i n t h e i r own l i v e s . B u t ,

a l t h o u g h Fox f o u n d many w i t h whom he c o u l d e m p a t h i z e , i t

a p p e a r s t h a t t h e y s t i l l h ad no m e s s a g e f o r him and he

had none f o r t h e m . They were f e l l o w s e e k e r s b u t n o t

f i n d e r s . H ow eve r , i n t h e i r o c c a s i o n a l d i s c o u r s e s and

1 I b i d . , p. 10.

132

m e e t i n g s t h e y wo u l d c o m f o r t one a n o t h e r w i t h t h e hope

t h a t one day t h e "Answer" wo u ld come.^

The M y s t i c a l D i m e n s io n

In F o x ' s d e v e l o p m e n t i n t o a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ,

h i s t r a v e l s t h r o u g h P u r i t a n E n g l a n d were a l m o s t c e r ­

t a i n l y e f f e c t u a l . Howeve r , P u r i t a n i s m was n o t r e s p o n ­

s i b l e f o r h i s r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f m in d . T h e r e f o r e , a

more c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e o f t h e f o r m a t i v e f a c t o r s i n F o x ’ s

m a s s a g e and m i n i s t r y mu s t a l s o i n c l u d e a r e f e r e n c e t o

h i s e n c o u n t e r w i t h m y s t i c i s m . Of one s u c h e x p e r i e n c e

Fox w r o t e :

Wow was I come up i n s p i r i t t h r o u g h t h e f l a m i n g s w o r d i n t o t h e p a r a d i s e o f God, A l l t h i n g s we re new, an d a l l t h e c r e a t i o n gav e a n o t h e r s m e l l u n t o me t h a n b e f o r e , be y o n d wha t w o r d s c a n u t t e r , I knew n o t h i n g b u t p u r e n e s s , a n d i n n o c e n c y , and r i g h t e o u s n e s s , be inc i r e n e w e d up i n t o t h e image o f God by C h r i s t , s o t h a t I s a y I was come up t o t h e s t a t e o f Adam w h i ch he was i n b e f o r e he f e l l ,G r e a t t h i n g s d i d t h e Lord l e a d me i n t o , and w o n d e r f u l d e p t h s we re o p e n e d u n t o me, be y o nd wha t c a n by words be d e c l a r e d ; b u t a s p e o p l e come i n t o s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e s p i r i t o f God, an d grow up i n t h e imaoe and power o f t h e A l m i g h t y , t h e y may r e c e i v e t h e Word o f w isdom, t h a t o p e n s a l l t h i n g s , and come t o know t h e h i d d e n u n i t y i n t h e E t e r n a l B e i n g , 2

The n a t u r e and d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s r a p t u r o u s v i s i o n i s

m a r k e d l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d by members o f

^ I b i d . , pp , 9 - 1 1 ,

2 I b i d , , pp , 2 7 - 2 8 .

4

t h e F a m i l y o f Love a nd J a c o b Boehme i n p a r t i c u l a r .

T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t Fox i n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s i d e o l o g i c a l

a nd m i n i s t e r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t was a s s e n s i b l e t o t h e i n p u t

o f t h e m y s t i c a l s e c t s i n E n g l i s h r e l i g i o u s l i f e a s he

was t o P u r i t a n i s m a nd t h e S c r i p t u r e s , F o x , h o w e v e r , may

be v i e w e d a s more t h a n an e c l e c t i c , f o r h i s m e s s a g e

was s y n c r e t i c . In W i l l i a m P e n n ' s w o r d s , Fox was " a n

o r i g i n a l , b e i n g no m a n ' s c o p y . And h i s m i n i s t r y a n d

w r i t i n g s show t h e y a r e f rom o n e t h a t was n o t t a u g h t o f

man, n o r had l e a r n e d wha t he s a i d by s t u d y , i n o t h e r

w o r d s , t h e m e s s a g e w h i c h Fox came t o p r e a c h , a l t h o u g h i t

c o n t a i n e d and was p r o b a b l y s u g g e s t e d by t h e many e l e ­

m e n t s a l r e a d y c u r r e n t i n E n g l i s h r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t , was

n o t a c c e p t e d by Fox u n t i l he s u b j e c t i v e l y e x p e r i e n c e d

t h e i r t r u t h f u l n e s s . For. Fox , t h i s meant t h a t no s i g n i f ­

i c a n t i d e a c o u l d be a c k n o w l e d g e d w i t h o u t i t f i r s t comin g

t h r o u g h t h e g a t e o f p e r s o n a l r e v e l a t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

i t s h o u l d n o t be s u r p r i s i n g t h a t when we a c t u a l l y come

t o e x am in e F o x ' s d i s c o u r s e s , t h e u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y

^ f d u g o l e t o n s t a t e d t h a t Boehme’ s b o o k s were t h e , c h i e f bo oks b o u o h t by t h e Q u a k e r s , Lodowick M u q g l e t o n ,

L o o k i n n - C l a s s f o r Ceoroe Fox ( L o n d o n : n . p , , 1756 ) ,p , 10 . See a l s o R o b e r t B a r c l a y , The I n n e r L i f e o f t h e R e l i o i o u s S o c i e t i e s o f t h e Commonweal th ("London: Hodde rand S t o u g h t o n , 1 8 7 6 ) , pp , 2 1 4 - 1 5 ; B r a i t h w a i t e , B e g i n n i n g s o f Q u a k e r i s m , pp . 4 0 - 4 1 ,

134

a p p e a l e d t o i n d e f e n s e o f any s t a n c e i s n e i t h e r f a c t s ,

r e a s o n , n o r e v e n S c r i p t u r e s , b u t p r i m a r i l y t h e i n h e r e n t

c e r t i t u d e o f t h e r e v e l a t i o n , t h e " t h u s s a i t h t h e L o r d , "

T h i s m y s t i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f F o x ' s m e s s a g e f u r t h e r

i n t r o d u c e d t h e p r o b l e m o f r h e t o r i c a l i n e f f a b i l i t y . The

t h i n g s w h i c h he w i t n e s s e d i n h i s e x a l t e d s t a t e s we re

" b e y o n d wha t w o r d s c an u t t e r . " S i n c e F o x ’ s k n o w l e d g e

was a t t a i n e d by a m ethod a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e

p r o c e s s e s o f d i s c u r s i v e r e a s o n i n g , i t r e q u i r e d c o n ­

s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t t o c o m m u n i c a t e wha t he knew i n a

t e m p o r a l , l i n e a r s e q u e n c e . In a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a n s f o r m

t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l i n t o t h e d i s c u r s i v e mode , Fox was

c a r B f u l n o t t o d e p r i v e h i s l i s t e n e r s o f t h e G e s t a l t e n

e x p e r i e n c e ,

Even more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h i s phenomenon f o r an

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l modus o o e r a n d i was h i s

t a c i t a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e o n l y way h i s m e s s a g e c o u l d be

m e a n i n g f u l was t h a t " a s p e o p l e come i n t o s u b j e c t i o n t o

t h e s p i r i t o f God, , . , t h e y may r e c e i v e t h e Word o f

wi sdom, t h a t o p e n s a l l t h i n g s , " H e n c e , Fox wou l d

a t t r i b u t e o p p o s i t i o n t o h i s m e s s a g e n o t t o any r h e t o r i ­

c a l i n a d e q u a c y on h i s p a r t n o r t o an i n v e n t i o n a l weak ­

n e s s i n - t h e a r g u m e n t , b u t r a t h e r t o t h e l i s t e n e r s ’ m o r a l

o r s p i r i t u a l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e S o u r c e o f t r u t h . F i n a l l y

135

i t i s i m p e r a t i v e f o r t h e r e a d e r t o n o t e c a r e f u l l y t h a t

wha t Fox e x p e c t e d h i s l i s t e n e r s t o know e s s e n t i a l l y was

n o t c o g n i t i v e b u t " t h e h i d d e n u n i t y i n t h e E t e r n a l

B e i n g f " o r e x p r e s s e d o t h e r w i s e , t h e e x i s t e n t i a l o n e n e s s

w i t h t h e i d e a l i t y w h i ch Fox p r e a c h e d ;

E n l i g h t e n m e n t

The G r e a t I l l u s i o n

E a r l y i n 1646 a g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d o f P u r i t a n i s m

and m y s t i c i s m and w h i l e Fox was a t t h e h e i g h t o f p e r s o n a l

f r u s t r a t i o n , t h e f i r s t o f s e v e r a l s i g n i f i c a n t " o p e n i n g s "

o c c u r r e d . P r o m p t e d by F o x ' s i m m e d i a t e s i t u a t i o n and

p r e s s i n g n e e d s , t h e s e e n l i g h t e n m e n t s w h i c h c o n t i n u e d

t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e s t o f h i s l i f e became t h e s o u r c e , c o n ­

t e n t , and a u t h o r i t y o f t h e m e s s a g e wh i ch he e v e n t u a l l y

p r e a c h e d . H i s f i r s t r e v e l a t i o n c o n f i r m e d w h a t e x ­

p e r i e n c e had p r e v i o u s l y s u g g e s t e d , n a m e l y , t h a t many

C h r i s t i a n s a r e u n d e r a g r o a t i l l u s i o n . As Fox i n

K i e r k e g a a r d i a n f a s h i o n e x p r e s s e d i t i

A c o n s i d e r a t i o n a r o s e i n me, how i t was s a i d t h a t a l l C h r i s t i a n s a r e b e l i e v e r s , b o t h P r o t ­e s t a n t s and P a p i s t s ? and t h e Lord o p e n e d t o me t h a t , i f a l l were b e l i e v e r s , t h e n t h e y w e r e a l l b o r n o f Cod and p a s s e d f rom d e a t h t o l i f e , and t h a t none we re t r u e b e l i e v e r s b u t s u c h ; an d t h o u g h o t h e r s s a i d t h e y we re b e l i e v e r s , y e t t h e y we re n o t . ' *

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a 1 , p. 7,

136

I t was f rom t h i s p o i n t on t h a t Fox saw c l e a r l y t h a t a

man c o u l d a d h e r e t o a F o r m a l c r e e d w i t h o u t a c t u a l l y

b e i n o r e l i g i o u s , t h a t a man c o u l d g i v e i n t e l l e c t u a l

a s s e n t t o a g o s p e l w i t h o u t e x p e r i e n t i a l i n v o l v e m e n t ,

t h a t a man c o u l d c o n c e p t u a l i z e t r u t h w i t h o u t i n t e r ­

n a l i z i n g i t . Fox i m p l i e d t h a t t h i s i n s i g h t s o l v e d t h e

r i d d l e a b o u t t h e i n c o n s i s t e n t b e h a v i o r o f t h e r e l i g i o u s

p r o f e s s o r s and h i s own p a s s i o n a t e d e s i r e t o l i v e i n

s t r i c t a c c o r d a n c e w i t h e v e r y t h i n g t h a t he b e l i e v e d .

W hi l e Fox d i d n o t r e a l i z e i t a t t h e t i m e , t h i s r e v e l a ­

t i o n c r e a t e d f o r him t h e r h e t o r i c a l d i l emma o f t r y i n g

t o make C h r i s t i a n s o u t o f p e o p l e who p e r c e i v e d t h e m ­

s e l v e s t o be C h r i s t i a n s a l r e a d y .

O x f o r d No t Enough

I f t h i s i l l u m i n a t i o n d i d p r o v i d e Fox w i t h a

r a t i o n a l e f o r h i s e s t r a n g e d b e h a v i o r t o w a r d p r o f e s s o r s

o f r e l i g i o n , i t d i d n o t b ey o n d p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e

j u s t i f y h i s d i s g r u n t l e m e n t o f t h o s e i n h o l y o r d e r s .

T h e r e f o r e , a s one b e g i n s t o s e n s e F o x ' s p r o p e n s i t y and

p o s s i b l e p s y c h o - s p i r i t u a l n e e d f o r r e v e l a t i o n s u p p o r t e d

r a t i o n a l e s , i t b ecomes a l m o s t p r e d i c t a b l e t h a t ho w i l l

e x p e r i e n c e a n o t h e r ' ' o p e n i n g , ” C o n s e q u e n t l y , s h o r t l y

a f t e r h i s f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t i n s i g h t , he r e c o u n t e d :

The Lord o p e n e d u n t o me t h a t b e i n g b r e d a t O x f o r d o r C a m br i dg e was n o t e n o u g h t o f i t and

137

q u a l i f y men t o be m i n i s t e r s o f C h r i s t ; a n d I s t r a n p e d a t i t b e c a u s e i t was thB common b e l i e f o f p e o p l e . But I saw c l e a r l y * a s t h e Lo rd o p e n e d i t t o me, a n d was s a t i s f i e d , a n d a d m i r e d t h e g o o d n e s s o f t h e Lord who had o p e n e d t h i s t h i n g u n t o me t h a t m o r n i n g , w h i c h s t r u c k a t P r i e s t S t e p h e n s ' s m i n i s t r y , n a m e l y , t h a t t o be b r e d a t O x f o r d o r Ca m br id g e was n o t e n o u g h t o makB a man f i t t o be a m i n i s t e r o f C h r i s t . So t h a t wh i ch o p e n e d i n me, I s a w , s t r u c k a t t h e p r i e s t ’ s m i n i s t r y . 1

Fox was c o r r e c t i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t i t was a common b e l i e f

t h a t m i n i s t e r s s h o u l d be u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n e d , b u t we a l s o

know t h a t a b o u t t h i s same t i m e , i n d e p e n d e n t c h u r c h e s

and d i s s e n t i n g g r o u p s were i n c r e a s i n g l y e m p h a s i z i n g

( a t l e a s t p e r m i t t i n g i f n o t a l w a y s e n c o u r a g i n g ) l a y

p r e a c h i n g . ^ F o r i n s t a n c e , Jo hn W e b s t e r , who may be

n u m b e r e d among t h e S e e k e r s , p r e s e n t e d f i v e a r g u m e n t s

a g a i n s t t h e n e e d f o r human l e a r n i n g i n t h e m i n i s t r y . He

a s s e r t e d t h a t

1 , S p i r i t u a l t r u t h s c a n n o t be d i s c o v e r e d o r a c q u i r e d by n a t u r a l p o w e r s ,

2 , H i s t o r y shows t h a t s c h o l a r s o f t h e p a s t have n o t known t h e mind o f Cod t h r o u g h human wisdom.

3 , Human wisdom and t h e G o s p e l a r e d i s s o n a n t and n a t u r a l man d o e s n o t f i n d what he d o e s n o t l i k e .

1 1b i d .

? Se e B a r c l a y , "The Cus tom o f P r e a c h i n g i n t h e C h u r c h e s a f t e r t h e P r i e s t , " i n I n n e r L i f e , C h a p t e r X I I ,

138

4 , IF human wisdom c o u l d know God i t wou ldg i v e man c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e f l e s h w h ic hi s c o n t r a r y t o G o d ' s d e s i g n ,

5 , The wisdom o f t h e f l e s h i s d e s t r u c t i v e t o t r u t h b e c a u s e i t a p p e a r s a s f o o l i s h ­n e s s . 1

Fox wou l d ha v e b e e n s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h W e b s t e r ' s a r g u m e n t s

a nd i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e i r c u r r e n c y i n E n g l a n d , i t i s

d i f f i c u l t t o c a l l h i s r e v e l a t i o n r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n t h e

h i s t o r y o f i d e a s , Howeve r , Fox p r o b a b l y t h o u g h t i t n o v e l

o r o r i g i n a l b e c a u s e o f t h e mariner i n w h i c h he came t o

a c c e p t t h e b e l i e f , t h a t i s , t h r o u q h i l l u m i n a t i o n r a t h e r

t h a n i n s t r u c t i o n . F u r t h e r , i t s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d t h a t

F o x ' s i n s i g h t d i d n o t p r o h i b i t e d u c a t e d men f rom m in ­

i s t e r i n g , n o r d i d i t p r e v e n t l a y p r e a c h e r s f r om be com ing

e d u c a t e d , b u t i t d i d a f f i r m t h a t e d u c a t i o n was c e r ­

t a i n l y n o t s u f f i c i e n t ( w h i c h e ve n A n g l i c a n s an d P r e s ­

b y t e r i a n s t h e o r e t i c a l l y a d v o c a t e d ) , a nd t h a t e d u c a t i o n

was n o t evon n e c e s s a r y t o q u a l i f y a man f o r t h e ministry.^ It was o f c o u r s e by t h e a u t h o r i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a nd

o r d i n a t i o n t h a t n a t i o n a l C h u r c h m i n i s t e r s s o u g h t t o

c o n s t r a i n p o p u l a r o b e d i e n c e t o t h e i r t e a c h i n g s and t r a ­

d i t i o n s . F o x , by s u p p l a n t i n g t r a d i t i o n a l o r d i n a t i o n

‘' J o h n W e b s t e r , The S a i n b s Guide (Londons G i l e s C a l v e r t , - 1 6 5 4 ) , pp, 2 - 3 ,

2F o r a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t by Fox a b o u t m e c h a n i c

( l a y ) p r e a c h e r s s e e , E p i s t l e s , no . 249 ( 1 6 6 7 ) , pp . 2 8 6 - 9 1 ,

139

w i t h t h e c h a r i s m a t i c , f e l t j u s t i f i e d i n t h e l i g h t o f

h i s r e v e l a t i o n t o e v a l u a t e s u b j e c t i v e l y t h e l e g i t i m a c y

o f any m a n ' s m i n i s t r y .

ThB True C h u r c h

C o n f i r m e d i n h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s m , f o x c o m p l e t e l y

a b s e n t e d h i m s e l f f r o m t h e c h u r c h e s o f E n g l a n d , S u n d a y s

were s p e n t i n f i e l d s , r e a d i n o t h e B i b l e , w a i t i n g upon

God t o t e a c h t h e t r u t h which m i n i s t e r s had been u n a b l e

t o do . On one s u c h o c c a s i o n he r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d t h e

C h u r c h . As he a c c o u n t e d :

. . , i t was o p e n e d i n me t h a t God, whomade t h e w o r l d , d i d nob d w e l l i n t e m p l e s made w i t h h a n d s . T h i s , a t t h e f i r s t , s e em e d a s t r a n g e word b e c a u s e b o t h p r i e s t s and p e o p l e u s e d t o c a l l t h e i r t e m p l e s o r c h u r c h e s , d r e a d ­f u l p l a c e s , and h o l y g r o u n d , and t h e t e m p l e s o f God, But t h e Lord showed me, so t h a t I d i d s e e c l e a r l y , t h a t he d i d n o t d w e l l i n t h e s e t e m p l e s w h i c h men had commanded and s e t u p , b u t i n p e o p l e ' s h e a r t s ; f o r b o t h S t e p h e n and t h e A p o s t l e P a u l b o r e t e s t i m o n y t h a t he d i d n o t d w e l l i n t e m p l e s made w i t h h a n d s , n o t ever t i n t h a t w h i c h he had on c e commanded t o be b u i l t , s i n c e he p u t an end t o i t ; b u t t h a t h i s p e o p l e ware h i s t e m p l e , and he d w e l t i n t h e m . 2

T h i s i n s i g h t was o b v i o u s l y m e d i a t e d by t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e

B i b l e , In t h a t r e s p e c t i t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i t

V o r an exam ple o f F o x ' s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e p r i e s t s s e e , E p i s t l e s , No. 91 ( 1 6 5 5 ) , pp . 9 8 - 9 9 ,

2N i c l < a l l s , Jou rn a I , p. 8.

140

r e v e a l s t h a t d u r i n g t h e f o r m a t i v e y e a r s o f l i f e , Fox

was g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t h o u g h t s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n

t h e S c r i p t u r e s . ^ F u r t h e r , i t shows t h a t a t t h i s s t a g e

i n h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , F o x ' s r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f m ind was

s t i l l q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e n o r m a l s t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

I n f a c t , t h e two p r e v i o u s r e v e l a t i o n s w e r e a l s o f a r r e ­

moved f rom e c s t a c y . In t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e he s i m p l y

e x p l a i n e d t h a t a s he was e n t e r i n g C o v e n t r y " a c o n s i d e r a ­

t i o n a r o s e " w i t h i n h im . In t h e s e c o n d a nd t h i r d , w h i l e

c r o s s i n g a f i e l d , h i s mind was s u d d e n l y i l l u m i n a t e d .

A p a r t f r om m e d i t a t i n g upon t h e S c r i p t u r e s and t h e

p o s s i b l e t h o u g h t f u l n e s s one may e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e c o u r s e

o f a s o l i t a r y w a l k , Fox d i d n o t emp loy a ny a r t i f i c i a l

means t o i n d u c e t h e r e v e l a t o r y f r am e o f m i n d . H i s own

p e r s o n a l m e n t a l a g i t a t i o n a p p e a r s t o be t h e m a i n s p r i n g

f o r t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s e i d e a s . Ho w eve r , a s a l r e a d y

1 A f o l l o w e r o f Fox l a t e r p u t i t t h u s l y i " Y e t I do c o n f e s s , i t was some A dv a n t ag e t o me f r e q u e n t l y t o r e a d t h e Holy S c r i p t u r e s when I was i g n o r a n t , an d d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e g r o a t and e x c e l l e n t t h i n g s o r M a t t e r s t h e r e i n t e s t i f i e d o f f f o r when t h e Lord h a d l i v i n g l y i n some Measure o p e n e d my U n d e r s t a n d i n t a i n t h e Hnlv S c r i p t u r e s , by my o f t e n r e a d i n g t h e same b e f o r e , h a v i n g t h e b e t t e r Remembrance t h e r e o f , i t was a H e l p and A d v a n t a g e t o my S e c r e t M e d i t a t i o n s , when a l i v e l y S e n s e and C o m f o r t o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s was i n m e a s u r e g i v e n me by t h e S p i r i t , a n d t h o r e b y I was t h e more i n d u c e d t o t h e s e r i o u s • r e a d i n n and C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f what I r e a d i n t h e Ho 1y S c r i p t u r e s . . . , George W h i t e h e a d , The C h r i s t i a nP r o n r e s s o f t h a t A n c i e n t S e r v a n t an d M i n i s t e r o f J e s u sC h r i s t , Graoroe Whi t e h e ad (London* P r i n t e d by J . S o w l e , 1 7 2 5 7 7 P. 16.

1 4 1

i n d i c a t e d , Fox " n e e d e d " r e v e l a t i o n s t o w a r r a n t and

v a l i d a t e h i s b e l i e f s , so u n c o n s c i o u s l y he may have

" f o r c e d " r e v e l a t i o n s upon h i s m ind .

The C o r n e r s t o n e o f Fox * s Message a n d M i n i s t r y

A N o n - R a t i o n a l E p i s t e m o l o g y

D u r i n g t h i s t i m e Fox became i n c r e a s i n g l y aw are

t h a t t h e k n o w l e d g e f o r w h i ch he s o u g h t was c a s t i n a

d i f f e r e n t mo ld t h a n t h a t w h i ch men commonly d e r i v e d

f rom " h i s t o r y o r b o o k s . " He s t a t e d t h a t

The k n o w l e d g e . . . i n t h e s p i r i t i s l i f e , b u t t h a t k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s f l e s h l y works d e a t h .And w h i l e t h e r e i s t h i s k n o w l e d g e i n t h e f l e s h , d e c e i t and s e l f - w i l l c o n fo r m t o a n y t h i n g , and w i l l s a y , ' Y e s , y e s ' , t o t h a t i t d o t h n o t know, The k n o w l e d g e w h i ch t h e w o r l d h a t h o f wha t t h e p r o p h e t s and a p o s t l e s sp a k e i s a f l e s h l y k n o w l e d g e ; a nd t h e a p o s t a t e s f rom t h e l i f e i n wh ich t h e p r o p h e t s and a p o s t l e s w e r e , hav e o o t t e n t h e i r w o r d s , t h e Holy S c r i p t u r e s , i n a f o r m , b u t n o t i n t h e i r l i f e n o r s p i r i t t h a t gave them f o r t h , And so t h e y a l l l i e i n c o n f u s i o n and rare mak ing p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e f l e s h , . , , , b u t n o t t o f u l f i l t h e l aw and command o f C h r i s t i n h i s power and s p i r i t , . ,

Fox ha d o f c o u r s e been p r a g m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t i n q on t h i s

b a s i s f o r some t i m e . T h i s o p e n i n g ' s s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e

i s i n t h e f a c t t h a t Fox had now i n h i s own s i m p l e m ann e r

s u c c e e d o d i n c o n s c i o u s l y r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e a n s w e r t o

1 1 b i d . , pp. 10-11.

h i s d i s t r e s s a n d t h a t o f t h e m u t u a l l y t e n d e r p e o p l e , a s

w e l l a s a l l men i n g e n e r a l * was l o c a t e d i n a n o n - r a t i o n a l

e p i s t e m o l o g y oF i n s i g h t s , r e v e l a t i o n s , an d i n t u i t i o n s .

T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n m u s t n o t be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d s i n c e i t

c o n t a i n s a m a j o r ke y f o r c o m p r e h e n d i n g F o x ' s co m m u n i ca ­

t i v e b e h a v i o r s . P r i o r t o t h i s i l l u m i n a t i o n , Fox u n d e r ­

s t o o d t h a t " t r u e b e l i e v e r s " we re t h o s e who had " p a s s e d

f r o m d e a t h t o l i f e , " 2 a n d t h a t a l l o t h e r s who c l a i m e d t o

be C h r i s t i a n s were b u t s u f f e r i n g u n d e r an i l l u s i o n .

Now, w i t h j u s t a l i t t l e r e f l e c t i o n , Fox wou ld be a b l e

t o a p p r e h e n d t h a t t h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r i l l u s i o n i s i n

p a r t a t t r i b u t a b l e t o an i n c o r r e c t e p i s t e m o l o g y , i . e . ,

p e o p l e a s s u m i n g t h a t a kn o w l e d g e o f t h e f l e s h was

e q u i v a l e n t t o a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s p i r i t , t h a t an o b ­

j e c t i v e k n ow le dg e a m o u n t ed t o an i n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e .

He mus t a l s o c o m p r e h e n d and work o u t p r a c t i c a l l y how

f a r r e v e l a t i o n c a n s u p p l e m e n t and e v e n s u p e r s e d e t h e o b ­

j e c t i v e e x t e r n a l a u t h o r i t i e s s u c h a s an i n f a l l i b l e c h u r c h ,

an i n f a l l i b l e Book , and human r e a s o n i n g w h i c h h a v e t r a ­

d i t i o n a l l y b u t t r e s s e d r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ,

^Compare F o x , Ep i s t l e s , No. 313 ( 1 6 7 4 ) , p . 66 .See a l s o F o x , " C o n c e r n i n g R e v e l a t i o n , P r o p h e c y , M e a s u r e , a nd R u l e : and t h e I n s p i r a t i o n an d S u f f i c i e n c y o f t h e •S p i r i t , " i n G o s p e 1 T r u t h D e m o n s t r a t e d , pp , 531-55G f o r F o x ' s a t t e m p t t o show t h a t h i s p o s i t i o n i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e S c r i p t u r e s .

^ N i c k a l . l s , Jo u rn a 1 , p, 7,

143

Ulan's Remedy

As a c o n s e q u e n c e oF t h i s i n s i g h t , F o x ' s l i f e

now e n t e r e d an i m p o r t a n t t r a n s i t i o n a l p h a s e . The vacuum

c r e a t e d by e m p t y i n g h i m s e l f f r om p e o p l e , t r a d i t i o n s ,

an d i n s t i t u t i o n s be gan t o f i l l up . The f o u n d a t i o n o f

h i s l a t e r m e s s a g e was l a i d . The f i r s t p o s i t i v e b r e a k ­

t h r o u g h came i n f u r t h e r r e v e l a t o r y c o n f i r m a t i o n a n d

a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f h i s n e w l y r e a l i z e d B p i s t e m o l o g y a s t h e

p o t e n t i a l r e m e d y f o r h i s c o n d i t i o n . He t e s t i f i e d !

, . , When a l l my h o p e s i n t hem [ t h e p r i e s t s j and i n a l l men were g o n e , so t h a t I had n o t h i n g o u t w a r d l y t o h e l p me, n o r c o u l d t e l l wha t t o d o , t h e n , Oh t h e n , I h e a r d a v o i c e w h i c h s a i d , ' T h e r e i s o n e , e v e n C h r i s t J e s u s , t h a t c an s p e a k t o t h e y c o n d i t i o n ' , and whnn I h e a r d i t my h e a r t d i d l e a p f o r j o y . Then t h e Lord d i d l e t me s e e why t h e r e was none upon t h e e a r t h t h a t c o u l d s p e a k t o my c o n d i t i o n , n a m e l y , t h a t I m i g h t g i v e him a l l t h e g l o r y ; f o r a l l a r e c o n c l u d e d u n d e r s i n , an d s h u t up i n u n ­b e l i e f a s I had been ' , t h a t J e s u s C h r i s t m i g h t have t h e p r e - e m i n e n c e , who e n l i g h t e n s , and o i v e s g r a c e , and f a i t h , and p ow e r . T h u s , when Cod d o t h work who s h a l l l e t [ p r e v e n t ] ] i t ? And t h i s I knew e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .1

Fox was now so c o m p l e t e l y c o n v i n c e d o f t h e p r i m a c y and

n e c e s s i t y f o r a l l p e o p l e t o a c t u a l i z e p e r s o n a l l y a r e ­

v e a l e d t r u t h w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d them

h e l p l e s s i n p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e i r own n e e d s w i t h o u t i t ,

H i s c o n c e p t i o n o f man a p a r t f rom r e v e a l e d k n o w l e d g e was

1 1 b i d . , p. 11 .

144

" s h u t up i n u n b e l i e f . " No amoun t o f e d u c a t i o n , n o t

e v e n t h e o l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g o r B i b l e s t u d y , wou ld Fox

h e n c e f o r t h a l l o w t o s u p p l a n t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p e r s o n a l

r e v e l a t i o n i n e i t h e r h i s l i f e o r thB l i v e s o f t h o s e t o

whom he l a t e r m i n i s t e r e d . ^

As Fox c o n t i n u e d t o r e f l e c t upon t h e n a t u r e and

c o n d i t i o n o f man, he saw t h a t t h e r e were two " t h i r s t s ”

i n e v e r y man, one f o r e v i l o r u n b e l i e f an d one f o r good

o r b e l i e f , 2 M a n ' s t e n d e n c y f o r e v i l was n a t u r a l , b u t

h i s p o t e n t i a l f o r good was a s u p e r n a t u r a l l i g h t o r im­

p l a n t , Fox r e c o u n t e d :

. . . When I m y s e l f was i n t h e d e e p , u n d e r a l l s h u t u p , I c o u l d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t I s h o u l d e v e r ove rcom e? my t r o u b l e s , my s o r r o w s , and my t e m p t a t i o n s we re so g r e a t , t h a t T t h o u g h t many t i m e s I s h o u l d have d e s p a i r e d , I was so t e m p t e d .But when C h r i s t o p e n ed t o me how he was t e m p t e d by t h e same D e v i l , and had o v e r c a m e him a nd b r u i s e d h i s h e a d , and t h a t t h r o u g h him and h i s p o w e r , l i g h t , g r a c e and s p i r i t , I s h o u l d o v e r ­come a l s o , I had c o n f i d e n c e i n h im. So he i t was t h a t o p e n e d t o me when I was s h u t up a n d had n o t hope n o r f a i t h , C h r i s t i t was who had e n l i o h t e n e d me, t h a t gave me h i s l i g h t t o b e l i e v e i n , a nd gave me h o p e , w h i c h i s h im ­s e l f , r e v e a l e d h i m s e l f i n me, a nd gave me h i s s p i r i t and gav e me h i s o r a c e , w h i c h I f o u n d s u f f i c i e n t i n t h e d e e p s and i n w e a k n e s s ,

So C h r i s t , t h e Word o f Cod, t h a t b r u i s e d t h e he ad o f t h e S e r p e n t t h e d e s t r o y e r , p r e s e r v e d

1 F o x , E p i s t l e s , No. 169 ( 1 6 5 8 ) , p . 1 5 7 .

■ ^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p , 11 ,

145

me, my i n w a r d mind b e i n g j o i n e d t o h i s good S e e d , , , , 1

T h i s q u o t a t i o n i s e s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y b e c a u s e i t

c o n t a i n s two o f t h e mo s t p r o m i n e n t B i b l i c a l l y d e r i v e d

m e t a p h o r s , t h e " L i g h t " and t h e " S e e d , " ^ t h r o u g h w h i c h

Fox c o n c e i v e d and e x p r e s s e d m a n ' s r e v e l a t o r y f a c u l t y .

M a n ' s S u b j e c t i v i t y

As a c o n s e q u e n c e o f F o x ' s i n c r e a s e d e n l i g h t e n ­

m e n t , he h i m s e l f became more i n t e n s e l y i n t r o v e r t e d . I t

may be n o t e d t h a t he was d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t one o f t h e

f u n c t i o n s o f t h e L i g h t was t o m a n i f e s t a l l t h a t was

c o n t r a r y t o t h e law o f t h e S p i r i t o r t h e l o v e o f God,

Fox r e l i e d upon f i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e t o d e s c r i b e h i s

i n w a r d e x p e r i e n c e s t h r o u g h w h i ch ho s o u g h t t o e x p l a i n

how a " p u r e f i r e " a p p e a r e d i n him and h e l p e d him d i s ­

c e r n h i s own " t h o u g h t s , g r o a n s an d s i g h s . "4 He a r t i c u l a t e d

^ I b i d . , p p . 1 2 , 13 ,

^ F o r a t h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F o x ' s m e a n i n g f o r " s e e d , " and o t h e r s i m i l a r m e t a p h o r s , s e e Ge o r ge W h i t e h e a d , "An E p i s t l e , By Way o f P r e f a c e , " i n F o x ' s E p i s t l e s , pp . v i - v i i ,

g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e " l i g h t " may be f o u n d i n R a c h e l H a d l e y K i n g , George Fox and t he L i g h t W i t h i n ; 1 (350-1 660 ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F r i e n d s Book S t o r e ,194077

^ N i c k a l l s , Journa1, p. 14.

146

t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e s , c o n f l i c t s , and p a t h o s t h r o u g h

w h i c h a p e r s o n m u s t p a s s i n t h e c o u r s e o f b e c o m i n g

s u b j e c t i v e .

And t h a t wh ic h c o u l d n o t a b i d e i n t h e p a t i e n c e n o r e n d u r e t h e F i r e , i n t h e L i g h t I f o u n d t o be t h e g r o a n s o f t h e f l e s h ( t h a t c o u l d n o t g i v e up t o t h e w i l l o f God) , wh ich h a d v e i l e d me, and t h a t c o u l d n o t be p a t i e n t i n a l l t r i a l s , t r o u b l e s and a n g u i s h e s and p e r p l e x i t i e s , and c o u l d n o t g i v e up s e l f t o d i e by t h e C r o s s , t h e power o f God, . . . And I d i s c e r n e d t h e g r o a n s o f t h e s p i r i t , w h i c h d i d open me, an d made i n t e r c e s s i o n t o God, i n wh ich s p i r i t i s t h e t r u e w a i t i n g upon God f o r t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f t h e body a nd o f t h e who l e c r e a t i o n . And by t h i s t r u e s p i r i t , i n w h i c h t h e t r u e s i g h i n g i s , I saw o v e r t h e f a l s e s i g h i n g s a n d g r o a n i n g s . And by t h i s i n v i s i b l e s p i r i t I d i s c e r n e d a l l t h e f a l s e h e a r i n g and t h e f a l s e s e e i n g , a nd t h e f a l s e s m e l l i n g w h i c h was a t o p , a b o v e t h e S p i r i t , q u e n c h i n g an d g r i e v i n g i t . . . .

And I saw t h e m o u n t a i n s b u r n i n g up a n d t h er u b b i s h , and t h e r o u g h and c r o o k e d ways andp l a c e s mads smo o t h a nd p l a i n t h a t t h e Lord m i g h t come i n t o h i s t a b e r n a c l e . T hes e t h i n g s a r e t o be f o u n d i n m a n ' s h e a r t . But t o s p e a k o f t h e s e t h i n g s b e i n g w i t h i n s ee m ed s t r a n g e t o t h e r o u g h and c r o o k e d and m o u n t a i n o u s o n e s , ' I

T h i s p a s s a g e e x e m p l i f i e s F o x ' s i n w a r d c o n c e r n t o w a r d

t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s own l i f e a s he p e r s o n a l l y r e l a t e d t o

h i s e t h i c o - r e l i g i o u s i d e a l i t y , God, and l i g h t w i t h i n .

T h r o u g h h i s e m p h a s i s upon p a t i e n c e and e n d u r a n c e , one

i s niado c o o n i z a n t t h a t f o x was i n c r e a s i n g l y ( p e r h a p s a t

f i r s t w i t h some r e s i g n a t i o n ) a c c e p t i n g t h e u l t i m a t e

^ I b i d . , p p , 1 5 , 1 6 .

147

p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t s o f a l o n g t e r m comm i tmen t o v e r and

a bo ve and p o s s i b l y even a t t h e e x p e n s e o f i m m e d i a t e

s a t i s f a c t i o n . An i n t i m a t i o n a p p e a r e d i n F o x ' s word s

t o thB e f f e c t t h a t t h e i m m e d i a t e m i t i g a t i o n o f h i s f e l t

n e e d was d e r i v e d f rom a c o n f i d e n c e t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e

g o a l , when f i n a l l y a c h i e v e d , wou l d more t h a n c o m p e n s a t e

f o r any c u r r e n t d i s c o m f o r t . Penn r e m i n d e d u s t h a t Fox

f r e q u e n t l y e n c o u r a g e d h i s l i s t e n e r s " t o w a i t i n p a t i e n c e , " ^

F o x ' s own w o r d s were*

. . , And s o , a l l F r i e n d s , be r e a d y t o o f f e r up y o u r s e l v e s i n t h e power o f God, j o i n i n g t o t h e s u f f e r i n g s e e d , i n wh i ch ye o f f e r up y o u r s e l v e s t o God i n t h e p a t i e n c e , i n y o u r s u f f e r i n g s , f e e l i n g t h e s e e d w h i c h was b e f o r e t h a t wa3 w h i ch makes t o s u f f e r . F o r t h e lamb m u s t have t h e v i c t o r y , m a r k , t h e l am b , and n o t t h e r o u g h n a t u r e wh ic h h a t h g o t t e n up s i n c e man f e l l f rom G a d ' s i m a g e ; t h e lamb m u s t havB t h e v i c t o r y o v e r t h a t .

T h i s p a s s a g e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s t a n d a r d r h e t o r i c a l

t a c t i c o f m y t h i f i c a t i o n wh ic h e s t a b l i s h e d t h o w a r r a n t ,

"Gad i s on o u r s i d e " a s t h e b a s i s f o r e n c o u r a g i n g t h e

e n d u r a n c e o f h a r d s h i p i n t h e l i g h t o f a c l a i m t o

u l t i m a t e v i c t o r y .

The i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t s , t h e p r o c e s s o f s t r i v i n g

w h i c h Fox e x p e r i e n c e d , r e s o l v e d i t s e l f i n t o an i n t e n s i t y

^ P e n n , R i s e and P r o g r e s s , p. 53 .

^ F o x , E p i s t l e s , No, 101 ( 1 6 5 5 ) , p . 104 .

148

o f p u r p o s e q r o u n d e d i n c h o i c e , an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f

t h e v o l i t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . I n c o n t r a ­

d i s t i n c t i o n t o C a l v i n i s m he c o n s e q u e n t l y e m p h a s i z e d a

h e i g h t e n e d e x p e r i e n c e o f f r e e d o m and a c c o u n t a b i l i t y ,

" T h e r e f o r e , " Fox a r g u e d , "Ye , who know t h e l o v e o f God,

and t h e law o f h i s S p i r i t , an d t h e f r e e d o m t h a t i s i n

J e s u s C h r i s t , s t a n d f a s t i n h i m , i n t h a t d i v i n e

f a i t h . . . , F o r t h e m i n i s t r y o f C h r i s t J e s u s a nd h i s

t e a c h i n g b r i n g e t h i n t o l i b e r t y a n d f r e e d o m . . .

T h i s s u b j e c t i f y i n g e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h Fox was now w o r k i n g

o u t i n h i s own l i f e wou ld i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e f i n d

r h e t o r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n t h r o u g h h i s d i s c o u r s e s a s he

became more a c t i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h r a i s i n g t h e g e n e r a l

l e v e l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a b o u t t h e L i g h t ,

F i n a l l y , t h r o u g h t h e s e " o p e n i n g s " Fox c u l m i n a t e d

h i s e s t r a n g e m e n t f rom t h e r u d e p e o p l e , p r o f e s s o r s , a nd

p r i e s t s by d i s a s s o c i a t i n g h i m s e l f f rom a l l t r a d i t i o n a l ,

i n s t i t u t i o n a l , and o r g a n i z e d r e l i g i o n . The h i g h d e g r e e

o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y w h i c h r e s u l t e d d u r i n g F o x ' s f o r m a t i v e

y e a r s s t o o d him i n good s t e a d a s a c o m m u n i c a t o r l a t e r i n

l i f e . S i n c e he was n o t e x c l u s i v e l y e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n

an y one g r o u p , Fox was l e s s l i k e l y t o s u f f e r f rom t h e

^ N i c k a l l s , Journa.1, p. 17.

m yop ic m a l a d i e s o f n a r r o w m i n d e d n e s s a n d s t e r e o t y p e d

v a l u e s a n d b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y c h a r a c ­

t e r i z e s i n g l e g r o u p p e r s o n s a n d t h e r e b y h a n d i c a p t h e i r

c o m m u n i c a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e , ^

A l s o , F o x ' s c o n s t a n t t r a v e l s t h r o u g h t h e l e n g t h and

b r e a d t h o f E n g l a n d e x p o s e d him t o a h o s t o f i d e a s ,

v a r i o u s e n v i r o n m e n t s , a nd s u n d r y p e o p l e s . T h u s , a s a

c o n s e q u e n c e o f h i s W a n d e r l u s t , Fox s h o u l d q u i t e c o n ­

c e i v a b l y g a i n a m u l t i p l e p e r s p e c t i v e up on t h e w o r l d .

T h i s w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y e n h a n c e t h e p o s i t i o n f r o m w h i c h

he c o u l d more m e a n i n g f u l l y c o m m u n i c a t e and r e l a t e t o

t h e d i v e r s e members i n s o c i e t y by a l l o w i n g him t o

s y n t h e s i z e a m e s s a g e r o o t e d i n a b r o a d p o p u l a r i d e o ­

l o g i c a l b a s e a nd i n a s o u n d p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e o f h i s

a u d i e n c e , T h a t t h i s was e x a c t l y wha t o c c u r r e d e i t h e r

by d e s i g n o r c h a n c e we s h a l l s h o r t l y v e r i f y ,

^ W i l l n e r , C h a r i s m a t i c P o l i t i c a l L e a d e r s h i p , p , 51 .

CHAPTER V

GEORGE FOX’ S EARLY COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR

The p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r o u t l i n e d and i n t e r p r e t e d

t h e e x p e r i e n c e s and r e v e l a t i o n s o f Geo rge Fox wh ic h

p l a y e d a F o r m a t i v e r o l e i n h i s d e v e l o p m e n t i n t o a

c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r . T h i s c h a p t e r p r i m a r i l y c o n c e n ­

t r a t e s upon h i s c o m m u n i c a t i v e b e h a v i o r s . I t b e g i n s t o

a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n , "Houi d i d Ge o r ge Fox c o m m u n i c a t e , "

More b r o a d l y , i t s e e k s t o u n c o v e r how Fox t r a n s F a r m e d

h i s p r i v a t e v i s i o n s i n t o a c h a r i s m a t i c movemen t . In

o r d e r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g y

m us t F i r s t be s u m m a r i z e d and t h e n h i s a c t u a l t a c t i c s

c a n be e x a m i n e d .

The S t r a t e o y

George F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l o b j e c t i v e was t o r e v i v e

New T e s t a m e n t C h r i s t i a n i t y i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

T h i s n e c e s s i t a t e d t r a n s F o r m i n g s i n n e r s i n t o s a i n t s ,

F a l s e C h r i s t i a n s i n t o t r u e C h r i s t i a n s , an d i m m a t u r e

C h r i s t i a n s i n t o m a t u r e C h r i s t i a n s , As Fox p h r a s e d i t :

. I was s e n t 'To t u r n p e o p l e From d a r k n e s s t o t h e l i g h t , ' w h i c h C h r i s t , , , , ,

d i d e n l i g h t e n them w i t h a l ; t h a t s o t h e y m i g h t s e e C h r i s t , t h e i r way t o God, w i t h t h e s p i r i t oF God, wh ich he d o t h p o u r upon a l l f l e s h , t h a t w i t h i t t h e y m i g h t have an u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o know t h e t h i n g s o f God,, . , ; and so m i g h t w o r s h i p and s e r v e thBl i v i n g God, , , , j and w i t h t h e l i g h t ands p i r i t o f God t h e y m i g h t know t h e s c r i p t u r e s , w h i c h were g i v e n f o r t h f rom t h e s p i r i t o f God i n t h e s a i n t s , , .

In g e n e r a l , t u r n i n g p e o p l e f r om d a r k n e s s t o t h e l i g h t

m ean t d e n o u n c i n g a l l Forms o f l e g a l an d t r a d i t i o n a l

a u t h o r i t i e s w h i ch e n c o u r a g e d o b j e c t i v i t y a t t h e e x ­

p e n s e o f p e r s o n a l r e v e l a t i o n and s u b j e c t i v i t y . T h e r e f o r e ,

w h i l e t h e L i g h t w i t h i n may be t h o u g h t o f a s t h e main

a r t i c l e a nd p r e m i s e o f P o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r , i t

a l s o i m p l i e d many o t h e r c o n s e q u e n t i a l e l e m e n t s .

Prom t h e L e t t e r t o t h e L i f e

P o x ' s s t r a t e g y i n c l u d e d t u r n i n g p e o p l e away

f rom t h e p r e a c h i n g and r e a d i n g o f t h e 11 l e t t e r ” o f t h e

S c r i p t u r e s t o t h e h e a r i n g o f t h e S p i r i t w h i c h i n ­

s p i r e d t h e o r i g i n a l p r o p h e t s and B i b l i c a l a u t h o r s ,

I t i s known t h a t Pox r e a l i z e d t r u t h t h r o u g h r e v e l a t i o n

an d t h e n o n l y a f t e r w a r d s d i d he c o n f i r m i t by s e a r c h i n g

t h e S c r i p t u r e s . He c l a i m e d t h a t " t h o u g h I r e a d t h e

^ P o x , "A T e s t i m o n y , How t h e Lord S e n t George Pox F o r t h a t F i r s t , i n t h e Yea r 1 6 4 3 , " i n E p i s t l e s , p . 2 . See a l s o N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a 1, p . 3 4 .

152

S c r i p t u r e s t h a t s p o k e o f C h r i s t . . , y e t I. knew him

h u t by [ p e r s o n a l ! r e v e l a t i o n . " ^ When Fax b e g a n t o

make t h i s a t t i t u d e p u b l i c , many t h o u g h t t h a t he was

d e p r e c i a t i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e B i b l e , b u t t h a t was

n e v e r t h e c a s e , ^ He a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d a v e r y h i g h

r e g a r d f o r t h e S c r i p t u r e s . A l t h o u g h an e x a g g e r a t e d

s t a t e m e n t one man r e p o r t e d , " I ha v e h e a r d somB o f h i s

F r i e n d s s a y ( a n d t h o s e n o t o f t h e V u l g a r s i z e , b u t Men

o f L e a r n i n g an d K no w le d ge ) t h a t t h o u g h t h e B i b l e weren

l o s t , i t m i g h t be f o u n d i n t h e Mouth o f George F o x , "

F o x ' s o n l y p u r p o s e i n c r i t i c i z i n g t h e B i b l e ' s e f f i c a c y

was t o b r i n g men away f rom t h e i r c o n f u s i o n o f t h e

e x t e r n a l w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l r e a l i t y by p u t t i n g e a c h i n

p e r s p e c t i v e . T h i s may be f u r t h e r u n d e r s t o o d when John

O w en ' s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t e d p o i n t o f v i ew r e g a r d i n g

t h e B i b l e i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h F o x ' s . I n h i s w o r k , jft

D i s c o u r s e C o n c e r n i n g t h e Holy S p i r i t , Owen a s s e r t e d

" t h a t a/e b e l i e v e i n J e s u s C h r i s t a s t h e Son o f God

b e c a u s e t h e S c r i p t u r e s command u s so t o c [o . "4 Fox on

1 N . i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p . 11 .

^ F o x , S a u l *s E r r a n d t o D a m a s c u s , p . 59 2 .

^ G e r a r d C r o s s e , The G e n e r a l H i s t o r y o f t h e Q u a k e r s (London* John D u n t o n , 169G-) , p. 1 4 .

^ J o h n Owen, J\ D i s c o u r s e C o n c e r n i n g t h e Ho ly S p i r i t ( L on do n : N a t h a n a e l P o n d e r , 1 6 7 4 J ! v i , 1 - 2 , The e m p h a s i si s m i n e .

1 53

t h e o t h e r han d f o r t h r i g h t l y s t a t e d t h a t " t o b e l i e v e

o n l y o f a C h r i s t b e c a u s e t h e S c r i p t u r e s d e c l a r e o f h i m ,

i s t o b e l i e v e a s t h e P h a r i s e e s d i d b e l i e v e , who were

t h e P e r s e c u t o r s an d m u r d e r e r s o f t h e J u s t , " H i s

p o s i t i o n on how t o a p p r o a c h t h e S c r i p t u r e s i s q u i t B

c l e a r and i m p o r t a n t ,

I saw a l s o how p e o p l e r e a d t h e S c r i p t u r e s w i t h o u t a r i g h t s e n s e o f t h e m , and w i t h o u t d u l y a p p l y i n g t hem t o t h e i r own s t a t e s .

And I saw t h a t none c o u l d r e a d J o h n ' s words a r i g h t and w i t h a t r u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m , b u t i n a n d by h i s b u r n i n g , s h i n i n g l i g h t , wh i ch i s s e n t f r om God. . . . A l l m u s t f i r s t know t h e v o i c e c r y i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , i n t h e i r h e a r t s , w h i c h t h r o u g h t r a n s g r e s s i o n were become a s a w i l d e r n e s s , Thus I saw i t was an e a s y m a t t e r t o s a y d e a t h r e i g n e d f rom Adam t o n o s e s , and t h a t t h e l e a s t i n t h e k ingdom i s g r e a t e r t h a n John? b u t no ne c o u l d know d e a t h r e i g n e d f rom Adam t o Mo s es , e t c . , b u t by t h e same Ho ly S p i r i t w h i c h Mo s es , an d t h e p r o p h e t s , a nd John were i n . They c o u l d n o t know t h e s p i r i t u a l m e a n i n g o f M o s e s * , t h e p r o p h e t s ' , and J o h n s ' w o r d s , . . . , u n l e s s t h e y had t h e S p i r i t and t h e l i g h t o f J e s u s j n o r c o u l d t h e y know t h e w o r d s o f C h r i s t and o f h i s a p o s t l e s w i t h o u t h i s S p i r i t . But a s man . . . i s l e d by t h e Ho ly Ghos t i n t o t h e t r u t h and s u b s t a n c e o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s , s i t t i n g down i n him who i s t h e a u t h o r and e nd o f t h e m , t h e n a r e t h e y r e a d and u n d e r s t o o d w i t h p r o f i t an d g r e a t d e l i g h t , 2

V o x , "The D i f f e r e n c e Be tween t h e W o r l d ’ s R e l a ­t i o n , and t h e S a i n t ' s R e l a t i o n , " i n G o s p e 1 T r u t h D e m o n s t r a t e d (Londons P r i n t e d by T. S o w l e , 1 7 0 6 ) , p . 1 6 6 , -

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , pp. 3 1 -3 2 .

154

Here Fox F o r m a l l y e x e m p l i f i e d wha t I h a v e i n s e v e r a l

p l a c e s d e m o n s t r a t e d f rom h i s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s , t h a t

t h e s p i r i t u a l o r s u b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e a nd r e l a t i o n s h i p

m us t t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e o b j e c t i v e . How eve r , t h i s

i l l u s t r a t e s more t h a n a p o s i t i o n o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s f o r

i t was t h e e s s e n t i a l s t r a t e g y u n d e r g i r d i n g a l l o f h i s

r h e t o r i c and r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r .

From R i t u a l t o R e a l i t y

Fox p a r t i c u l a r i z e d h i s s t r a t e g y t h r o u g h s e v e r a l

o t h e r i n s t a n c e s . As he i n f o r m e d u s , he was " t o b r i n g

p e o p l e o f f f rom a l l t h e w o r l d ' s r e l i g i o n s , " ^ He re he

r e a s o n e d t h a t t h e c u r r a n t r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s we re v a i n

an d i n c o n s i s t e n t : t h e y d e v i a t e d f r om t h e e s s e n t i a l

n a t u r e o f B i b l i c a l r e l i g i o n p u r e i n i t s c a r e f o r t h e

p o o r and n e e d y r a t h e r t h a n o p p r e s s i n g t h e m , a nd p u r e i n

i t s c h a n g e l e s s n e s s ,

C h u r c h - f a i t h c h a n g e t h , D i r e c t o r y c h a n g e t h ,Common P r a y e r c h a n g e t h , a n d Hass c h a n g e t h ,And t h e r e a r e t h e f o u r r e l i g i o n s w h i c h a r e g a t up s i n c e t h e a p o s t l e s ' d a y s ; w h i c h t h e y have f o u g h t f o r arid k i l l e d one a n o t h e r a b o u t ,But t h e p u r e r e l i g i o n d o t h n o t c h a n g e wh ich we a r e o f and own. . . .*

1 I b i d . , p . 3 5 .

^ F o x , E p i s t l e s , Wo. 171 ( 1 6 5 9 ) , p . 1 6 0 . Compare t h i s w i t h F o x ' s e x h o r t a t i o n "To F r i e n d s i n t h e M i n i s t r y " t h a t t h e y do n o t " j a n g l e a b o u t c h a n o e a b l e t h i n g s . " E p i s t l e s , No. 176 ( 1 6 5 9 ) , p. 1 6 8 .

155

He was a l s o t o b r i n g men " o f f f rom a l l t h e

w o r l d ' s f e l l o w s h i p s , an d p r a y i n g s , and s i n g i n g s , " ' *

Whi le o b v i o u s l y n o t o p p o s e d t o f e l l o w s h i p , p r a y i n g ,

and s i n g i n g , Fox r e s i s t e d t h o s e who e n j o i n e d t h e s e

p r a c t i c e s a s e x e r c i s e s i n r o t e , u n t h i n k i n g , a n d r i t ­

u a l i s t i c b e h a v i o r s w i t h o u t g e n u i n e e x i s t e n t i a l i t y , Fox

e x p r e s s e d t h i s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m an ne r s "Now f r i e n d s ,

who have d e n i e d t h e w o r l d ' s s o n g s a nd s i n g i n g ; s i n g ye

i n t h e s p i r i t , an d w i t h g r a c e , m a k i n g melody i n y o u r

h e a r t s t o t h e L o r d . And ye h a v i n g d e n i e d t h e w o r l d ' s

f o r m a l p r a y i n g , p r a y ye a l w a y s i n t h e s p i r i t , , . .

F u r t h e r , Fox f e l t c o m p e l l e d " t o b r i n g p e o p l e o f f f r om

J e w i s h c e r e m o n i e s , and f rom h e a t h e n i s h f a b l e s , and f rom

m e n ' s i n v e n t i o n s and w indy d o c t r i n e s . T h i s com­

p u l s i o n became t h e i m p e t u s f o r many o f F o x ' s mos t

v e h e m e n t d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f s u c h d o c t r i n e s an d p r a c t i c e s

a s i n f a n t b a p t i s m , a d u l t w a t e r b a p t i s m , t h e E u c h a r i s t ,

t h e u se o f i m a g e s and c r o s s e s , t h e o b s e r v a n c e o f h o l y

d a y s , and t h e e n t i r e r e l i g i o u s a nd l e g a l s y s t e m w h i ch

demanded t i t h e s f rom t h e p e o p l e f o r t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e

" * N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p . 35 ,

^ F o x , E p i s t l e s , No, 167 ( 1 6 5 8 ) , pp . 1 5 5 - 5 6 .

N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p , 3 6 .

156

n a t i o n a l m i n i s t r y . ^ F o x , i n a l l h i s p r e a c h i n g ,

s p i r i t u a l i z e d t h e s e m a t t e r s , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t t h e i r

v e r i t y and v i t a l i t y was n o t r e s i d e n t i n o u t w a r d o b ­

s e r v a n c e s b u t i n i n w a r d r e a l i t i e s ,

A l s o , F o x , who n e v e r d r ew a d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw ee n

r e l i g i o u s and s e c u l a r s p h e r e s o f d i s c o u r s e f e l t l e d t o

c r y o u t a g a i n s t m a g i s t r a t e s , m e r c h a n t s , and m o u n t e ­

b a n k s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n j u s t i c e s , d e c e i t f u l n e s s , and

t r i c k e r y , a l l o f w h i ch Fox t h o u g h t t h a t o r g a n i z e d

r e l i g i o n t a c i t l y a p p r o v e d . ^ F i n a l l y , Fox c o n c e i v e d

• h i m s e l f t o be t u r n i n g men f rom d a r k n e s s when he c h a l ­

l e n g e d t h e s o c i a l m o r e s o f t h e d a y . He t e s t i f i e d t h a t

. . , when t h e Lord s e n t me f o r t h i n t o t h e w o r l d , he f o r b a d e me t o p u t o f f my h a t t o a n y , h i g h o r l ow; and I was r e q u i r e d t o ' t h e e ' an d ' t h o u ' a l l men and women, w i t h o u t any r e s p e c t t o r i c h o r p o o r , g r e a t o r s m a l l .And a s I t r a v e l l e d up and down, I was n o tt o b i d p e o o l e ' g o o d mo r row ' o r ' n o o d e v e n i n g ' , n e i t h e r m i o h t I bow o r s c r a p e w i t h my l e g t o an y o n e ; and t h i s made t h e s e c t s and p r o ­f e s s i o n s t o r a g e . * 5

T h r o u g h ’ t h o s e a n t i - s o c i a l b e h a v i o r s Fox p r o t e s t e d t h e

n o n - d e m o c r a t i c s o c i a l i n e q u i t i e s f o s t e r e d by t h e c l a s s

c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e t i m e . He c o n s i d e r e d i t sham from

’' F o x ' s p o s i t i o n on t i t h e s f o r i n s t a n c e may be f o u n d i n E p i s t l e s , No, 29 ( 1 6 5 3 ) , p p . 3 5 - 3 7 . See a l s o E p i s t l e s , No. 73 ( 1 6 5 4 ) , pp . 8 3 - 0 4 .

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , pp. 3 7 -3 8 ,

3 I b i d . , p, 36.

a r e l i g i o u s p o i n t o f v i ew t h a t c e r t a i n p e o p l e , b e c a u s e

t h e y p o s s e s s e d a h i o h s t a t i o n i n s o c i e t y , t h o u g h t i t

t h e i r r i g h t t o demand more r e s p e c t f rom t h e common

p e o p l e t h a n t h e y t h e m s e l v e s f e l t o b l i g a t e d t o show i n

r e t u r n . In t h e l i g h t o f t h e b r o t h e r h o o d o f man and t h e

f a t h e r h o o d o f God s u c h p r a c t i c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e t a k i n g

o f o a t h s , we re n o t o n l y h y p o c r i t i c a l b u t e v e n s a c r i l e -

q i o u s . '

I n a l l t h e s e c a s e s , w h e n e v e r Fox r e f e r r e d t o

t u r n i n g men f rom d a r k n e s s t o t h e L i g h t , w h e t h e r i t was

i n s p e c i a l r e g a r d t o b r i n g i n g p e o p l e away f rom t h e

w o r l d ’ s r e l i g i o n s , p r a y i n g s , c e r e m o n i e s , f a b l e s ,

d o c t r i n e s o r s o c i a l i n e q u i t i e s , t h e same s t r a t e g i c

p r i n c i p l e was o p e r a t i v e a s when he t u r n e d men f rom t h e

l e t t e r o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s t o t h e S p i r i t i n w h i c h t h e y

were g i v e n f o r t h . The s u b j e c t i v e mu s t be p r e - e m i n e n t

o v e r t h e o b j e c t i v e , t h e s p i r i t u a l o v e r t h e f o r m a l . T h i s

was t h e r h e t o r i c a l p r e m i s e w h i c h m o t i v a t e d a i l o f F o x ’ s

r e l i g i o u s and s o c i a l b e h a v i o r . I t was t h e m n i n 3 p r i n q

f o r F o x ' s m e s s a g e - f o r m u l a f rom wh i ch he p r e s c r i b e d a l l

h i s o t h e r m e d i c i n e s and r e m e d i e s f o r t h e s i t u a t i o n a l

1 The d i s t i n c t i v e p a t t e r n s o f l a n g u a g e u s a g e among t h e Q u a k e r s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y i s d i s c u s s e d by R i c h a r d Bauman, " A s p e c t s o f ' 17th C e n t u r y Qu ak e r R h e t o r i c , Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h f LVI ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 7 0 ) ,6 7 - 7 4 , See a l s o F ox , Epi s t . l e s , No. 269 ( 1 6 6 9 ) , p . 15 .

n e e d s o f h i s f o l l o w e r s . In F o x ' s mind t h e t a s k uias t o

b r i n q p e o p l e o u t f r om t h e m e t a p h o r i c a l d a r k n e s s i n t o

t h e L i g h t b e c a u s e a l l t h e " d a r k " t h i n g s m e n t i o n e d a bo v e

were e x t e r n a l s u b s t i t u t e s f o r t h e i n n e r r e a l i t i e s w h i ch

t h e y s y m b o l i z e d . A c c o r d i n g t o F o x ' s l o g i c , t h e p r i e s t s

a nd p r o f e s s o r s o f t h e " v a i n r e l i g i o n s " i d o l i z e d t h e

s y m b o l s and s t e r i l i z e d t h e r e f e r e n t s . T h r o u g h i g n o r i n g

o r o v e r l o o k i n g t h e r e f e r e n t i a l d i m e n s i o n o f " p u r e

r e l i g i o n " Fox t h o u g h t t h a t a f a l s e g o s p e l was c r e a t e d

and p r o c l a i m e d t o t h e p e o p l e a s g e n u i n e s p i r i t u a l i t y ,

t h u s , c o n f i r m i n g t h e m a s s e s i n an i l l u s i o n . Con­

s e q u e n t l y , h e l p i n g men g r a s p s u b j e c t i v e t r u t h , b o t h a3

k n o w l e d g e and p r o c e s s , n e c e s s i t a t e d a d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t

and c l a r i f y i n g e x p l a n a t i o n o f wha t t h e i n w a r d L i g h t

a c t u a l l y was t o t h o s e who d i d n o t know. I t a l s o i n ­

v o l v e d t h e d i s p e l l i n g o f i l l u s i o n f o r t h o s e who knew

t h e L i g h t o b j e c t i v e l y a s i n f o r m a t i o n b u t n o t s u b j e c t i v e l y

a s i n w a r d n e s s . L a s t l y , i t r e q u i r e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f a r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e t h a t c o u l d be r e f e r r e d t o a s

e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e , by w h i c h s u b j e c t i v i t y onc e e x ­

p e r i e n c e d m i g h t bo e n h a n c e d .

I n c i p i e n t C h a r i s m a t i c M i n i s t r y

159

T r u t h S p r i n g s Up

In 1676 Fox l o o k e d back o v e r t h e s o u r c e o f h i s

m i n i s t r y and r e p o r t e d t h a t

, . , t h e t r u t h s p r a n g up f i r s t ( t o u s , a s t o be a p e o p l e t o t h e L o r d , ) i n L e i c e s t e r ­s h i r e i n 1 6 4 4 , and i n W a r w i c k s h i r e i n 1 6 4 5 , and i n N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e i n 1 6 4 6 , an d i n D a r b y s h i r e i n 1 6 4 7 , a nd i n t h e a d j a c e n t c o u n t r i e s i n 1 6 4 8 ,1 6 4 9 , and 1 6 5 0 , and i n Y o r k s h i r e i n 1 6 5 1 , and i n L a n c a s h i r e and W e s t m o r e l a n d i n 1 6 5 2 , a n d i n C u m b e r l a n d , and B i s h o p r i c k , and N o r t h u m b e r l a n d i n 1 6 5 3 , a nd i n London , and m os t p a r t s o f t h e n a t i o n o f E n g l a n d , a n d S c o t l a n d , and I r e l a n d i n 1 6 5 4 , e t c .

And i n 1 6 5 5 , many went b ey o n d s e a s , whe re t r u t h a l s o s p r a n g up .

And i n 1 6 5 6 , t r u t h b r a k e f o r t h i n A m e r i c a , an d many o t h e r p l a c e s , 1

George F o x ' s m i n i s t r y a f t e r he l e f t home i n 1 6 4 3 u n t i l

a t l e a s t 1647 c o u l d n o t hav e b e e n v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l a s

t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f rom h i s J o u r n a l i n c l u d e d i n t h e

p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r wou ld i n d i c a t e . D u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s ,

Fox may b e s t be d e s c r i b e d a s an " i n c i p i e n t c h a r i s m a t i c , "

H i s a p p e a l was s m a l l i n s c a l e . H i s v i c t o r i e s we re

m o r a l r a t h e r t h a n m a t e r i a l . Of t h e s e y e a r s W i l l i a m

Penn r e c o r d e d t h a t

, , , when he [ F o x l was somewhat a b o v e t w e n t y , ha l e f t h i s f r i e n d s , and v i s i t e d t h e mos t r e t i r e d and r e l i g i o u s p e o p l e i n t h o s e p a r t s .

^ F o x , " C o n c e r n i n g t h e F i r s t S p r e a d i n g o f thB T r u t h , " i n E p i s t l o s , p . 18 ,

160

And soma t h a r o wore i n t h i s n a t i o n , who w a i t e d f o r t h e c o n s o l a t i o n o f I s r a e l , n i g h t an d da y . . . . To t h o s e he was s e n t and t h e s e he s o u g h t o u t i n t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t i e s , and among t hem he s o j o u r n e d , t i l l h i s more amp le m i n i s t r y came upon h i m .^

A c t u a l l y n o t u n t i l t h e m i d d l e o f 1647 d i d f o x c o n ­

s c i o u s l y b e g i n t o p r o p o s e q u e s t i o n s w i t h i n h i m s e l f

a b o u t how t h e g o s p e l c o u l d b e s t be c o m m u n i c a t e d . P r e ­

v i o u s l y , he ha d o f c o u r s e some s e r i o u s d o u b t s a b o u t t h e

a d e q u a c y o f t h e p r i e s t s ' c u r r e n t m e t h o d s , b u t now he

s t a t e d t h a t " q u e s t i o n i n g s a r o s e i n my mind a b o u t g i f t s

and p r o p h e c i e s . "2

O r a c u l a r O i s c o u r s e

D u r i n g t h e n e x t fBW y e a r s , w h i l e Fox s t i l l

c o n t i n u e d t o t r a v e l a b o u t E n g l a n d , he was l e s s r e t i r i n g

and c o n s i d e r a b l y more fo . rwa rd i n s h a r i n g h i s i d e a s w i t h

o t h e r p e o p l e , Fo r e x a m p l e , he h e a r d o f a woman, t h e

d a u g h t e r o f a " g r e a t p r o f e s s o r o f r e l i g i o n , " who h ad

b e e n r e l i g i o u s l y e x e r c i s e d and f a s t e d f o r t w e n t y - t w o

d a y s . M o t i v a t e d by e i t h e r c u r i o s i t y o r c o n c e r n , t h e

a c t u a l r e a s o n n o t c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d , Fox v i s i t e d h e r an d

t e s t i f i e d t h a t "when I had s p o k e n t o h e r w h a t I had f rom

^ P e n n , R i s e a n d P r o g r e s s , pp . 5 2 - 5 3 .

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p . 14 .

161

t h e L o rd , I l e f t . " ' * H i s r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r a t t h i s

s t a g e i s n o t u n l i k e t h a t o f thB e a r l y Hebrew p r o p h e t s ,

whose s t y l e an d m e t h o d s were g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c i n g h i s

a c t i o n s , f o x d r a m a t i c a l l y a p p e a r e d upon t h e s c e n e a s

a d i v i n e o r a c l e , a man w i t h a m e s s a g e f r om h e a v e n , a n d

t h e n q u i c k l y d i s a p p e a r e d i n t o o b s c u r i t y . T h a t h i s

e a r l i e s t r h e t o r i c c o n s i s t e d o f o n l y a s h o r t p o i n t e d

s t a t e m e n t i s c o n f i r m e d by t h e e a r l y Q u a k e r h i s t o r i a n ,

W i l l i a m S e u i e l , who w r o t e t h a t i n t h e b e g i n n i n g . F o x ' s

p r e a c h i n g was c h i e f l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a few p o w e r f u l

and p i e r c i n g w o r d s , w h i c h m i g h t t a k e r o o t i n t h e h e a r t s

a l r e a d y p r e p a r e d t o r e c e i v e t h e m . ^ T h i s may be i l ­

l u s t r a t e d f rom an e p i s t l e wh i ch Fox w r o t e a f ew y e a r s

l a t e r . The e n t i r e m e s s a g e r e a d i

T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g d r a w i n g t o w a r d s you , s e e t o i t , Take h e ed o f t h e e a r t h , a n d k e e p a t o p o f t h a t w h i c h w i l l cu mb e r t h e mind f a n d d w e l l i n l o v e an d p e a c e w i t h a n o t h e r , ^

1 1 b i d . , p. 1 0 .

2W i l l iam S e w e l , H i s t o r y o f t h e R i s e , I n c r e a s e , and P r o g r e s s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n P e o p l e C a l l e d Q u a k e r s ,I , 3 9 .

^ F o x , E p i s t l e s , Ha. B6 ( 1 6 5 5 ) , p . 96 . The p r a c t i c e o f g i v i n g t e r s e m e s s a g e s e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e e a r l y phasB o f m i n i s t r y was q u i t e common among t h e l a t e r d i s c i p l e s o f F o x . See Norman P e n n e y , e d . , F i r s t P u b l i s h e r s o f t h e T r u t h ( Londont H e a d l e y B r o t h e r s , 1 9 0 7 ) , pp . 1 9 , 115 .

162

Such r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r may b e s t be c h a r a c t e r i z e d f rom

t h e o b s e r v e r - r e c i p i e n t 1s v a n t a q e p o i n t a s e n i g m a t i c ,

p a r a d o x i c a l and p o s s i b l y a p o c a l y p t i c a l . To t h e com­

m u n i c a t o r , h i s m e s s a g e was a d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d , " t h u s

s a i t h t h e L o r d , " f r e e From human i n v e n t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s .

The p r o p h e t i c word n e e d e d no a r g u m e n t t o s u p p o r t i t s

v e r a c i t y . I t was an o m n i s c i e n t - o m n i p o t e n t F o r m u l a o r

p r e s c r i p t i o n t h a t , i F p r o p e r l y i n t e r p r e t e d an d F a i t h -

F u l l y a c c e p t e d by t h e l i s t e n e r , wou l d r emedy t h e c o n ­

d i t i o n t o w h i c h i t was a d d r e s s e d .

P r o c l a i m i n g t h e T r u t h

In s p i t e oF Fox b e co m in g more a c t i v e i n a p u b l i c

m i n i s t r y d u r i n g t h e y e a r 1 6 47 , he s h o u l d n o t y e t be

c o n s i d e r e d an i t i n e r a n t , much l e s s a c h a r i s m a t i c ,

p r e a c h e r . R a t h e r , he i s b e s t t h o u g h t oF a s a z e a l o u s

young man b e g i n n i n g t o F i n d h i s own n i c h e i n l i F e .

C o n t i n u i n g h i s n a r r a t i v e , Fox c o n c i s e l y r e p o r t e d *

And p a s s i n q o n , I wen t amono t h e p r o f e s s o r s a t D u k i n f i e l d and M a n c h e s t e r , w he re 1 s t a y e d a w h i l e a nd d e c l a r e d T r u t h amona t h em . And t h e r e we re some c o n v i n c e d , who r e c e i v e d t h e L o r d ' s t e a c h i n g , hy wh i ch t h e y were c o n f i r m e d and s t o o d i n t h n T r u t h , But t h e p r o f e s s o r s were j.n a r a g e , a l l p l e a d i n g For s i n and im­p e r f e c t i o n , and c o u l d n o t e n d u r e t o h e a r t a l k o f p e r f e c t i o n , and o f an h o l y nhd s i n l e s s l i f e , Bu t t h e L o r d ' s power was o v e r a l l * t h o u g h t h e y were c h a i n e d u n d e r d a r k n e s s and

163

s i n , w h i ch t h e y p l e a d e d f o r , and q u e n c h e d t h e t e n d e r t h i n e i n them.*!

T h i s f i r s t a c t u a l a c c o u n t o f F o x ' s p r e a c h i n g i s n o t a t

a l l a t y p i c a l o f h i s many l a t e r e x p e r i e n c e s . He

c h a r a c t e r i z e d h i s p r e a c h i n g a s a d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e

t r u t h . W hi l e he o m i t t e d mo s t o f t h e d e t a i l s , a p p a r e n t l y

h i s m e s s a g e was o r a c u l a r i n n a t u r e w i t h p o s s i b l y some

e x p a n s i o n o r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e s s e n t i a l f o r m u l a - t h e m e . ^

The C o n v i n c e m e n t Even t h o u g h h i s d i s c o u r s e o c c a s i o n e d

some o p p o s i t i o n , Fox i n d i c a t e d t h a t some were " c o n v i n c e d "

b u t he d i d n o t c l e a r l y e x p l a i n wha t t h a t t e r m i m p l i e d .

S h o r t l y b e f o r e F o x ' s b i r t h , t h e i n n o v a t i v e F r a n c i s Bacon

b e gan t o f o r m u l a t e a t h e o r y o f f a c u l t y p s y c h o l o g y w h i c h

t h o u g h t o f man, a s c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e d i n t o t h e f a c u l t i e s

o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , r e a s o n , i m a g i n a t i o n , memory, w i l l ,

and a p p e t i t e , W i th t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s t o e x p l a i n t h e

c o m p o s i t i o n o f man , Bacon s e t f o r t h h i s f am ous s t a t e m e n t

on c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t " t h e o f f i c e and u s e o f t h i s a c t

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p. 18 .

^We know t h a t l a t e r i n l i f e h i s f o r m u l a r y m e s s a g e s were e x t e n s i v e l y e x p a n d e d s o t h a t some o f h i s s e r m o n s l a s t e d up t o f i v e h o u r s . See John B u r n y e a t , J o u r n a l o f t h e L i f e and Gospe 1 L a b o u r s o f J ohn B u r n y e a t , j.n J\5 e l o o t S e r i e s , B i o n r a p h i c a l , N a r r a t i v e , E p i s t o l a r y , a n d tt l isce J . l a n o o u s , e d , by John B a r c l a y , VI ( L o n d o n : D a r t o nand H a r v e y , 1 8 3 9 ) , 218 .

164

[ r h e t o r i c } i s b u t t o a p p l y and recommend t h e d i c t a t e s

o f r e a s o n t o t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ! i n o r d e r t o e x c i t e t h e

a f f e c t i o n s an d u i i l l , " ^ A l i t t l e more t h a n a c e n t u r y

l a t e r some P r e s b y t e r i a n d i v i n e s a l s o a t t e m p t e d t o

f o r m u l a t e a t h e o r y o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b a s e d upon f a c u l t y

p s y c h o l o g y w h i c h e m p h a s i z e d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c o n v i n c i n g

o r i m p a r t i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o an a u d i e n c e

b e f o r e a s p e a k e r s h o u l d a t t e m p t t o p e r s u a d e o r a l t e rO

t h e i r b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s . F o x ' s u s e o f t h e word

" c o n v i n c e " t o d e s c r i b e t h e way some we re a f f e c t e d by

h i s p r e a c h i n g a l s o i n c l u d e d a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o g n i ­

t i v e d i m a n s i o n o f m e a n i n g . He c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d t h i s

i s an e p i s t l e w r i t t e n a few y e a r s l a t e r whe re he

i d e n t i f i e d t h e , c o n v i n c e d a s t h o s e who hav e t h e i r " u n d e r -n

s t a n d i n g s e n l i g h t e n e d . " Howeve r ! by t h i s e x p e r i e n c e

Fox a s s u m e d t h a t more t h a n a mere t r a n s f e r o f o b j e c t i v e

k n o w l e d g e t o o k p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e s p e a k e r a n d t h e

l i s t e n e r . I t w i l l be r eme mbe red t h a t F o x ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y

^ F r a n c i s Ba co n , Advancemen t o f Le a r n i n g ( r e v . e d , t New Yorks W i l e y Book Co , , I 900 "p. 177 .

^ Se e George C a m p b e l l , The P h i l o s n phv o f R h e t o r i c , i n The R h e t o r i c o f B l a i r , Camp be 1 1 , and I'Jhate I y , e d . by James L. G o l d e n , and Edward P. J . C o r b e t t ' (New York : Ho. l t , R i n e h a r t and W i n s t o n , I n c . , 1 9 6 8 ) , pp . 1 4 6 - 5 0 .A l s o , Hugh B l a i r , L e c t u r e s on R h e t o r i c a nd Be l i e s L e t t r e s i n I b i d . , pp . 1 1 7 - 2 0 ,

^ F o x , E p . i s t l e s , No. 45 ( 1 6 5 3 ) , p , 56 ,

165

demanded t h a t a l l e s s e n t i a l kn ow le dg e had t o be r e c e i v e d

by p e r s o n a l r e v e l a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , a t no t i m e c o u l d

p r e a c h i n g be t h o u g h t o f a s s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n v i n c e a man

o f t h e t r u t h . The p r e a c h e r ' s f u n c t i o n was t o a c t a s a

m i d w i f e i n h e l p i n g t h e l i s t e n e r s e e t h e L i g h t w i t h i n

h i m s e l f an d be c o n v i n c e d o r e n l i g h t e n e d by i t , "* T h i s

i s f u r t h e r a p p a r e n t f rom F o x ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e men

who r e j e c t e d h i s p r e a c h i n g a s t h o s e who " q u e n c h e d t h e

t e n d e r t h i n g i n t h e m . " ^ H e n c e , a l l p e o p l e c o n v i n c e d

a f t e r t h i s m a n n e r , i . e . , by t h e L i g h t r a t h e r t h a n by

a r g u m e n t s , wou ld ha ve t o e s t a b l i s h a r e v e l a t o r y an d*1

s u b j e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e t r u t h .

From t h e f i r s t , Fox c o n c e i v e d o f c a n v i n c e m e n t

and p e r s u a s i o n o r b e h a v i o r c o r r e s p o n d e n t t o t h e L i g h t

a s a l m o s t s y n o n y m o u s , b u t b e f o r e l o n g he d i s c o v e r e d

( p r o b a b l y f rom h a r d p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e ) t h a t k n o w i n g

t h e t r u t h e v e n t h r o u g h t h e L i g h t d i d n o t g u a r a n t e e t h a t

one wo u l d l i v e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e k n o w l e d g e p o s s e s s e d .

T h e n , Fox b e g a n t o i n s t r u c t t h o s e who we re c o n v i n c e d

V o x , E p i s t l e s , Mo. 47 ( 1 6 5 3 ) , p . 59.

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p . 10 .

^To my k no w l e d g e Fox n e v e r e n t e r t a i n e d t h e p o s s i ­b i l i t y t h a t someone c o u l d be c o n v i n c e d s o l e l y by t h e s h e e r power o f h i s p r e a c h i n g w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e L i g h t ,I f an yo n e r e s p o n d e d F a v o r a b l y t o h i s m i n i s t r y , Fox a l ­ways a t t r i b u t e d i t t o t h e i r o p e n n e s s t o t h e L i g h t ,

166

t h a t t h e y s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n o f f a i t h t o

be p r o v e d a n d t r i e d by e i t h e r p e r s e c u t i o n o r some o t h e r

m e a n s J As l o n g a s Q u a k e r s we re s c o r n e d a nd r e p r o a c h e d ,

p e r s e c u t i o n p u r g e d t h e r a n k and f i l e m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e

f a i t h l e s s b u t a s t h e movement g a i n e d i n p o p u l a r i t y an d

r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , e s p e c i a l l y t o w a r d t h e end o f thB s e v e n ­

t e e n t h c e n t u r y , F r i e n d s f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o d i s ­

t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a " c o n v i n c e d e s t a t e " and a " c o n v e r t e d

e s t a t e , "2 C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t may be c o n c l u d e d t h a t Fox

and t h e Q u a k e r s d i d e v e n t u a l l y e v o l v e t h e i r own

c o n v i c t i o n - p e r s u a s i o n d u a l i t y , b u t a l w a y s i n t h e c o n ­

t e x t o f a r e v e l a t o r y and s u b j e c t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n .

5 n e o k i n o t o C o n d i t i o n s The p r i n c i p l e by w h i c h Fox s o u g h t

t o c o n v i n c e men and t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t h e o r y b e h i n d h i s

r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e was t h e d u a l n o t i o n o f " s p e a k i n g t o

( o r a n s w e r i n g , o r r e a c h i n g ) t h a t o f Cod i n e v e r y m an , "

and " s p e a k i n g t o c o n d i t i o n s . " Bo t h o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s

a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d , t h e l a t t e r o n l y r e p r e s e n t i n g a

more p a r t i c u l a r i z e d and h e i g h t e n e d p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e

a u d i e n c e t h a n t h e f o r m e r i m p l i e d .

^ F o x , E p i s t l e s , No. 47 ( 1 6 5 3 ) , p . 60 ,9• S e e Jo hn B a n k s , "An E p i s t l e t o F r i e n d s , Showing

t h e G r e a t D i f f e r e n c e Be tween a C o n v i n c e d E s t a t e , and a C o n v e r t e d E s t a t e , " i n J\ Jo u r n a I o f t h e Li f e o f John Banks ( L o n d o n : P r i n t e d by F. S d w I o , 1 7 1 2 ) , p p . 24 7 - 5 1 ,

167

I t h a s a l r e a d y been d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a n o t h e r

c o n n e c t i o n t h a t Fox b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e i s a d i v i n e

i m p l a n t o r L i g h t u i i t h i n e v e r y human b e i n g . I n an u n -

r e g e n e r a t e d man " t h a t o f God w i t h i n " him was h e l d

c a p t i v e o r i m p r i s o n e d by u n p u r e n e s s and c a r n a l r e a s o n ­

i n g s , b u t i n t h e s a i n t , t h e d i v i n e was r e l e a s e d a n d

p e r m i t t e d t o r u l e , r e i g n , and v o l u n t a r i l y c o n t r o l t h e

w i l l , ^ B e c a u s e oF t h i s , t h e p r e a c h e r ’ s wo rd s a n d w o r k s

had a d i v i n e - m o r a l s u a s i v e n e s s an d power i n r e a c h i n g

t h e u n c o n v e r t e d , Ve ry much o v s r s i m p l i F i e d and l e s s

m y s t i c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d , one may s a y t h a t Fox t h r o u g h

h i s p r e a c h i n g c h a l l e n g e d men t o r e a l i z e t h e i r b e t t e r

s e l v e s . O b v i o u s l y , t h e r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e oF a d ­

d r e s s i n g t h e L i g h t u i i t h i n r a t h e r t h a n t h e n a t u r a l man

d i d n o t a l w a y s s u c c e e d i n c o n v i n c i n g t h e a u d i t o r , s i n c e

men have a F r e e w i l l a n d , t h e r e F o r e , may i g n o r e t h e

L i g h t no m a t t e r how b r i g h t l y i t may s h i n e .

In a l l h i s d i s c o u r s e s , b o t h o r a l a nd w r i t t e n ,

Fox a l w a y s and o n l y spoke t o t h e L i g h t o r t h a t oF God

w i t h i n e v e r y man, In a d d r e s s i n g s i n n e r s and s a i n t s ,

t h r o u g h d i r e c t , i n d i r e c t and e d i F y i n g d i s c o u r s e s a l i k e ,

^ F o x , E p i s t I n s , No. 20 ( 1 5 5 2 ) , p . 20 . See a l s o Fox , "The R e l a t i o n Be tween t h e W o r l d ' s R e l a t i o n a nd t h e S a i n t ' s R e l a t i o n , " i n C o s p e 1 T r u t h D e m o n s t r a t e d , pp , 1 5 7 - 6 7 .

1 6B

f o x n e v e r c l a i m e d t o a p p e a l t o m a n ' s mind o r e v e n h i s

e m o t i o n s b u t o n l y t h e L i g h t , In t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c o u r s e

w r i t t e n "To F r i e n d s a t K e n d a l , " t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d

n o t i c e t h e i n t u i t i v e and m o r a l e m p h a s i s i n t h e s e e d i f y ­

i n g w o r d s .

To t h a t o f God i n you I s p e a k , t h a t ye may w a t c h o v e r t h e weak , and s e e how t h e p l a n t s o f t h e Lord c ro w . And walk i n t h e j o v a n d l o v e o f t h e t r u t h , s e r v i n g God w i t h j o y f u l n e s s o f h e a r t ; and t o you t h i s i s t h e word o f t h e Lo rd , And keep a l l t h a t i s b a d , down a n d o u t w i t h t h e l i g h t , w h i c h condemns a l l u n g o d l i n e s s ; so ke ep a l l t h a t o u t , wh i ch i s f o r c o n d e m n a ­t i o n ; t h a t ye may be p r e s e r v e d c l e a n a n d p u r e , t h a t o u t o f c o n d e m n a t i o n ye may be k e p t , and walk i n t h e l i v i n g l i g h t . So God A l m i g h t y be w i t h you a l l ! And I c h a r o e you t o r e a d t h i s among t h e b r e t h r e n , and t h e s e word s mind w i t h t h e l i g h t , t h a t no l o o s e n e s s be a m o n g s t you ; b u t own and be o b e d i e n t t o t h e commands o f t h e L o r d , t h a t ye may s t a n d o u t o f , a nd a b o v e a l l t h e c o n t r a r y commands o f man. And so f a r e w e l l , ^

Fox a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t r i g h t e o u s d e e d s s p o k e t o t h e

L i g h t w i t h i n men and so he e n c o u r a g e d F r i e n d s t o p r e a c h

w i t h t h e i r l i v e s ,

Dea r f r i e n d s and b r e t h r e n , . . . ; be w i s e i n a l l t h i n g s , and h a r m l e s s , t h a t y o u r l i v e s , c o n v e r s a t i o n s , an d i n n o c e n c y may p r e a c h , and r e a c h t o t h e h e a r t s o f a l l y o u r o p p o s e r s and p e r s e c u t o r s . And so l i v e i n t h e t r u t h , by wh ich ye may s e n o v e r t h a t w h i ch s t a i n s , c o r r u p t s , , , . ; by wh ich power oF God andt r u t h ye may a n s w o r t h e s p i r i t o f God i n a l l , w h i ch t h e w i c k e d g r i e v e , v e x , and q u e n c h by t h e i r u n g o d l y l u s t s . , . . And l e t y o u r

1 F o x , E p i s t l e s , No, 21 ( 1 6 5 2 ) , p . 2 9 .

b a c k s and c h e e k s be r e a d y t o t h e s m i t e r s ; t h a t ya may ov e rcome t h e e v i l w i t h t h eg o o d ..................................... T h a t ye may s e t themi n t h e way o f s a l v a t i o n a n d l i f e . ^

S i n c e t h i s c o n c e p t oF s p e a k i n g t o t h e L i g h t was some­

what n o v e l w i t h F o x , i t p e r m i t t e d him ( o r so he F e l t )

t o i g n o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s and s t a n d ­

a r d s oF e l o q u e n c e and e s t a b l i s h h i s own b e h a v i o r s For

b o t h a v e r b a l a nd n o n - V B r b a l r h e t o r i c .

The s e c o n d h a l F oF t h i s same n o t i o n , " s p e a k i n g

t o c o n d i t i o n s , " may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d From t h e Fo r me r

i n d e g r e e r a t h e r t h a n i n k i n d . When a p r e a c h e r " s p o k e

t o t h e L i g h t " he was a b l e t o a d d r e s s men i n g e n e r a l .

H i s o n l y e q u i p m e n t n e c e s s a r y t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s was a

h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s oF s p i r i t u a l t r u t h and m o r a l i t y .

The c o m m u n i c a t o r m u s t be an " e x i s t i n g i n d i v i d u a l , "

Howeve r , " s p e a k i n g t o c o n d i t i o n s " a d d r e s s e d men i n

p a r t i c u l a r . Here t h e p r e a c h e r mus t be e x t r e m e l y

s e n s i t i v e and p e r c e p t i v e oF t h e s p i r i t u a l - m o r a l c o n d i ­

t i o n oF t h o s e t o whom he was c o m m u n i c a t i n g . Fox a s ­

s e r t e d t h a t a l l p r e a c h e r s s h o u l d h a v e t h e p i F t oF

d i s c e r n i n g t h e s p i r i t u a l s t a t e oF p e o p l e by j u s t

1 F o x , E p i s t l e s , No. 215 (1661 ) , pp . 2 1 5 - 1 6 .See a l s o F o x , Tho Roya l Law oF Cod R e v i v e d ( f L o n d o n l i n . p . , 1 5 7 1 / 2 ) .

1704

l o o k i n g a t t h e m . T h i s p r a c t i c e c a n b e s t ba u n d e r s t o o d

by i l l u s t r a t i n g i t f r om F o x ' s J o u r n a l .

, . . As I was s i t t i n g i n a h o u s e f u l l o f p e o p l e and d e c l a r i n g t h e word o f l i f e u n t o them I c a s t my e y e upon an u n c l e a n woman and t o l d h e r sh e was a w i t c h . And I was moved i n t h e L o r d ' s power t o s p e a k s h a r p l y t o h e r and so s h e went o u t o f t h e room; and p e o p l e t o l d me t h a t I had d i s c o v e r e d a g r e a t t h i n g , f o r a l l t h e c o u n t r y l o o k e d upon h e r t o be a w i t c h . (The Lord ha d g i v e n me a s p i r i t o f d i s c e r n i n g by wh ich I many t i m e s saw t h e s t a t e s an d c o n d i t i o n s o f p e o p l e , and wou ld t r y t h e i r s p i r i t s . )

And t h e r e came i n ( a l s o a t a n o t h e r t i m e a ) woman and s t o o d a l i t t l e o f f f r om mB and I c a s t my ey e upon h e r j and I s a i d sh e had been an h a r l o t , f o r I p e r f e c t l y saw t h e c o n d i t i o n an d l i f e o f t h e woman. The woman a n s w e r e d an d s a i d t h a t many c o u l d t e l l h e r o f h e r o u t ­wa rd s i n s b u t none c o u l d t e l l h e r o f h e r i n ­w a r d , b u t I t o l d h e r h e r h e a r t was n o t r i g h t b e f o r e t h e L o r d , an d f rom t h e i n w a r d came t h e o u t w a r d . A f t e r w a r d s t h i s woman came t o be c o n v i n c e d o f G o d ' s T r u t h , and r e m a i n e d a F r i e n d .2

From t h e s e two c o n c e p t s one may, t h e n , b e s t v i ew

F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l a p p r o a c h t o w a r d rnon. The l i b e r a t e d

L i g h t w i t h i n t h o p r e a c h e r mus t s p e a k t o t h e im­

p r i s o n e d L i o h t w i t h i n t h e l i s t e n e r . The i m m e d i a t e mu3 t

a d d r e s s t h e i m m e d i a t e . N e i t h e r p h y s i c a l n o r p s y c h o l o g i ­

c a l c o e r c i o n c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a s an a c c e p t a b l e means

1F o x , C r o a t M y s t e r y , pp . 1 6 5 , 1 7 1 .

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a 1 , pp . 1 5 5 - 5 6 ,

171

f o r m ak i ng d i s c i p l e s b e c a u s e t h e s e t a c t i c s a im t o

p r o d u c e c o n f o r m i t y a n d u n i f o r m i t y an an o b j e c t i v e

l e v e l w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e c i r c u m v e n t i n g t h e s u b ­

j e c t i v e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , F o x ' s r h e t o r i c m u s t be c o n ­

c e i v e d o f a s a d d r e s s i n g n e i t h e r t h e i n t e l l e c t , e m o t i o n s ,

n o r t h e w i l l o f man, b u t r a t h e r t h e L i g h t o f t h e s p i r i t ,

o r more p r e c i s e l y , t h a t wh ic h i 3 o f God i n e v e r y man.

R h e t o r i c a l Use o f t h e B i b l e Fox c o n t i n u e d t o p r e a c h

a s o p p o r t u n i t i e s a p p e a r e d o r he f e l t so i n c l i n e d . The

e a r l i e s t r e s u l t s a p p e a r t o ha v e b e e n m o d e r a t e b u t Fox

s eemed t o be g r o w i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n s c i o u s o f h i s

a b i l i t i e s a s a c o m m u n i c a t o r . I n one p l a c B he c o n ­

s c i o u s l y w r o t e t h a t " t h i s i n w a r d l i f e d i d s p r i n g up

i n me, t o a n s w e r a l l t h e o p p o s i n g p r o f e s s o r s and p r i e s t s

an d d i d b r i n g i n S c r i p t u r e s t o my memory t o r B f u t e them

w i t h . " ^ In a n o t h e r p l a c e he v i c t o r i o u s l y r e p o r t e d t h a t

" t h e Lord o p e n e d my m o u t h , and h i s e v e r l a s t i n g T r u t h

was d e c l a r e d a m o n gs t t h e m , an d t h e power o f t h e Lo rd

was o v e r t hem a l l . F o r i n t h a t da y t h e L o r d ’ s power

b e ga n t o s p r i n g , an d I had g r e a t o p e n i n g s i n t h e

S c r i p t u r e s , ■ T h i s i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t F o x ’ s

1 1 b i d . , p. 13 .

2 I b i d . , pp. 1 8 -1 9 .

172

p r e a c h i n g was e x p o s i t o r y , much l e s s t e x t u a l . In F a c t ,

Fox was a c c u s e d o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t " w h o s o e v e r t o o k a

p l a c e o f s c r i p t u r e , and made a s e rm on o f i t , and From

i t , was a c o n j u r o r , a n d h i s p r e a c h i n g c o n j u r a t i o n . "

Fox w i t h o u t d e n y i n g t h e a c c u s a t i o n c h o s e t o e x p l a i n i t .

. . . f i l l t h a t do s t u d y t o r a i s e a l i v i n g t h i n o o u t o f a d e a d [ l e t t e r ! , t o r a i s e t h e s p i r i t o u t o f t h e l e t t e r , a r e c o n j u r o r s , and d r aw p o i n t s and r e a s o n s , and so s p e a k a d i v i n a t i o n o f t h e i r own b r a i n ; t h e y a r e c o n ­j u r o r s a n d d i v i n e r s , a n d t h e i r t e a c h i n g i s f rom c o n j u r a t i o n , w h i c h i s n o t s p o k e n f rom t h e mouth o f t h e L o r d , a nd t h e Lord i s a g a i n s t a l l s u c h , a nd who a r e o f God a r e a g a i n s t a l ls u c h ; For t h a t d o c t r i n e d o t h n o t p r o f i t t h ep e o p l e a t a l l , f o r i t s t a n d s n o t i n t h e c o u n s e lo f God, b u t i s a d o c t r i n e o f t h e d e v i l , andd r aw s p e o p l e f r om God, b u t he t h a t s p e a k s From t h e mouth o f t h e L o r d , t u r n s p e o p l e f r om t h e i r w i c k e d n e s s , b u t t h a t m i n i s t r y wh ic h God h a t h n o t s e n t , a nd t h a t a s s e m b l y mu s t be d i s a f f e c t e d ! f o r t h e Lord i s co mi ng t o t e a c h h i s p e o p l e h i m s e l f by h i s s p i r i t . " '

F o x ' s t h e o r y o f t h e L i g h t w i t h i n f r e e d him f ro m t h e

P u r i t a n ' s n e e d t o s e a r c h Fo r c h a p t e r and v e r s e i n o r d e r

t o s u b s t a n t i a t e e v e r y c l a i m he made .

h o w e v e r , Fox s t i l l made e x t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e

B i b l e i n h i s p r e a c h i n g . Ho F r e q u e n t l y q u o t e d i t i n

h i s p r e a c h i n g and w r i t i n g t o t h e e x t e n t , e s p e c i a l l y

l a t e r i n l i f e , t h a t Fo r a l m o s t e v e r y s t a t e m e n t he made ,

-i' F o x , S a u 1 ' s E r r a n d , p. 59 2 . Sea a l s o F ox ,

E p i s t l e s , No . 1 6 5 3 ) V P P • 4 1 - 4 2 ,

173

hB s u b j o i n e d a v e r s e o f S c r i p t u r e t o i t . ”* So m e t i m es

a s Fox was p r e a c h i n g , he wo u ld open t h o B i b l e and

show t h e p e o p l e c h a p t e r a n d v e r s e Fo r h i s " p r a c t i c e '

and p r i n c i p l e s , " a l t h o u g h he a l w a y s F e l t t h a t t h i s was

u n n e c e s s a r y .

And a F t e r I had d e c l a r e d t h e T r u t h t o them some h o u r s and t h e m e e t i n g was d o n e , t h e c h i e F c o n s t a b l e and some o t h e r p r o F e s s o r s F e l l a - r e a s o n i n g w i t h me i n t h e s t e e p l e h o u s e y a r d j and I t o o k a B i b l e and showed and o p e n e d t o them t h e S c r i p t u r e s , and showed t hem c h a p t e r a nd v e r s e and d e a l t w i t h them a s one wou ld d e a l w i t h a c h i l d i n s w a d d l i n g c l o t h e s . Theyt h a t we re i n t h e l i g h t oF C h r i s t a n d s p i r i toF God d i d know when I sp ok e S c r i p t u r e , t h o u g h I d i d n o t m e n t i o n c h a p t e r and v e r s e a F t e r t h e p r i e s t ' s Form u n t o t h e m . ^

F u r t h e r , when i n c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h p r i e s t s a n d p r o F e s s o r s ,

Fox i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e a l l e g e d u n ­

c h r i s t i a n t e a c h i n g oF t h e Q u a k e r s by s h o w i n g w h e r e i n i t

d i F F e r e d From t h e B i b l e * ' s d o c t r i n e . "We l a i d i t upon

him t o p r o v e , a l l h i s C h a r g e s a g a i n s t u s by t h e

S c r i p t u r e s . Fox u n d o u b t e d l y p u r s u e d t h i s c o u r s e oF

a c t i o n , n o t b e c a u s e he a t t a c h e d t h e same s i g n i F i c a n c e

1 C am br i dge J o u r n a 1 , I , 5 7 , 1 5 5 . A l s o , Fox , " C o n c e r n i n g R e v e l a t i o n , P r o p h e c y , f r l e a su re , a nd R u l e , " i n G o s p e 1 T r u t h Demonst r a t e d , pp. 5 3 1 - 5 5 0 ; F o x , "The S p i r i t oF lilan, t h e C a n d l e oF t h o L o r d , " i n I b i d . , pp , 6 2 6 - 6 4 2 .

? N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a 1 , p , 1 1 2 ,

^C a m b r i d g e J o u r n a l , I I , 2 1 7 . See a l s o F i r s t P u b l i s h e r s oF t h e T r u t h , pp , 3 3 - 3 4 .

174

t o t h e p r a c t i c e a s t h e P u r i t a n s d i d , b u t s i m p l y b e ­

c a u s e i t was an e f f e c t i v e means o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t

Q u a k e r s were i n t h e same L i g h t ( r e v e l a t i o n ) a s t h e

o r i g i n a l w r i t e r s o f t h e B i b l e . A l s o , s i n c e d u r i n g t h e

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y " E n g l a n d became t h e p e o p l e o f a

b o o k , a n d t h a t book was t h e B i b l e , a n d b e c a u s e " e a c h

r e a d e r , . . . , became i n some s o r t a C h u r c h t o himself, i t was v e r y n a t u r a l * p r a c t i c a l , a n d e f f i c i e n t f o r Fox

t o u se t h e S c r i p t u r e s t o h i s r h e t o r i c a l a d v a n t a g e .

One f i n a l a s p e c t a b o u t F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l u s e o f

t h e B i b l e t h a t s h o u l d be b r i e f l y m e n t i o n e d was h i s

h e r m e n e u t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s . In t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y t h e

Famous A l e x a n d r i a n C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g i s t , O r i g e n , a d ­

v o c a t e d t h a t t h e S c r i p t u r e s had a t h r e e f o l d m e a n i n g ,

t h e l i t e r a l , t h e m o r a l , a nd t h e s p i r i t u a l o r a l l e g o r i c a l

w i t h t h e l a t t e r t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t . F o r O r i g e n , t h e

f r e e d o m f ro m l i t e r a l n e s s p r o v i d e d by t h e a l l e g o r i c a l

a p p r o a c h was e s s e n t i a l f o r v i t a l p r e a c h i n g . ^ Fox h im ­

s e l f made u s e o f t h e s e t h r e e m e t h o d s oF B i b l i c a l

^ J o h n R i c h a r d G r e e n , A S h o r t Hi s t o r y o f t h e E n g l i s h P e o p l e ( L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n , 191 n )7 P » 460 .

M. T r e v e l y a n , E n g l a n d u n d e r t h e S t u a r t s (L on don : M e t h ue n , 19 3 G ) , p . 61 .

■^See J ames ffl. H o o p i n , H o m i l e t i c s (Now York : Dodd,Mead, and Company, 1 BB'l) , p , 75 ,

175

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , Whi l e he m o s t l y r e l i e d upon t h e

l i t e r a l a n d m o r a l m e t h o d s , he a l s o f o u n d g r e a t f r e e d o m

i n a s p i r i t u a l , m y s t i c a l , a l l e g o r i c a l o r p e r h a p s t y p o ­

l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . F o r e x a m p l e ,

one p a s s a g e f rom h i s J o u r n a l r e a d s *

, , , t h e Lord shewe d me t h a t t h e n a t u r e s o f t h o s e t h i n g s w h i ch we re h u r t f u l w i t h o u t we re w i t h i n , i n t h e h e a r t s and m i n d s o f w i c k e d men. The n a t u r e s o f d o g s , s w i n e , v i p e r s , o f Sodom and E g y p t , P h a r a o h , C a i n , I s h m a e l ,E s a u , e t c . The n a t u r e s o f t h e s e I saw w i t h i n , t h o u g h p e o p l e had b e e n l o o k i n g w i t h o u t , ^

In a n o t h e r p l a c e he i n f o r m e d u s t h a t

. . . a b o u t t h i s t i m e [ 1 6 6 1 1 I had a v e r y good hook t a k e n away o u t o f t h e p r i n t e r ' s h a n d . I t was s u c h a u s e f u l , t e a c h i n g book a s h a r d l y was e v e r g i v e n f o r t h , i t b e i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f names and p a r a b l e s and t y p e s an d f i g u r e s i n t h e S c r i p t u r c s . 2

At a n o t h e r t i m e Fox s p e n t a p o r t i o n o f a t e d i o u s s e a

v o y a g e " f i n d i n g o u t t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f o u r

r i v e r s o f E d e n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Heb rew , t o g e t h e r w i t hTE

t h e m y s t i c a l m e a n i n g o f t h e m , " Fox wa3 n o t a t a l l

g i v e n t o t h i s p r a c t i c e a s O r i g e n wou l d recommend b u t

Fox a p p e a r s t o ha ve u s e d t h i s m e t h o d o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

n o t a s an a r g u m e n t a t i v e d e v i c e b u t r a t h e r a s a means

^ N i c k a i l s , J o u r n a l , p . 19 .

^ I b i d , , p. 416 . See a l s o C a m b r i d g e J o u r n a l , I I ,3 7 9 n .

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p , 585 .

176

o f s u p p l y i n g him w i t h a d e q u a t e s y m b o l s o r i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c

i m a g e s w i t h w h i ch t o p o r t r a y t h e v i t a l i t y and d i v e r s i t y

o f i n n e r l i f e .

L i m i t e d L e a d e r s h i p

A l t h o u g h d u r i n g t h e y e a r 1647 Fox became more a

p u b l i c f i g u r e a s a r e s u l t o f h i s p r e a c h i n g , c l e a r l y he

was n o t y e t v i e w e d a s an a u t h o r i t a t i v e l e a d e r . T h i s

may be i n f e r r e d f rom an i n c i d e n t wh ic h o c c u r r e d i n t h e

v i l l a g e o f M a n s f i e l d , Fox h a d m i n i s t e r e d among t h e s e

p e o p l e a nd t h e y s h a r e d h i s c r i t i c i s m o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l

c l e r g y . Howeve r , on e day a p r i e s t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e

r e p u t a t i o n came t o M a n s f i e l d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f c o n ­

d u c t i n g a p r e a c h i n g s e r v i c e . The p e o p l e i n g e n e r a l

e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n h e a r i n g t h e man, Fox r a g e d : " I

was a g a i n s t t h e i r g o i n g , and a s k e d t hem i f t h e y had n o t

a t e a c h e r w i t h i n t h em . . . a nd why wo u ld t h e y go o u t

t o man . "^ H i s p l e a and r e b u k e was u n s u c c e s s f u l . The

p e o p l e n o t o n l y w e n t t o h e a r t h e p r i e s t b u t a s Fox

a d d e d , t h e y " c r i e d him u p . " R e a l i z i n g t h a t h i s c o u n s e l

had b e e n s h u n n e d , Fox e x p e r i e n c e d " s o r e t r a v a i l . " He

f i n a l l y d e c i d e d t o go t o t h e m e e t i n g p l a c e and p r e a c h

a g a i n s t t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l p r i e s t h o o d . Tho p e o p l a we re

^I b i d . , p. 2D,

177

t o l e r a n t o f F ox , some were i m p r e s s e d , and Fpx h i m s e l f

was r e l i e v e d i n c o n s c i e n c e , kn o w i n g t h a t he had done

e v e r y t h i n g i n h i s power t o b r i n g t h e p e o p l e away f r om

o u t w a r d t e a c h e r s , e v e n t h o u g h h i s e f f o r t was g e n e r a l l y

u n s u c c e s s f u l . ^

S i g n s o f C h a r i s m a

A l t h o u g h F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l a c t i v i t i e s we re m e e t i n g

o n l y w i t h a l i m i t e d d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s , h i s b e h a v i o r

was a t l e a s t b e g i n n i n g t o a t t r a c t g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n .

He c a u t i o u s l y r e p o r t e d t h a t " p e o p l e f rom F a r an d n e a r

[ c a m e ] t o s e e m e . "2 S l o w l y b u t s u r e l y F o x ' s p u b l i c

image was c h a n g i n g , More a nd more he was c om in g t o be

p e r c e i v e d a s a l e a d e r and one w i t h c h a r i s m a , a s p e c i a l

g i f t o f g r a c e / One man i m p r e s s e d w i t h Fox u s e d h i s

own d e a t h - b e d a s a p l a t f o r m f r om w h i ch he h e r a l d e d

F o x ’ s f u t u r e g r e a t n e s s . ' JJhi le i t i s u n c e r t a i n w h a t

e f f e c t t h i s p o r t e n t o u s s i g n had upon o t h e r s , t h e r e

c a n be l i t t l e d o u b t b u t t h a t Fox was g r e a t l y moved by

t h e p r o p h e c y .

And when t h i s man was b u r i e d , a g r e a t work o f t h e Lord f e l l upon me, t o t h e a d m i r a t i o n o f many, who t h o u g h t I had b e e n d e a d , and

1 1 b i d .

2 I b i d .

many came t o s e e me, f o r a b o u t f o u r t e e n d a y s ' t i m e , F o r I urns v e r y much a l t e r e d i n c o u n t e n a n c e and p e r s o n a s i f my body had been new mou lded o r c h a n g e d . And w h i l e I was i n t h a t c o n d i t i o n , I ha d a s e n s e an d d i s c a r n i n g g i v e n me by t h e L o r d . , , .And I saw t h e h a r v e s t w h i t e , a n d t h e S e e d o f God l y i n g t h i c k i n t h e g r o u n d , a s e v e r d i d w h e a t t h a t was sown o u t w a r d l y , and none t o g a t h e r i t ; and f o r t h i s I mourned w i t h t e a r s .1

S e v e r a l n o t a b l e p o i n t s emerge f rom t h i s p a s s a g e , F i r s t

o f a l l , Fox u n d e r w e n t some e x t r a o r d i n a r y t r a n c e - l i k e

p s y c h i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . The d u r a t i o n o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e

p e r m i t t e d t h e c u r i o u s and s y m p a t h e t i c a l i k e c a r e f u l l y

t o o b s e r v e Fox and i t a p p e a r s t h a t many w e re a m a z e d ;

i n f a c t , Fox u s e d t h e word " a d m i r a t i o n , 1' T h i s i m p l i e s

t h a t w h a t e v e r t h e t r u e n a t u r e o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , f o r

t h e p e o p l e who were i n t e r e s t e d en o u g h t o v i e w F o x ,

t h e i r v a l u e s y s t e m p l a c e d t h e e v e n t i n a h i g h l y r e s p e c t ­

a b l e and f a v o r a b l y i m p r e s s i v e c a t e g o r y , A l s o , Fox i n ­

d i c a t e d t h a t w h i l e he was i n t h a t c o n d i t i o n , he

p o s s e s s e d an u n u s u a l s e n s e o f d i s c e r n m e n t . I n some

m ann e r ( p r o b a b l y by o r a l p r o n o u n c e m e n t ) he mu s t h a v e

m a n i f e s t e d h i s s p e c i a l d e g r e e o f i n s i g h t , h e i g h t e n e d

s e n s e o f human p e r c e p t i o n , o r t e l e p a t h y b e c a u s e he

s t r e s s e d t h a t " a r e p o r t wen t a b r o a d o f me t h a t I was a

179

young man t h a t had a d i s c e r n i n g s p i r i t : w h e r e u p o n many

came t o me f rom f a r and n e a r , p r o f e s s o r s , p r i e s t s , and

p e o p l e . And t h e L o r d ' s power b r a k e f o r t h ; an d I had

g r e a t o p e n i n g s , an d p r o p h e c i e s , and s p a k e u n t o t hem o f

t h e t h i n g s o f God, and t h e y h e a r d w i t h a t t e n t i o n and

s i l e n c e , an d wen t away , and s p r e a d t h e fame t h e r e o f . " ^

B e c a u s e o f t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s , f o x became l i k e a m a g n e t .

He d r ew an a u d i e n c e t o h i m s e l f , n o t b e c a u s e o f h i s

o r a t o r i c a l f i r e w o r k s o r p e r s u a s i v e p o w e r s , b u t b e c a u s e

he m a n i f e s t e d b e h a v i o r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s wh ic h we re

p e r c e i v e d by t h o s e a t t r a c t e d a s w o n d e r f u l and v a l u a b l e ,

The i n i t i a l d e f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e w h i c h t h e s e l i s t e n e r s

gave Fox was a r a p t and s i l e n t a t t e n t i o n t h a t r e s u l t e d

n o t i n a g r o u p o f f o l l o w e r s b e c a u s e Fox had n o t y e t

r a i s e d a s t a n d a r d t o f o l l o w , b u t r a t h e r i n a n um ber o f

h e r a l d s who p u b l i c i z e d t h e fame o f Fox , As t h e f am e-

s p r e a d e r s m u l t i p l i e d i n number and moved t h r o u g h o u t

E n g l a n d , e x a g g e r a t e d t a l e s a b o u t F o x ’ s e x t r a o r d i n a r y

p o we r s became p o p u l a r .

By some , F o x ' s p s y c h i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s , h i s v i s i o n s ,

i n s i g h t s , and p r o p h e c i e s , h i s c u r e s o f d i s e a s e , p h y s i c a l

and m e n t a l , h i s e x c e p t i o n a l f o r t u n e , e s c a p e s f rom

d i s a s t e r o r a r r e s t , and r e c o v e r y f rom m a l t r e a t m e n t o f

p e r s e c u t o r s , i n a d d i t i o n t o h i s b i g s t r o n g f r a m e ,

p o u i a r f u l p e r s o n a l i t y , a nd p i e r c i n g e y e s we re p e r c e i v e d

n e g a t i v e l y , ^ In p a r t i c u l a r t h e p r i e s t s a n d p r o f e s s o r s

i n v e n t e d s t o r i e s w h i c h were d e s i g n e d t o make Fox a p p e a r

l i k e a w i t c h . G e o r g e ’ s o l d p a s t o r f rom D r a y t o n ,

N a t h a n i e l S t e p h e n s , a l l e g e d t h a t Fox was m i r a c u l o u s l y

w h i r I t u i n d e d i n t o h e a v e n and t h e n s a f e l y r e t u r n e d t o

e a r t h a g a i n w i t h h i s p o c k e t s f u l l o f g o l d and s i l v e r .

O t h e r s c l a i m e d t h a t he c a r r i e d b o t t l e s f r om w h ic h he

made men d r i n k so t h a t t h e y wo u ld become h i s f o l l o w e r s ;

t h a t he o f f e r e d p e o p l e money t o become d i s c i p l e s a s

he r o d e upon a g r e a t b l a c k h o r s e w h i c h a l l o w e d him t o

t r a v e l o v e r s i x t y m i l e s an h o u r ; and t h a t he p o s s e s s e d

m a g i c a l r i b b o n s w h i c h i f hung on a p e r s o n ' s arm wou ld

c o m p e l b e l i e f i n h im . Some r a i s e d a r e p o r t t h a t Fax

c o u l d n o t be d rowned i n w a t e r , n o r b l o o d drawn f rom

him b e c a u s e he was b e w i t c h e d . One g r o u p o f f i f t e e n

o r s i x t e e n men we re so i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e r e p o r t s t h e y

had h e a r d a b o u t Fox t h a t when c h a r g e d w i t h g u a r d i n g him

one n i o h t i n a c o n s t a b l e ' s h o u s e , some o f them

^ A l t h o u g h i t i s p o s s i b l e t o g a i n t h i s i m p r e s s i o n by n o e n i n g F o x ' s J o u r n a 1 t o a l m o s t any s e c t i o n , t h e m os t c o m p l e t e a c c o u n t o f t h e s e m a t t e r s i s i n George F o x ' 3 ' Rook o f D H r a c l a s ' , c d . ' and i n t r o d , by H e n r y J . C a d b u r y ( C a m b r i d g e : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 ) ,

181

p o s i t i o n e d t h e m s e l v e s i n f r o n t o f t h e f i r e p l a c e f o r

f e a r t h a t Fox wou l d e s c a p e by f l y i n g up t h e c h i m n e y .

Many, h o w e v e r , p e r c e i v e d F o x ' s e x p e r i e n c e s mo s t

f a v o r a b l y and a c c o r d i n g l y r e s p o n d e d t o h im. The

d e f e r e n c e w h i ch o t h e r Quake r m i n i s t e r s showed t o w a r d

Fox i s e v i d e n t f r om a l e t t e r w r i t t e n by A l e x a n d e r

P a r k e r t o M a r g a r e t F e l l d e s c r i b i n g F o x ' s f i r s t p r e a c h i n g

i n London a f t e r t h e movement ha d been i n t r o d u c e d t h e r e

by F r a n c i s H o w g i l l and Edward B u r r o u g h a s , " i f George

be i n t h e company , a l l t h e r e s t a r e , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t ,

s i l e n t , F o x ' s power was so h i g h l y r e g a r d e d by some

t h a t t h o y were c o n f i d e n t he c o u l d h e a l t h e i r a f f l i c t i o n s .

One b e l i e v e r w r o t e :

A P a i n s t r u c k i n t o my S h o u l d e r , . . , and f o r t h r e e Months X c o u l d n e i t h e r p u t my C l o t h e s on n o r o f f my s e l f , . . . no c u r e c o u l d I g o t by any [ P h y s i c i a n s ! . , , ; u n t i l a t l a s t ,. . . , I saw .in a V i s i o n , t h a t I was w i t h d e a r Geo rge F o x ; an d I t h o u g h t I s a i d u n t o h im ,Ge o r o e , ny F a i t h .is s u c h , t h a t i f t h o u s e e s t i t t h y way t o l a y t h y Hand upon my S h o u l d e r , my Arm and Hand s h a 11 be whole t h r o u g h o u t " .'^

T h i s man e v e n t u a l l y w e n t t o Fox an d d i s c o v e r e d t h a t ha

was h e a l e d j u s t a s he had i m a g i n e d .

" 'These a l l e g a t i o n s a r e a l l r e p o r t e d in C a m b r i dg e J o u r n a l , I , 1 ; 3 0 ; 169 ( co m pa r e Pepys* D i a r y , December 31 "f"TB!x3 ) ; 1 DA j 358 .

^ L e t t e r s o f E a r l y F r i e n d s , p . 3 1 ,

^ John B a n k s , A J o u r n a l o f t h e Li f e , L a b o u r s , T r a v e l s , and S u f f e r i n q s o f John B a n k s , p . 66,

182

The b e s t i n d i c a t i o n oF t h e e m o t i o n a l d e f e r e n c e

g i v e n Fox i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p e r s o n a l l e t t e r s wh ich

h i s d e v o t e e s w r o t e t o h im, A c o u p l e o f t h e s e mus t

be i n c l u d e d t o g i v e a p i c t u r e o f how d e e p l y some

f o l l o w e r s came t o f e e l a b o u t t h e i r l e a d e r , John Audland

w r o t e and p l e a d e d :

DEAR an d p r e c i o u s one i n whom my l i f e i s bound up an d my s t r e n g t h i n t h e e s t a n d s , by t h y b r e a t h i n g s I am n o u r i s h e d and r e f r e s h e d : and by t h e e my s t r e n g t h i s r e n e w e d : , , , and t h o u a r t t h e b l e s s e d o f t h e l o r d f o r E v e r m o r e , d e a r d e a r r e a c h u n t o me, t h a t I may be s t r e n g t h e n e d , t o s t a n d i n t h e m i g h t y power an d d r e a d o f t h e l o r d , f o r t h o s e r v i c e i s v e r y g r e a t , my t r a v a i l a nd b u r d e n was n e v e r , so a s now s i n c e I saw t h e s : b u t d a i l y do If i n d t h y P r e s e n c e w i t h me, wh ich d o t h e x ­c e e d i n g P r e s e r v e me, . . .1

Wi t h g r e a t v e n e r a t i o n M a r g a r e t F e l l s h o r t l y a f t e r h e r

c o n v e r s i o n a d d r e s s e d a l e t t e r t o Fox a s "Our Dear

F a t h e r i n t h e L o r d , "

F a r t h o u g h we have t e n t h o u s a n d i n s t r u c t o r s i n C h r i s t , y e t we hav e n o t many f a t h e r s , f o r i n C h r i s t J e s u s t h o u h a s t b e g o t t e n u s t h r o u g h t h e g o s p e l , , , o h , t h o u B re ad o f L i f e , w i t h o u t w h i ch B r e ad o u r s o u l s w i l l s t a r v e .Oh, f o r e v e r m o r e g i v e u s t h i s B r e a d , and t a k e p i t y cm u s wham t h o u h a s t n u r s e d up w i t h t h e b r e a s t s o f c o n s o l a t i o n . Oh, o u r l i f e , o u r d e s i r e i s t o s e a t h e e a g a i n , t h a t we may be r e f r e s h e d , . . , And l e t n o t t h a t b e a s t l y p o w e r , wh ic h b r i n g s u s i n b o n d a g e , s e p a r a t e t h y b o d i l y p r e s e n c e f rom u s , , . . Oh, o u r

^The l e t t e r from' John Aud land t o George Fox i s p r i n t e d i n L e s l i e , T h e o l o g i c a l W o rk s , I I / , 358 .

183

d e a r n u r s i n g F a t h e r , we hope t h o u w i l t n o t l e a v e u s c o m f o r t l e s s , b u t w i l l come a g a i n , , , .Oh, t h o u f o u n t a i n o f e t e r n a l l i f e , o u r s o u l s t h i r s t a f t e r t h e e ; f o r i n t h e e a l o n e i s o u r l i f e and p e a c B , and w i t h o u t t h e e have we no p e a c e : Fo r o u r s o u l i s much r e f r e s h e d bys e e i n g t h e e , and o u r l i f e i s p r e s e r v e d by t h e e , o h , t h o u F a t h e r o f e t e r n a l f e l i c i t y . 1

One f i n a l l e t t e r m u s t be i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e i t n o t o n l y

i l l u s t r a t e s t h e e x t r e m e d e v o t i o n w h i c h Fox was t e n d e d

b u t h i s own c a u t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o i t .

D e a r l y b e l o v e d George my d e a r l i f e * my l i v i n g Joy who b e g a t me i n t o t h e l i v i n g l i f e & p u t l i f e * * whe re none was & t u r n e d me t o w a r d s an e n d l e s s Kingdom whose Kingdom e n d u r e s f o r e v e r & s t a b l i s h e d me on him t h a t was b e f o r e t h e w o r l d was . . , Dea r l i f e *I d e s i r e t h e e t o p r a y f o r me whose words i s l i f e & a s s w e e t t o me a s p r e c i o u s o i n t m e n t t h a t I may be k e p t o u t o f a l l v i s i b l e t h i n g s i n my m e a s u r e & l e d up t o god who i s t h e end o f a l l t h i n g s . . . .

* " l i f e " i n t h e o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t i sc o r r e c t e d i n F o x ' s hand t o r e a d " f r i e n d , "

** " p u t l i f e " i s d e l e t e d by F o x , 2

From a r e a d i n g D f t h o s e l e t t e r s a nd a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f

t h e s t o r i e s i n v e n t e d by t h e p r i e s t s , i t b ecomes o b v i o u s

t h a t by f r i e n d and f o e a l i k e Fox was r e g a r d e d a s

p o s s e s s i n g some m a g i c a l o r e v e n o m n i p o t e n t a t t r i b u t e s .

^ T h i s l e t t e r f rom M a r g a r e t F e l l t o Georqe Fox i s p r i n t e d i n John W i l k i n s o n , Q u a ke r i sm Examined ( L o n d o n : Omas Ward and C o . , 1 8 3 6 ) , pp . v i i » v f i i .

^ T h i s l e t t e r f rom Mary H o w g i l l t o George Fox i s p r i n t e d i n J o u r n a l o f tVie F r i e n d s ' H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , XXXIII (1 936*) , 55,

184

J u s t how t h i s c h a r i s m a i n f l u e n c e d h i s l a t e r m i n i s t r y

w i l l be more a p p a r e n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e s .

/

CHAPTER VI

NATURE CHARISMATIC MINISTRY

The D i v i n e C a l l

F o x ' s g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s t h a t he had a s p e c i a l

work t o a c c o m p l i s h f o r h i s God r e a c h e d a z e n i t h d u r i n g

t h e y e a r 16 48 , He g r a p h i c a l l y t e s t i f i e d !

. . . The Lord commanded me t o no a b r o a d i n t o t h e w o r l d , w h i c h was l i k e a b r i e r y , t h o r n y w i l d e r n e s s , and when I came i n t h e L o r d ' s m i g h t y power w i t h t h e word o f l i f e i n t o t h e w o r l d , t h e w o r l d s w e l l e d a n d made a n o i s e l i k e t h e g r e a t r a g i n n waves o f t h e s e a . P r i e s t s a n d p r o f e s s o r s , m a g i s t r a t e s and p e o p l e , wore a l l l i k e a s e a , when I came t o p r o c l a i m t h e da y o f t h o Lo rd a m o n g s t thBm and t o p r e a c h r e p e n t a n c e t o t h e m , 1

As e a r l i e r i n d i c a t e d , a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c h a r i s

m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r s i s t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f a d i v i n e

c a l l . Fox i s h e r e no e x c e p t i o n . T r u t h had been r e ­

v e a l e d t o Fox and he was n o t c o n t e n t w i t h m e r e l y r e ­

t i r i n g f rom t h e w o r l d and c o n t e m p l a t i n g h i s r e v e l a t i o n ,

Fox was h a u n t i n g l y c o m p e l l e d t o "go a b r o a d i n t o t h e

w o r l d , " p r o c l a i m h i s m e s s a g e , and s e o k t o a l t e r r e a l i t y

He p e r c e i v e d h i m s e l f , s o t o s p e a k , a s a man u n d e r

186

o r d e r s , commanded f rom h e n c e f o r t h t o do n o t , h i s own

b u t G o d ' s w i l l o n l y ,

f o x ' s s e l e c t i o n f o r t h i s c h a r i s m a t i c r o l e c o n ­

t r a d i c t e d t h e s t e r e o t y p e d r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r o f

l e a d e r s h i p e m e r g e n c e i n an o r d e r e d s o c i e t y . He

was n e i t h e r e d u c a t e d n o r o r d a i n e d . He was n o t v o t e d

i n t o o f f i c e n o r l e g a l l y a p p o i n t e d . He was o u t s i d e ,

a b o v e , a n d be yo nd t h e p a l e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t . As a

Gad p r o c l a i m e d l e a d e r , no o t h e r a u t h o r i t y had t h e

power t o r emove o r i m p e a c h h im. B e c a u s e he was a bo ve

t h e c o n t r o l o f t r a d i t i o n a l and l e g a l a u t h o r i t i e s , f o x

was a n a t u r a l t h r e a t t o t h e i r o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y when

he c h a l l e n g e d them t o a power s t r u g g l e f o r t h e r i g h t

t o r u l e t h e m a s s e s . I t i s a s m a l l w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t

a s f o x a n t i c i p a t e d h i s co mi ng c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t ' s power s t r u c t u r e , he e n v i s i o n e d i t

a s s w e l l i n g up l i k e t h e " r a g i n g waves o f t h e s e a " i n

a s e l f d e f e n s i v e r e a c t i o n t o h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n o f a

new r e l i g i n - s o c i a l r e a l i t y . T h e r e f o r e , i t may now be

c o n c l u d e d t h a t a t t w e n t y - f o u r y e a r s o f a g e , f o x

r e a l i z e d t h a t he was a p p o i n t e d t o be an i n d i v i d u a l

e x t r a o r d i n a r i u s . I t s t i l l r e m a i n e d , h o w e v e r , f o r him

t o be so a c c l a i m e d by (an y s i z a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e

p o p u l a t i o n .

187

S t r a t e g i c I m p l e m e n t a t i o n

F o r t h e n e x t d e c a d e Fox a c t e d f e v e r i s h l y i n

r h e t o r i c a l l y i m p l e m e n t i n g h i s s t r a t e g i e s , i n c r e a s i n g

h i s v i s i b i l i t y , and t r a v e l i n g w i t h a d e f i n i t e p u r p o s e

a nd m i s s i o n . A l t h o u g h Fox c o n t i n u e d t o hav e r e v e l a t i o n s ,

h i s e s s e n t i a l m es sa ge was now f o r m e d . The e m p h a s i s

o f h i s n a r r a t i v e now c h a n g e d f rom " i t was o p e n e d i n

me" t o " I was commanded o f t h e Lord t o go" o r s i m p l y

" I was moved o f t h e Lo rd" t o s p e a k o r t o w r i t e . C l e a r l y

t h i s c h a n g e e v i d e n c e d t h e new d i r e c t i o n o f F o x ' s l i f e .

He t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y and o c c a s i o n

t h a t a f f o r d e d i t s e l f f o r t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f h i s

m e s s a g e , W h e r e v e r he j o u r n e y e d he e n g a g e d i n d i v i d u a l s

and g r o u p s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n s and d e b a t e s .

The I n t e r p e r s o n a l D i m e n s io n

Fox was v i t a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e a c h i n g i n ­

d i v i d u a l s e v en on a o n e - t o - o n e b a s i s . T h i s was u n ­

d o u b t e d l y b e c a u s e o f h i s t h e o r y a b o u t t h e power o f a

s i n o l e c o n v e r t . As he o p t i m i s t i c a l l y e x p r e s s e d i t :

. The Lord had s a i d u n t o me i f I d i d b u t s e t up

one i n t h e same s p i r i t t h a t t h e p r o p h e t s and a p o s t l e s

we re i n . . . he o r she s h o u l d sh a k e a l l t h e c o u n t r y

i n t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n t e n m i l e s a b o u t t he m , . .

^ I b i d . , p. 103.

1 8 8

T h e r e f o r e , i t was n o t uncommon f o r Fox t o k n o c k on t h e

doo r o f a p r i v a t e home a n d s h a r e w i t h t h e owne r and

h i s f a m i l y a word f r om t h e L o r d . ^ F r e q u e n t l y , he was

a t t r a c t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r h o u s e b e c a u s e an i m p o r t a n t

p e r s o n l i v e d t h e r e . O t h e r t i m e s he v i s i t e d a home

b e c a u s e i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t someone i n i t was e i t h e r

p h y s i c a l l y o r m e n t a l l y i l l . I n t h e s e c a s e s , Fox was

c o n f i d e n t t h a t h i s m e s s a g e a n d p r e s e n c e wou ld be o f

t h e r a p e u t i c v a l u e . T hes e p e o p l e we re u s u a l l y i m p r e s s e d

w i t h F o x ' s b e h a v i o r , g e n e r a l l y e n c o u r a g e d by h i s

d i s c o u r s e , an d s o m e t i m e s e v e n m i r a c u l o u s l y h e a l e d .

On one o c c a s i o n Fox a r r i v e d j u s t a s t h e d o c t o r was

u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t r y i n g t o l e t a " d i s t r a c t e d " wom an ' s

b l o o d . He i m m e d i a t e l y t o o k c o n t r o l o f t h e s i t u a t i o n .

. . . I d e s i r e d t hem t o u n b i n d h e r and l e t h e r a l o n e , f o r t h e y c o u l d n o t t o u c h t h e s p i r i t i n h e r , by w h i c h she was t o r m e n t e d . So t h e y d i d u n b i n d h e r ; and I was moved t o s p e a k t o h e r i n t h e name o f t h e Lord t o b i d h e r be q u i e t a nd s t i l l , and s h e was s o . The L o r d ' s power s e t t l e d h e r m i n d , a n d she minded a nd a f t e r w a r d s r e c e i v e d t h e T r u t h , a n d c o n t i n u e d i n i t t o h e r d e a t h . And t h a L a r d ' s name was h o n o u r e d . , . , 2

In a n o t h e r somewhat s i m i l a r c a s e , Fox b o l d l y

p r o m i s e d t h a t a " p o s s e s s e d " woman w o u l d be d e l i v e r e d

• N i c k a l l s , J ou r r i a 1 , p . 106 ,I

^ I b i d . , pp. 4 3 -4 4 .

189

t h r o u g h h i s m i n i s t r y . The p e o p l e d o u b t i n a l y r e p l i e d

t h a t i f t h e e v i l s p i r i t were c a s t o u t and t h e woman

made w e l l , t h e y woul d c o n f e s s t h a t Fox and h i s f o l l o w e r s

we re o f God. The woman was e v e n t u a l l y h e a l e d t h r o u g h

F o x ' s e f f o r t s and he b o a s t f u l l y r e p o r t e d t h a t " t h e n

t h e w o r l d ' s p r o f e s s o r s , p r i e s t s , a n d t e a c h e r s n e v e r

c o u l d c a l l u s any more f a l s e p r o p h e t s , d e c e i v e r s , o r

w i t c h e s a f t e r , b u t i t d i d a g r e a t d e a l o f good i n t h e

c o u n t r y amono p e o p l e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e T r u t h and t o

t h e s t o p p i n g t h e m o u th s o f t h e w o r l d and t h e i r s l a n d e r o u s

a s p e r s i o n s .

Once Fox came i n t o a home a nd f o u n d an e l e v e n -

y e a r - o l d - b o y b e n t " a l m o s t d o u b l e " l y i n g i n a r o c k e r

c r a d l e . Fox l a i d h i s h a n d s on t h e c h i l d , spakB t o

him an d t h e n l e f t . I t was n o t u n t i l a l m o s t t h r e e

y e a r s l a t e r t h a t Fox h e a r d t h e c h i l d had been h e a l e d

a nd was a b l e t o s t a n d u p r i g h t . The m i r a c l e had a

d r a m a t i c e f f e c t upon t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i ty . The b o y ' s

mo thBr t o l d Fox t h a t " a l l t h e c o u n t r y i s c o n v i n c e d by

t h e g r e a t m i r a c l e t h a t was done by t h e e upon my s o n ,

f o r we had c a r r i e d him t o W e l l s an d B a t h , and a l l

d o c t o r s had ’g i v e n him o v e r , . . , i b u t p r e s e n t l y

1 I b i d . , pp. 4 2 -4 3 . .

190

a f t e r you we re g o n e , . . . , we came home and f o u n d o u r

so n p l a y i n g i n t h e s t r e e t s . . . , 11 She c o n t i n u e d t o

t e l l Fox t h a t i f he wou ld r e t u r n a g a i n t o t h e i r t o w n ,<1

t h e e n t i r e commu n i ty wou ld come o u t t o h e a r him s p e a k .

These i n c i d e n t s may be i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e m s e l v e s

b u t t h e y a r e i n c l u d e d h e r e b e c a u s e t h e y p o r t r a y t h e

r h e t o r i c a l i m p a c t o f F o x ' s c h a r i s m a t i c a c t i o n s on an

i n t e r p e r s o n a l l e v e l . Th rou gh t h e s e c a s e s i t i s r e ­

v e a l e d t h a t c h a r i s m a s e r v e d s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s . F i r s t ,

i t a u t h e n t i c a t e d Fox a s an e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n d i v i d u a l

and t h e p r o c l a i m e d m es sa ge a s d i v i n e . S e c o n d , i t was

f o r some , s u f f i c i e n t p r o o f t h a t t h e m e s s a g e was t r u e .

N e x t , i t was an e f f e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n g e t t i n g t a c t i c ?

a f t e r t h e - h e a l i n g was p u b l i c i z e d , i t a t t r a c t e d c ro w d s

o f c u r i o u s p e o p l e , t h u s h e l p i n g t o b u i l d up F o x ' s

a u d i e n c e . L a s t l y , F o x ' s c h a r i s m a c r e a t e d a s e l f -

s e l e c t i v e a u d i e n c e f o r h im , i . e . , t h o s e e l e m e n t s o f

t h e p a p u l a t i o n m o s t p r e d i s p o s e d t o t h e phenomena w h i ch

Fox e v i d e n c e d wo u l d e x e r t t h e g r e a t e s t e f f o r t i n o r d e r

t o g a t h e r a r o u n d t h e one t h e y p e r c e i v e d a s p o s s e s s i n g

c h a r i s m a t i c q u a l i t i e s . N a t u r a l l y , f r om t h e s e p e o p l e

Fox c o u l d e x p e c t an e n t h u s i a s t i c r e s p o n s e t o h i s

1 I b i d . . pp. 1 71 -72 .

1 9 1

r h e t o r i c s i n c e t h e y were more o r l e s s p r e p a r e d f o r h i s

l e a d e r s h i p ,

In o r d e r t o g a i n some u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how Fox

c o u n s e l l e d t h e s i c k and t r o u b l e d on a p e r s o n a l l e v e l ,

l e t u s c o n s i d e r h i s l e t t e r t o Lady C l a y p o l e , t h e s e c o n d

d a u g h t e r o f O l i v e r CromuiBl l , who i n one p l a c e r e f e r r e d

t o h e r a s a " s e e k e r " i n h e r h e a r t T h e l e t t e r i s an

e x a m p le o f e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e . I t i s d i r e c t i n form

an d d o e s s u p p l y some i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e L i g h t w i t h

w h i c h Lady C l a y p o l e may have been u n f a m i l i a r . Ho w eve r ,

i n p r o c e s s , t h e d i s c o u r s e i s q u i t e i n d i r e c t . I t d o e s

n o t a r g u e f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l a c c e p t a n c e o f o b j e c t i v e

c o n t e n t b u t e n c o u r a g e s p e r s o n a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n , s u b ­

j e c t i v i t y , and i n w a r d n e s s on t h e r e a d e r ' s p a r t . A l so

t y p i c a l o f s u c h r h e t o r i c , t h e l e t t e r a p a r t f r om a b r i e f

s a l u t a t i o n and b e n e d i c t i o n i s an i n s p i r e d o u t p o u r i n g o f

F o x ’ s s p i r i t upon t h e r e a d e r . I t may be o u t l i n e d

a c c o r d i n g t o a p a t t e r n ( p r o b a b l y u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) ^ e s t a b ­

l i s h e d by Fox t h r o u g h h i s r e l i a n c e upon a " t h u s s a i t h

t h e Lord" m e s s a q e - f o r m u l a and h i s i m p r o m p t u , s t r e a m - o f -

c o n s c i o u s n e s s e x p a n s i o n o f t h e i n s p i r e d i d e a , A

^ Cambr idge J o u r n a l , I , 4 57n ,

^Fox i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d was t o t a l l y u n c o n c e r n e d a b o u t w h e t h e r h i s d i s c o u r s e s were " o r g a n i z e d , "

p a r a p h r a s e o f t h e l e n g t h y l e t t e r r e a d s i

[ S a l u t a t i o n ] F r i e n d ,

[ F o r m u l a l ] The word o f t h e Lo r d t o t h e e i s t h a tt h o u f e e l t h e p r i n c i p l e o f God wh ic h w i l lb r i n g p o a c e o f mind a n d a k n o w le dg e o f t h y t r a n s g r e s s i o n .

[ E x p a n s i o n ] Be s t i l l f r om t h y own t h o u g h t s , s e a r c h i n g , s e e k i n g , d e s i r e s , a nd i m a g i n a ­t i o n s ; deny t h y s e l f a n d t h y own w i l l f o r t h e s e t r a n s g r e s s t h e power w i t h i n and c a u s e a l l d i s t r a c t i o n s , d i s t e m p e r s , u n ­r u l i n e s s , a n d c o n f u s i o n . B u t , f e e l i n g t h ep r i n c i p l e o f God w i t h i n b r i n g s a r i g h tmind a n d a b l e s s i n g .

[ F o r m u l a I I ] The word o f t h e Lord t o t h e e i 3 t h o u k e e p i n t h e f e a r o f God.

[ E x p a n s i o n ] Thou a r t h a v i n g t h e s e t r o u b l e s f o r t h y own g oo d , f o r t h e y r e m i n d t h e e how weak t h o u a r b and how s t r o n g God i s . T h e r e f o r e , a b a s e t h y s e l f t h a t t h o u m i g h t e s t r e c e i v e t h e s e c r e t o f God,

[ F o r m u l a I I I I The word o f t h e L a r d t o t h e e i s t h a t t h e L i g h t makes m a n i f e s t a l l t r o u b l e s .

[ E x p a n s i o n ] T h e r e f o r e , do n o t l o o k a t y o u r t r o u b l e s bub r a t h e r a t t h e L i g h t and t h i s same L i g h t w i l l g i v e t h e e t h e power t o f e e l o v e r s i n , c o r r u p t i o n , d i s t r a c t i o n , and t e m p t a t i o n .

[ B e n e d i c t i o n ] So i n t h e name a nd power o f J e s u s C h r i s t r e c B i v o t h y s t r e n g t h . 1

The u n i t y o f t h i s d i s c o u r s e d o R S n o t a r i s e f r om t h o

l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f an i d e a bub

1 93

r a t h e r f r om t h e r h y t h m , f l o w , a n d p r o p o r t i o n o c c a s i o n e d

by thB c o m m u n i c a t o r ' s o u t p o u r e d s p i r i t a n d h i s f o r m u ­

l a r y p r e s c r i p t i o n s . An i n t r o d u c t i o n i s n o t i n c l u d e d

b e c a u s e t h e i m m e d i a t e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e r e a d e r h a s

p r o v i d e d a s u f f i c i e n t p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e n e e d - c e n t e r e d

m e s s a g e , F i n a l l y , t h e l e t t e r h a s no e m o t i o n a l c o n ­

c l u s i o n b e c a u s e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n was an i n t e g r a l p a r t

o f t h e e n t i r e d i s c o u r s e .

The Group D i m e n s i o n

I f Fox t h o u g h t i t i m p o r t a n t t o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l s ,

he c o n s i d e r e d i t a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l t h a t he e x p o s e

h i s m e s s a g e t o a s l a r g e a num ber o f p e o p l e a s p o s s i b l e .

T h e r e f o r e , w h e r e v e r s m a l l g r o u p s o f p e o p l e g a t h e r e d

t o g e t h e r , Fox wou ld a p p e a r . S h o u l d a g r o u p o f s o l d i e r s

p a s s t h r o u g h t o w n , Fox wou ld s t o p them i n t h o s t r e e t

an d d e c l a r e t o them h i s g o s p e l o f p e n c e , ^ I f j u s t i c e s

o r e x c i s e - m e n met t o g e t h e r , Fox wou ld go i n t o t h e i rO

m i d s t a nd a n n o u n c e h i s g o s p e l o f j u s t i c e a n d h o n e s t y .

He a l w a y s a t t e n d e d f a i r s an d was u s u a l l y i n town on

m a r k e t d a y s . On s u c h o c c a s i o n s i t was n o t u n c u s t o m a r y

f o r Fox t o s t a n d upon an o l d s t u m p o r c l i m b a t r e e a n d

1 1 b i d . , p. 120.

2 I h i d , , p. 49.

194

d e n o u n c e t h e s m a l l c rowd t h a t g a t h e r e d f o r t h e i r

d e c e i t f u l b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s , a n d p l e a d w i t h them t o

r e p e n t and t u r n t o t h e s p i r i t w i t h i n .

So m e t i m es F o x ’ s r h e t o r i c a l e f f o r t s wen t be y on d

mere v e r b a l b e h a v i o r s , Once he was moved t o t h r o w h i s

money i n t h e s t r e e t s b e f o r e him a s he w a l k e d a l o n g ,

n o t s a y i n g a word . He a p p a r e n t l y f e l t upon t h i s

o c c a s i o n t h a t h i s n o n - v e r b a l b e h a v i o r c o u l d b e s t com-

m u n i c a t e t h a t h i s " l i f e was o f f e r e d up a m o n g s t t h e m , "

A n o t h e r t i m e a much more d r a m a t i c b e h a v i o r o c c u r r e d .

A p p r o a c h i n g a town n o t o v e r t w e n t y m i l e s f rom where he

was b o r n , Fox was s e i z e d by an i r r e s i s t i b l e i m p u l s e .

Fox d e p i c t e d t h e i n c i d e n t t h i s ways

. . . I wen t o v e r hedge a nd d i t c h t i l l I came w i t h i n a m i l e o f L i c h f i e l d . When I came i n t o a g r e a t f i e l d where t h e r e we re s h e p h e r d s k e e p i n g t h e i r s h e e p , I was commanded o f t h e Lord t o p u l l o f f my s h o e s o f a s u d d e n ; and I s t o o d s t i l l , and t h e word o f t h e Lord was l i k e a F i r e i n me; and b e i n g w i n t e r , I u n t i e d my s h o e s and p u t them o f f , . . , And t h e p o o r s h e p h e r d s t r e m b l e d and w e re a s t o n i s h e d ,

. As I came w i t h i n t h e town t h e word oF t h e Lo rd came u n t o me a g a i n t o c r y , ‘Woe u n t o t h e b l o o d y c i t y o f L i c h f i e l d ! ’ ; so I wen t up and down t h e s t r e e t s c r y i n g , ’ Woe u n t o t h e b l o o d y c i t y o f L i c h f i e l d ! ’ B e i n g m a r k e t day I went i n t o t h e m a r k e t p l a c e and went up and down in s e v e r a l p l a c n s o f i t and made s t a n d s , c r y i n g , ’Woe u n t o t h e b l o o d y c i t y o f L i c h f i e l d ! ’ , and no one t o u c h e d mo n o r

1 I b i d , , p. 121 .

195

l a i d hands on me. As I uient down the town there ran l i k e a channel o f blood down the s t r e e t s , and thB market placB was l i k e a pool o f b l o o d , **

At f i r s t Fox , h i m s e l f , d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d why he

s h o u l d d e c l a r e L i c h f i e l d a b l o o d y c i t y , b u t l a t e r he

came t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t i t was b e c a u s e " t h e r e we re a

t h o u s a n d m a r t y r s i n L i c h f i e l d i n t h e Empero r D i o c l e t i a n ' s

t i m e " and Fox b e l i e v e d t h a t he was s e n t t o r a i s e t h e

t e s t i m o n y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s whose b l o o d was s p i l l e d t h e r e ,

T h i s t h e n became ( a f t e r t h e f a c t ) t h e r h e t o r i c a l

s i p n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s b e h a v i o r f o r Fox ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y

i t i 3 n o t known how t h e p e o p l e o f L i c h f i e l d i n t e r p r e t e d

F o x ' s s t r a n g e a c t i o n s .

Some o f F o x ' s f o l l o w e r s l a t e r e m p l o y e d e v e n

more d r a s t i c n o n - v e r b a l t a c t i c s t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e i r

m e s s a g e t o g r o u p s o f p e o p l e . One e xam ple was W i l l i a m

S i m p s o n , who i n t h e y e a r 1 6 5 4 , was i n s p i r e d f o r t h e

t h i r d t i m e t o walk t h r o u g h t h e c i t y o f O x f o r d c o m p l e t e l y

n a k e d , W hi l e Fox n e v e r wen t n a k e d , he d i d i n g e n e r a l

a p p r o v e o f t h e p r a c t i c e . Some y e a r s l a t e r George

Whi t ehB ad s u m m a r i z e d t h e Qu ak e r p o s i t i o n on t h i s m a t t e r .

As t o oo.inn Waked ; i t h a s been no g e n e r a l P r a c t i c e among t h e P e o p l e c a l l e d Q u a k e r s ;

i N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p p . 72 ,

^ F i r s t P u b l i s h e r s o f t h e Tr u t h , p . 213 .

196

’ t w a s b u t v e r y f e w , who many Y e a r s s i n c e £he i s I s u r m i s e , w r i t i n g a b o u t 1 6 6 0 ] ware c o n c e r n e d t h e r e i n , a s S i g n s t o t h o s e H y p o c r i t e s , who c o v e r e d t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r an emp ty P r o ­f e s s i o n o f R e l i g i o n , and n o t o f t h e S p i r i t o f t h e L o r d . . . . The Shame o f whose N a k e d n e s s , t h e L o r d ’ s T r u t h made more and more a p p e a r , e v e n i n t h o s e D a y s ; an d t h e r e f o r e I b e l i e v e he s e t some a s S i g n s a nd Wonders a g a i n s t t h e m ; a i t h o 1 I c a n n o t e x c u s e e v e r y one i n t h a t C a s e , t o hav e a D i v i n e C a l l , t o make t h e m s e l v e s s u c h S p e c t a c l e s t o t h e Wo r ld : Ye tI b e l i e v e some we re c a l l e d t o be s u c h S i g n s a n d Wonder s t o t h e W o r l d , b o t h o f o l d , a nd s i n c e A p o s t a c y p r e v a i l e d , 1

A l t h o u g h n o t a r t i s t i c a l l y c o n c e i v e d , t h e po ­

t e n t i a l v a l u e o f s u c h a c t i o n s a s t h r o w i n g money a w a y ,

w a l k i n g b a r e f o o t i n t h e dead o f w i n t e r , a n d g o i n g

n a k e d s h o u l d n o t be o v e r l o o k e d a s a means o f i n d i r e c t

c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T he s e b e h a v i o r s were v i e w e d by Fox

a n d o t h e r Q u a k e r s a s " s i g n s t o t h e h y p o c r i t e s . " They

we re i n d i r e c t m e s s a g e s t o a u d i e n c e s who we re i n d i f f e r e n t ,

a n d f rom F o x ’ s p a i n t o f v i e w , s u f f e r i n g u n d e r an i l ­

l u s i o n t h a t t h e y we re C h r i s t i a n s . Such b e h a v i o r d i d

n o t i n c r e a s e t h e o b s e r v e r ’ s k n ow le dg e b u t r a t h e r c r e a t e d

a h i g h l y a m b i g u o u s s i t u a t i o n . The " f r e a k i s h " b e ­

h a v i o r o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r p r e c i p i t a t e d an e x i s t e n t i a l

c r i s i s by f o r c i n g t h o a u d i B n c e t o make a p e r s o n a l

c h o i c e o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n e v e n t

1 George W h i t e h e a d , The C h r i s t i a n P r o n r n s s o f t h a t An c i e n t S e r v a n t and Win i n t e r o f J e s u s C h r i s t , Con roe W h i t e h e a d "'( L o nd o n ; P r i n t e d by J . Souile , 1 7 2 5 ) , p . 2 2 6 .

197a n d t h e r e b y i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r t h e y were o b j e c t i v e l y

o r s u b j e c t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

The P u b l i c A d d r e s s D i m e n s io n

D u r i n g 1648 Fox s eemed t o ha v e f i r s t a d o p t e d

t h e r o l e o f g a d f l y , I t b ecame h i s r e g u l a r r h e t o r i c a l

p r a c t i c e t o a t t e n d t h e m e e t i n g s o f p r i e s t s an d p r o ­

f e s s o r s and e n g a g e p r e a c h e r s and members o f t h e c o n ­

g r e g a t i o n i n a d i a l o g u e w h ic h u s u a l l y d e t e r i o r a t e d

i n t o a h e a t e d i r r a t i o n a l a r g u m e n t . One a c c o u n t r e a d s :

. , . I h e a r d o f a g r e a t m e e t i n g f a r a d i s ­p u t e [ a p r o p e r l y c o n d u c t e d d i s c u s s i o n ! andt h a t t h e r e were many t o p r e a c h , P r e s b y t e r i a n s , I n d e p e n d e n t s , B a p t i s t s , an d C o m m o n - p r a y e r - men. The m e e t i n g was i n a s t e e p l e h o u s e [ V o x ' s t e r m f o r a c h u r c h b u i l d i n g " ! ; and I was movod t o go among t h e m , And I h e a r d t h e i r d i s c o u r s e an d r e a s o n i n g s , some b e i n g i n pews a n d t h e p r i e s t s i n t h e p u l p i t . , . .**

D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n a woman s t o o d and

a s k e d a q u e s t i o n , A p r i e s t t o l d h e r t o bo q u i e t b e c a u s e

a woman was n o t p e r m i t t e d t o s p e a k i n a c h u r c h . Fox

was i n c e n s e d a t t h e m i n i s t e r ' s r e s p o n s e , p a r t l y b e ­

c a u s e t h e q u e s t i o n was one t h a t he had a v i t a l i n t e r e s t

i n ( w h a t d o e s i t mean t o be b o r n a g a i n o f i n c o r r u p t i b l e

s e e d ? ) , p a r t l y b e c a u s e he t h o u g h t t h e p r i e s t was un ­

j u s t l y t r e a t i n g t h e woman ( s i n c e o r i g i n a l l y a l l had

^Nicknlls, Journalt p, 26,

198

been g i v e n l i b e r t y t o s p e a k ) , and p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e

p r e a c h e r had i d e n t i f i e d t h e b u i l d i n g a s t h e Church

( w h e r e a s Fox b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e Ch u r ch was a l o c a l

e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e m y s t i c a l body o f C h r i s t ) , The im­

p e t u o u s George Fox c o u l d n o t c o n t a i n h i m s e l f . P o i n t e d l y

and f o r t h r i g h t l y , Fox d i s c h a r g e d h i s b e l i e f s l i k e a

c a n n o n an d b l a s t e d t h e p r i e s t s . Bedlam r e s u l t e d ,

. . . I t b r o k e them a l l t o p i e c e s and c o n ­f u s e d t h e m , and t h e y a l l t u r n e d a g a i n s t me i n t o j a n g l i n g .

The p r i e s t came down o u t o f h i s p u l p i t , and o t h e r s o u t o f t h e i r p ew s , and t h e d i s p u t e [ d i s c u s s i o n ! t h e r e was m a r r e d . Bu t I went t o a g r e a t i n n , an d t h e r e d i s p u t e d t h e t h i n g w i t h t h e p r i e s t s an d p r o f e s s o r s o f a l l s o r t s , a nd t h e y were a l l on a f i r e . But I m a i n ­t a i n e d t h e t r u e C h u r c h , . , . , t i l l t h e y a l l gave o u t and f l e d away, H o w b e i t , t h e r e were s e v e r a l c o n v i n c e d t h a t d a y ; and t h e woman t h a t a s k e d t h e q u e s t i o n a f o r e s a i d was c o n ­v i n c e d , and h e r f a m i l y . . .

T h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t Fox e v e r p u r p o s e l y i n t e n d e d

t o d i s r u p t t h e m e e t i n g , b u t on c e c o m p e l l e d by h i s p e r ­

s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n s t o d e n o u n c e t h e p r i e s t ’ s b e l i e f s ,

he q u i c k l y c a p i t a l i z e d upon t h e s i t u a t i o n . T h r o u g h t h i s

e x p e r i e n c e o f c h a l l e n g e and c o n f u s i o n Fox d i s c o v e r e d

a n o t h e r way t o s e c u r e p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n by r e s t r u c t u r i n g

t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t ’ s m e e t i n g s t o s u i t h i s own r h e t o r i c a l

1 I b i d , , pp. 2 4 - 2 5 ,

199

a d v a n t a g e . L a t e r Fax t r i e d t o l e g i t i m a t i z e , t h i s

t a c t i c by c l a i m i n g a d i v i n e s a n c t i o n ,

Now t h e Lord h a d showed me, w h i l e I was i n Derby p r i s o n , [ 1 6 5 0 - 5 1 1 t h a t I s h o u l d s p e a k i n s t e e p l e h o u s e s t o g a t h e r p e o p l e From t h e n c e j a n d a c o n c e r n s o m e t i m e s wou ld come upon my mind a b o u t t h a p u l p i t s t h a t t h e p r i e s t s l o l l e d i n . F o r t h e s t e e p l e h o u s e s a n d p u l p i t s w e r e o f P e n s i v e t o my m i n d , b e c a u s e b o t h p r i e s t s a n d p e o p l e c a l l e d them ' t h e h o u s e o f God' , a n d i d o l i z e d t h e m , r e c k o n i n g t h a t God d w e l t t h e r e i n t h e o u t w a r d h o u s e . W he re a s t h e y s h o u l d have l o o k e d f o r God a n d C h r i s t t o d w e l l i n t h e i r h e a r t s , a n d t h e i r b o d i e s t o be made t h e t e m p l e s o f God; . . . : b u t by r e a s o n o ft h e p e o p l e ' s i d o l i z i n g t h o s e p l a c e s , i t was c o u n t e d an h e i n o u s t h i n g t o d e c l a r e a g a i n s t t h e m , 1

I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e he s i p h o n e d o f f a t l e a s t a

p o r t i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e a n d c o n t i n u e d t h e a r g u m e n t

he h a d i n s t i g a t e d a t h i s p l a c e o f l o d g i n g . Tha h e a t e d

d i s c u s s i o n r e s u l t e d i n t h e t o t a l e x a s p e r a t i o n o f many,

b u t a Few c o n v i n c e m e n t s d i d o c c u r a n d Fox f o l t t h e s e

c o n v e r t s wero w e l l w o r t h t h e e n e r g y e x p e n d e d .

P r e a c h i n g i n s t e e p l a h o u s e m e e t i n g s q u i c k l y b e ­

came a f a v o r i t e p r a c t i c e o f George Fox . From h i s

J o u r n a 1 i t a p p e a r s t h a t e v e r y S u n d a y , when i t was a t

a l l p o s s i b l e , Fox would a t t o n d t h o s e s e r v i c e s .

U s u a l l y he w a i t e d f o r t h e n a t i o n a l m i n i s t e r t o c o m p l e t e

2 0 0

h i s d i s c o u r s e and t h e n Fox would r e q u e s t an o p p o r t u n i t y

t o s p e a k . When he s p o k e , he mos t o f t e n r e f u s e d t o

e n t e r t h e p u l p i t and g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d t o s t a n d upon

t h e pew i n w h i c h he had be en s i t t i n g and a d d r e s s t h e

c ro w d . At t h e s e t i m e s t h e b a s i c t heme o f h i s m e s s a g e

was a l m o s t a l w a y s a s t r o n g c r i t i c i s m o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l

m i n i s t r y w i t h i t s s u p p o r t b a s e d upon c o m p u l s o r y t i t h e s

and a d i r e c t p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e L i g h t ,

t h e t e a c h e r w i t h i n . ^ I t i s q u i t e o b v i o u s t h a t t h e

d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t o f F o x ' s m a j o r p r i n c i p l e s was e s s e n t i a l

f o r t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f h i s movement i n t h e s e c i r c u m ­

s t a n c e s . He was p r i m a r i l y s p e a k i n g t o an a u d i e n c e

w h i c h had a v e r y l i m i t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e new o r d e r

w h i c h he was e n d e a v o r i n g t o i n a u g u r a t e . He , t h e r e f o r e ,

h a d t o s e t f o r t h t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t , o r r a i s e t h e

f l a g a r o u n d w h i c h h i s f o l l o w e r s c o u l d r a l l y .

I t i s n o t a s o b v i o u s why Fox had t o d e n o u n c e so

s e v e r e l y t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r . One r e a s o n f o r h i s d e ­

m a n d i n g , i n s u l t i n g r h e t o r i c was t o b o l s t e r h i s c h a r i s ­

m a t i c ima ge , T h i s wa3 a c c o m p l i s h e d i n two ways . I f Fax

v e r b a l l y a t t a c k e d t h e s t a t u s quo a t a r i s k t o h i s p e r ­

s o n a l s a f e t y , he wou ld bo p e r c e i v e d a s c h a r i s m a t i c b e c a u s e

1 Gooroe F o x , To A l l t h n P e o p l e Who He a t i n t h e S t e e p l f 3-Hot ise i n E n g l a n d and E l s e w h e r e XL o n d o n ; P r i n t e d f o r Thomas Simmons , 1 6 5 7 ) . See a l s o N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , pp . 4 7 - 4 8 , 7 6 - 8 5 ,

2 0 1

o f t h e c o u r a g e he e v i d e n c e d i n a h a z a r d o u s s i t u a t i o n .

S h o u l d Fox c h a l l e n g e and u n d e r m i n e t h e a u t h o r i t i e s w i t h

i m p u n i t y , he wou ld be p e r c e i v e d a s a c h i e v i n g a m e a s u r e o f

s u c c e s s , e v e n t h o u g h no t a n g i b l e r e s u l t s c o u l d be p r o ­

d u c e d . 1

A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r t h e d e n u n c i a t i n g r h e t o r i c o f

Fox was t o c r e a t e , i d e n t i f y , an d e m b a r r a s s t h e o p p o s i ­

t i o n , Fox a c c o m p l i s h e d t h i s by two m e a n s . On t h e one

h a n d , he d i r e c t e d h i s g r i e v a n c e s t o w a r d a r a t h e r i l l -

d e f i n e d g r o u p , m o s t f r e q u e n t l y t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f o r ­

g a n i z e d r e l i g i o n . The p r i e s t s i n p a r t i c u l a r , a s a s i n g l e

c l a s s , we r e t h e s p e c i a l b r u n t o f h i s a g i t a t i v e r h e t o r i c .

But come P r i e s t s , d i d n o t t h e Whore o f Rome q i v e you t h e Names o f V i c a r s , and C l e r k s , and P a r s o n s , an d C u r a t e s , a n d 8 a c h e . l o r s o f A r t , a nd B a c h e l o r s o f D i v i n i t y , a n d a l l y o u r O r d e r s o f y o u r S c h o o l s ?

And come up P r i e s t s , C u r a t e s , a n d P a r s o n s , was n o t t h e Whore o f Rome t h e f i r s t S e t t e r up o f C l e r k s t o s a y Amen, and T u r n e r s o f t h e Hour ­g l a s s , and R e a d e r s o f fflass, a s t h e P r i e s t r e a d s h i s Se rmons a n d N o t e s ? H e a r , you P r i e s t s , , . . a r e you n o t t h e y t h a t have d e c e i v e d t h e N a t i o n s , who have on t h e S h e e p s - c l o t h i n g . , . , 2

The a d v a n t a g e o f a n o n - s p e c i f i c " d e v i l " i s t h a t i t i s

a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o d i s p r o v e t h e

1 These two a s p e c t s a r e d i s c u s s e d and s u b s t a n t i a t e d by W i l l i a m H. F r i e d l a n d , " F o r a S o c i o l o g i c a l C o n c e p t o f C h a r i s m a , " Soc i a L F o r c e s X L111 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 6 4 ) , 2 3 - 2 5 ,

^ F o x , "The Lamb ' s O f f i c e r , " i n Gospn1 T r u t h D e m o n s t r a t e d , pp , 1 5 0 - 5 1 ,

2 0 2

a l l e g a t i o n s made a g a i n s t i t f o r an e x a c t i n g e x a m i n a t i o n

o f t h e c h a r g e s i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t .

The s e c o n d means t h a t Fox e m p l o y e d i n h a r a s s i n g

h i s a p p o s i t i o n was t h e i s o l a t i o n o f c h i e f f i g u r e s i n

v a r i o u s l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s and t h e n v e r b a l l y d e g r a d i n g

t he m . One ex am p le o f t h i s i s h i s b i t t e r d e n u n c i a t i o n o f

P r i e s t L a m p i t t , who was t h e V i c a r o f U l v e r s t o n i n

n o r t h w e s t e r n E n g l a n d ,

The word o f t h e l o r d god To t h e e oh L a m p i t t who a r t a d e c e i v e r s u r f e i t e d and d r u n k w i t h t h e e a r t h l y s p i r i t r a m b l i n g up & down i n t h e s c r i p t u r e s r a m b l i n g & b l e n d i n g t h e y s p i r i t am o n g s t t h e s a i n t s c o n d i t i o n s who a r t e r r e d f rom i t a s t h y f a t h e r d i d , . . t h e b l i n d , , . l e a d i n g t h e b l i n d a b e a s t s m o t h e r i n g & t u m b l i n g i n t h e e a r t h & l u s t & one t h a t i s e r r e d f rom t h e s p i r i t o f t h e l o r d who a r t o f o l d o r ­d a i n e d f o r c o n d e m n a t i o n , who a r t i n t h e s e a t o f t h e P h a r i s e e , c a l l e d o f men m a s t e r , & s t a n d s p r a y i n g i n t h e s y n a g o g u e s , h a t h c h i e f e s t s e a t i n t h e A s s e m b l i e s , . . t h o u g h now t h o u s w e l l e s ti n v a n i t y & l i v e s t i n t h y w i c k e d n e s s r emember t h o u w a s t wa rn ed i n t h y l i f e t i m e when t h e e t e r n a l c o n d e m n a t i o n i s r e a c h e d o v e r t h e e , . . ,**

By t h u s t y p i f y i n g L a m p i t t , who was w e l l known t o t h e

p e o p l e o f h i s c o m m u n i t y , a s a v i l l a i n Fox s o u g h t t o e x ­

p o s e h i s c o r r u p t i o n s , c a r n a l i t y , and c u l p a b i l i t y and

t h e r e b y c r e a t e a p o p u l a r c o n t e m p t o f L a m p i t t a s a m a j o rn

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . At f i r s t g l a n c e t h i s

Cam h r 1 doe J o u r n a l , I , EJ7-0B,

^ T h e s e two forms- o f d e n u n c i a t i o n a r c c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s " o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n " a n d " v i l i f i c a t i o n " by A r t h u r L. S m i t h , R h o t o r l c o f Bl a c k R e v o l u t i o n ( B o s t o n : A l l y nand Bacon , I n c . , 1 9 6 9 ) , pp, ' 26 -32 .

203

a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r a p p e a r s t o c o n t r a d i c t t h e t w e n t i e t h -

c e n t u r y c r i t i c K e n n e t h B u r k e ' s t h e o r y o f r h e t o r i c a s

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . ^ Howeve r , i n a c t u a l i t y f o x ' s u se o f d e ­

n u n c i a t o r y r h e t o r i c was f o r t h e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f f u r ­

t h e r i d e n t i f y i n g h i m s e l f and h i s m i s s i o n w i t h t h e d i s e n ­

f r a n c h i s e d m a s s e s whom t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t had a l i e n a t e d .

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s t y p e o f m i n i s t r y were u s u a l l y

r e w a r d i n g w i t h a number o f c o n v i n c e m e n t s f r e q u e n t l y r e ­

c o r d e d by Fox . A l t h o u g h a s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , f o x d i d

win some w i s e and n o b l e p e o p l e t o h i s c a u s e , t h e m a j o r i t y

o f t h e c o n v e r t s we re numbered among t h e humble p e o p l e

o f E n g l a n d , As t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e r e v e a l s t h e

r e l a t i v e l y d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d p e o p l e more r e a d i l y r e s p o n d e d

t o f o x ' s m e s s a g e t h a n an y o t h e r g r o u p .

In t h e y e a r 1 6 5 2 , came Geo rae f o x t o S t a n e h o u s e s i n Den t [ i n W e s t m o r l a n d ] , a nd had a m e e t i n g w i t h and am ong s t a company o f g r e a t p r o f e s s o r s i n t h e I n d e p e n d e n t way, b u t none o f t h e g r e a t e s t a c c o u n t e d d i d own h i s t e s t i m o n y , n e v e r t h e l e s s , some o f l o we r n o t e d i d b e l i e v e , own, and a c c e p t t h e r e o f , . . .

A p a r a l l e l a c c o u n t s o u g h t t o e x p l a i n t h e p r o ­

f e s s o r s ' r e j e c t i o n o f f o x ' s r h e t o r i c b e c a u s e t h e y we re

" r i c h and f u l l o f k n ow le dg e j.n t h e i r own c o n c s . i t , [ t h e y ]

1 K e n n e t h B u r k e , j* R h e t o r i c o f r f lo t ives ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 ) , pp . 1 9 - 2 3 ,

^ f i r s t P u b l i s h e r s o f t h e T r u t h , p. 329,

204

were n o t s e n s i b l e o f wont o f I n f o r m a t i o n o r n e e d o f

a p h y s i c i a n . " ^

On many o c c a s i o n s t h e p r o f e s s o r s ' r e j e c t i o n o f

Fox t u r n e d i n t o v i o l e n t o p p o s i t i o n ,

. . . When t h e p r i e s t had done I d e c l a r e d t h e T r u t h t o t h e p r i e s t and p e o p l e . But t h e p e o p l e f e l l upon me w i t h t h e i r f i s t s , b o o k s , a nd w i t h ­o u t c o m p a s s i o n o r me rcy b e a t me down i n t h e s t e e p l e h o u s e and a l m o s t s m o t h e r e d me i n i t , b e i n g u n d e r t h e m . And s o r e l y was I b r u i s e d i n t h e s t e e p l e h o u s e , an d t h e y t h r e w me a g a i n s t t h e w a l l s and when t h a t t h e y had t h r u s t and t h r ow n me o u t o f t h e s t e e p l e h o u s e , when I came i n t o t h e y a r d I f e l l down, b e i n g s o s o r e l y b r u i s e d and b e a t among t hem. And I g o t up a g a i n and t h e n t h e y p u n c h e d and t h r u s t and s t r u c k me up and down and t h e y s e t me i n t h e s t o c k s , , . ,And . . , t h e y t h r e w s t o n e s a t me, and my h e a d , a r m s , b r e a s t , s h o u l d e r s , b a c k , a n d s i d e s were so b r u i s e d t h a t I was mazed an d d a z z l e d w i t h t h e b l o w s . 2

□ f a n o t h e r t i m e he s a i d *

And when I b e g an t o . s p e a k , t h e y f e l l upon me, and t h e c l e r k up w i t h h i s B i b l e a s I was s p e a k i n g an d h i t me i n t h e f a c e t h a t my f a c e g u s h e d o u t w i t h b l o o d , and i t r u n o f f me i n t h e s t e e p l e h o u s e .And t h e n t h e y c r i e d , ' T a k e him o u t o f t h e c h u r c h ' , and t h e y p u n c h e d me a nd t h r u s t me o u t and b e a t me s o r e w i t h b o o k s , f i s t s and s t i c k s , and t h r e w me i n t o a h o u s e , p u n c h i n g me t h r o u g h t h e e n t r y ,, , and a f t e r d r a g g e d me i n t o tfiB s t r e e t , s t o n ­i n g and b e a t i n g me a l o n g , s o r e l y b l o o d e d and b r u i s e d , ^

1 I b i d . -t p. 332 ,

^ N i c k a l i s , J o u r n a .1, p . 44 ,

^ I b i d . , pp . 9 6 - 9 9 , -

205

I n o u r day a n d age o f r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m i t i s d i f f i c u l t

t o i m a g i n e hout Fox c o u l d have r e c e i v e d s u c h c r u e l t r e a t ­

ment a t t h e h a n d s o f t h e p r i e s t s and p r o f e s s o r s o f r e ­

l i g i o n , b u t Fox a p p a r e n t l y f e l t t h a t s u c h a b u s i v e t r e a t ­

m en t o n l y f u r t h e r e d h i s c a u s e . He a t no t i m e gav e a n y

i n d i c a t i o n t h a t he t r i e d t o a v o i d t h e c o n f l i c t a n d c o n ­

f l a g r a t i o n . R a t h e r , a s was s u g g e s t e d , Fox a p p a r e n t l y

a d o p t e d t h e c h a l l e n g e and c o n f u s i o n r h e t o r i c a l t a c t i c

e v e n a t t h e e x p e n s e o f h i s own p h y s i c a l s a f e t y . A f t e r

b e i n g m o l e s t e d i n one p l a c e he i n d i c a t e d t h a t " some

p e o p l e we re made l o v i n g t h a t d a y , an d o t h e r s were c o n ­

f i r m e d , s e e i n g t h e r a g e o f b o t h p r i e s t s a nd p r o f e s s o r s *

an d some c r i e d o u t t h a t t h e p r i e s t d u r s t n o t s t a n d t o

p r o v e h i s m i n i s t r y . E s p e c i a l l y t h i s l a s t p h r a s e im­

p l i e s t h a t some o f t h e b y s t a n d e r s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e b r u t i s h

b e h a v i o r w h i c h t h e p r i e s t s e i t h e r i n s t i g a t e d a n d / o r

s a n c t i o n e d was a r e s u l t oF t h e c l e r g y s ' v e r b a l i n a b i l i t y

t o w i t h s t a n d F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l s t i g m a t i z a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e ,

t h e b e a t i n g s w h i c h Fox e n d u r e d , some c o u l d c o n c e i v e o f

a s r h e t o r i c a l v i c t o r i e s ,

From o t h e r a c c o u n t s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t

an e ve n s t r o n g e r c a s e f o r t h i s p o i n t . O n c e , a p r i e s t

i n s t r u c t e d Fox t h a t he c o u l d p r e a c h i n t h e s t e e p l e h o u s e ,

1 1 b i d . , pp, 4f l~49.

b u t o n l y i f he e n t e r e d t h e p u l p i t . Fox t r e n c h a n t l y r e ­

f u s e d , f e e l i n g i t was u n n e c e s s a r y s i n c e he c o u l d be

h e a r d e q u a l l y w e l l i f he o n l y s t o o d upon a pew, a n d b e ­

c a u s e he t h o u g h t e n t e r i n g a p u l p i t a t t h e i n s i s t e n c e o f

a p r i e s t wo u l d co mp ro m is e h i s b a s i c b e l i e f s . T h e n , t h e

p r i e s t and h i s p e o p l e became e x c e e d i n g l y a n g r y a t Fox

and d e n o u n c e d him a s a f a l s e p r o p h e t s i m p l y b e c a u s e he

wo u ld n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e i r p u l p i t , Whereupon Fox r e ­

p o r t e d t h a t " i t g r i e v e d many o f t h e p e o p l e t o h e a r t hem

s a y s o . And b e c a u s e I would n o t ^ s u b m i t t o t h e p r i e s t ’ s

demands ' ] some o f t h e p e o p l e be gan t o c a l l me a d e l i v e r e r ,

In a n o t h e r p l a c e a l o c a l p r i e s t r e s o r t e d t o i n v e n t i n g

l i e s and s u p e r s t i t i o u s s t o r i e s a b o u t Fox and t h e n

p r e a c h e d them t o t h e p e o p l e . In t h i s c a s e Fox g l a d l y

a d d e d t h a t "by h i s l i e s he p r e a c h e d many o f h i s h e a r e r s

away f rom h i m [ s e I f ' ] .

As F o x ' s r e p u t a t i o n g r e w , many o f t h e p r i e s t s b e ­

came i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p r e h e n s i v e a b o u t c o n f r o n t i n g h im.

In f a c t , many o f them t o o k d e f i n i t e s t e p s t o a v o i d t h e

f a c e t o f a c e c o n f r o n t a t i o n w h i c h Fox so a s s i d u o u s l y

s o u g h t . I n some p a r i s h e s , when Fox came , t h e p r i e s t s

l e f t . The c h u r c h w a r d e n s were i n s t r u c t e d n o t t o open

207

t h e c h u r c h d o o r s , b u t t h e m a s s e s t h r e a t e n e d t o b r e a k

them down. How eve r , Fox was s a t i s f i e d t o r e m a i n i n

t h e c h u r c h " y a r d s o r a n y w h e r e " and p r e a c h h i s g o s p e l .

F o x , i n h i s J o u r n a l , s u p p l i e d an a l m o s t humorous i n ­

c i d e n t i n w h i c h one t i m i d p r i e s t s l i p p e d o u t o f t h e

c h u r c h a f t e r h i s s e rm on was c o m p l e t e d , so a s t o a v o i d

f a c i n g F o x . B u t , Fox would n o t l e t him g e t o f f t h a t

e a s i l y , s o he wen t i n s e a r c h o f t h e p r i e s t a f t B r t h e

s e r v i c e . As Fox t o l d i t :

. . . We w e n t t o l o o k f o r t h e p r i e s t a t h i sh o u s e , and he would n o t be s e e n b u t t h e p e o p l e s a i d he wen t t o h i d e h i m s e l f i n t h e haymow; an d t h e y went t o l o o k f o r him t h e r e b u t c o u l d n o t f i n d h im. And t h e n t h e y s a i d he was gone t o h i d e h i m s e l f a m o n g s t t h e s t a n d ­i n g c o r n , h e a r i n g we were c o m i n g , b u t a f t e r t h e y had l o o k e d f o r him t h e r e t h e y c o u l d n o t f i n d him t h e r e n e i t h e r , ^

Whenever Fox d i d c a t c h one o f t h e s e p o o r - s p i r i t e d p r i e s t s ,

i t was common f o r him t o c h a l l e n g e t hem t o come o u t o f

t h e i r h o u s e s a n d c h u r c h e s , i n t o t h e s t r e e t s and t r y t o

p r o v e t h e i r m i n i s t r y and s p i r i t u a l i t y among t h e p e o p l e ,

When t h e p r i e s t s r e f u s e d t o be s u b j e c t e d t o s u c h a

d i s p l a y , Fox n a t u r a l l y c l a i m e d a m o r a l v i c t o r y t o t h a

c r o wd t h a t g a t h e r e d , ^

^ I b i d . , p . 101 .

2 I b i d . , p . 11 6 .

208

Fox on T r i a l

As s t a t e d , Fox p a i d a h e av y p r i c e in p e r s o n a l

a b u s e f o r m a i n t a i n i n g h i s a q i t a t i v e t a c t i c s . Some­

t i m e s , h o w e v e r , when Fox r h e t o r i c a l l y p a i n e d t h e

u p p e r h a n d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b e a t i n q s , t h e p r i e s t s

c h a r g e d Fox w i t h b l a s p h e m y a n d had t h e c o n s t a b l e s c a r t

him away t o t h e m a g i s t r a t e ' s c o u r t . T h i s a l s o d i d n o t

d i s t u r b Fox f o r t h e s e h e a r i n o s and t r i a l s d r ew l a r g e

a u d i e n c e s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a f f o r d e d him y e t a n o t h e r

p l a t f o r m f rom w h i c h t o p r o c l a i m h i s m e s s a g e . D u r i n g

t h e s e c o u r t b a t t l e s a p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e f o r Fox was t h e

h e i g h t e n i n g o f h i s p u b l i c v i s i b i l i t y . In o r d e r t o

a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , he r h e t o r i c a l l y a u g m e n t e d t h e a m b i g u i t y

w h i ch g e n e r a l l y s u r r o u n d e d h im . I t was a t more t h a n one

t r i a l commonly t h o u g h t t h a t Fox b e l i e v e d "he was e q u a l

w i t h God," " t h a t he was a s u p r i g h t a s C h r i s t , " " t h a t

t h e S c r i p t u r e s were a n t i - c h r i s t , " and " t h a t he was t h eA

j u d g e o f t h e w o r l d , " An e x a m p l e o f F o x ' s a m b i g u o u s

r e p l i e s may be s e e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n .

They a s k e d me i f I w e re t h e son o f God.I s a i d , ' Y e s . 'They a s k e d me i f I had s e e n G o d ' s f a c e ,I s a i d , ' Y e s , 1They a s k e d me w h e t h e r I had t h e s p i r i t o f d i s -

c e r n i n o .

^ I b i d , , pp . 1 3 4 —35.

I s a i d , ' Y e s ' , . , .They a s k e d me w h e t h e r t h e S c r i p t u r e was t h e

word o f God.I s a i d , God was t h e Word a nd t h e S c r i p t u r e s

we re w r i t i n g s ; an d t h e Word was b e f o r e w r i t i n g s w o r e , w h i c h Word d i d f u l f i l l t h em . 1

When Pox was g i v e n t h e t i m e a n d o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p l a i n

wha t he m e a n t , he was a b l e t o c l e a r h i m s e l f f r om t h e

c h a r g e o f b l a s p h e m y , ^ Howeve r , mo s t j u d g e s w e re n o t

a b o u t t o p e r m i t f o x t h e l i b e r t y t o t u r n t h e i r c o u r t

room i n t o a r e l i g i o u s p r e a c h i n g m e e t i n g . U s u a l l y t h e y

j u s t c u t him s h o r t , L a t e r , when t h e y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t

Fox h a d r e l i g i o u s s c r u p l e s a g a i n s t s w e a r i n g , t h e y w o u l d

e x p e d i t i o u s l y d i s p o s e o f Pox by t e n d i n g t h e O a t h o f

A b j u r a t i o n , A l l e g i a n c e , o r S u p r e m a c y , When Pox r e f u s e d

t o t a k e t h o o a t h , he was c o m m i t t e d t o p r i s o n .

A n o t h e r t e c h n i q u e w h i c h s e r v e d Pox w e l l i n t h e

c o u r t room f o r p r o v o k i n g a r e l i g i o u s r a t h e r t h a n l e g a l

d i s c o u r s e was t h e p r a c t i c e o f h i s k e e p i n g a h a t on h i s

h e a d . I t was common k n o w l e d g e t h a t Pox wou ld n o t

r emove h i s h a t t o p r i e s t o r p r o f e s s o r a nd t h a t ho

wo u ld t hee a n d t h o u a l l p e o p l e w i t h o u t r e s p e c t i n g

1 1 b i d . , p . 1 5 9 .

2 T h a t much o f P o x ' s a m b i g u i t y was duo t o h i s t e n d e n c y t o s p i r i t u a l i z e o r s p e a k f i g u r a t i v e l y a nd t h a t he was a b l e upon o x a m i n a t i o n t o make h i s t h e o l n n y a p p e a r more o r t h o d o x c a n be s e e n i n h i s two m a j o r w o r k s The G r e a t hiy s t e r y a n d H a u l ' s f r m nt l ,

210

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n men, B u t t w h e t h e r Fox had t h e

c o u r a g e o f c o n v i c t i o n t o show s u c h a p p a r e n t d i s r e s p e c t

t o j u d g e s wa3 a m a t t e r o f g e n e r a l c u r i o s i t y . As Fox

p o i n t e d o u t , t h e p e o p l e o f t e n came t o t h e t r i a l s t o

s e e “ w h e t h e r t h e y [ t h e F r i e n d s would]] d a r e t h o u and

t h e e a n d k e e p on t h e i r h a t s b e f o r e t h e j u d g e . T h e

a c t u a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n s c e n e a p p e a r s q u i t e a m u s i n g t o

t h e mode rn r e a d e r . Fox p a i n t e d t h i s p i c t u r e .

. . . The c h a m b e r s and windows we re f u l l o f p e o p l e l o o k i n o o u t upon u s . And t h e y [ t h e s h e r i f f ' s men! b r o u g h t u s i n t o t h e c o u r t , w h e r e we s t o o d w i t h o u r h a t s on a p r e t t y w h i l e , and a l l was q u i e t .

And I was moved t o s a y : ' P e a c e be a m o n g s ty o u . ’

And a t l a s t . . . , t h e Lord C h i e f J u s t i c e o f E n g l a n d , . . . , s a i d t o t h e g a o l e r :

'Ulhat be t h e s e you ha v e b r o u g h t h e r e i n t oc o u r t ? '

' P r i s o n e r s , my l o r d ' , s a i d he ,•Why do n o t you p u t o f f y o u r h a t s ? ' s a i d

t h e j u d n e .And we s a i d n o t h i n q .' P u t o f f y o u r h a t s ' , s a i d t h e j u d g e a g a i n .But we s a i d n o t h i n q .Then a o a i n t h e j u d q e :'T h e c o u r t commands you t o p u t o f f y o u r

h a t s . ' 2

Fox f i n a l l y r e s p o n d e d t o t h e j u d g e by c h a l l e n g i n g him

to p r o v e f i r s t f r om t h e ( B i b l i c a l h i s t o r y o f Moses t o

D a n i e l t h a t t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e h a t was a g o d l y p r a c t i c e ,

p . 242 .

p . 243 .

1 I b i d . ,

^ I b i d , ,

s e c o n d , f rom h e a t h e n j u d i c i a l p r a c t i c e s , anpl f i n a l l y ,

f r om t h e w r i t t e n l aws o f E n g l a n d , Fox c o n c l u d e d by

s a y i n q , " show i t me and I w i l l p u t o f f my h a t , " an d

by i m p l i c a t i o n , i f you c a n n o t c i t e y o u r a u t h o r i t i e s ,

t h e n I w i l l n o t t a k e my h a t o f f t o you o r a n y o n e e l s e .

The j u d g e was i n f u r i a t e d by F o x ' s a u d a c i t y an d a n g r i l y

r e p l i e d , " I do n o t c a r r y my law b o o k s on my b a c k , "

F o x , h o w e v e r , was a b s o l u t e l y i n t e n t upon m a k i n g h i s

p o i n t v e r y c l e a r t o t h e a u d i e n c e , e v e n a t t h a j u d g e ' s

e x p e n s e . He i n s i s t e d t h a t i f t h e C h i e f J u s t i c e c o u l d

n o t open a book an d show him s u c h a l a w , t h e n he

m i g h t a t l e a s t t e l l him i n w h i c h s t a t u t e book t h e l aw

was p r i n t e d so t h a t Fox m i g h t r e a d i t f o r h i m s e l f i n

t h e f u t u r e . The j u d g e , e m b a r r a s s e d t o w i t s ' e n d ,

s h o u t e d " T ake him a w ay , p r e v a r i c a t o r , I ' l l f i r k

f t r o u n c e l h i m . " Fox was h a s t i l y r emoved f rom t h e

c o u r t room. A p p a r e n t l y t h e d i s t r a u g h t j u d g e n e e d e d

t i m e f o r r e f l e c t i o n and p e r h a p s c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h thB

l o c a l t h e o l o g i c a l s c h o l a r s , b e c a u s e he s h o r t l y r e c a l l e d

Fox and d e c i d e d t o a r g u e t h e B i b l e w i t h h im . The

j u d g e f e l t t h a t Fox had b u i l t h i s " h a t " a r g u m e n t on t h e

s i l e n c e o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . Wi th a c e r t a i n amount o f

o b v i o u s - g l e e , t h e j u d g e q u e r i e d , "Where ha d t h e y h a t s

f r om Moses t o D a n i B l ? Come, a n s w e r me, I ha v e you f a s t

212

now," F o x , w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h S c r i p t u r e s , c o o l l y

a nd c o n f i d e n t l y r e p l i e d *

"Thou m a y e s t r e a d i n t h e t h i r d o f D a n i e l t h a t t h e t h r e e c h i l d r e n were c a s t i n t o t h e f i e r y f u r n a c e by N e b u c h a d n e z z a r w i t h t h e i r c l o a k s , h o s e , a nd h a t s o n . " And you may s e e t h a t N e b u c h a d n e z z a r was n o t o f f e n d e d a t t h e i r h a t s ,

F o x ' s q u i c k n e s s t o q u o t e S c r i p t u r e may ha v e d e l i g h t e d

t h e c rowd b u t t h e f a i l e d and o u t w i t t e d j u d g e s e n t

Fox t o t h e g a o l , ^ Ho w ev e r , e v e n t h i s Fox t h o u g h t a

v i c t o r y .

And F r i e n d s n e v e r f e a r e d t h e i r a c t s , n o r p r i s o n s , n o r j a i l s , n o r h o u s e s o f c o r r e c t i o n , n o r b a n i s h m e n t s , n o r s p o i l i n g o f goods* n a y , n o r l i f e i t s e l f . And t h e r e was n e v e r an y p e r s e c u t i o n , t h a t c a m e , b u t we saw i t was f o r goo d ; and we l o o k e d upon i t t o be g o o d , a s f r om God, And t h e r e was n e v e r a n y p r i s o n s , t h a t I was i n , o r s u f f e r i n g s , b u t s t i l l i t was f o r t h e b r i n g i n g m u l t i t u d e s more o u t o f £ t h e i r s p i r i t u a l ] p r i s o n , 2

Even t h e I n d e p e n d e n t Hugh P e t e r s , O l i v e r C r o m w e l l ' s

c h a p l a i n , c o n c u r r e d t h a t no man c o u l d " d o George Fox

a g r e a t e r s e r v i c e f o r t h e s p r e a d i n g o f h i s p r i n c i p l e s

. , , t h a n t o i m p r i s o n him."*^

^ I b i d , , pp. 2 4 2 - 4 4 ,

^ F o x , " C o n c e r n i n g t h e F i r s t S p r e a d i n g o f t h e T r u t h , " i n E p i s t l e s , pp . 1 0 - 1 1 , See a l s o F o x , "To A l l t h e K i n g s , P r i n c e s , a n d G o v e r n o r s i n t h e Whale W o r l d , " i n G o s p e 1 T r u t h D e m o n s t r a t e d , p . 612.

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , pp. 2 5 4 - 5 5 ,

213

Fox and t h a S e e k a r s

By f a r t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l a p p r o a c h e m p l o y e d by

Fox f o r s t i m u l a t i n g h i s m o v em en t ’ s g r o w t h was t h e

p r a c t i c e o f l o c a t i n g s e p a r a t i s t g r o u p s and s e c t s ,

d i s c o u r s i n g w i t h t hem a b o u t h i s r e v e l a t i o n s , and

f r e q u e n t l y g a t h e r i n g an d u n i t i n g t h e s e c o n v i n c e d and

t e n d e r p e o p l e i n t o s m a l l c e l l g r o u p s f o r w o r s h i p a n d

f e l l o w s h i p . From t h e J o u r n a l i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t when ­

e v e r Fox a r r i v e d i n a new c o m m u n i t y , h i s f i r s t i n t e r e s t

was t o d i s c o v e r i f t h e r e were a ny t e n d e r p e o p l e i n t h e

v i c i n i t y , S h o u l d t h e r e be some whom Fox F e l t m i g h t be

e s p e c i a l l y s y m p a t h e t i c t o h i s m e s s a g e , he wo u l d s e e k t o

make t h e i r a c q u a i n t a n c e i n t h e hope t h a t t h e y m i g h t o p e n

t h e i r homes f o r e v a n g e l i s t i c m e e t i n g s .

The f i r s t t h a t came i n t o t h e C o u n t y [ C o r n w a l l ] was o u r a n c i e n t & f a i t h f u l f r i e n d , George Fox , , B e in g a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h Edward P y o t t , o f B r i s t o l , and W i l l i a m S a l t , o f London , and t h e i r m a n n e r was t o E n q u i r e f o r t h e h o n e s t a n d w e l l i n c l i n e d and t h o s e t h a t wore o f good R e p o r t whose D e s i r e s were To f e a r god ,1

Fox t h e n r e l i e d upon t h e i r l o c a l k n ow le dg e a s t h e s p r i n g ­

b o a r d f rom w h i c h t o g a t h e r t o g e t h e r an a u d i e n c e o f

" s p i r i t u a l l y - m i n d e d " p e o p l e , Fo r i n s t a n c e , a s e a r l y a s

1647 Fox l o c a t e d i n N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e " a company o f

TF i r s t P u b l i s h e r s o f t h e T r u t h , p . 20 . See a l s o I b i d , , pp, 5 2 , 55} an d N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , pp . 2 2 8 - 2 9 ,

214

s h a t t e r e d B a p t i s t s , " i . e . , s o m e t i m e p r i o r t p F o x ' s

a r r i v a l , a s t r o n g s e p a r a t i s t B a p t i s t g r o u p had f l o u r i s h e d ?

now t h e y had l o s t t h e i r s p i r i t u a l v i t a l i t y , were s h a t ­

t e r e d and l a r g e l y s c a t t e r e d . Th rough h i s r h e t o r i c o f

t h e L i g h t and l e a d e r s h i p , Fox r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e " l o r d ' s

power w r o u g h t m i g h t i l y and g a t h e r e d many o f t h e m . "

T h a t t h i s r e v i t a l i z e d g r o u p o f b e l i e v e r s was more

t h a n s i m p l y a r e o r g a n i z e d B a p t i s t f e l l o w s h i p i s e v i d e n t

f rom t h e i r new name , " C h i l d r e n o f t h e L i g h t , " 1 On

a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n he d i s c o v e r e d a g r o u p t h a t was " s h a t ­

t e r e d t o p i e c e s an d t h e h e a d s o f t hem t u r n e d R a n t e r s . " ^

T h es e a l s o he b r o u g h t i n t o h i s f o l d .

Whi l e t h r o u g h o u t a l l o f E n g l a n d t h e r e we re i n ­

d i v i d u a l s . and g r o u p s s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e v e r y t h i n g w h i ch

Fox p r e a c h e d , i t was i n t h e n o r t h e r n c o u n t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y

among t h e " S e p a r a t e p e o p l e " an d t h e " S e e k e r s , " t h a t Fox

had h i s g r e a t e s t s u c c e s s f r om 1652 o n w a r d s . He i n f o r m e d

u s t h a t " t h o u s a n d s were t u r n e d t o t h e Lo rd J e s u s C h r i s t7

and t o h i s t e a c h i n g , " ' J W i l l i a m P e n n ' s a c c o u n t r u n s

a s f o l l o w s :

1N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a 1 , p . 25, See a l s o B r a i t h w a i t e , B e g i n n i n g s o f Q u a k e r i s m , pp. 43 -4 5,

? N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p , 79.

3 I b i d . , pp . 165 f 1 5 5 , 177,

215

In 1 6 5 2 , he b e i n g i n h i s u s u a l r e t i r e m e n t , h i s mind e x e r c i s e d t o w a r d s t h e L o r d , upon a v e r y h i g h m o u n t a i n . . . he h ad a v i s i o n o f t h e g r e a t work o f God i n t h e e a r t h , a nd o f t h e way t h a t he was t o go f o r t h i n a p u b l i c m i n i s t r y , t o b e g i n i t . He saw p e o p l e a s t h i c k a s m o t e s i n t h e s u n , t h a t s h o u l d i n t i m e be b r o u g h t home t o t h e Lo rd , , . ,T h e r e ' h i s e y e was d i r e c t e d n o r t h w a r d , b e h o l d i n g a g r e a t p e o p l e t h a t s h o u l d r e c e i v e him a n d h i s m e s s a g e i n t h o s e p a r t s , 1

F o x ' s s u c c e s s among t h e s e S e e k e r s c a n n o t p r i m a r i l y be

a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s e l o q u e n c e , b u t r a t h e r t o h i s b e i n g

p e r c e i v e d a s a c h a r i s m a t i c . We know f rom C h a p t e r I I I

t h a t t h e S e e k e r s i n g e n e r a l were w a i t i n g f o r and

a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a George Fox who had

a p o s t o l i c a u t h o r i t y , t h e a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m m i r a c l e s ,

an d a m e s s a g e t h a t c o u l d t r a n s f o r m a s e e k e r i n t o a

f i n d e r , An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l a c c o u n t s

o f t h e e a r l y Q u a k e r s s u c h a s John B a n k s , S t e p h e n C r i s p ,

I s a a c P e n i n g t o n , and G i l b e r t L a t e l y c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h e

p s y c h o l o g i c a l a nd r e l i g i o u s p r e p a r e d n e s s o f t h e s e men

f o r t h e r h e t o r i c a l l e a d e r s h i p o f George Fox.2 The

^ P e n n , R i s e a nd P r o p r e s s , pp . 5 3 - 5 4 .

2 John B a n k s , _A J o u r n o 1 o f t h e L i f e _of John Bonks ( L on d on : F . S o w l e , 1 7 1 2 ) , pp \ 2 - 8 ; S t e p h e n C r i s p , TheC h r i s t i a n E x p e r i e n c o s o f S t e n h e n C r i s p ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : Be n j a min and Thomas K i t e , 1 6 2 2 ) , pp . 1 6 - 2 8 ; J o s e p h G. Be van , memoi r s o f t h e L i f e o f 1s a a c P e n i n o t o n ( L o n d o n : Wi l l iam- P h i l l i p s , 1807*)”,' P P • 8 - 3 1 ; G i l b e r t L a t e l y , A B r i e f N a r r a t i v e o f t h e L i f e o f G i l b e r t L a t e l y (Lon do ns J . S o w l e , 1 7 Q 7 J , PP. 3 - 8 .

2 16

t r a v a i l o f John G r a t t o n ’ s s o u l was s i m i l a r l y e x p e r i e n c e d

by many o t h e r s , A f t B r h i s i n t e r e s t i n s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s

was s t i r r e d , he e x p l a i n e d *

Then I r e a d much, and c o n f e r r e d w i t h many a b o u t R e l i g i o n , and r a n t o and f r o , t o h o a r t hem t h a t we re a c c o u n t e d g r e a t P r e a c h e r s , , , . an d e s t e e m e d t h e P r i e s t s t h a t we re t h e n i n P l a c e , i n O l i v e r C r o m w e l l ’ s t i m e , and went c o n s t a n t l y t o h e a r t h e m , b u t o f t e n came home f u l l o f So r row* f o r I was n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r D o c t r i n e o f E l e c t i o n and R e p r o b a t i o n , w h i c h p u t me i n t o d e e p T r o u b l e , and I was s o m e t i m e s v e r y n e a r c o n c l u d i n g , t h a t I was a R e p r o b a t e , . , ,

At t h e t imB o f t h e R e s t o r a t i o n when A n g l i c a n s on c e

a g a i n r e g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f t h e c h u r c h e s , G r a t t o n l o s t a l l

r e s p e c t f o r t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n c l e r g y who would n o t s u f f e r

f o r t h e i r f a i t h , b u t e i t h e r c o m p r o m i s e d o r q u i e t l y

r e s i g n e d t h e i r h e n e f i c e s . The E p i s c o p a l c l e r g y w i t h

t h e i r s t r o n g r i t u a l i s t i c e m p h a s i s we re t o t a l l y u n ­

a c c e p t a b l e t o G r a t t o n , s o h i s s e a r c h c o n t i n u e d . He

a d d e d :

W e l l t h e n I h e a r d o f a s o r t o f P e o p l e much commended, who u s e d t o mee t i n p r i v a t e H o u s e s , an d ( a s i t a p p e a r o d ) had be en g r e a t i n P u b l i c , i n t h e P r e s h v t e r i a n Time [ d u r i n g t h e t o l e r a t i o n o f t h e Commonweal th ! , . , and now t h e s e m e e tt o g e t h e r i n g r e a t F e a r o f b e i n g p e r s e c u t e d , b u t were much commended by g r e a t P r o f e s s o r s ,. , , ; so I we n t t o t h e i r M e e t i n g s , some o f whom wore c a l l e d I n d e p e n d e n t s , some P r e s ­b y t e r i a n s , and soino A n a b a p t i s t s : So t h a t If o u n d some o f t h i n mixed M u l t i t u d e b c l i c v o d , t h a t God had e l e c t e d a c e r t a i n Number t o be s a v e d , . , , : O t h e r s o f them h e l d f o r t hF r o e G r a c e , . , , Some h e l d b a p t i z i n g I n f a n t s

217

i n W a t e r ; some s a i d , Nay, none o u g h t t o , be b a p t i z e d i n U l a t e r , t i l l t h e y b e l i e v e ! Some b a p t i z e d n o t a t a l l : Wi th many o t h e r t h i n g st h a t m i g h t be m e n t i o n e d .

T he s e s e c t s d i d more t o c o n f u s e t h a n c o m f o r t G r a t t o n ;

a s a r e s u l t he l e f t " a l l C h u r c h e s and P e o p l e , and

c o n t i n u e d a l o n e , l i k e one t h a t had no Mate n o r Com­

p a n i o n . " S t i l l r e m a i n i n g by h i m s e l f , he d i d f rom t i m e

t o t i m e s e e k some h e l p and f e l l o w s h i p among M u g g l e -

t o n i a n s a n d c e r t a i n B a p t i s t s u n t i l a t l a s t he f o u n d

wha t he was s e a r c h i n g f o r among t h e Q u a k e r s . 1

In a more g e n e r a l way Ambrose R i gge r e c o u n t e d *

A f t e r my l o n g T r a v e l i n t h e N i g h t o f D a r k ­n e s s a n d I g n o r a n c e , w h e r e i n I ha d t o i l e d and t a k e n n o t h i n g ; I t p l e a s e d t h e Lo rd o f h i s i n f i n i t e Go od n e s s an d t e n d e r Mercy t o me and many m a r e , t o s e n d h i s T rue a nd F a i t h f u l M e s s e n g e r , Georoe F o x , i n t o o u r P a r t s , who p u b l i s h e d t h e E v e r l a s t i n c i G o s p e l ; who s a i d we had a L i g h t , u n t o wh ic h we d i d w e l l t o t a k e h e e d u n t i l t h e Day d a w ne d , and t h e D a y - s t a r a r o s e i n o u r H e a r t s , w h i c h was G l a d t i d l n n s t o u s , . . . : Which T e s t i m o n yI t h e n b o t h b e l i e v e d and r e c e i v e d , n o t b e ­c a u s e i t was h i s T e s t i m o n y a l o n e , b u t b e c a u s e i t was i n d e e d t h e T e s t i m o n y o f t h e Word o f God, w h i c h became q u i c k an d p o w e r f u l i n me, and s h a r p e r t h a n a t w o - e d n e d S w o r d , t o t h e c u t t i n g dawn o f t h e Mon o f S i n , w h i c h had l o n g r u l e d i n my H e a r t . . . . 2

More s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h g i v e s some

i n s i g h t i n t o F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r among t h e S e e k e r s ,

1 Jo h n G r a t t o n , A J o u r n a l o f t h e L i f e o f John G r a t t o n ( L o n d o n : P r i n t e d by J . S o w l e , ' 1720 ) , pp . 5 - 3 2 .

^Ambrose R i g g e , C o n s t a n c y i n t h e T r u t h Commended ( L o n d o n t P r i n t e d by J . S o w l e , 1 7 1 D ) , p , A.

21 a

And i t h a v i n g t h e n been a Common p r a c t i c e a m o n gs t t h e S a i d s e e k i n g and r e l i g i o u s l y I n c l i n e d p e o p l e t o R a i s e a G e n e r a l M e e t i n g a t P r e s t o n P a t r i c k C h a p e l l on c e a m o n th , upon t h e f o u r t h day o f t h e week , t o w h ic h r e s o r t e d t h e mos t z e a l o u s & r e l i g i o u s p e o p l e i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s A d j a c e n t , a s f rom S e d b e r g h s i d e i n t h e C o u n t y o f Yo rk , Y e l l a n d & K e l l e t i n t h e C o u n t y o f L a n c a s t e r , K e n d a l l , G r a y r i d g e , U n d e r b a r r o w , H u t t o n , & i n & a b o u t t h e s a i d P r e s t o n P a t r i c k , whe re t h e S a i d f f : H: [ F r a n c i s H o w g i l l l , J : A:[ J o h n A u d l a n d l , and s e v e r a l o t h e r s d i d u s u a l l y p r e a c h t o t h e C o n g r e g a t i o n t h e r e m e t ; a nd t h e S a i d M e e t i n g b e i n g t h e r e A p p o i n t e d t h a t same d a y , t h i t h e r G: f f : w e n t , b e i n g Ac com pa n ie d w i t h J : A: & J : C, [ b o t h o f whom had r e c e n t l y b e en c o n v i n c e d by F o x l J : A: wo u ld have h a d G: f f , t o ha v e gone i n t o t h e p l a c e o r pew Where u s u a l l y he & t h e p r e a c h e r d i d s i t , b u t he r e f u s e d , & t o o k A back S e a t n e a r t h e d o o r ,& J . C: s a t down by h im, whe re he s a t s i l e n t w a i t i n g upon God a b o u t h a l f an h o u r , i n w h i ch t i m e o f s i l e n c e f f H s eeme d u n e a s y , and p u l l e d o u t h i s b i b l e , & o p e n e d i t , & s t o o d up s e v e r a l t i m e s , s i t t i n g down a g a i n and C l o s i n g h i s Book , A d r e a d & f e a r b e i n g upon him t h a t he d u r s t n o t b e g i n t o p r e a c h . A f t e r t h e s a i d s i l e n c e and w a i t i n g G: f f s t o o d up i n t h e m i g h t y power o f God, & i n t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h e r e o f was h i s mouth o p e n e d t o p r e a c h C h r i s t J e s u s , t h e L i g h t o f l i f e , & t h e way t o God,& S a v i o r o f a l l t h a t b e l i e v e & o b e y h im , w h i c h was d e l i v e r e d i n t h a t power and A u t h o r i t y t h a t m os t o f t h e A u d i t o r y , wh ic h we re s e v e r a l h u n d r e d s , wa re E f f e c t u a l l y r e a c h e d t o t h e h e a r t , & C o n v i n c e d o f t h e T r u t h t h a t v e r y d a y , . . . 1

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y no

c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n f rom e i t h e r F o x ' s J o u r n n 1, e p i s t l e s o r

s e r m o n s t h a t he e v e r made a c o n s c i o u s p r a c t i c e o f

1 F i r s t P u b l i s h e r s o f t_he Tr u t h , p. 24 4 ,

d r i e c t l y " s e l l i n g h i m s e l f " t o h i s a u d i e n c e a s a

c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r . The F a c t t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e p e r ­

c e i v e d Fox a s h a v i n g a p o s t o l i c a u t h o r i t y m us t be b a s e d

upon h i s c l a i m s t o know t h e t r u t h by r e v e l a t i o n an d

t h e c e r t a i n t y w i t h w h i ch he p r o c l a i m e d i t , c o u p l e d

w i t h any i n i t i a l r e p u t a t i o n t h a t wou ld h a v e a c c o m p a n i e d

him f rom p l a c e t o p l a c e .

The S i l e n t M e e t i n g

T h e s e h u n d r e d s and e v e n t u a l l y t h o u s a n d s who

were c o n v i n c e d , Fox e n c o u r a g e d t o m ee t t o g e t h e r f o r

w o r s h i p , e d i f i c a t i o n , and f e l l o w s h i p , "My m e s s a g e , "

he r e m a r k e d , "was f rom t h e L o rd t h a t t h e y m i g h t a l l

come t o g e t h e r a q a i n and w a i t t o f e e l t h e L o r d ’ s

power a nd s p i r i t i n t h e m s e l v e s t o g a t h e r t hem t o

C h r i s t a n d t o be t a u g h t o f h i m , " ^ Even i f t h e num ber

o f b e l i e v e r s i n any l o c a l i t y were v e r y s m a l l ( s u c h a s

o n l y two o r t h r e e ) Fox s t i l l e n c o u r a o e d them t o m ee t

t o a e t h e r , ^

A l t h a u q h b e l i e v e r s we re e x h o r t e d t o come t o ­

g e t h e r " t h o u g h t h e r e was none t o s p e a k w o r d s , " and

r e m i n d e d t h a t t h o s e c o m p l e t e l y s i l e n t g a t h e r i n g s

220

would s t i l l be p r o f i t a b l e , i t was a l w a y s a n t i c i p a t e d

t h a t t h e r e would u s u a l l y be some v o c a l m i n i s t r y . * '

And t h i s i s t h e manne r o f t h e i r w o r s h i p .They a r e t o w a i t on t h e L o r d , t o mee t i n t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e f l e s h , an d t o w a t c h f o r s t i r r i n g s o f h i s L i f e . . . i n t h e b r e a k i n g f o r t h o f t h a t power t h e y may p r a y , s p e a k , e x h o r t , r e ­b u k e , s i n g , o r mo ur n , e t c , a c c o r d i n q a s t h e S p i r i t t e a c h e s , r e q u i r e s , and g i v e s u t t e r a n c e .Bu t i f t h e S p i r i t do n o t r e q u i r e t o s p e a k , a n d o i v e t o u t t e r , t h e n e v e r y one i s t o s i t s t i l l i n h i s p l a c e ( i n h i s h e a v e n l y p l a c e I m e a n ) , f e e l i n g h i s own m e a s u r e , f e e d i n g t h e r e u p o n , r e ­c e i v i n g t h e r e f r o m , i n t o h i s s p i r i t , w h a t t h e Lord q i v e t h . Mow, i n t h i s i s e d i f y i n g , p u r e e d i f y i n g . . . .

F o r a b s o l u t e l y s i l e n t m e e t i n g s , w h e r e i n t h e r e i s a r e s o l u t i o n n o t t o s p e a k , we know n o t ; b u t we w a i t upon t h e L o r d , e i t h e r t o f e e l Him i n w o r d s , o r i n t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e S p i r i t w i t h o u t w o r d s , a s He p l e a 3 e t h , 2

I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t a l l v o c a l m i n i s t r y , h o w e v e r ,

was t o be b o r n o u t o f s i l e n c e . The b e l i e f was t h a t a s

t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e m e e t i n g s i l e n t l y w a i t e d upon

God, t h e y we re t o i g n o r e " t h e i r own t h o u g h t s and

i m a g i n a t i o n s " and " f e e l t h e L o r d ’ s p r e s e n c e , B y so

V o x , E p i . 3 t l e s , Mo. 77 ( 1 6 5 4 ) , p . 07 ; E p i s t l a s ,Mo. 117 ( 1 6 5 6 ) , p. 1 1 5 ; R o b e r t B a r c l a y , jAn Apo iooy ( P h i l a d e l p h i a ! F r i e n d s ' B o o k - S t o r e , [ 1 8 4 0 1 , p r o p , x i , p . 333} F i r s t P u b l i s h e r s o f t h e T r u t h , p . 63.

^ I s a a c P e n i n g t o n , The Works o f I s a a c P e n i n g t o n ( L o n d o n : P r i n t e d f o r B. C l a r k , IBQTT, IV, 5 4 - 5 5 .

^G[eorqe* l F [ o x !, Dear F r i e n d s Keen Your [fleet i n os ( [ L o n d o n : n . p . , 1664"!) . See a l s o F o x , C p i . s c l e s , Mo. 104( 1 6 5 5 ) , p. 10G; E p i s t l e s , No. 50 ( 1 6 5 4 ) , p . 7 3 ; B a r c l a y , An A p o l o g y , p r o p , x i , . p . ' 329 .

221

d o i n g , i t was s a i d t h a t t h o p e o p l e ' s h e a r t s umre p r e ­

p a r e d t o r e c e i v e any words t h a t m i g h t be s p o k e n , w h i l e

a t t h e same t i m e e a c h one was t o d e t e r m i n e by h i s

" f e e l i n g " w h e t h e r ho was b e i n g a c t u a t e d t o g i v e an

u n p r e m e d i t a t e d a d d r e s s , ' * Fox d e l i n e a t e d *

. , , The s a i n t s , , . gave f o r t h t h e s c r i p ­t u r e s , a s t h e y were moved by t h e h o l y g h o s t .

. So no p r o p h e c y i n t h e o l d t i m e came by t h e w i l l o f man, b u t was l e a r n e d o f Cod. So now ye w a i t i n g i n t h e s p i r i t e v e r y o n e , t o be t a u q h t o f God . . , , y ou r t e a c h e r i s w i t h you p r e s e n t , an d one i n you a l l , a c c o r d i n g t o yo u r m e a s u r e s , Which s p i r i t i s g i v e n t o e v e r y one o f you t o p r o f i t w i t h a l ; by wh ich h o l y s p i r i t thB s c r i p t u r e was a i v e n f o r t h .Now a l l be w i l l i n g t o w a i t i n t h e m e a s u r e o f t h a t w h i c h i s e t e r n a l , . . t h a t a l l may come t o r e c e i v e wisdom f rom C h r i s t , who i s t h e wisdom o f G o d , 2

T h i s was a n o n - d i s c u r s i v s i n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o com­

p o s i n g d i s c o u r s e s and no one was d i s c o u r a g e d f rom

m i n i s t e r i n g i n t h e a s s s m h l y , ^ e v e n i f t h e y had o n l y a

few words t o s p e a k .

And non e go beyond t h e m e a s u r e o f t h e s p i r i t o f God, n o r qu e n ch i t ; f o r whe re i t i s q u e n c h e d i t c a n n o t t r y t h i n g s . So i f any have any t h i n g upon them t o s p e a k , j.n t h o l i f e o f God s t a n d up and s p e a k i t , i f i t be b u t two o r t h r e e w o r d s , arid s i t down a g a i n j and k e e p i n t h o l i f e , t h a t ye may a n s w e r

’' B a r c l a y , Ain A p o l o g y , p r o p , x i , p . 32G,

•2 F o x , E p i s t l e s , No. 132 ( 1 6 5 6 ) , p . 130 .

•^Fox, E p i s t l e s , No. A ( 1 6 5 1 ) , p. 10 .

222

t h a t o f God i n e v e r y man upon t h e e a r t h .To you t h i s i s t h e word o f t h e Lo rd God, '

Now i f a l l m i n i s t r y was b o r n i n s i l e n c e i t was a l s o

t h o u g h t t o e nd i n s i l e n c e and a d e e p s e n s e o f i n ­

w a r d n e s s , Fox c l a i m e d t h a t " t h e i n t e n t o f a l l S p e a k i n g

i s t o b r i n g i n t o t h e L i f e , and t o wa lk i n , and t o

p o s s e s s t h e s ame, a nd t o l i v e and Bn joy i t , and t o f e e l

God’ s p r e s e n c e , a nd t h a t i s i n t h e S i l e n c e .

E v i d e n t l y t h e s B " s i l e n t " m e e t i n g s f o r w o r s h i p

e x e r c i s e d a s t r a n o e p e r s u a s i v e power o r p e r h a p s more a c ­

c u r a t e l y an u n u s u a l c o n t a g i o u s e f f e c t upon t h o s e who a t ­

t e n d e d t h e s e g a t h e r i n g s . The Quake r m e e t i n g s f o r w o r s h i p

we re f r e q u e n t l y c r i t i c i z e d b e c a u s e "m en , women, a n d l i t t l e

c h i l d r e n , a t t h e i r m e e t i n g s , a r e s t r a n g e l y w r o u g h t upon

i n t h e i r b o d i e s , a nd b r o u g h t t o f a l l , foam a t t h e m o u th ,

r o a r , and s w e l l i n t h e i r ' b e l l i e s , " Fox d i d n o t d e n y

t h e s e a c c u s a t i o n s b u t c h o s e t o e x p l a i n t h a t

The m e e t i n g s o f t h e p e o p l e o f God, we re e v e r s t r a n g e t o t h e w o r l d ; f o r i t was a s t h o u g h some s t r a n o e t h i n g had h a p p e n e d t o t h e s a i n t s , a s ye r e a d i n t h e s c r i p t u r e ; . ,an d whe re t h e works o f God a r e now, t h e y t h i n k them s t r a n o e t h i n g s now, a s was t h e n who a r e a l i v e i n t h e f l e s h . I t wou ld be a 3 t r a n o e t h i n g t o s e e one now f o i l down, a3 P a u l F e l l down and t r e m b l o d , and a s D a n i e l f e l l down and t r e m b l e d ; and t o s e e one a s

i p g x , . E p i s t l e s , N o. 150 ( 1 6 5 7 ) , p. 143 .

ox , S o m e t h i n g C o n c e r n i ng Si l e n t M e e t i n g s , (No P r i n t e r ' s name , o r p l a c e , |_T6B7~lX, p . 1 .

223

Habakkuk , h i s b e l l y t o t r e m b l e , a nd h i s l i p s t o q u i v e r , and a s D a v i d , t o l i e r o a r i n g a l l t h e day l o n g , who c r i e d t i l l ' h i s 3 i g h t was qrown d im, and h i s f l e s h F a i l e d o f f a t n e s s , * a n d t i l l he c o u l d ' n u m b e r h i s b o n e s ; and t o s e e one a s I s a i a h , t o ' r e n t h i s g a r m e n t and h i s m a n t l e , ' and ' p l u c k h i s h a i r o f f h i s h e a d , and o f f h i s b e a r d , and s i t down a s t o n i s h e d , * ' '

R o b e r t B a r c l a y , t h e o u t s t a n d i n g s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

Q ua ke r a p o l o g i s t , t e s t i f i e d o f t h e s t r a n g e pouier w h i c h

t h e s e w o r s h i p s e r v i c e s had o v e r h im,

I m y s e l f , i n p a r t , am a t r u e w i t n e s s , who n o t by s t r e n o t h o f a r a u m e n t s , o r by a p a r t i c u l a r d i s q u i s i t i o n o f e a c h d o c t r i n e , an d c o n v i n c e - ment o f my u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r e b y , came t o r e ­c e i v e and b e a r w i t n e s s o f t h e t r u t h , b u t by b e i n a s e c r e t l y r e a c h e d hy t h i s l i f e ; f o r when I came i n t o t h e s i l e n t a s s e m b l i e s o f G o d ' s p e o p l e , I f e l t a s e c r e t power among t h e m , wh ic h t o u c h e d my h e a r t , an d a s I gave way u n t o i t , I f o u n d t h e e v i l w e a k e n i n g i n me, and t h e goad r a i s e d u p , and so I became t h u s k n i t and u n i t e d u n t o t h em , h u n g e r i n g more and more a f t e r t h e i n ­c r e a s e o f t h i s power and l i f e , w h e r e b y I m i g h t f e e l m y s e l f p e r f e c t l y r e d e e m e d , And i n d e e d t h i s i s t h e s u r e s t way t o ' become a C h r i s t i a n , t o wham a f t e r w a r d s t h e kn o w l e d g e a nd u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p r i n c i p l e s w i l l n o t be w a n t i n g , b u t w i l l grow up so much a s i s n e e d f u l . , , , A f t e r t h i s manne r we d e s i r e t h e r e f o r e a l l t h a t come among u s t o be p r o s e l y t e d . , . . 2

Even w r i t e r s who were h o s t i l e t o t h e Qua ke r movement

a p p e a r t o have r e c o g n i z e d t h e r h e t o r i c a l , a l t h o u g h a t

t i m e s n o n - v e r b a l , e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e s e m e e t i n g s , f o r

i n s t a n c e , George K e i t h who f o r t w e n t y y e a r s had been an

V o x , Sau l * s E r r a n d , p , 5 9 0 .

^ R o b e r t 8 a r c l a y , An A p n l o n y , p r o p , x i , pp , 3 3 3 - 3 4 .

224

i n f l u e n t i a l Qua ke r i n b o t h E n g l a n d and Ame r i ca b u t t h e n

j o i n e d w i t h t h e Ch u rc h o f E n g l a n d , and was d e t e r m i n e d

t o u n d e r m i n e t h e F r i e n d s ' i n f l u e n c e , had t o a d m i t t h a t

i f t h e y £ t h e Q u a k e r s ! c an g e t t h o s e p e r s o n s whom t h e y have a l r e a d y p e r s u a d e d t o hav e a good o p i n i o n o f t hem and a bad o p i n i o n o f a l l P r o t e s t a n t M i n i s t e r s , e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e Ch u r ch o f E n g l a n d , t o come t o t h e i r M e e t i n g s , t h e Power an d L i f e o f t h e F r i e n d s , a s t h e y c a l l i t , w i l l r e a c h and t a k e h o l d o f t h e m , and c o n v e r t them t o Q u a k e r i s m , s o m e t i m e s w i t h o u t a l l o u t w a r d means , . . v i z , , n e i t h e r by w o r d s , s o u n d o f V o i c e , n o r S i g h t n o r b o d i l y T o u c h , b u t s i m p l y by a f e e l i n g o f t h em i g h t y power t h a t e x e r t e d i t s e l f , t h e f i r s tt i m e t h e y came i n t o t h e s e s i l e n t m e e t i n g s , . .

T hes e m e e t i n g s w e r e , t h e n , an e f f e c t i v e e v a n g e l i s t i c

t a c t i c , b u t t h e y a l s o were o f e v e n g r e a t e r b e n e f i t i n

e d i f y i n g and t r a i n i n g t h e b e l i e v e r f o r a m i n i s t r y t h a t

was i n some m e a s u r e c h a r i s m a t i c , George W h i t e h e a d

u n d e r s c o r e d how he l e a r n e d t o p r e a c h and d e v e l o p h i s

m i n i s t r y i n t h e s e s i l e n t m e e t i n g s .

A f t e r some Time t h a t I was c o n v e r s a n t among o u r F r i e n d s , and f r e q u e n t e d t h e M e e t i n g s t o wh i ch I b e l o n g e d , b o t h i n Wostmore l a n d a n d Y o r k s h i r e b e f o r e - m e n t i o n e d , c h i e f f y b e t w e e n t h e Ye a r s 1 6 5 2 , and 1 6 5 4 , b e i n g much i n w a r d l y e x o r c i s e d i n w a i t i n g upon t h e l o r d amonq t h e m , whe re we ha d l i t t l e P r e a c h i n g , b u t ou r M e e t i n g s k e p t much and o f t e n i n S i l e n c e , o r b u t few Words d e c l a r e d , t h e Lord was p l e a s e d s o m e t i m e s by h i s Power an d Word o f L i f a , b o t h t o r e n d e r and o p e n my H e a r t and U n d e r s t a n d i n g , so t h a t he oave me (among some o t h e r s ) now a n d - t h e n a few Words i i v i n g l y t o u t t e r i n some M e e t i n g s , t o t h e i r an d rny own C o m f o r t , , . ,

^ Ge o r ge K e i t h , The Magic o f Qua k e r i s m (L on do n : B r a b . Ay lmer , 1 7 0 7 ) , p7 60 .

I t was o u t o f t h e s e , and s u c h o u r f r e q u e n t l y 5 i l e n t M e e t i n g s , t h e Lord was p l e a s e d t o r a i s e u p , and b r i n g f o r t h L i v i n n W i t n e s e e s , f a i t h - f u 1 M i n i s t e r s , and T r u e P r o p h e t s , i n e a r l y Days i n lUestmore l a n d , and o t h e r N o r t h e r n P a r t s , i n t h e Y e a r s 1 6 5 4 , and 1 6 5 5 , e t c T *

In c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t F o x ' s

p r a c t i c e o f g a t h e r i n g c o n v e r t s i n t o s m a l l c e l l g r o u p s

f o r s i l e n t w o r s h i p was o f en o rm ou s v a l u e t o t h e move­

men t f o r a t l e a s t f o u r r e a s o n s . F i r s t , s i n c e t h e

m e e t i n g s e n c o u r a g e d t h e p a r t i c i p a n t t o " f e e l t h e p o w e r , "

t h e y p r i m a r i l y e m p h a s i z e d t h e s u b j e c t i v e l i f e . S e c o n d ,

b e c a u s e a l l v o c a l m i n i s t r y was e x p e c t e d t o come f rom

u n p r e m e d i t a t e d d i v i n e i n s p i r a t i o n , t h e l i s t e n e r was n o t

e n c o u r a g e d t o be e x c e s s i v e l y c r i t i c a l o f t h e m e s s a g e .

T h i r d , t h e s e m e e t i n g s we re a p p a r e n t l y so e m o t i o n a l l y

c h a r g e d t h a t e v e n when n o n - b e l i e v e r s were i n a t t e n d a n c e

t h e y were n o n - r a t i o n a l l y c o n v i n c e d o f t h e t r u t h o f

Q u a k e r i s m , F i n a l l y , s i n c e i n t h e s e m e e t i n g s e v e r y one

was e x p e c t e d t o e n t e r i n t o t h e s p i r i t o f t h e g a t h e r i n g

and e v e r y one was g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x e r c i s e

some v o c a l m i n i s t r y , e v e n i f i t was b u t one p h r a s e o f

e x h o r t a t i o n , t h e s e m e e t i n g s became t h e t r a i n i n g g r o u n d s

f o r young m i n i s t e r s ,

226

C h a r i s m a t i c L i e u t e n a n t s

T h e r e f o r e , t h i s work i n t h e n o r t h was n o t o n l y

s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e i t a d d e d g r e a t n u m b e r s t o t h e

g r o w i n g movement and u n i t e d them i n w o r s h i p , b u t a l s o

b e c a u s e f rom among t h e s e c o n v e r t s , Fox f o u n d c o - l a b o r e r s

i n h i s movement . A c c o r d i n g t o W i l l i a m P e n n ,

Some o f t h e f i r s t and mos t e m i n e n t o f t h o s e t h a t came f o r t h i n a p u b l i c m i n i s t r y , an d wh i ch a r e now a t r e s t , we re R i c h a r d F a r n s w o r t h ,James N a y l e r , W i l l i a m D e w s b e r r y , Thomas Aldam, F r a n c i s H o w g i l l , Edward B u r r o u g h s , John Camm,John Aud. land, R i c h a r d H u b b e r t h o r n , T. T a y l o r ,T. Ho lmes , A l e x a n d e r P a r k e r , W i l l i a m S i m s o n ,W i l l i a m C a t o n , John S t u b b s , R o b e r t W i t h e r s ,Thomas Low, J o s i a h C o a l e , John B u r n y e a t ,R o b e r t Lodge , Thotnas S a l t h o u s e , and many more w o r t h i e s , t h a t c a n n o t be w e l l h e r e named? t o g e t h e r w i t h d i v e r s y e t l i v i n g o f t h e f i r s t and g r e a t c o n v i n c e m e n t , who, a f t e r t h e k n o w l e d g e o f God’ s p u r g i n g j u d g m e n t i n t h e m s e l v e s , and some t i m e o f w a i t i n g i n s i l e n c e upon h i m , t o f e e l a nd r e c o i v e power f rom on h i o h t o s p e a k i n h i s name, , . , t h e y f e l t i t s d i v i n e m o t i o n s , and we re f r e q u e n t l y drawn f o r t h , e s p e c i a l l y t o v i s i t t h e p u b l i c a s s e m b l i e s , t o r e p r o v e , i n ­f o r m , a nd e x h o r t t hem ; s o m e t i m e s i n m a r k e t s , f a i r s , s t r e e t s , and by t h o h i g hw a y s i d e s ; c a l l i n g p e o p l e t o r e p e n t a n c e , a n d t o t u r n t o t h e Lord w i t h t h e i r h e a r t s , , , ; d i r e c t i n g t hem t o t h e l i g h t o f C h r i s t w i t h i n t h e m , . . . ^

By 1652 t h e y n u m b e r e d t w e n t y - f i v e , ^ W i t h i n a f e w more

y e a r s t h e number o f i t i n e r a n t p r e a c h e r s r e a c h e d two

^ P e n n , R i s e and P r o g r e s s , pp , 5 4 - 5 5 .

^ S e w e l , H i s t o r y o f t h e R i s e , I , 1 2 2 ,

227

h u n d r e d an d t h i r t y - o n e , w i t h one h u n d r e d n i n e t y - e i g h t

o f t h e s e , men, and t h i r t y - t h r e e o f them women

I t h i n k t h a t t h i s g r o w i n g number o f " p u b l i s h e r s

o f t h e t r u t h " c an b e s t be d e s c r i b e d a s F o x ' s c h a r i s ­

m a t i c l i e u t e n a n t s b e c a u s e t h e y we re u s u a l l y " c a l l e d "

i n t o s e r v i c e by t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r and h i s God,

s o l e l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r b e i n g p e r c e i v e d a s c h a r i s -

m a t i c a l l y q u a l i f i e d i n t h e i r own r i g h t . L ike t h e i r

c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r , t h e y s e r v e d o u t s i d e t h e s p h e r e o f

t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y an d w i t h o u t e co n o m ic s e c u r i t y o f

s a l a r y o r b e n e f i c e . They t e n d e d t o l i v e i n a com­

m u n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r l e a d e r and d e p e n d e d upon

v o l u n t a r y g i f t s f o r t h e i r s u s t e n a n c e , S i n c e t h e s e

l i e u t e n a n t s ha d no o f f i c i a l o f f i c e , t h e y a l s o l a c k e d

p r o f e s s i o n a l s e c u r i t y . He nce , t h e i r s u r v i v a l d e p e n d e d

n o t o n l y on t h e e n d u r a n c e o f t h e movemen t , b u t a l s o on

t h e i r own a b i l i t y t o " p r o v e " a t c r u c i a l i n t e r v a l s t h e i r

p o w e r s , 2

Adv ice t o P r e a c h e r s

B e c a u s e t h e s e men a r e c h a r i s m a t i c l i e u t e n a n t s ,

i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Fox had much a d v i c e t o g i v e

^E. E. T a y l o r , "The V a l i a n t S i x t y , " J o u r n a 1 o f t h e F r i e n d s * H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , XIX ( 1 9 2 5 ) , 6 7 - 8 2 ,

^Webe r , £n C h a r i s m a , pp . 5 0 - 5 1 .

220

t h em , Hi s s u g o e s t i o n s a b o u t m i n i s t r y a r e mo s t i n ­

t e r e s t i n g i n t h e l i g h t o f t h i s s t u d y . B a s i c a l l y , he

s e n t o u t h i s l i e u t e n a n t s w i t h t h e same a d m o n i t i o n s

t h a t C h r i s t gave t o h i s d i s c i p l e s ,

• • • hS. yjL o r s a c h , s a v i n g , t h e Kinodom o f Heaven i s a t H a n d , e t c , and f r e e l y you hav e r e c e i v e d , f r e e l y g i v e , p r o v i d e n e i t h e r G o l d , n o r S i I v e r , n o r B r a s s i n y o u r P u r s e s , n o r S c r i p s f o r y o u r J o u r n e y , n o r S t a f f s , n o r two Coat s , n o r S h o e s f o r y o u r J o u r n e y , e t c . and i n t o w h a t s o e v e r C i t y o r Iown ye s h a l l e n t e r , e n q u i r e who i s w o r t h y , an d t h e r e a b i d e * t i l l y*L J22. t h e n c e , e t c . And w h o s o e v e r w i l l n o t r e c e i v e y o u , n o r h e a r y o u r W o r d s , when you d e p a r t o u t o f t h a t House o r C i t y , s h a k e o f f t h o Du s t o f y o u r F e e t , e t c .1

Fox h i m s e l f ha d t a k e n J e s u s , h i s d i s c i p l e s , and t h e

p r o p h e t s a s h i s t u t o r s i n t h e m i n i s t r y ? n a t u r a l l y he

c o u n s e l l e d h i s l i e u t e n a n t s t o do t h e same. Th es e

z e a l o u s i t i n e r a n t p r e a c h e r s , who humbly t r a v e l l e d f rom

town t o t o w n , s u p p o r t e d by o n l y t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r

c o n v i c t i o n s a nd t h e g o o d n e s s o f t h e p e o p l e t o whom t h e y

m i n i s t e r e d , we re l i k e a m i g h t y army o f t h e r i g h t e o u s

m a r c h i n g t h r o u g h o u t E n g l a n d and a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . T h e i r

sw ord was t h e UJord o f God? t h e i r m i s s i o n , t h e e r e c t i o n o f

a new k i ngd om ; t h e i r m e s s a g e , t h e L i g h t o f God w i t h i n ,

E v e r y fo e o f t h e now r e a l i t y had t o be d e s t r o y e d .

H ' o x , " P r i m i t i v e O r d i n a t i o n , " i n G o s p e 1 T r u t h D e m o n s t r a t e d , p , A84 ,

229

. . . F o r t e a c h i n g s , c h u r c h e s , w o r s h i p s m u s t be t h r o w n down w i t h t h e power o f t h e Lo rd God, s e t up by m a n ’ s e a r t h l y u n d e r ­s t a n d i n g , k n o w l e d g e , an d w i l l . A l l t h i s m u s t be t h r o w n down w i t h t h a t w h i ch g av e F o r t h t h e s c r i p t u r e ; an d who a r e i n t h a t , r e i g n o v e r i t a l l . T h a t i s t h e word oF t h e Lord God t o you al l .**

E v e r y man and woman, p r i n c e and p a u p e r ha d t o

h e a r t h e m e s s a g e . On moo r s and m o u n t a i n s , i n F i e l d s

and an y open p l a c e , e v a n g e l i s t i c " t h r e s h i n g " m e e t i n g s

were t o be h e l d .

And when t h e r e a r e a ny m e e t i n g s i n u n b r o k e n p l a c e s , ye t h a t go t o m i n i s t e r t o t h e w o r l d , t a k e n o t t h e whole m e e t i n g oF F r i e n d s w i t h you t h i t h e r , t o s u f F e r w i t h a nd by t h e w o r l d ’ s s p i r i t ; b u t l e t F r i e n d s k e e p t o g e t h e r , and w a i t i n t h e i r own m e e t i n g p l a c e . And l e t t h r e e , o r F o u r , o r s i x , t h a t a r e grown up s t r o n g , a n d a r e i n t h e t r u t h , go t o s u c h u n b r o k e n p l a c e s , and t h r e s h t h e h e a t h e n i s h n a t u r e ; a n d t h e r e i s t r u e s e r v i c e f o r t h e Lo rd . And t o you a l l t h i s i s t h e c o u n s e l oF t h e L o r d , 2

The W r i t t e n Word

Fox and h i s l i e u t e n a n t s we re n o t o n l y i n d e F a t i g a b l e

i t i n e r a n t p r e a c h e r s , b u t t h e y were a l s o p r o l i f i c j o u r ­

n a l i s t s , Fox h i m s e l f b e g a n t o w r i t e e p i s t l e s a n d t r a c t s

F o x , _An E x h n r t o t i o n oF George Fox _to f r i e n d s i n t h e [mi n i s t r y . Given F o r t h i n 1656 ( P h i l a d e l p h i a * Dler r ihew & Thompson , 1862") , p . 3 ,

2f o x , E p i s t l e s , No. 14 ( 1 6 5 2 ) , pp , 2 2 - 2 3 . T h i s p r a c t i c e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e s e t t i n g up o f v a r i o u s p u b l i c a nd s i l e n t m e e t i n g s i n London, F i r s t P u b l i s h e r s oF t h e T r u t h , pp . 1 6 3 - 6 6 ,

i n t h e l a t e 1 6 4 0 ' s , a b o u t t h o same t i m e he p a s b e ­

g i n n i n g h i s o r a l m i n i s t r y . A c c o r d i n g t o W h i t i n g ' s

C a t a l o g u e , t w e n t y - t h r e e Quake r t r a c t s were i s s u e d i n

1 6 5 3 , f o r t y - t h r e e t h e n e x t y e a r , and s e v e n t y i n 1 6 5 5 .

By t h e t i m e o f t h e R e s t o r a t i o n i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t

t h e r e were some f o u r h u n d r e d an d s i x t y - e i g h t s e p a r a t e

p u b l i c a t i o n s i n c i r c u l a t i o n , " ' a n d t h a t s h o r t l y a f t e r

t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , t h e f i g u r e m u l t i p l i e d t o o v e r

f o u r t h o u s a n d d i f f e r e n t t i t l e s . I f , a s i s p r o b a b l e ,

a b o u t one t h o u s a n d c o p i e s o f e a c h work we re p r i n t e d , i t

wou ld be f a i r l y a c c u r a t e t o e s t i m a t e t h a t n o t l o n g a f t e r

t h e d e a t h o f Fox i n 1 5 9 1 , t h e r e wou ld have been some

f o u r m i l l i o n p i e c e s o f Qua ke r l i t e r a t u r e r u n o f f t h e

p r e s s e s . B y t h e same c a l c u l a t i o n s , F o x , who p e r s o n a l l y

had a hand i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y two h u n d r e d a n d f i f t y

d i f f e r e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s , wou ld have had h i s name on o v e r

a q u a r t e r o f a m i l l i o n p i e c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e .

N a t u r a l l y , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e t r a c t s was

o f g r e a t c o n c e r n t o Fox. From t h e J o u r n a l we know t h a t

. . . a t t h e f i r s t t h e n o r t h t o o k 600 o f e v e r y s o r t o f b oo k s t h a t was p r i n t e d and t h a t c o n t i n u e d f o r many y e a r s t i l l t h e t r u t h was s p r e a d o v e r t h e n a t i o n and t h i n was s e t t l e d when we f i r s t be gan t o p r i n t : an d t h e n when

John W h i t i n g , A Ca t a . l o o ue o f F r i e n d s Bonks ( L on d on : J . S o w lo , 17 08 1 ,

^ C a m b r i d g e J o u r n o 1 , I , 4 7 7n ,

231

t h e t r u t h was s p r e a d a s a f o r e s a i d I t was l e f t t o f r i e n d s l i b e r t y f o r ev/ory C o u n t y t o s e n d f o r wha t t h e y l i k e d f rom a l l p a r t s o f t h e n a t i o n ; b u t t h e n o r t h a t t h e f i r s t b o r e t h e c h a r g e s o f a l l t h e p r i n t i n g f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s b u t when t h e L o r d ' s £ t r u t h l s p r e a d o v e r t h e n a t i o n a nd p e o p l e came t o be t u r n e d t o C h r i s t t h e n t h e y were e a s e d . '

In t h e i n t e r e s t o f s e e i n g t h e m a t e r i a l s p r e a d a s f a r

and w ide a s p o s s i b l e , Fox e n c o u r a g e d Q u a k e r s t o s e n d

bo oks and p a p e r s t o t h e i r f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s a b r o a d

and t h a t some o f t h e t r a c t s s h o u l d be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o

o t h e r l a n g u a g e s so t h a t t h e y c o u l d be r e a d by t h e p e o p l e

o f F r a n c e , P o l a n d , I t a l y , Norway, and many o t h B r

c o u n t r i e s .2

The r e s u l t s o f a l l t h i s p r e a c h i n g an d p a m p h l e ­

t e e r i n g were i m p r e s s i v e . Fo r i n s t a n c e , by 1654 t h e

movement a l r e a d y b eg an t o a t t r a c t n a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n

o r a s Mason s a i d , " T h i s was t h e v e r y s e c t o f s e c t s . I t

was a b o u t t h e Q u a k e r s t h a t t h e r e h a d begun t o be t h e

mo s t v i o l e n t e x c i t e m e n t among t h e g u a r d i a n s o f s o c i a l

o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s , " ^ B e f o r e t h e d e a t h

o f C romwel l i n 1658 t h e g o 3 p e l a c c o r d i n g t o George Fox

' ' C a m br i d ge J o u r n a l , I , 2 6 6 - 6 7 ,

^ F o x , E p i s t l e s , No. 181 ( 1 6 5 9 ) , p. 1 7 1 ; Ep i s t l e s , No. 186 (1 65 9 ^ , p, 1 7 5 . See a l s o E x t r a c t s f r o m thje Mi n u t e s • an d A d v i c e s o f t h e Vear . lv Meet .inn o f F r i e n d s (2nd e d , ; London: W. P h i l l i p s , 1 0 0 2 ) , p. 1 1 7 ,

^Dav.id Mason, The L i f e o f Jo h n Mi I t o n ( L o nd o n : M a c m i l l a n , 1 8 7 7 ) , V, 2 2 .

232

had p e n e t r a t e d i n t o e v e r y E n g l i s h s h i r e and b e y o n d t h e

s e a s t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o u n t r i e s , t h e West I n d i e s ,

and t h e Amer ican c o l o n i e s , ^ At t h e t i m e o f t h e

R e s t o r a t i o n i t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t F r i e n d s nu m ber ed

" u p w a r d s o f s i x t y t h o u s a n d . " 2 F i n a l l y , w h i l e i t i s

d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n a c c u r a t e f i g u r e s , John S. R o w n t r e e

c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e number o f F r i e n d s i n E n d l a n d a l o n e ,

by t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , " e q u a l l e d t h e c o m b i n e d

s t r e n g t h o f t h e Roman C a t h o l i c s , P r e s b y t e r i a n s , I n ­

d e p e n d e n t s , an d B a p t i s t s ,

Wi th t h i s g r e a t e v a n g e l i s t i c t h r u s t and t h e

s u b s e q u e n t g r o w t h o f t h e movemen t , b o t h i n number o f

c o n v e r t s and t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s i o n , i t became n e c e s s a r y

f o r Fox and h i s l i e u t e n a n t s t o d e v o t e an i n c r e a s i n g l y

l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i r t i m e and e n e r g y t o s o l v i n g

t h e m o u n t i n g i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m s o f t h e movement an d

c o n s e r v i n g t h e g a i n s t h e y we re m a k i n g . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e ,

^ F o x , " C o n c e r n i n g t h e F i r s t S p r e a d i n g o f t h e T r u t h , " i n E p i s t l e s , p . 10 .

2 B r a i t h w a i t e , Ben i n n i n q s o f Q u a k e r i s m , 1914 e d , , pp . 2 0 5 , 51 2n .

^ J o h n S t e p h e n s o n R o w n t r e e , L i f e and Works ( L o n d o n : H e a d l e y B r o t h e r s , 1 9 0 0 ) , p. 1 7 9 . See a l s oJohn S , R o w n t r n □, Q u a k e r i s m, P o s t a nd P r e s e n t (L o n d o n : S m i t h , E l d e r and C o . , 1069*7, pp. 6 0 - 8 0 ; F r e d e r i c k S t a r r s T u r n e r , The Quake r s (Lond on : Swan S o n n e n s c h o i n & C o . ,1 8 0 9 ) , pp. 2 3 o~37.

w i t h t h i s i n m ind t h a t we now t u r n an d c o n s i d e r t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p h a s e o f t h e movement a n d t h e c o n ­

s e q u e n t b e g i n n i n g o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n and

r o u t i n i z a t i o n o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y .

k

CHAPTER VI I

THE ROUTINIZATION OF CHARISMA

In t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , a s t h e v a r i o u s a u d i e n c e s

c o n f r o n t e d by Fox were c o n s i d e r e d , i t was i n d i c a t e d

t h a t F o x ’ s m e s s a g e was p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e w i t h c e r ­

t a i n s h a t t e r e d , s c a t t e r e d , an d d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d r e l i g i o u s

g r o u p s s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t E n g l a n d , b u t e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e

i n t h e n o r t h e r n q u a r t e r s . I t was t h e n e s s e n t i a l t o

r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s

we re s i t u a t i o n a l l y r e a d i e d t o r e s p o n d t o F o x ’ s c h a r i s m a t i c

m i s s i o n . New, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b s e r v e and r e - e m p h a s i z e

t h a t t h o u g h t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s were g e n e r a l l y d i s a s s o c i a t e d

f rom o r g a n i z e d r e l i g i o n , t h e y we re n e v e r t h e l e s s l o o s e l y

and i n a m os t u n s t r u c t u r e d way u n i t e d t o e a c h o t h e r

t h r o u g h a s p o n t a n e o u s f e l l o w s h i p , g r o w i n g o u t o f t h e i r

common n e e d s an d s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s . Fox s u c c e e d e d i n

n o t o n l y w i n n i n g t h e s B p e o p l e t o h i s b e l i e f s , b u t a l s o

i n p r o v i d i n g t hem w i t h an i d e n t i t y w h i c h f u r t h e r

f o s t e r e d t h e i r g r o u p c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h a t g r o u p o f p e o p l e

who i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e c h a r i s m a t i c m i s s i o n a s o b j e c t i v e l y

and s u b j e c t i v e l y e x p o s t u l a t e d by Fox was d i s c e r n i b l e by

234

235

t h e d e n o m i n a t i o n , " C h i l d r e n oF L i g h t , " and l a t e r ,

" F r i e n d s , " and " Q u a k e r s . "

I n t r a - I n t e r g r o u p U n i t y

A l t h o u g h w i t h i n e a c h l o c a l g r o u p oF b e l i e v e r s

a s e n s e oF u n i t y o r b e l o n g i n g n e s s p r e v a i l e d , i n ­

d i v i d u a l i t y a nd s p o n t a n e i t y we re t h e m o s t a p t c h a r a c t e r i z a ­

t i o n s oF t h e s e p r i n c i p a l l y r e l i g i o u s ( s p i r i t u a l ) F e l l o w ­

s h i p s . Th es e g r o u p s we re o r g a n i s m s , n o t o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

The h o r i z o n t a l u n i t y t h a t e x i s t e d among t h e b e l i e v e r s

was p r i m a r i l y t h e r e s u l t oF a v e r t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , i . e . ,

b e c a u s e e a c h i n d i v i d u a l was p e r s o n a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e

L i g h t oF God, t h e s a i n t s i n t u r n were u n i t e d t o e a c h

o t h e r t h r o u g h t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y oF t h e L i g h t a n d t h e i r

bo nd oF F a i t h . ' In 1651 Fox d e s c r i b e d t h e s p i r i t u a l

u n i t y among F r i e n d s a s F a l l o w s :

They t h a t a r e g u i d e d by i t [ t h e L i g h t ] ] , a r eo n e , who ha ve been made t o d r i n k i n t o ones p i r i t ) an d t h e s p i r i t s oF t h e p r o p h e t s a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e p r o p h e t s . God i s r io t t h e a u t h o r o f c o n F u s i o n , b u t oF p e a c e [ u n i t y " ] .A l l j a r r i n g s , a l l s c h i s m s , a l l r e n t s a r e o u t oF t h e s p i r i t , Fo r God h a t h t e m p e r e d t h e body t o g e t h e r , t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be no s c h i s m i n t h e b o d y , b u t a l l w o r s h i p him w i t h one c o n s e n t , ' *

F o x ' s o b j e c t i v e was t o n u r t u r e t h e s e g r o u p s a s l i v i n g

c e l l s , and n o t s t r u c t u r e them i n t o a whole b o d y , T h i s

p. 1Q. See a l s o

236

i s f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d by an e a r l y p a p e r w h i ch Fox

d e s c r i p t i v e l y e n t i t l e d , "To A l l T h a t Would Know t h e

Way t o t h e Kingdom, W he th e r They Be i n F o r m s , w i t h o u t

F o r m s , o r Got a b o v e Forms," '*

I f i n t r a g r o u p o r g a n i z a t i o n was a l m o s t n o n ­

e x i s t e n t , t h e n f o r m a l i n t e r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e

n u m er o us l o c a l s i l e n t m e e t i n g s were e v e n r a r e r . Any

i n t e r c o u r s e o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t h a t d i d e x i s t among

g r o u p s i n d i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n s was p r i m a r i l y

a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e p e r s o n a l c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p

p r o v i d e d by Fox a s he t r a v e l l e d f rom p l a c e t o p l a c e ,

m e e t i n g t o m e e t i n g , c o n f i r m i n g h i s f o l l o w e r s a n d e n ­

c o u r a g i n g them w i t h r e p o r t s o f s u c c e s s and g r o w t h i n

o t h e r a r e a s o f m i n i s t r y , an d a l s o t h r o u g h t h e many

e p i s t l e s w h i c h he c i r c u l a t e d . Q u i t e n a t u r a l l y , a s t h e

movement g a i n e d momentum, Fox e m p lo y ed some o f h i s

f o l l o w e r s ' c o m m u n i c a t i o n a b i l i t i e s i n c o a l e s c i n g t h e

movement . H e n c e , t h e s e c h a r i s m a t i c l i e u t e n a n t s o r

" p u b l i s h e r s o f t h e t r u t h " n o t o n l y a i d e d F o x ' s m i s s i o n

by a c t i n g a s a m b a s s a d o r s o f h i s m e s s a g e , b u t i n p r o ­

m o t i n g a s p i r i t u a l u n i t y among t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r o u p s ,

* F o x , "To A l l T h a t Would Know t h e Way t o t h e Kingdom; W h e t he r They Be i n F o r m s , w i t h o u t F o r m s , o r Got a bo ve F o r m s , " i n C o sp o 1 T r u t h D e m o n s t r a t e d , p p . 1 - 9 .

237

and a f e e l i n g o f a t - o n e - n e s s u i i t h a movement much

l a r g e r t h a n t h e i r own l o c a l f e l l o w s h i p , ^

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e t i m e s w i t h i t s l i m i t a t i o n s upon

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , t h e s e p u b l i s h e r s o f t h e " t r u t h " m a i n ­

t a i n e d q u i t B c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f Fox

and e a c h o t h e r . At f i r s t , t h e home o f J u d g e a nd M a r g a r e t

F e l l i n S w a r t h m o o r was t h e l o c u s o f m i n i s t e r i a l a c t i v i t y .

He re t h e s e a g g r e s s i v e p r e a c h e r s came f a r r e s t , i n s p i r a ­

t i o n and f e l l o w s h i p w i t h one a n o t h e r . When on t h e r o a d ,

i t was w i t h t h e F e l l h o u s e h o l d t h a t t h e y c o m m u n i c a t e d i n

w r i t i n g , a b o u t whe re t h e i r t r a v e l s had t a k e n t h em , t h e

s u c c e s s a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e y e n c o u n t e r e d , t h e f i n a n c i a l

n e e d s t h e y i n c u r r e d , and p r o g r e s s and g r o w t h o f t h e

e a r l i e r c o n v e r t s . By t h e m i d - 1 6 5 0 ' s some 700 l e t t e r s

we re r e c e i v e d a t S w ar th m oo r and w i t h i n j u s t a few more

y e a r s t h a t number d o u b l e d . T h r o u g h t h i s i m pr om pt u and

e x p e d i e n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k , Fox and h i s l i e u t e n a n t s

s e n s e d t h e p u l s e o f t h e movement , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e

f o s t e r e d among t h e i n d i v i d u a l f e l l o w s h i p s s c a t t e r e d

a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e n a t i o n an a w a r e n e s s o f u n i t y w i t h ao

g r e a t wo rk , t h r o u g h t h e h e a r t b e a t o f S w a r t h m o o r H a l l .

^ P e n n , R i s e and P r o o r e s s , p , 56 .

2 sqg t h e Sw ar t hm oo r fflSS, a v a i l a b l e on m i c r o f i l m a t t h e H a v e r f o r d C o l l e g e L i b r a r y .

238

T h e r e f o r e , i t may be s a i d t h a t a t i t s e a r l i e s t s t a g e s ,

t h e movement c o n s i s t e d o f i n d i v i d u a l s b a n d e d t o g e t h e r

f o r m u t u a l e d i f i c a t i o n , a i d , and c o m f o r t . G r ou p s o f

f o l l o w e r s were r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r i n no o t h e r m ann e r

t h a n t h r o u g h t h e r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f F o x * s

c h a r i s m a , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h i s c h a r i s m a t i c l i e u t e n a n t s ,

and t h e f u n d a m e n t a l m es sa g e o f t h e L i g h t ,

The O r g a n i z a t i o n a l P h a s e

When i t i n c r e a s e d i n s i z e , t h e Qu ak e r movemen t ,

a s w i t h a l l c h a r i s m a t i c m o v e m e n t s , be gan t o s e n s e t h a t

a b a n d o f f o l l o w e r s u n i t e d on t h e s o l e b a 3 i s o f c h a r i s ­

m a t i c a u t h o r i t y , w h i l e e m i n e n t l y s u c c e s s f u l a s an

o r i g i n a t i n g p r o c e s s was a t b e s t a t r a n s i t o r y phenomenon

u n l e s s t h e i n h e r e n t i n s t a b i l i t y o f c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p

c o u l d be s u p p o r t e d by a more s t a b l e form o f o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

w h ic h m i g h t p r o d u c e a more p e r m a n e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p among

t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f d i s c i p l e s , 1 Qua ke r h i s t o r i a n s ,

n o t a b l y B r a i t h w a i t e and R u s s e l l , ^ have c a r e f u l l y t r a c e d

t h o i n t r i c a c i e s o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e S o c i e t y o f F r i e n d s . Our c o n c e r n ,

h o w e v e r , i s w i t h o n l y t h e r h e t o r i c a l o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l

1 Weber , Dn C h a r i s m a , p. 54 ,

^ B r a i t h w a i t e , Ben i n n i n n s o_P Q u a k e r i s m , and S e c o n d P e r i o d o f Q u a k e r i s m; L i b e r t R u s s e l l , The H1 s t o r y o f Qu a ke r ! s m (N bw York: M a c m i l l a n Company, 194 2 ) .

239

d i m e n s i o n s o f o r g a n i z i n g t h e movement a nd i n p a r t i c u l a r

t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c h a r i s m a t i c r o u t i n i z a t i o n .

E a r l y S c h i s m s

W i t h o u t any c o n t r o l s upon i n d i v i d u a l i t y , t h e

movement e x p e r i e n c e d i t s f i r s t i n t e r n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s

a s e a r l y a s 1 6 5 3 . f o x d o c u m e n te d t h i s r e p o r t :

And James M i l n e r and some o f h i s company ha d t r u e o p e n i n g s a t t h e f i r s t ; b u t a f t e r , g o t up i n t o p r i d e and so r u n o u t . And t h e y s e n t f o r me and I was moved o f t h e Lord t o show them t h e i r g o i n g s f o r t h . And t h e y came t o s e e t h e i r f o l l y and condemned i t ; and t h e y came i n a g a i n an d d i e d i n T r u t h . *1

Here f o x h a s c h r o n i c l e d t h e f i r s t m u t a t i o n o f t h e move­

m e n t . He c l a i m e d t h a t he had a n t i c i p a t e d s u c h i n t e r n a l

p r o b l e m s a s e a r l y a s 1648 when t h e Lord came t o him and

w a r n e d t h a t "some o f t h o s e t h a t s h o u l d come t o be c o n ­

v i n c e d w i t h t h e l i g h t and s p i r i t o f God, and . . . t o

h e a r G o d ' s v o i c o , and t o ha ve some o p e n i n g s . . . ,

t h e s e s h o u l d be t h e , . . t r o u b l e r s o f t h e c h u r c h o f

C h r i s t , ' a n d s e e k t o d e s t r o y t h e f a i t h f u l . . .

Howeve r , t h a t f o x was d e e p l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e t h r e a t

w h i ch s u c h i n c i d e n t s p o s e d t o h i s c h a r i s m a t i c m i s s i o n

may bB d i s c e r n e d f rom h i s own word3 , " I w a s , " ho

1f\l i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p . 147 .

E p i s t l e s , No. 39D ( 1 6 8 3 ) , p . 245,

240

d i s c l o s e d , " i n a f a s t a b o u t t e n d a y s , my s p i r i t b e i n g

g r e a t l y e x e r c i s e d on T r u t h ' s a c c o u n t . " ^ M i l n e r , who

a p p a r e n t l y e x e r c i s e d some t y p e o f p e r s o n a l l e a d e r s h i p

on a l o c a l l e v e l was a b l e t o l e a d a g r o u p o f p e o p l e

i n t o an e x c e s s i v e u se o f t h e r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f mind

r e l a t i v e t o F o x ' s , T h a t i s t o i m p l y t h a t t h e f o l l o w e r s

o f M i l n e r we re i n s i s t i n g t h e y had r e v e l a t i o n s b e y o n d

t h e i n s i g h t o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r , n a m e l y F o x . In

a l e t t e r w r i t t e n by " s e v e r a l g e n t l e m e n , j u s t i c e s o f p e a c e ,

m i n i s t e r s o f t h e g o s p e l , and p e o p l e , w i t h i n t h e c o u n t y

o f L a n c a s t e r , " J ames M i l n e r i s i d e n t i f i e d a s a f o l l o w e r

o f C h r i s t who

. , . p r o f e s s e t h h i m s e l f t o be God a n d C h r i s t ;and o i v e s o u t p r o p h e c i e s .1 . T h a t t h e day o f j u d g m e n t s h a l l be t h e

1 5 t h day o f November £1 6 53 3 .2 . T h a t t h e r e s h a l l n e v e r j u d g e s i t a t

L a n c a s t e r a g a i n ,3 . T h a t he m u s t e r e l o n g s h a k e t h e f o u n d a t i o n s

o f t h e g r e a t s y n a g o g u e , m e a n i n g t h e p a r l i a m e n t ,2

The " e x t r e m i s t s " s e n t f o r F o x , p e r h a p s t o e n l i g h t e n h im ,

b u t when t h e showdown o c c u r r e d , he was a b l e t o b r i n g

them back i n t o s u b m i s s i o n to h i s c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y .

T h i s r e p e n t a n t a t t i t u d e c a u s e d Fox t o t e m p e r any

c r i t i c i s m o f M i l n e r ,

' I w i c k a l l s , J o u r n o 1 , p , 147 ,

2See Fox, Saul1s Errand , p, 580.

241

And a s f o r J ames M i l n e r , t h o u g h h i s mind d i d r u n o u t f r om h i s c o n d i t i o n , a n d From m i n d i n g t h a t l i g h t o f God w h i c h i s i n h i m , w h e r e b y t h e w o r l d t a k e s o c c a s i o n t o s p e a k a g a i n s t t h e t r u t h , a nd many F r i e n d s s t u m b l e a t i t : y e t t h e r e i s a p u r e s e e d i n h im .^

W hi l e t h e M i l n e r i n c i d e n t d o e s n o t c l e a r l y i n ­

d i c a t e how Fox s u c c e e d e d i n r e a s s e r t i n g h i s c h a r i s m a t i c

l e a d e r s h i p , a n o t h e r s i m i l a r o c c u r r e n c e a t a b o u t t h e

same t i m e d o e s g i v e F u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e m a t t e r .

A R i c h a r d Myers was a l s o r e p u t e d t o h a v e ha d " i m a g i n a -

t i o n s " a n d g a t h e r e d a g r o u p o f f o l l o w e r s a b o u t h i m s e l f ,

Fox s k e t c h e d how he c h a r i s m a t i c a l l y d e a l t w i t h t h e

s i t u a t i o n ,

. . . I w e n t t o a m e e t i n g a t A r n s i d e whe re t h e r e was a -man y p e o p l e ; a n d I was moved o f t h e Lord t o s a y t o R i c h a r d Myers a m o n g s t a l l t h e p e o p l e , ' P r o p h e t M y e r s , s t a n d up upon t h y l e g s ' , f o r * h e was s i t t i n g down. And he s t o o d up and s t r e t c h e d o u t h i s a rm w h i c h had be en lame a l o n g t i m e , an d [ M y e r s l s a i d , 'Be i t known u n t o you a l l p e o p l e and t o a l l n a t i o n s t h a t t h i s day I am h e a l e d j ' 2

I t i s known t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y c h a r i s m a t i c m e t h od o f

s e t t l i n g d i s p u t e s was by way o f t h e p r o p h e t ' s r e v e l a t i o n ,

o r by way o f t h e o r a c l e . When s u c h a r b i t r a t i o n f a i l e d ,

i t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h o c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ' s a u t h o r i t y

was i n q u e s t i o n , T h e r e f o r e , he m u s t o n c e a g a i n " p r o v e "

h i m s e l f a s u n i q u e and s u p e r i o r t o a l l c o n t e n d e r s f o r

^ I b i d . , p . 593 .

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p. 1 49 ,

242

h i s p o s i t i o n . ** C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e ,

Fox s t a t e d t h a t t h e p e o p l e w e re amazed by t h e m i r a c l e

an d t h a t Myers was r e s t o r e d t o t h e Q u a k e r f o l d . Ho w eve r ,

Fox d i d n o t d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f Myers

t o F o x ' s m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a t i c p o w e r s , T h i s i s

n o t u n u s u a l , f o r i t mu s t be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t w h i l e f rom

t h e f o l l o w e r s ' p o i n t o f v i ew a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r g a i n s

and m a i n t a i n s a u t h o r i t y s o l e l y by p r o v i n g h i s s u p e r ­

n a t u r a l s t r e n g t h , f rom t h e l e a d e r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e , he

e x p e c t e d o b e d i e n c e a nd d e v o t i o n t o h i s p r o c l a i m e d m e s s a g e

and m i s s i o n s i m p l y b e c a u s e he i s c a l l e d o f God .2 F o x ' s

c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e i n s t a b i l i t y wh ich t h e s e m u t a t i o n s

p r o d u c e d l e d him t o w r i t e a g e n e r a l e p i s t l e i n w h i c h he

c o u n s e l l e d h i s f o l l o w e r s i n a method o f d i s c e r n i n g t h e

i m a g i n a r y f rom t h e r e a l r e v e l a t i o n s .

F r i e n d s , - -When yo u r m.indo go f o r t h f rom t h e p u r e s p i r i t o f God, and a r e d rawn o u t f rom i t , t h e r e t h e image o f God comes t o be l o s t , i n t h o s e whose m in d s qo o u t f r om t h e p u r e , t o l u s t a f t e r t h a t wh ich i s i n t h e f a i l , w h i ch may a p p e a r l i k e t r u t h i n t h e n o t i o n ; i n t h a t n a t u r e , o u t o f t h e t r u t h , l o d g e t h t h e e n ­c h a n t e r and s o r c e r e r . To s p e a k o f t r u t h , when ye a r e moved , i t i s a c r o s s t o t h e w i l l ; i f ye l i v e i n t h e t r u t h w h i c h ye s p e a k , ye l i v e i n t h e c r o s s t o y o u r own w i l l s .

S o , d w e l l i n t h e l i g h t , and w a i t upon God t o ha v e t h e image o f God r e n e w e d , , , , J

^ W eb e r , On, Cha r i s m a , pp , 2 2 - 2 5 .

2 I b i d . , p , 22 ,

3 Fox , E p i s t l e s , No, 32 ( 1 G 5 3 ) , p . 38 .

243

The E l d e r s

Howeve r , w h i l e Fox f e l t i t p o s s i b l e t o d i s ­

t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n r e v e l a t i o n s , he was a l s o a p p a r e n t l y

g i v i n g some t h o u g h t t o t i g h t e n i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

t h e movement , One o f thB f i r s t a t t e m p t s a t s t a b i l i z i n g

t h e movement was t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a p p o i n t m e n t o f

E l d e r s i n e a c h o f t h e l o c a l m e e t i n g s e i t h e r by Fox p e r ­

s o n a l l y o r t h r o u g h one o f h i s p u b l i s h e r s o f t r u t h .

T h e s e E l d e r s wbtb n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e o l d e r men

c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , b u t c e r t a i n l y t h e m o s t m a t u r e and

s t a b l e f o l l o w e r s i n t h e a r e a , " ' From a l e t t e r w r i t t e nO

by W i l l i a m D e w s b u ry , b u t a l s o s i g n o d by F o x , i t i s

l e a r n e d t h a t r e s p o n s i b l e l o c a l men were b e i n g s e t a p a r t

i n t h e n o r t h e r n a r e a s f o r t h e c a r e o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r

g r o u p s . They were p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g

a r e l i g i o u s f e l l o w s h i p on t h e l o c a l l e v e l w h i l e a t t h e

same t i m e m u s t e r i n g i n t e r g r o u p f e l l o w s h i p m e e t i n g s on

a r e g u l a r b a s i s . I t a l s o f e l l upon t h e s e men t o s e e

t h a t a l l t h e f o l l o w e r s ha d amp l e m a t e r i a l p r o v i s i o n s ,

They a l s o a c t e d a s l e g a l n o n - c h a r i s m a t i c a r b i t r a t o r s

i n d i s p u t e s among member s o f t h e i r g r o u p . Most im­

p o r t a n t l y , h o w e v e r , f o r an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e

L e t t e r s o f E a r l y F r i e n d s , pp , 3 1 6 - 1 7 .

^ B r a i t h w a i t e , B e q i n n i n o s o f Q u a k e r i s m, p . 1 4 0 n ,

244

r o u t i n i z a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a i s t h a t t h e s e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s

were a l s o e x p e c t e d t o c u r b " f a n a t i c i s m " by c a r r y i n g o u t

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ’ s w i l l , t h e b e s t t h e y u n d e r s t o o d

i t ,** Of c o u r s e , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e o v e r s i g h t o f t h e

E l d e r s , f o x a nd h i s p u b l i s h e r s we re s t i l l i n c e s s a n t i n

t h e i r t r a v e l s and f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t e d m e e t i n g s i n o r d e r

t o s u p e r v i s e p e r s o n a l l y a l l m a t t e r s on t h e l o c a l l e v e l .

The N a y l e r I n c i d e n t

T h i s p h a s e o f v e r y l o o s e a n d s t i l l l a r g e l y v e r y

c h a r i s m a t i c u n i o n o f t h e g r o u p s l a s t e d u n t i l 1 656 , In

t h a t y e a r Fox t r i u m p h a n t l y r e p o r t e d t h a t " t h e L o r d ' s

T r u t h was f i n e l y p l a n t e d o v e r t h i s n o t i o n and many

t h o u s a n d s were t u r n e d t o t h e L o r d . " Fox h i m s e l f s p e n t

much o f t h e y e a r i n p r i s o n t o g e t h e r w i t h " s e l d o m u n d e r

a t h o u s a n d " F r i e n d s " f o r t i t h e s a n d g o i n g t o t h e

s t e e p l e h o u s e s , and f o r c o n t e m p t s an d n o t s w e a r i n g and

n o t p u t t i n g o f f t h e i r h a t s , " ^ More i m p o r t a n t l y , h o w e v e r ,

s h o r t l y b e f o r e Fox was s e t f r e e , " J a m e s N a y l e r r a n o u t

i n t o i m a g i n a t i o n s , and a company w i t h h im; an d t h e y

r a i s e d up a g r e a t d a r k n e s s i n t h e n a t i o n , " 3 N a y l e r was

W i l l i a m Dewsbury , Fn I t h f u 1 T e s t i m o n y ( London i A. S o w l e , 1 6 8 9 ) , pp, 1 - 4 , 8e e a l s o Le t t o r s o f E a r l y F r i e n d s , p , 312 ,

^ N i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p, 2 0 0 ,

3 I b i . d , , p. 260 .

245

an e a r l y c o n v e r t t o t h e movement who soon p r o v e d t o be

an e x c e p t i o n a l p r e a c h e r and s u c c e s s f u l p u b l i s h e r o f t h e

t r u t h . B e c a u s e o f h i s s t a t u r e a nd s t a t i o n i n t h e move­

m e n t , M a y l e r ' s d e f e c t i o n was m o s t s e r i o u s . Fox p l a i n l y

a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t " a f t e r I had b e e n w a r r i n g w i t h t h e

w o r l d , now t h e r e was a w i c k ed s p i r i t r i s e n up a m o n g s t

F r i e n d s t o war a g a i n s t ,

N a y l e r was c o n v e r t e d by Fox t o w a r d t h e end o f

1 6 5 1 . Q u i c k l y he became an a c t i v e p r e a c h e r o f t h e Q u a k e r

g o s p e l , m i n i s t e r i n g a l o n g w i t h Fox and o t h e r s i n t h e

n o r t h e r n s e c t o r s o f E n g l a n d , 2 On one o c c a s i o n Fox

b r o u g h t t o l i g h t t h e power o f M a y l e r ' s r h e t o r i c .

And t h e r e James N a y l e r me t me i n D e r b y s h i r e where s e v e n o r e i g h t p r i e s t s had c h a l l e n g e d him t o a d i s p u t e . And _I h a d a t r a v a i l i n my s p i r i t f o r ' him an d the' Lord a n s w e r e d me, And I was moved t o b i d him go o n , and t h a t God A l m ig h t y wou ld go w i t h him and g i v e him t h e v i c t o r y i n h i s po we r . And so t h e Lo rd d i d , t h a t a l l t h e p e o p l e saw t h e p r i e s t s were n o t h i n g and f o i l e d , and c r i e d , 'A N a y l e r , a N a y l e r , h a t h c o n f u t e d them a l l , ' So a f t e r , he came t o me a g a i n , p r a i s i n g t h e L o rd ,

A f ew m o n th s l a t e r F o x ' s c o n c e r n o v e r h i s d i s c i p l e was

b e c o m in g c l e a r l y e v i d e n t , a l t h o u g h no d e f i n i t e c a u s e was

1 1 b i d ,

2 I b i d . , pp. 7 3 , 1 0 0 - 0 1 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 4 - 2 5 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 .

^ I b l d . , p, 2 2 3 , The e m p h a s i s i s m in e .

c i t e d , f a x c o n f e s s e d , " A f t e r a w h i l e I w e n t , o u t o f t h e* ' •

c i t y a n d l e f t J a m es N a y l e r b e h i n d me i n London, And

a s I p a r t e d f rom h i m , I c a s t my e y e s upon h im , an d a

f e a r s t r u c k i n me c o n c e r n i n g him." '* W i t h i n t h e n e x t

s e v e r a l mo n th s F o x ’ s f e a r s we r e j u s t i f i e d , f o r a s Fox

l e f t Lon do n , o n l y s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r t o be a r r e s t e d ,

N a y l e r c o n t i n u e d p r e a c h i n g i n London , g a i n i n g i n p o p u ­

l a r i t y , N a y l e r ' s b i o g r a p h e r d i s c o v e r e d t h a t he ha d a l l

o f " F o x ’ s p e r s o n a l m a g n e t i s m , an d h i s f a c u l t y f o r

a t t r a c t i n g and k e e p i n g t h e d e v o t i o n o f f r i e n d s " i n

a d d i t i o n t o a b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n w h i c h d e f i n i t e l y made

h i s p r e a c h i n g more a p p e a l i n g t o t h e e d u c a t e d a u d i e n c e sO

o f London , I n 1 5 5 5 , A l e x a n d e r P a r k e r w r o t e t o F r i e n d s

a t Sw ar t h m o o r t h a t " J a m e s i s v e r y s e r v i c e a b l e h e r e [ i n

L o n d o n ! , and h i s fame b e g i n s t o s p r e a d i n t h e c . i t y , " ^

Georne W h i t e h e a d a l s o a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e g r o w i n g a d ­

m i r a t i o n w h i ch c e r t a i n F r i e n d s ha d f o r N a y l e r was b e ­

g i n n i n g t o o v e r s h a d o w t h e i r e s t e e m o f F r a n c i s H o w g i l l

1 I b i d , , pp. 2 2 9 - 3 0 .

^Wabel Richmond B r a i l s f o r d , _A Quake r f r om C r o m w e l l ’ s Army: James N a y l e r (New York: M a c m i l l a n Company,1 9 2 7 ) , p. 44 .

*7

L e t t e r s o f Car l y F r i e n d s , p. 37.

247

and Edward B u r r o u g h who had e s t a b l i s h e d t h e . London

work i n 1654,"* I t i s mos t l i k e l y t h a t a s e g m e n t o f

N a y l o r ' s f o l l o w e r s were b e g i n n i n g t o c l a i m i n d i r e c t l y

t h a t h i s c h a r i s m a was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f F o x ' s . N a y l e r

was a p p a r e n t l y s u r p r i s e d t h a t he was so p e r c e i v e d , b u t

he d i d n o t o b j e c t when p e o p l e began a d d r e s s i n g him

w i t h s u c h e x u b e r a n t a p p e l l a t i o n s a s " t h e F a i r e s t o f Ten

T h o u s a n d , " " t h e o n l y B e g o t t e n Son o f God," an d "Thy Name

s h a l l be no more JamBs N a y l e r , b u t J e s u s , " The emo­

t i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t t o N a y l e r c l i m a x e d i n O c t o b e r , 1656

when a g r o u p o f h i s d e v o t e e s f o l l o w e d N a y l e r , who was

s e a t e d upon a h o r s o , and c h a n t e d e c s t a t i c a l l y , " H o l y ,

H o l y , Holy" an d c a s t t h e i r c l o a k s i n t o t h e mud b e f o r e

him a s he e n t e r e d i n t o t h e c i t y o f Bristol.^ W hi l e

N a y l e r was a r r e s t e d i m m e d i a t e l y t h e r e a f t e r by t h e l o c a l

a u t h o r i t i e s and c h a r g e d w i t h b l a s p h e m y , t h e Q u a k e r s

a p p o s e d him n o t on t h o s e g r o u n d s , b u t b e c a u s e he d i v i d e d

h i s b r e t h r e n . ^

^G eor ge W h i t e h e a d , " P r e f a c e " t o A C o l l e c t i o n o f S u n d ry B o o k s , E p l s t i c s and P a p e r s , Wri t t a n by James N a y l e r ( f ram a London e d i t i o n o f *17*1 G s C i n c i n n a t i : B. C.S t a n t o n , 1 6 2 9 ) , pp . v i - v i i ,

^ B r a i l s f o r d , A Quaker f rom Cromuie 1 1 1 s Army, p . 114 .

3 I b i d . , p . 11 7 ,

^ W h i t e h e a d , " P r e f a c e " t o _A C o l l e n t i o n o f S u n d r y Books by J ames N a y l e r , p . x i i .

The d e t a i l s a r e n o t p e r f e c t l y c l e a r ( b u t o n c e

a g a i n F o x ’ s c h a r i s m a " p r o v e d ” i t s e l f s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f

N a y l e r ' s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , James N a y l e r r e p e n t a n t l y w r o t e ;

IHy h e a r t i s b r o k e n t h i s da y f o r t h e o f f en CB t h a t I hav e o c c a s i o n e d t o G o d ' s t r u t h and p e o p l e , and e s p e c i a l l y t o y o u , who i n d e a r l o v e f o l l o w e d me, s e e k i n g me i n f a i t h f u l n e s s t o God; w h i c h I r e j e c t e d , b e i n g bound w h e r e i n I c o u l d n o t come f o r t h t i l l God’ s hand b r o u g h t me, t o whose l o v e I now c o n f e s s ; and I b e ­s e e c h y o u , f o r g i v e w h e r e i n I e v i l l y r e q u i t t e d y o u r l o v e i n t h a t d a y , God knows my s o r r o w f o r i t , s i n c e I s e e i t , t h a t e v e r I s h o u l d o f f e n d t h a t o f God i n a n y , o r r e j e c t h i s c o u n s e l ; and now t h a t p a p e r you ha ve s e e n l i e s much upon me, and I g r e a t l y f e a r f u r t h e r t o o f f e n d , o r do a m i s s , w he r eb y t h e i n n o c e n t t r u t h , o r p e o p l e o f God s h o u l d s u f f e r , o r t h a t I s h o u l d d i s o b e y t h e r e i n . *

E x p l a i n i n g Q u a ke r i sm

A l t h o u g h t h e c o n f l i c t was r e s o l v e d , i t i s n e v e r ­

t h e l e s s a p p a r e n t t h a t F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l t a c t i c s we re i n ­

f l u e n c e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i n c i d e n t . He became e v e n more

s u s p i c i o u s o f u n c h e c k e d i n d i v i d u a l i s m an d t e n d e d t o w a r d

i n c r e a s e d c o n t r o l s . I t i s h i g h l y p o s s i b l e t h a t he b e g a n

t o f e e l t h a t h i s t e a c h i n g a b o u t t h e L i g h t w i t h i n n e e d e d

t o be more c a u t i o u s l y s t a t e d i f i t was n o t g o i n g t o

g i v o b i r t h t o more N a y l e r i n c i d e n t s , A r e a d i n g o f F o x ' s

J o u r n a l and e p i s t l e s g i v e s t h e d e c i d e d i m p r e s s i o n t h a t

^ N a y l o r , f\ C o l l e c t i o n o f S u n d r y B o o k s , p . x i x . See a l s o N i c k a l l s J o u r n a 1 , pp . 2 6 0 - 6 9 ,

hs was b e g i n n i n g t o c h o o s e h i s wo rd s more c a r e f u l l y ,

s o t h a t t h e y s o u n d e d l e s s b l a s p h e m o u s a n d h e r e t i c a l .

The F i r s t n o t i c e a b l e c h a n g e i n r h e t o r i c a l

t a c t i c s o c c u r r e d t o w a r d t h e en d o f 1 6 5 6 , when Fox who

had by now p e r s o n a l l y t r a v e l l e d o v e r t h e l e n g t h and

b r e a d t h o f E n g l a n d p r o c l a i m i n g h i s m e s s a g e i n e v e r y

p l a c e was now moved t o r e v i s i t t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e

n a t i o n , t h i s t i m e e x p l a i n i n g and c l a r i f y i n g t h e m es sa g e

he had e a r l i e r p r o c l a i m e d .

Thus we re t h e o b j e c t i o n s , w h i c h t h e p r i e s t s a n d p r o f e s s o r s had r a i s e d a g a i n s t F r i e n d s , a n s w e r e d a nd c l e a r e d , a nd t h e s t u m b l i n g b l o c k s w h i c h t h e y l a i d i n t h e way o f t h e weak , r e ­moved , And a s t h i n g s were t h u s o p e n e d , p e o p l e came t o s e e o v e r them and t h r o u g h t h e m , a n d t o have t h e i r m in d s s e t t l e d upon t h e L a r d J e s u s C h r i s t t h e i r f r e e t e a c h e r , w h i c h was t h e s e r v i c e f o r w h ic h I was moved t o t r a v e l o v e r t h e n a t i o n , , . , 1

T h i s t y p e o f r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r w h i c h e n d e a v o r s t o

a n s w e r o b j e c t i o n s , p l a c e d Fox i n a d e f e n s i v e r o l e . P r i o r

t o t h i s t i m e , he was s o l e l y an a g g r e s s i v e r h e t o r i c i a n .

H i s t a s k was t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f a m e s s a g e w h i ch

a t t a c k e d t h e e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m s . Mow t h a t

h i s m e s s a g e was q u i t e f a m i l i a r i n E n g l a n d , a n k i - Q u a k e r

bo oks a nd s e r m o n s became i n c r e a s i n g l y more n u m e r o u s .

^ M i c k a . l l s , Jou rno 1 , p. 260,

2 5 0

In some c a s e s t h e y m i s r e p r e s e n t e d Fox and h i s m e s s a g e .

A l s o , t h e e x c e s s i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s m o f c e r t a i n Q u a k e r s

o n l y gave them more a m m u n i t i o n . Fox F e l t t h a t many o f

t h e c r i t i c i s m s were u n j u s t and d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e i f

g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i s m i s s i o n , t h e y wo u ld n o t

o n l y e n d a n g e r t h e p o p u l a r image o f t h e mo ve m en t , b u t

c a u s e some o f t h e "weak" F r i e n d s t o s t u m b l e and

p o s s i b l y d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s , T h e r e f o r e , i n 1 6 5 9 ,

Fox w i t h t h e h e l p o f Edward D u r r o u g h , w r o t e a l a r g e

volumB w i t h t h e a p o c a l y p t i c a l l y s u g g e s t i v e t i t l e : The

G r e a t M y s t e r y o f t h e G r e a t Mhore U n f o l d e d ; an d A n t i ­

c h r i s t 1 a Kinodom R e v e a l e d u n t o D e s t r u c t i o n , i n Answer t o

many F a l s e D o c t r i n e s and P r i n c i p l e s w h i c h B a b v l o n s Mer­

c h a n t s Have T r a d e d W i t h , B e i n g He ld F o r t h by t h e P r o f e s s e d

M i n i s t e r s , and T e a c h e r s , and P r o f e s s o r s i n E n g l a n d ,

I r e l a n d , and S c o t l a n d , Taken u n d e r The i r Own H a n d s , and

f rom The i r Own M o u t h s , S e n t F o r t h by Them f rom Time t o

T i m e , A g a i n s t t h e D e s p i s e d P e o p l e o f t h e L o r d , C a l l e d

Q u a k e r s . , . .1 Fox t h e r e i n r e s p o n d e d t o t h e c r i t i c i s m s

o f one h u n d r e d B a p t i s t s , P r e s b y t e r i a n s , I n d e p e n d e n t s ,

R a n t e r s , a nd o t h e r s e c t a r i a n s i n c l u d i n g s u c h p r o m i n e n t

V o x , The G r e a t M y s t e r y ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : MarcusT. C. Go u l d , IBSl") .

251

p r e a c h e r s a s Jo h n Buny an , R i c h a r d B a x t e r , and Jo hn

Owen, t h e C h a n c e l l o r o f O x f o r d . He e m p l o y e d t h e t h e n

common r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n i q u e o f c i t i n g a q u o t a t i o n f rom

t h e o p p o s i n g t r a c t an d t h e n i n a f ew p a r a g r a p h s , a r g u i n g

a g a i n s t i t and d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e t r u t h o f t h e Qu ak e r

p o s i t i o n .

Such r h e t o r i c o r d i s c o u r s e w h i c h a im e d a t

c l a r i f y i n g and e x p l a i n i n g thB e s s e n t i a l m e s s a g e n e e d

n o t be i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e a im s o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

movement o f p r o m o t i n g a s u b j e c t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d

an o b j e c t i v e i d e a l . Howeve r , i t d i d f o r c e t h e com­

m u n i c a t o r t o c r y s t a l i z e t h e m a j o r p o i n t s o f h i s m e s s a g e .

T h i s had t h e i n h e r e n t r h e t o r i c a l w e a k n e s s o f e m p h a s i z i n g

t h e o b j e c t i v e a t t h e p o s s i b l e e x p e n s e o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e ,

f o r i n t h e s e d i s c o u r s e s were t h e s e e d s o f c r e e d s and

c a n o n s . The t e m p t a t i o n became t o m e a s u r e i n v o l v e m e n t

w i t h t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e s s by e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e o r

d e v o t i o n , and more by a g r e e m e n t w i t h a s t a t e m e n t o f

f a i t h , ^

A l s o t h e r h e t o r i c o f c o o l n e s s , c a l m n e s s , a n d

c a u t i o n became much more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f

^See Webe r , £n C h a r i s m a , p, 50 .

252

F o x ’ s m e s s a g e a f t e r 1 6 56 , P a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e g a r d t o

p u b l i c i z i n g t h e F a i t h t h r o u g h p e r s o n a l m i n i s t r y ! F r i e n d s

were w a r n e d n o t t o be " h a s t y n o r r a s h . "

And a l l F r i e n d s ever^yHt thexe , t a k e h e e d o f p r i n t i n g a n y t h i n g more t h a n ye a r e r e q u i r e d o f t h e Lord God, And a l l F r i e n d s e v e r y w h e r e , t a k e he ed o f w a n d e r i n g up and down a b o u t n e e d l e s s o c c a s i o n s , f o r t h e r e i s d a n g e r o f g e t t i n g i n t o t h e c a r e l e s s w o r d s , o u t o f s e r i o u s n e s s , kjoi g h t i n e s s , and s a v o u r i n e s s . And a l l t a k e h e e d o f g o i n g up and down t o m i n i s t e r , b u t a s ye a r e moved o f t h e Lord God, o r t o s p e a k i n m e e t i n g s , o r any o t h e r p l a c e s , f o r t r a v e l l i n g t o su c h i s d a n g e r o u s t o l i f t t h em u p , g o i n g a m o n g s t s e t t l e d m e e t i n g s , t h a t a r e s e t t l e d .F o r t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w i x t F r i e n d s g o i n g i n t o t h e w o r l d , and o f c o m i n g among t hem t h a t a r e come t o s i l e n t m e e t i n g s , a n d t o f e e d t h e r e ; f o r t h a t w h i ch may be s e a s o n a b l e t o t h e w o r l d , may n o t be t o t h e m . ^

The u l t i m a t e v a l u e o f s u c h a c h a n g e i n r h e t o r i c a l

t a c t i c s f o r t h e t o t a l h i s t o r y o f t h e movement ' i s a ■

d e b a t a b l e i s s u e , b u t i t i s c e r t a i n t h a t a s c r e e d s b e ­

came i n c r e a s i n g l y more d o m i n a n t , c h a r i s m a c e a s e d t o

p l a y t h e v i t a l r o l e a n d i t was r o u t i n i z e d .

B u s i n e s s M e e t i n g s

I f t h e N a y l e r a f f a i r had a s o b e r i n g e f f e c t upon

t h e r h e t o r i c o f t h e movement , i t a l s o , i n t h e c l o s i n g

E P i s b l e s , No, 131 ( 1 6 5 5 ) , p . 1 20 , See a l s o Eo i s t I d s , No. 146 ( l 6 57 ) , p , 1 3 0 ; Go .is t i e s , No, 162 Ti '65Q) , ~pp, 1 5 2 - 5 3 ,

253

y e a r s o f t h e Commonwea l t h , i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n

t i g h t e n i n g up t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e

movemen t . H e n c e f o r t h , f o l l o w e r s f r om a c r o s s l a r g e r

g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t a n c e s we re e v e r m o r e e n c o u r a g e d t o

g a t h e r t o g e t h e r a t g e n e r a l r e l i g i o u s m e e t i n g s f a r

w a r s h i p w i t h e a c h o t h e r and w i t h t h e p u b l i s h e r s o f t h e

t r u t h . Howeve r , e v en more s i g n i f i c a n t was t h e e m e r g e n c e

o f b u s i n e s s o r c h u r c h - a f f a i r s m e e t i n g s , a s d i s t i n c t

f rom t h e m e e t i n g s f o r w o r s h i p . Fax r e c o u n t e d :

, , , I was moved o f t h e Lo rd t o s e n d f o r one o r two o u t o f a c o u n t y t o Sw ar th m oo r and t o s e t up t h e m a n ' s [ b u s i n e s s ] m e e t i n g s whe re t h e y were n o t : a nd t o s e t t l e t h a t m e e t i n ga t S L i p t o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e C h u r c h , , , ,

And a b o u t t h i s t i m e I was moved t o s e t up t h o m e n ' s Q u a r t e r l y M e e t i n g s t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n , , , , 1

R h e t o r i c a l l y , i t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h Fox t h a t e v e r y

a s p e c t o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c movement ha d i t s p r i m a r y

j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e command o f t h e H i g h e r A u t h o r i t y .

I t i s a l s o o b v i o u s t h a t Fox f e l t h i s p e r s o n a l p r e s e n c e

and a p p e a l , b o t h w i t h !<oy l o c a l l e a d e r s and h i s f o l ­

l o w i n g i n g e n e r a l , wou ld be a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r t h e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s n m e e t i n g s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , he

t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n a d v o c a t i n g t h e g a t h e r i n g

o f b u s i n e s s m e e t i n g s . T h e s e m e e t i n g s f u n c t i o n e d on

' U j i c k a l l s , J o u r n a 1 , pp, 2 8 4 -8 5 ,

254

v a r i o u s l e v e l s , l o c a l , r e g i o n a l , an d n a t i o n a l . They

b a s i c a l l y c o n c e r n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h m a t t e r s r e l a t e d t o

d i s c i p l i n e w i t h i n t h e movement a n d t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f

f u n d s . The d i s c i p l i n a r y a d v i c e i n t h e s e m e e t i n g s

c e n t e r e d a r o u n d s u c h m a t t e r s a s d i s o r d e r l y c o n d u c t ,

f a i l u r e t o a t t e n d m e e t i n g s , a n d means o f c o r r e c t i n g

u n h e l p f u l p r e a c h i n g , O t h e r m a t t e r s s u c h a s t h e r e g u l a ­

t i o n o f m a r r i a g e p r o c e d u r e s and t h e r e c o r d i n g o f v i t a l

s t a t i s t i c s we re a l s o d o a l t w i t h i n t h e s e m e e t i n g s , b u t

t h e y n e e d n o t c o n c e r n u s j T h e s e d i s c i p l i n a r y b o a r d s

w e r e , o f c o u r s e , g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e o r a l an d

w r i t t e n a d v i s o r y p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f Fox , One f u r t h e r

f a c t a b o u t t h e s e b u s i n e s s m e e t i n g s n e e d s t o be m e n t i o n e d ,

Edward B u r r o u g h , a c h a r i s m a t i c l i e u t e n a n t , d e l i n e a t e d

n o t o n l y t h e d u t i e s o f t h e b u s i n e s s m e e t i n g s , b u t a l s o

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f Fox and h i s p u b l i s h e r s t o t hem.

E m p h a s i z i n g s u c h c h u r c h a f f a i r s a s v i s i t i n g t h e s i c k ,

c a r i n g f o r t h o p o o r , an d s e c u r i n g m e e t i n g - p l a c e s ,

B u r r o u g h n o t e d t h a t t h e s e c o n c e r n s

. . . were n o t so p r o p e r f o r u s o f t h e m i n i s t r y a s f o r t h e F r i e n d s o f t h e C i t y : n e i t h e r hadwo o p p o r t u n i t y o f s u c h e x e r c i s e s , b e i n g w h o l l y d e v o t e d t o t h e work o f t h e m i n i s t r y , t o w h i c h we were o r d a i n e d o f Cod, and we re c o n t i n u a l l y e x e r c i s e d i n p r e a c h i n g t h e g o s p e l , i n a n s w e r i n g

I Le t t e r s o f E a r l y F r i e n d s , p. 2 7 7 , p a s s i m . See a l s o B r a i t h w a . i t e , B e g i n n i n g s ojf Qua k e r i s m , pp . 3 1 1 - 3 2 , p a s s i m ,

255

b o o k s and m a n u s c r i p t s p u t f o r t h a g a i n s t , u s , an d i n d i s p u t e s an d c o n t e n t i o n s w i t h s u c h a s o p p o s e d t h e T r u t h . 1

A p a r t f rom t h e i n t e r e s t i n g e m p h a s i s upon d e f e n s i v e

r h e t o r i c , i t s h o u l d be u n d e r s c o r e d t h a t t h e c h a r i s ­

m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e movement f e l t t h a t t h e work

had grown so l a r g e t h a t t h e mundane and n o n - r h e t o r i c a l

a s p e c t s o f t h e movement h ad t o be d e l e g a t e d t o o t h e r s .

Fox a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t

, , , we t h e r e f o r e , i n t h e name , power and wisdom o f . , . C h r i s t , a s we we re e n d u e d w i t h t h e s a m e , and a s He had g i v e n u s power a n d a u t h o r i t y 30 t o d o , f o r t h e f u r t h e r a n c e o f t h e g o s p e l and p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e work . , , , c o m m i t t e d t o o u r c h a r g e , - - d i d byv i r t u e o f t h e same [ [ a u t h o r i t y " ! , o r d a i n a n d a p p o i n t , - - t h a t t h e men F r i e n d s o f t h e C i t y ,. , , s h o u l d m e e t t o g e t h e r , . , , f o r t h e managemen t o f T r u t h ' s a f f a i r s , 2

The i t i n e r a n t c h a r i s m a t i c p r e a c h e r s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e

m e e t i n g s , o f t e n s e l e c t e d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , b u t t h e n

t h e y t h e m s e l v e s c h o s e n o t t o a t t e n d t h e s e b u s i n e s s

m e e t i n g s . T h u s , t h e man ag eme n t o f t h e m o v e m e n t ’ s c h u r c h

a f f a i r s was p l a c e d i n t h e h a n d s o f n o n - c h a r i s m a t i c

l o c a l l e a d e r s . The p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e c h a n g e

were e x p e d i e n c y an d e f f i c i e n c y e v e n t h o u g h B i b l i c a l*/

p r e c e d e n t f o r t h e p r o c e d u r e was f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d .

1 L e t t e r s o f E a r l y F r i e n d s , p . 299 . See a l s o B r a i t h w a i t e , Be g in n i n os o f Q u a k e r i s m , p. 320 ,

2 L e t t e r s o f E a r l y F r . l e n d s , p . 299 ,

^ A c t s 6 : 1 - 7 ,

256

A l t h o u g h a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e Commonweal th P e r i o d

one may now p o i n t t o two d i s t i n c t m e e t i n g s , b u s i n e s s

and r e l i g i o u s , t h e f o r m e r was c l e a r l y s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e

l a t t e r , w i t h t h e c o n t r o l a nd c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e

movement s t i l l i n t h e h a n d s o f Fox and h i s l i e u t e n a n t s .

Howeve r , t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e R e s t o r a t i o n saw t h e

r o u t i n i z a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a s h i f t i n t o h i g h g e a r . D u r i n g

t h i s e r a a n o t h e r m a j o r i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m o c c u r r e d w h i c h

had an a c c e l e r a t i n g e f f e c t upon t h e g r o w i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

t e n d e n c y w i t h i n t h e movement ,

The P e r r o t I n c i d e n t

John P e r r o t was a z e a l o u s m i s s i o n a r y - m i n d e d Q u a k e r ,

whom one f o l l o w e r o f Fox p e j o r a t i v e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h u s l y j

T h i s Man came p r e t t y e a r l y am o ng s t F r i e n d s , and t o o e a r l y t o o k upon him t h e m i n i s t e r i a l O f f i c e ; a n d b e i n g , t h o u g h l i t t l e i n P e r s o n , y e t g r e a t i n O p i n i o n o f h i m s e l f , n o t h i n g l e s s wou ld s e r v e him t h a n t o oo a n d c o n v e r t t h e P o p e ; In o r d e r w h e r e o n t o , he h a v i n g a b e t t e r Man t h a n h i m s e l f , J ohn L u f f ; t o a ccompa ny h i m , t r a v e l l e d t o Rome f a r o u n d 1G581, whe re t h e y had n o t boon l o n g , e ’ r e t h e y were t a k e n up and c l a p t - i n t o P r i s o n ; L u f f , a s I r e m e m b e r , was p u t i n t h e I n c r u l s l t T o n , and P a r r o t i n t h n i r Bedlam o r H o s p i t a l f o r Madmen"^

The Quaker Thomas E l l w o o d t h o u g h t t h a t by j u d g i n g f rom

t h e " a f f e c t e d and f a n t a s t i c " s t y l e o f P a r r o t ' s e p i s t l e s ,

Thomas E l l w o o d , The H i s t o r y o_f t h e L i f e o f Thomas E 1 lwood ( 3 r d e d . ; London : P r i n t e d by Luko H i n d o ,1 7 6 5 ) / pp. 22 0 -2 1 .

257

t h a t t h a C a t h o l i c s may hav e been q u i t s j u s t i f i e d i n

c o n s i d e r i n g him m a d , 1 Howeve r , w h e t h e r P e r r o t was

d e r a n g e d o r s i m p l y m y s t i c a l l y i m a g i n a t i v e , t h e f a c t

r e m a i n o d t h a t whon he r e t u r n e d t o London i n 1661

, , , t h e R e p o r t o f h i s g r e a t S u f f e r i n g s t h e r e ( f a r g r e a t e r i n R e p o r t t h a n i n R e a l i t y ) j o i n e d w i t h a s i n g u l a r Shew o f S a n c t i t y , so f a r o p e n e d t h e H e a r t s o f meny t e n d e r and com­p a s s i o n a t e F r i e n d s t o w a r d s h i m , t h a t i t gave him t h e A d v a n t a g e o f i n s i n u a t i n g h i m s e l f i n t o t h e i r A f f e c t i o n s and E s t e e m , an d made Way f a r t h e more r e a d y P r o p a o a t i o n o f t h a t p e c u l i a r E r r o r o f h i s , o f k e e p i n g on t h e Hat i n Time o f P r a y e r , a s wo J.l p u b l i c a s p r i v a t e , u n l e s s t h e y had _an i m m e d i a t e Mo t ion a t t h a t Time t o p u t i t o f f . 2

The r e p o r t o f P a r r o t ' s s u f f e r i n g s a t t h e h a n d s o f

t h e P o p e , t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s i n s p i r e d m y s t i c a l e p i s t l e s

a nd h i s p r o m i s e d r e v e l a t i o n o f a h i g h e r d i s p e n s a t i o n o f

s p i r i t u a l i t y , gave him a r a t h e r c l e a r c h a r i s m a t i c image

among many Q u a k e r s , As s u c h he p o s e d a n a t u r a l

c h a l l e n g e t o F o x ’ s l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e movement b e c a u s e

Fox had u n q u e s t i o n i n g l y a c c e p t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u s t o mrt

o f r e m o v i n g t h e h a t j.n p r a y e r , and he t h o u g h t i t a

" c o m e l y o r d e r and p r a c t i c e , T h i s i s s u e became

1 1 b i d , , p . 221.

2 I b i d .

^Mickalls, Journal., p. 36,

/vF o x , E p i s t l e s , Ho, 199 ( 1 6 6 1 ) , p, 1G9.

258

c r u c i a l t o t h a s t a b i l i t y o f F o x ' s c h a r i s m a . IF P e r r o t ’ s

r e v e l a t i o n uias a c c e p t e d a s a "new l i g h t " o r even a

mere e x t e n s i o n o f F o x ’ s e n l i g h t e n m e n t , t h e n e c e s s a r y

i m p l i c a t i o n was t h a t Fox had been c o m p l e t e l y wrong i n

t h i s m a t t e r and t h a t God had c h o s e n a new l e a d e r t o

b r i n g t h e Q u a k e r s i n t o C a n a a n ’ s l a n d . Fox s e n s e d t h e

t h r e a t and r e c o g n i z e d t h a t he had t o o v e r t h r o w P e r r o t ' s

r e v e l a t i o n by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t i t was d e v i l - i n s p i r e d .

In s e l f - d e f e n s e , Fox c l a i m e d :

. . , The power o f t h e Lord Cod i s o v e r a l l t hem t h a t k e e p on t h e i r h a t s i n p r a y e r , and t h e y do n o t k e e p on t h e i r h a t s i n p r a y e r n e i t h e r by t h e m o t i o n , n o r t h e power o f God, n o r by t h e s p i r i t o f Cod, b u t ( b y an e a r t h l y , d a r k s p i r i t ) a g a i n s t i t , a nd t hem t h a t a r e i n t h a power o f God.' l

Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , Fox d i d t r y t o m a r s h a l l

e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t h i s c l a i m . F i r s t , he s t a t e d t h a t

t h e R a n t e r s and even J ames M a y l e r ’ s f o l l o w e r s h ad h e l d

a s i m i l a r d o c t r i n e t o t h e one a d v o c a t e d by P e r r o t . ^

S i n c e mos t Q u a k e r s we re e a g e r t o d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s

f rom e i t h e r o f t h o s e two g r o u p s , any s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n

P e r r o t and them wou ld be t o h i s d e c i d e d d i s a d v a n t a g e ,

S e c o n d , Fox a r g u e d t h a t P e r r o t ' s t e a c h i n g was h a r m f u l

^ F o x , C p l s t l e s , No, 214 ( 1 6 6 1 ) , p. 213 , See a l s o £ p i 3 t l e s , No, 199 ( 1 6 6 1 ) , pp , 1 8 0 - 9 1 ,

^Fox, C p l s t l e s , No. 214 ( 1 6 6 1 ) , pp. 213-14,

259

b e c a u s e i t d i v i d e d Q u a k e r s r a t h e r t h a n u n i f i e d t h em .^

I t s h o u l d be r eme mbe red t h a t i t was a l o n g s t a n d i n g

Q ua ke r b e l i e f t h a t t h e L i g h t was u n i v e r s a l and t h a t a l l

uiho d w e l l e d i n t h e L i g h t wou l d a g r e e . T h i r d , Pox s o u g h t

t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t h i s p o s i t i o n was c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e

S c r i p t u r e s w h e r e a s P e r r o t ' s was d i s s o n a n t , ^ T h i s was

an i m p o r t a n t p o i n t f o r Fox t o make f o r i t was g e n e r a l l y

a c c e p t e d by F r i e n d s t h a t a l l new r e v e l a t i o n s had t o be

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e B i b l e , F i n a l l y , Fox r e v e r t e d t o t h e

su p r e m e r a t i o n a l e o f any c h a r i s m a t i c , when he c o u n t e r ­

s i g n e d , " T h i s I was moved o f t h e Lord God t o w r i t e , "3

Fox s u c c e e d e d on c e a g a i n i n m a i n t a i n i n g h i s l e a d e r s h i p ,

b u t hB was d e e p l y t r o u b l e d a b o u t t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e

movement he had f a t h e r e d and mus t have w o r r i e d a t su ch

t i m e s w h e t h e r t h e s e i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m s would e v e n t u a l l y

d e s t r o y h i s work an d make h i s e f f o r t s a l l i n v a i n .

E x t e r n a l P r e s s u r e s

Now, i f t h e i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m s o f t h e movement

a u g m e n te d t h e t r e n d t o w a r d o r g a n i z a t i o n , so d i d t h e

e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s o f s e v e r e p e r s e c u t i o n s and w i d e s p r e a d

1 1 b i d . , pp . 2 1 4 - 1 5 , See a l s o E l l w o o d , J o u r n a l ,I , 5 0 4 - 0 5 .

2 r o x , E p i s t l e s , No, 199 ( 1 GG1) , p . 1 8 9 - 9 0 ,

'Vox, E p i s t l e s , No, 214 ( 1 6 6 1 ) , p . 215 ,

260

i m p r i s o n m e n t s . In g e n e r a l , t h e R e s t o r a t i o n E r a was

e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e Q u a k e r s and o t h e r

D i s s e n t e r s . When C h a r l e s I I became k i n g ( 1 6 6 0 - 8 5 ) , he

f o u n d t h a t p u b l i c s e n t i m e n t was a g a i n s t P u r i t a n i s m

b e c a u s e o f C r o m w e l l ' s r u l e , a n d a P a r l i a m e n t l o y a l t o

t h e k i n g and A n g l i c a n i n s p i r i t was e l e c t e d , Q u i c k l y

l a w s werB p a s s e d t h r o u g h P a r l i a m e n t wh ich s o u g h t t o

r e s t o r e A n g l i c a n i s m a s t h e s t a t e r e l i g i o n a n d p e r s e c u t e

P u r i t a n and Qu ak e r d i s s e n t e r s .

D u r i n g t h e Commonweal th t h e Q u a k e r s d i d s u f f e r

f o r t h e i r b e l i e f s , b u t t h e R e s t o r a t i o n p r o v i d e d t h e

c r o w n i n g t r i a l o f t h e i r f a i t h . D u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s t h e

n o n c o n f o r m i s t s were l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e S c y l l a o f

P a r l i a m e n t a r y e f f o r t s t o s e c u r e a n a t i o n a l p e a c e t h r o u g h

t h e f o r c e d u n i f o r m i t y o f w o r s h i p i n t h e E s t a b l i s h e d

C h u r c h , a nd t h e C h a r y b d i s o f S t u a r t e f f o r t s t o r e s t o r e

a b s o l u t i s m and C a t h o l i c i s m , Wi th s u c h c o n d i t i o n s p r e ­

v a i l i n g , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t d i s s e n t e r s f o u n d

l i t t l e r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o T r e v e l y a n ,

an u p r i s i n g o f t h e m i l i t a n t s e c t o f t h e F i f t h Monarchy

Men e a r l y i n 1661

, . , gave-] Gove rnmen t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o k i l l o f f t h e few s c o r e o f v e t e r a n s who had n o t a c c e p t e d t h e new o r d e r o f t h i n o s , . , , The p a n i c c r e a t e d by t h i s l a s t v e n t u r e o f t h e

261

men o f war c a u s e d a f u r i o u s p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e p a c i f i c Q u a k e r s , who were h a l e d t o p r i s o n by t h o u s a n d s . ^

E v e n t u a l l y t h e Q u a k e r s wore e x o n e r a t e d f rom a l l p o l i t i c a l

i n t r i g u e s j h o w e v e r , s u c h s u s p i c i o n s a nd p e r s e c u t i o n s

were a p o r t e n t o u s s i g n o f t h e t r o u b l e s t h a t p e r s i s t e d

d u r i n g t h e e r a , '

D u r i n g t h e n e x t few y e a r s c o n s i d e r a b l e l e g i s l a t i o n

a d d r e s s e d i t s e l f t o n o n c o n f o r m i t y i n E n g l a n d . The

C o r p o r a t i o n Act o f 1661 b a r r e d a l l n o n - A n g l i c a n s f rom

c i v i l a nd m i l i t a r y o f f i c e . An Act o f U n i f o r m i t y ( 1 6 6 2 )

r e - e s t a b l i s h e d t h e 1559 Book o f Common P r a y e r a n d 2000

P u r i t a n c l e r g y we r e e x p e l l e d f rom t h e c h u r c h f o r r e ­

f u s i n g a s s e n t t o t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i t u r g y . In 1664 a

C o n v e n t i c l e Act condemned a l l d i s s e n t e r s who p e r s i s t e d

i n a t t e n d i n g n o n c o n f o r m i s t s e r v i c e s t o i m p r i s o n m e n t o r

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . By 1665 a F i v e Mi l e Act p r o h i b i t e d

a l l c l e r g y m e n o r s c h o o l m a s t e r s f rom co mi ng w i t h i n f i v e

m i l e s o f a c i t y o r c o r p o r a t e town u n l e s s t h e y d e c l a r e d

t h a t t h e y wou ld n o t s e e k t o a l t e r e i t h e r t h e S t a t e o r

C h u r c h G o v e r n m e n t s . A l l o f t h e s e l a w s , u s u a l l y c a l l e d t h a

C l a r e n d o n Code , we re s t r i c t l y e n f o r c e d by t h e E s t a b l i s h e d

C h u r c h i n o r d e r t o r e s t r a i n p r o p a g a n d a a c t i v i t y .

^ T r e v e l y a n , E n g l a n d u n d e r t h e 5 t u a r t s , p . 3 3 6 ,

2 I b i d . , p p . 3 2 6 - 3 3 0 ,

262

The Act o f U n i f o r m i t y and t h e F i v e Mi l e Act

p r i m a r i l y a f f e c t e d t h e b e n e f i c e d c l e r g y o f thB P u r i t a n

p a r t y , a nd d i d n o t g r e a t l y c o n c e r n t h e Q u a k e r s . Howeve r ,

s i n c e u n l i k e o t h e r d i s s e n t i n g g r o u p s who g a t h e r e d

s e c r e t l y and u n d e r o t h e r t h a n r e l i g i o u s p r e t e n s e s , t h e

Q u a k e r s uiho c o n t i n u e d t o m e e t r e g u l a r l y a nd p u b l i c l y e v e n

a t t h e h e i g h t o f p e r s e c u t i o n were much more l i a b l e u n d e r

t h e C o n v e n t i c l e Ac t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e g e n e r a l

A c t s a g a i n s t a l l n o n c o n f o r m i s t s , one Act o f 1662 was

d i r e c t e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a g a i n s t t h e Q u a k e r s , I t

l e v i e d f i n e s , i m p r i s o n m e n t , and u l t i m a t e l y b a n i s h m e n t

f o r r e p e a t e d o f f e n s e s upon t h o s e Q u a k e r s who wou ld r e f u s e

t o t a k e an y o a t h r e q u i r e d by l a w , o r a l s o m a i n t a i n e d

t h e u n l a w f u l n e s s o f o a t h s , and p e r s i s t e d i n m e e t i n g f o r

w o r s h i p i n g r o u p s t h a t nu m be re d f i v e o r more, '* Such

l e g i s l a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y r e s u l t e d i n t h e mass a r r e s t s o f

t h e a d u l t members o f a p a r t i c u l a r m e e t i n g s u c h a s i n

R e a d i n g and B r i s t o l w he re a t t i m e s t h e c h i l d r e n a l o n e

we re e x p e c t e d t o c a r r y on t h e m e e t i n g s f o r w o r s h i p .

On some o c c a s i o n s t h e number o f Q u a k e r s i n a l o c a l

p r i s o n became so n u m e r o u s t h a t i t wa3 common f o r t hem

t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r m e e t i n g s i n bonds,^ N a t u r a l l y , many

i B e e B r a i t h w a i t e , Second P e r i o d o f Q u a k e r i s m , p . 23 ,

^ R u s s e l l , H I s t o r y o f Q u a k e r i s m , pp . 1 0 1 - 0 2 ,

263

o f t h e i t i n e r a n t p r e a c h e r s i n c l u d i n g Fox h i cnse lF we re

i n c a r c e r a t e d d u r i n g a t l e a s t a p o r t i o n o f t h e s e y e a r s .

The o p p o s i t i o n was so e x t e n s i v e a nd t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s o

p r o l o n g e d t h a t t h e movement was e x p e r i e n c i n g e x a s p e r a ­

t i o n . I n d e e d , B r a i t h w a i t e c o n c l u d e d t h a t " i t would

n o t ha ve be en s u r p r i s i n g i f Q u a k e r i sm w i t h l e a d e r s h i p

a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n we ak e n ed by p e r s e c u t i o n had l a n g u i s h e d '

a n d d e c l i n e d , " " ' T h i s became w o e f u l l y a p p a r e n t t o Fox

w h i l e he h i m s e l f was s u f f e r i n g t h r o u g h one o f h i s w o r s t

i m p r i s o n m e n t s i n L a n c a s t e r and S c a r b o r o u g h f rom 1664 t o

1 6 6 6 , U n l e s s t h e movement was t o r un t h e r i s k o f

l o s i n g t h e g a i n s w h i c h i t had a c c o m p l i s h e d b e c a u s e o f

t h e f a n a t i c a l s c h i s m s w i t h i n o r t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s w i t h o u t ,

an e x t r a - c h a r i s m a t i c s t a b i l i t y was n e e d e d , 2 T h e r e f o r e ,

Fox s o u g h t f o r a c o h e s i v e f o r c e wh ich c o u l d s a t i s ­

f a c t o r i l y s u p p l e m e n t and . l a t e r r e p l a c e h i s c h a r i s m a .

T h i s he b e l i e v e d c o u l d b e s t be a c c o m p l i s h e d by e s t a b l i s h ­

i n g a more s y s t e m a t i z e d and c e n t r a l i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

t h e m o v e m e n t , ^ F o x , now f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , c l e a r l y

" ' B r a i t h w a i t e , Se c o nd P e r i o d of Qu a k e r i s m , p , 225 , Some o f t h e e x t e n t oF Qua xs r s u f f e r i n g s may be g a t h e r e d f rom J o s e p h B n s s e , S u f f e r i n o s o f t h e Q u a k e r s , v o l s , I a nd I I I have s t a t i s t i c a l t a b l e s , *

^Compare M i c k a l l s , J o u r n a l , p , 42 1 .

^ I b i d . , p. 511 , See a l s o F o x , " C o n c e r n i n g t h e F i r s t S p r e a d i n g o f t h e T r u t h , " i n C p i s t . l e s , p , 14 .

264

b e g a n t o v i s u a l i z e t h e movement , n o t a s a g r o u p o f

i n d i v i d u a l c e l l s , b u t a s a c o r p o r a t e b o d y .

Mo n t h l y and Q u a r t e r l y M e e t i n g s

H e r e t o f o r e , t h e g u i d a n c e o f t h e movement had be en

p r i m a r i l y i n t h e h a n d s o f f o x and h i s c h a r i s m a t i c

l i e u t e n a n t s and s e c o n d a r i l y i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e c h u r c h -

a f f a i r s m e e t i n g s . H e r e a f t e r , f o x wou ld t a k e s t e p s

w h ic h would r e s t r i c t t h e r o l e p l a y e d by c h a r i s m a t i c

l e a d e r s h i p , To i n s u r e t h i s , M on th ly an d Q u a r t e r l y

b u s i n e s s m e e t i n g s were e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h more e x p l i c i t

g o v e r n m e n t a l p o w e r s . These h i e r a r c h i c a l l y o r d e r e d

m e e t i n g s r e p l a c e d t h e more o r l e s s ac[ hoc m e e t i n g s o f

t h e p r e v i o u s d e c a d e . The e a r l i e s t d e f i n i t e i n c l i n a t i o n

auiay f ro m i n d i v i d u a l i s m and t o w a r d a g r o u p c o n s e n s u s ,

i n j u d g i n g what i s o r i s n o t t h e t r u t h , i s c o n t a i n e d

i n a l e t t e r w r i t t e n by s e v e r a l l e a d i n g Qua ke r m i n i s t e r s

i n 1666 w h i l e f o x was s t i l l i m p r i s o n e d . In t h e l i g h t o f

wha t i s ' k n o w n a b o u t t h e r o u t i n i z a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a , i t

i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e s e men showed a g r e a t i n t e r e s t

i n p r o m o t i n g a p ro n r em o f g r o u p g u i d a n c e , s i n c e t h e

more o r g a n i z e d t h e movement be cam e , t h e more s t a b l e

and s e c u r e t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p r o l e and s t a t u s . ^ Howeve r ,

**See Weber, JDn C h a r is m a , p. 54,

265

f r om F a x ' s l a t e r a c t i o n s t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o a ssume

t h a t he was n o t h i m s e l f in f u l l s y m p a t h y w i t h t h e

e p i s t l B . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e m i n i s t e r s recommended*

. . . I f any p r e t e n d t o be o f u s , and i n c a s e o f c o n t r o v e r s y , w i l l n o t a d m i t t o be t r i e d by t h e c h u r c h . , . , n o r s u b m i t t o t h e j u d g ­m e n t s g i v e n by t h e S p i r i t o f T r u t h i n t h e E l d e r s and members o f t h e same* b u t k i c k a g a i n s t t h e i r j u d g m e n t a s o n l y t h e j u d g m e n t o f m a n , - ~ i t b e i n g q i v e n and m a n i f e s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o T r u t h , and c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e d o c t r i n e o f s u c h good a n c i e n t F r i e n d s , a s hav e b e e n , and a r e so und i n t h e f a i t h , , . . f t h a y ^ o u g h t t o be r e j e c t e d , a s h a v i n g e r r e d f rom t h e T r u t h , ' '

T h i s t h e n became t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d t h e

g r a s s - r o o t s o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e movement . I t p r o v i d e d

Q u a k e r i s m w i t h an a n c h o r w h i ch c h a r i s m a and t h e L i g h t

w i t h i n c o u l d n e v o r by t h e m s e l v e s s u p p l y , Group

g u i d a n c e d i d n o t i n t h e o r y mean t o s t i f l e t h e i n ­

d i v i d u a l s p i r i t b u t o n l y c h a n n e l an d i f n e c e s s a r y ,

c o r r e c t i t . F u r t h e r , g r o u p g u i d a n c e d i d n o t mean t o

r e p l a c e t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f Fox , b u t o n l y s u p p l e m e n t i t ,

e s p e c i a l l y a s i m p r i s o n m e n t s , s i c k n e s s , and ago i n ­

c r e a s i n g l y i n c a p a c i t a t e d h im. C o n s e q u e n t l y , Fox ,

r e a l i z i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y of s u c h m e a s u r e s , e n c o u r a g e d

t h e i r m a i n t e n a n c e n o t o n l y i n E n g l a n d b u t i n e v e r y

q u a r t e r o f t h e e a r t h i n t o w h i ch h i s g o s p e l had

1 L e t t e r s o f E a r l y Fr i e n d s , p, 321,

266

p e n e t r a t e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t h r u s t o f F o x ' s , l a t e r

m i n i s t r y was n o t e v a n g e l i s t i c b u t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l . ' *

The I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f Q u a k e r i s m

Y e a r l y m e e t i n g s

A l t h o u g h Fox r e t a i n e d h i s c h a r i s m a t i c v e n e r a t i o n

u n t i l t h e e n d o f h i s l i f e i n 1 6 9 1 , u s i n g much o f h i s

l a t t e r y e a r s t o w r i t e a d v i s o r y e p i s t l e s , t h e c e n t r a l

a u t h o r i t y o f t h e movement i n c r e a s i n g l y p a s s e d i n t o t h e

h a n d s o f a number o f g o v e r n i n g b o d i e s w h i c h met i n

Lon don — two o f whose f u n t i o n s s h o u l d be b r i e f l y sum­

m a r i z e d b e f o r e t h i s s t u d y i n c o n c l u d e d , t h e Y e a r l y

m e e t i n g , an d t h o S e c o n d Day (Monday) Morn in g M e e t i n g ,

I n a c t u a l i t y t h e r e we re two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f Y e a r l y

M e e t i n g s , One was f o r a l l Quake r ministers,^ t h e o t h e r

was f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f rom t h e Q u a r t e r l y M e e t i n g s*2

i n t h e v a r i o u s c o u n t i e s i n w h i ch Q u a k e r i s m had t a k e n h o l d ,

^Thomas G r e e n , eb a l , , " E p i s t l e f rom F r i e n d s Met i n London, t h e 2 6 t h o f T h i r d Mon th , 1 6 7 3 , " in E p i s t l e s f rorn t h e Year l y M e e t i n g , pp . x l v i i i i - x l i x .

^ M e e t i n g s f o r m i n i s t e r s f rom a l l p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y were f i r s t h e l d a n n u a l l y f rom 1650 t o 1661 b u t t h e y were i n t e r r u p t e d by p e r s e c u t i o n and t h e n e x t one d i d n o t o c c u r u n t i l 1 66 8 .

• In 1673 t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e was d i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l 1 6 7 7 , when t h o Y e a r l y M e e t i n g f o r M i n i s t e r s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d i t a g a i n . See Ep i s t l e s f rom Y e a r l y Me e t i n n o f F r i e n d s ,He Id i n London , jTo t h e Q u a r t e r l y and M o n t h l y m e e t i n g s , f r o m 16B1- 1 B 5 7 , I n c l u s i v e , I ( L o n d o n : Edward Mar sh ,1 8 5 8 ) , x x i - x x i i .

An e p i s t l e s e n t f o r t h f rom f r i e n d s i n t h e m i n i s t r y

d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f 166B m e n t i o n e d s o m e t h i n g o f

t h e p u r p o s e f o r t h e m i n i s t e r ' s Y e a r l y M e e t i n g .

T h i s i s t o l e t you u n d e r s t a n d , [ t h a t ! a t t h e l a s t m e e t i n g o f f r i e n d s i n t h e m i n i s t r y wh ich met i n London , . . . we d i d c o n c l u d e among o u r s e l v e s t o s e t t l e a m e e t i n g , t o s e e one a n o t h e r ' s f a c e s , and open o u r h e a r t s one t o a n o t h e r i n t h e T r u t h o f God, once a y e a r , a s f o r m e r l y i t u s e d t o b e ; a nd o n c e i n two y e a r s f o r f r i e n d s i n t h e m i n i s t r y , t h a t go i n a l l p a r t s beyond t h e s e a s , t o come up and mee t w i t h u s a t London.

The n e x t m e o t i n o w i l l be a b o u t t h e t i m e c a l l e d E a s t e r , i n t h e y e a r 1 6 7 0 , a t London; when [ w e ! s h a l l d e s i r e t o s e e y o u r f a c e s , t h a t we may s e e i n a l l m e e t i n g s t h a t thB_________ [ w o rd d o u b t f u l ! be s u p p l i e d , and t h a tn o t h i n g be l a c k i n g ; t h e n a l l i s w e l l s and t h a t a l l wa lk a s become t h a o r d e r o f t h e c o s p e 1 i w h i c h i s t h e c o m e ly o r d e r i n t h e power o f God, wh ich a l l u n c o m e l i n e s s i s o u t of."*

In t h e m i n u t e s w r i t t e n i n 1 6 7 2 , t h e g e n e r a l

p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ' Y e a r l y M e e t i n g was

s t a t e d a s : " I t i s c o n c l u d e d , a g r e e d , and a s s e n t e d u n t o ,

by f r i e n d s t h e n p r e s e n t , t h a t f o r t h e b e t t e r o r d e r i n g ,

m a n a g i n g , and r e g u l a t i n g o f t h e p u b l i c a f f a i r s o f

f r i e n d s r e l a t i n g t o t h e T r u t h and t h e s e r v i c e t h e r e o f ,

t h e r e be a G e n e r a l M e e t i n g o f f r i e n d s , h e l d i n London ,

on c e a y e a r , . . . t o c o n s i s t o f s i x f r i e n d s f o r t h e

c i t y o f London , t h r e e f o r t h e c i t y o f B r i s t o l , two f o r

268

t h e t own o f C o l c h e s t e r , a nd one o r two f o r p a c h a nd

e v e r y o f thB c o u n t i e s o f E n g l a n d a n d Wales r e s p e c t i v e l y , " ^

M i n i s t e r i n g F r i e n d s we re a l s o p e r m i t t e d t o a t t e n d t h e s e

m e e t i n g s , b u t Q u a k e r s i n g e n e r a l we r e d i s c o u r a g e d f rom

p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e d e c i s i o n m ak in g p r o c e s s e s o f t h e

m o v e m e n t ' s b u s i n e s s a f f a i r s ,

The Monday Morn in g M e e t i n g

O t h e r t h a n t h e g e n e r a l Y e a r l y M e e t i n g s , t h e

t r a v e l l i n g m i n i s t e r s , w h e n e v e r i n London , k e p t i n c l o s e

c o n t a c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r by m e e t i n g a t G e r r a d R o b e r t s '

home,^ From F o x ' s J o u r n a l i t i s known t h a t t h e s e

p r e a c h e r s met t o g e t h e r e a r l y on Su n d a y m o r n i n g s f o r

w o r s h i p s e r v i c e s among t h e m s e l v e s , and t h e r e a r r a n g e d

w h i c h s i l e n t m e e t i n g s e a c h one s h o u l d a t t e n d l a t e r

t h a t d a y , ^ I t i s e v i d e n t f rom F o x ’ s own wo rd s t h a t he

t h o u g h t i t o r d e r l y a t t h i s s t a g e o f t h e m o v e m e n t ’ s

d e v e l o p m e n t f o r t h e " a n c i e n t " m i n i s t e r s t o e x e r c i s e

some d i r e c t i v e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e m i n i s t e r i a l a c t i v i t i e s

o f t h e y o u n g e r p r e a c h e r s ,

E p i s t l e s f rom t h e Year l y M e e t i n g n f F r i e n d s ,I , x v i i i .

2/ \s t h e movement gr ew n u m e r i c a l l y and g e o ­g r a p h i c a l l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n , i t s l o c u s s h i f t e d f rom Swar thrnoor i n t h e n o r t h , t o London.

^ Cambridge J o u r n a l , I I , 155 ,

2 6 9

But a s t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e p r o p h e t s wore s u b j e c t t o t h e p r o p h e t s , so t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e a p o s t l e s we re s u b j e c t t o t h e a p o s t l e s ,P a u l a n d B a r n a b a s t o o k w i t h t hem . . . Mark; and Mark d i d n o t g a i n s a y , and t e l l t h e m , I mus t w a i t f o r a m o t i o n , '

T h e s e m i n i s t e r s a l s o e x e r c i s e d some s u p e r v i s i o n

o v e r t h e w r i t t e n d i s c o u r s e s w h i c h we re b e i n g p u b l i s h e d

by t h e Q u a k e r s , D u r i n g t h e Commonwea l t h , f r i e n d s f r e ­

q u e n t l y showed t h e i r m a n u s c r i p t s t o f o x and h i s l i e u ­

t e n a n t s b e f o r e s e n d i n g them t o t h e p r i n t e r , b u t t h i s

was n o t o b l i g a t o r y and was done o n l y i n d e f e r e n c e t o

F o x ' s c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p , 2 Howeve r , when Fox was i n

p r i s o n and a s s c h i s m s be gan t o r e n d t h e movement , t h e

p r a c t i c e o f r e v i e w i n g m a n u s c r i p t s b e f o r e t h e i r p u b l i c a ­

t i o n was r e g u l a r l y i g n o r e d , A d e s i r e t o r e i n s t a t e t h e

p r a c t i c e e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Monday

Morn ing M e e t i n g o f M i n i s t e r s , w h i c h Fox e s t a b l i s h e d

a f t e r h i s r e t u r n f rom Amer ica i n 1 6 7 3 , T h e r e f o r e , t h e

main f u n c t i o n o f t h i s m e e t i n g was f o r t h e c e n s o r s h i p

and e d i t i n g o f a l l m a n u s c r i p t s , b e f o r e t h e y c o u l d be

p u b l i s h e d i n t h e name o f t h e Q u a k e r movement . I t a l s o

d i d n o t p e r m i t t h e r e p r i n t i n g o f a n y e a r l i e r works

w i t h o u t i t s c a r e f u l c e n s o r s h i p , ^ The r h e t o r i c a l

V o x , E p i s t l e s , No. 347 ( 1 6 7 7 ) , p, 1 44 ,

See B r a i t h w a i t e , Be g i n n i n g s o f Q u a k e r i sm , p . 1 3 4 ,

^See B r a i t h w a i t e , Se co nd P e r i o d o f Q u a k e r i s m , p p . 2 B0 -B 1 ,

270

s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e m o v e m e n t ' s f u t u r e o f t h i s c e n t r a l

g o v e r n i n g body c a n n o t be o v e r e m p h a s i z e d , By p r o ­

h i b i t i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f a l l m a t e r i a l w h i c h t h i s

c o m m i t t e e o f m i n i s t e r s c o n s i d e r e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e y

e x e r c i s e d g r e a t power o v e r an y Qu ak e r who d e s i r e d t o

e x p r e s s n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l o r i n n o v a t i v e i d e a s , t h r o u g h

w i t h h o l d i n g t h e S o c i e t i e s i m p r i m a t u r f rom t h e d o c u m e n t .

S i n c e t h e s e men were a n x i o u s t o a l t e r t h e Q u a k e r ’ s

p o p u l a r image o f b e i n g f a n a t i c s , t h e c o m m i t t e e t e n d e d

t o f o l l o w c o n s e r v a t i v e e d i t o r i a l p o l i c i e s . T h i s , i t

was t h o u g h t , wou ld make t h e i r r e l i g i o n more p a l p a b l e

t o a g r o w i n g s e c t o r o f s o c i e t y w h i c h was b e i n g a f f e c t e d

by t h e i n r o a d s o f d e i s m and r a t i o n a l i s m , At one p o i n t ,

t h e M e e t i n g e v e n we n t so f a r a3 t o c e n s o r one o f f o x ' s

own e p i s t l e s , b e c a u s e i t was t h o u g h t t o be i n f l a m m a t o r y ,

f o x d e c r i e d t h e i r b e h a v i o r i n a l e t t e r w r i t t e n s h o r t l y

t h e r e a f t e r ,

I was n o t moved t o s e t up t h a t m e e t i n g t o make o r d e r s a c a i n s t t h e r e a d i n g o f jmy p a p e r s { b u t t o g a t h e r up bad b oo ks t h a t was s c a n d a l o u s a g a i n s t f r i e n d s } and t o s e e t h a t young f r i e n d s ' b o o k s t h a t was s e n t t o be p r i n t e d m i g h t be s t o o d by? and t o 3ee whe re e v e r y one ha d t h e i r m o t i o n t o t h e m e e t i n g t h a t t h e y m i g h t n o t go i n h e a p s ; and n o t f o r them t o have an a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e Mon th ly and Quar t e r l y and o t h e r Me e t i n g s o r f o r them t o s t o p t h i n g s t o t h e n a t i o n w h i c h _I wajs moved o£ t h e Lord t o g i v e f o r t h t o t h e m . ^

V o x , " L e t t e r d a t e d A p r i l 2 8 , 1 6 7 6 , " i n S w a r t h m o o r MSS. , V, 9 . The e m p h a s i s i s m i n e .

271

W hi l e t h i s p a r a g r a p h c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h e c o m m i t t e e ' s

c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e , i t e v e n more i m p o r t a n t l y u n d e r ­

s c o r e s t h e d e c l i n e o f c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y . Evan i f

t h i s i n s t a n c e was e x c e p t i o n a l , i n t h e c a s e o f F o x , and

e v e n i f t h e c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n d i d n o t t r u l y " l o r d

i t o v e r ” t h e r e g i o n a l and l o c a l m e e t i n g s , y e t t h e s e e d s

o f s u c h p r a c t i c e s were a l r e a d y i n hand by t h e e n d o f

F o x ' s m i n i s t r y .

T h a t F a x ' s wo rk s were o n c e a g a i n t o come u n d e r

t h e c e n s o r i o u s eye o f t h e Monday Morn ing M e e t i n g i s

e v i d e n t f r om t h e i r e d i t o r i a l p o l i c y r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s t ­

humous p u b l i c a t i o n o f F o x ' s J o u r n a l . The l e a r n e d Thomas

E l l w o o d , p u p i l and f r i e n d o f John M i l t o n , was d e l e g a t e d

t h e p r i n c i p a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e d i t i n g t h e v a r i o u s

m a n u s c r i p t s wh i ch composed t h e J o u r n a l and " f i t t i n g i t

f o r t h e P r e s s , T h e E l l w o o d e d i t i o n o f t h e J o u r n a l

( 1 6 9 4 ) w h i ch wa3 c o m p l e t e d u n d e r t h e c a r e f u l s u p e r v i s i o n

o f t h e m i n i s t e r s ' c o m m i t t e e , p l a i n l y e x p o s e s t h u e x t e n t

t o w h i ch t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p wen t i n p r e ­

s e n t i n g t h e w o r l d a s a n e p i c t u r e o f Fox an d t h e e a r l y

Q u a k e r s , when t h e t y p o s o f p a s s a g e s t h e y o m i t t e d a r e

^ E l l w o o d , The H i s t o r y a_f t j in L i f e o f Thomas E 1.1 wood , pp , 1 2 2 - 2 5 T 3r5B,

272

n o t e d , 1 P o r t i o n s oF t h e o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t s wh ich

m i g h t be c o n s t r u e d by c r i t i c a l r e a d e r s a s p r o o F s oF

t h e e a r l y l e a d e r s F a n a t i c i s m were e i t h e r t o n e d down

o r c o m p l e t e l y l e F t o u t . Some oF F o x ' s s e v e r e d e n u n c i a ­

t i o n s and c a s t r a t i o n s oF h i s o p p o n e n t s we re d e l e t e d ,

E v i d e n c e a F wha t m i g h t i n d i c a t e t h a t Fox was p s y c h o l o g ­

i c a l l y a b n o r m a l was e x c l u d e d . Some p r o p h e t i c p r e m o n i t i o n s

w e re n o t i n c l u d e d by E l l w o o d , C e r t a i n oF F o x ' s d r e a m s

a nd v i s i o n s were u n r e c o u n t e d . F i n a l l y , t h o s e p a s s a g e s

w h i c h c r i t i c s oF t h e movement m i g h t u se t o deFame t h e

c h a r a c t e r dF Fox were a l s o e d i t e d o u t oF t h e p u b l i s h e d

J o u r n a l , P e r h a p s t h e F i r s t e d i t o r s oF t h e J o u r n a l we re

c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e d u c i n g t h e l e n g t h oF t h e J o u r n a l F a r

p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s , b u t i n an y e v e n t , t h e i r c h o i c e oF

t h e a m i s s i o n s r e v e a l s t h a t t h e bo dy oF men upon whom

t h e m a n t l e oF l e a d e r s h i p F e l l were e s p e c i a l l y e a g e r t o

d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e movement From a l l r e p r e h e n s i b l e c h a r g o s

oF n o n - o r t h o d o x e n t h u s i a s m .

T h e r e F o r e , i t c an be o b s e r v e d t h a t w i t h i n a p e r i o d

dF a p p r o x i m a t e l y F ive d e c a d e s , Q u a k e r i sm had t r a v e l l e d

t h r o u g h a c o m p l e t e c y c l e , B e g i n n i n g i n t h e ' 1 6 4 0 ' s w i t h

t h e r e v e l a t i o n s oF George Fox and h i s g r e a t c h a r i s m a t i c

’ISee T, Edmund H a r v e y , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " i n C a m b r i dg e J o u r n a l , I , x v - x x x .

273

a p p e a l t h r o u g h o u t t h e f i f t i e s an d t h e s i x t i p s , t h e

movement i n f l u e n c e d g r B a t nu m b er s o f p e o p l e i n many

p l a c e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , Howeve r , p r o b l e m s w i t h i n a n d

p e r s e c u t i o n s w i t h o u t soon b r o u g h t t o l i g h t a n e e d f o r

s t a b i l i z i n g t h e l e a d e r s h i p and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f thB

movemen t . From t h e 1 6 7 Q ' s and t h e r e a f t e r , t h e Q u a k e r s ,

who a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r e s t e e m and p e r s o n a l

a f f e c t i o n f o r " d e a r G e o r g e , ' ' r o u t i n i z e d h i s c h a r i s m a t i c

a u t h o r i t y and Q u a k e r i s m d i s c e r n i b l y p a s s e d f rom b e i n g

a c h a r i s m a t i c movement i n t o a r a t i o n a l l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d

S o c i e t y o f F r i e n d s .

CHAPTER V I I I

SUMMARY AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

I n t r o d u c t i o n

The i n t e n t i n t h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r i s t o r e v i e w t h e

e n t i r e s t u d y , i n c l u d i n a t h e s p e c i f i c s t a t e m e n t o f t h e

p r o b l e m , t h e method o r p r o c e d u r e u s e d i n a t t a c k i n g t h e

p r o b l e m , an d t h e main c o n c l u s i o n s d r aw n .

The P r o b l e m

I t was t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f t h i s t h e s i s t o

f o rm a j u d g m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r o f

Geo rge F o x . In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e b a s i c q u e s t i o n g u i d i n g

t h e a n a l y s i s w a s , how d o e s a p e r s o n w i t h c h a r i s m a t i c

p r o p h e t i c t e n d e n c i e s s u c h a s a r e e x h i b i . t e d i n George

Fox e n d e a v o r t o c o m m u n i c a t e h i s i m m e d i a t e , i n t u i t i v e ,

a n d / o r m y s t i c a 1 k n ow le d ge t o h i s a u d i e n c e . S t a t e d more

s i m p l y , t h i s s t u d y s o u g h t t o d e t e r m i n e how Fox t r a n s ­

f o r m e d h i s p r i v a t e v i s i o n s i n t o a c h a r i s m a t i c movemen t ,

Lim i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y

Ulhi le t h e a u t h o r r e c o g n i z e d t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s

a dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s i n v o l v i n g many e l e m e n t s ,

274

275

he p u r p o s e f u l l y s e l e c t e d o n l y one " a s p e c t , " t h e s p e a k e r -

m e s s a g e r e l a t i o n s h i p a s t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f h i s a n a l y s i s .

The c h o i c e was t o some e x t e n t i n f l u e n c e d by e x p e d i e n c y

a nd t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e , b u t more p a r t i c u l a r l y b e c a u s e i t

was t h o u g h t t h a t t h e s e l e c t e d a s p e c t wo u l d a f f o r d a

mos t s i g n i f i c a n t i n s i g h t i n t o c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

Howeve r , w he n e v e r i t was c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y o r p r o f i t ­

a b l e , o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e r h e t o r i c a l p r o c e s s we re a l s o

d i s c u s s e d .

The Method o f t h e S t u d y

In o r d e r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e a n n o u n c e d p u r p o s e o f

t h e s t u d y , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o u se t h e h i s t o r i c a l - c r i t i c a l

m e th od o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e s e a r c h , T h i s m e th od r e q u i r e d :

1 ) a c a r e f u l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m , 2)

c r e a t i o n o f an a p p r o p r i a t e r e s e a r c h d e s i g n , 3 ) t h e d e ­

v e l o p m e n t o f a h e u r i s t i c p a r a d i g m o f c h a r i s m a t i c com­

m u n i c a t i o n , 4) t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a , 5 ) a n a l y s i s and

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a , and 6) g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , b a s e d

upon t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o l l e c t e d d a t a .

The Main C o n c l u s i o n s

The R h e t o r i c a l S i t u a t i o n

The E n g l a n d i n t o w h i c h Fox was b o r n and t h e n

l i v e d was a s w a r m i n g b e e h i v e o f r e l i g i o u s c o n t r o v e r ­

s i a l i s t s , R e f o r m a t i o n had s u p p o s e d l y come t o E n g l a n d

I n 1534 when Henry V I I I s e v e r e d r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e

C h u r c h o f Rome. H o w e v e r , two c e n t u r i e s l a t e r , P u r i t a n s

we re s t i l l c l a m o r i n g f o r r e l i g i o u s r e f o r m . Mou n t in g

d i s c o n t e n t f o m e n t e d i n t o h o l y r e v o l u t i o n . The m on a rc h

and h i s High C h u r c h A n g l i c a n s we re d e p o s e d , P r e s b y ­

t e r i a n s g a i n e d t h e a s c e n d a n c y . Once i n t h e s e a t o f

a u t h o r i t y , t h e s e men demanded u n i f o r m i t y o f w o r s h i p .

They w a n t ed t o e s t a b l i s h i n E n g l a n d a t h e o c r a c y m o d e l e d

a f t e r t h e Old T e s t a m e n t an d C a l v i n ' s Geneva . T h u s , t h e

o f f i c i a l s t a t e r e l i g i o n wh ich e m e r g e d was d e t e r m i n i s t i c ,

l e g a l i s t i c , and a n t a g o n i s t i c t o t h e m y s t i c a l a p p r o a c h

t o God, Many E n g l i s h m e n were d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h a

g o v e r n m e n t t h a t would r u l e t h e n a t i o n w i t h a " h a r d "

B i b l e i n one hand and a sword i n t h e o t h e r . P a r t i c u l a r l y

among t h e m i l i t a r i l y p o w e r f u l New Model Army, t h e r e we re

r e l i g i o u s z e a l o t s o f d i f f e r i n o t h e o l o g i c a l v i e w s , b u t

who a g r e e d i n t h e i r l o v e o f r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m . T hes e

I n d e p e n d e n t s t h e n o v e r t h r e w t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n r e g i m e ,

and i n so d o i n g t h e y o f f e r e d t h e m a s s e s , f o r t h e f i r s t

t i m e i n E n g l i s h h i s t o r y , an o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p r e s s

t h e i r own s e n t i m e n t s a h o u t t h e t y p e o f r e l i g i o u s

e x p e r i e n c e s t h e y p e r s o n a l l y p r e f e r r e d .

Some c o n c e i v e d o f t h e r e s u l t s a s t h e l i t e r a l

o p e n i n g o f P a n d o r a ’ s bo x , w h i l e o t h e r s b e l i e v e d i t was

277

t h e " c o n s u m m a t i o n d e v o u t l y t o be w i s h e d f o r , " In a n y

e v e n t , l i k e c a g e d c r e a t u r e s a t l o n g l a s t s e t f r e e ,

r a d i c a l s e c t s s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e E n g l i s h c o u n t r y s i d e ,

t h r i v i n g on thB f r e s h f r u i t a g e o f t h e I n t e r r e g n u m .

Some were l i t t l e more t h a n p e r s o n a l i t y c u l t s , and o t h e r s ,

h a l f - c r a z e d m i l i t a n t m i l l e n a r i a n i s t s , T h e r e were s e c t s

l i k e t h e R a n t e r s who u s e d t h e p r e t e n t i o u s c l o a k o f

r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t y t o c o v e r t h e i r a n t i n o m i a n and l i c e n ­

t i o u s b e h a v i o r s , Then t h e r e we re a l s o g r o u p s s u c h a s

t h e F a m i l i s t s , who we re d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h a f o r e n s i c

r e l i g i o n w h i c h s o u g h t t o g i v e a s s u r a n c e o f e t e r n a l

l i f e t h r o u g h a r g u m e n t s p r o d u c e d f rom B i b l i c a l t e x t s .

They y e a r n e d f o r a h e a r t - f e l t r e l i g i o n o f t h e s p i r i t ,

w i t h a s s u r a n c e b a s e d upon t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f

R e a l i t y , F i n a l l y , t h e r e were t h e S e e k e r s , They we re

n e i t h e r C h u rc h n o r s e c t , b u t o n l y a f o r g a t h e r i n g o f

b e l i e v e r s . Y e t , t h e y t y p i f i e d t h e m e n t a l i t y o f t h e

e r a i n t h e i r d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w i t h o r g a n i z e d r e l i g i o n ,

i t s h a l f h e a r t e d , an d p o l i t i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d r e f o r m a t i o n s ,

a nd i t s c o n s t a n t c o n t e n t i o n s o v e r c r e e d s , o r d i n a t i o n s ,

a n d r i t u a l s . They l o o k e d b a c k w a r d w i t h s a d p e s s i m i s m ,

b u t f o r w a r d w i t h g l a d o p t i m i s m . They c o u l d n o t c l e a r l y

a r t i c u l a t e t h e i r n e e d , b u t how d e e p l y t h e y f e l t i t .

T h e i r hope l a y n o t i n m i n i s t e r s and m i n i s t r a t i o n s , b u t

278

i n God and h i s r e s t o r a t i o n o f a s u p e r n a t u r a l a p o s t o l i c

r e l i g i o n o f t h e S p i r i t .

T h i s t h e n was t h e r e l i g i o u s s i t u a t i o n w h i ch f o x

c o n f r o n t e d , o r p e r h a p s e v e n more a c c u r a t e l y , t h i s was

t h e s i t u a t i o n w h i c h c o n f r o n t e d Geo rge Fox . The t i m e s

we re a b n o r m a l . E n g l a n d was w i t h o u t a k i n g an d w i t h o u t

a u n i f o r m r e l i g i o n . The a n c h o r s o f a u t h o r i t y , t h e k i n g ,

t h e C h u r c h , a n d even t h e B i b l e h ad be en s e t a d r i f t .

A n x i e t y and s t r e s s mou n te d a s p e o p l e t u r n e d t o e s t a b ­

l i s h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s t o s a t i s f y t h e i r n e e d s , o n l y t o

d i s c o v e r t h a t t h e t r i e d an d p r o v e n ways o f t h e p a s t

were e i t h e r no l o n g e r e x i s t e n t o r i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e

c u r r e n t e x i g e n c y . D e p r i v e d and f r u s t r a t e d , p e o p l e b e g a n

t o s e a r c h . f o r a nd summon new a u t h o r i t i e s , new f a i t h s ,

and new l e a d e r s . One who h e a r d t h e c a l l was Gaorgo Fox ,

F o x ' s F o r m a t i v e Y e a r s

S e v e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s a p p e a r t o bo j u s t i f i e d f rom

t h e a n a l y s i s o f : 1) t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p a r e n t a l f a c t o r s

on F o x , 2) t h e n a t u r e o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e s i n a P u r i t a n i c a l

e n v i r o n m e n t , 3 ) h i s p e r s o n a l s p i r i t u a l p i l g r i m a g e s ,

4 ) t h e i n f l u e n c e o f h i s e n c o u n t e r w i t h m y s t i c a l r e ­

l i g i o n , 5) h i s u l t i m a t e e n l i g h t e n m e n t , a n d , 6 ) t h e r e ­

s u l t a n t c o r n e r s t o n e oF h i s m es sa g e and m i n i s t r y .

279

Both o f George P o x ' s p a r e n t s ware o i o u s p e o p l e .

D u r i n g t h e i r s o n ' s e a r l y y e a r s t h e y e n c o u r a g e d him t o

a t t e n d t h e C h u r c h o f t h e n a t i o n , wh i ch war, t h e n d o m i n a t e d

by t h e A n g l i c a n i s m o f A r c h b i s h o p Laud. Howeve r , t h e Fox

h o u s e h o l d was a l s o s y m p a t h e t i c t o t h e P r o t e s t a n r . s p i r i t

w h i c h was e m e r g i n g i n t h e P u r i t a n s ' e f f o r t s a t r e f o r m a ­

t i o n . T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y t h e c a s e w i t h G e o r g e ' s

m o t h e r , who i m p l i c i t l y b e l i e v e d t h a t she was o f t h e

s t o c k o f m a r t y r s . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , p o s s i b l e t o c o n ­

j e c t u r e t h a t Fox r e c e i v e d a s t r o n g i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c

a t t i t u d e i n m a t t e r s o f r e l i g i o n f rom h i s p a r e n t s , Even

t h o u g h t h e y d i d n o t a l w a y s u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r s o n , t h e y

d i d n o t p r e v e n t h i s r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i m e n t s , and i t i s

q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t h i s m o t h e r e v e n gave him some m o r a l

s u p p o r t . I t was a l s o f rom h i s m o t h e r , a p p a r e n t l y , t h a t

Fox r e c e i v e d h i s p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h i t was

s a d l y d e f i c i e n t , a n d h i s u n i v e r s i t y - t r a i n e d o p p o n e n t s

a l w a y s r e s o r t e d t o c r i t i c i z i n g h i s r e l a t i v e i l l i t e r a c y ,

Fox had a b s o l u t e l y no d i f f i c u l t y i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h

t h e m a s s e s t o whom h i s a p p e a l s were m o s t l y d i r e c t e d , From

h i s p e r s o n a l s t u d i e s , he was w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e

B i b l e and t h e p a p u l a r a u d i e n c e s n e v e r q u e s t i o n e d h i s

k n o w l e d g e a b i l i t y .

As a y o u t h , v e r y s i n c e r e a b o u t h i s r e l i g i o u s

p r o f e s s i o n , Fox was g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e p u r i t a n i c a l

260

i d e a s t h a t we re c i r c u l a t i n g t h r o u g h o u t E n g l a n d . I t was

n o t t h e t h e o l o g y n o r t h e p o l i t i c s o f P u r i t a n i s m t h a t

i m p r e s s e d young F o x , b u t i t was t h e P u r i t a n ' s l i f e

s t y l e w i t h w h i c h he mo s t i d e n t i f i e d . T h u s , he came t o

a c c e p t a s t r i c t s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g , k e e p i n g a w a t c h f u l

e y e on h i s l a n g u a g e , b u s i n e s s a f f a i r s , s o c i a l l i f e , an d

a t t i t u d e s .

S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , Fox r e a l i z e d t h a t mos t

p r o f e s s o r s o f r e l i g i o n were more i n t e r e s t e d i n p o l i t i c s

a nd t h e o l o g y t h a n i n h o l i n e s s . D i s i l l u s i o n e d by t h e i r

l a c k o f s p i r i t u a l i t y he s e p a r a t e d h i m s e l f f r om f e l l o w

b e l i e v e r s and be gan a p i l g r i m a g e i n s e a r c h o f a s p i r i t u a l

r e l i g i o n . He t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h o u t E n g l a n d f rom p l a c e

t o p l a c e , b u t e v e r y w h e r e p e o p l e we re t h e same . Even

h i s r e l a t i v e s were i n s e n s i t i v e t o h i s s p i r i t u a l y e a r n i n g s .

F i n a l l y , Fox v i s i t e d f rom p r i e s t t o p r i e s t , and n o t one

o f t hem c o u l d p r o v i d e him any a s s i s t a n c e . H i s n e g a t i v s

e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h t h e s e m i n i s t e r s we re mo s t s i g n i f i c a n t

b e c a u s e t h e y r e s u l t e d i n h i s c o m p l e t e a l i e n a t i o n f rom

o r g a n i z e d r e l i g i o n . Fox was now a s o l i t a r y C h r i s t i a n

w i t h o n l y t h e o c c a s i o n a l c o m p a n i o n s h i p o f f e l l o w s e o k e r s .

He was f u l l o f d e s p a i r , w i t h q u e s t i o n s b u t no a n s w e r s ,

p r o b l e m s b u t no s o l u t i o n s .

I t was t h e n , i n p a r t c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e n o t i o n s

o f m y s t i c i s m wh ich he had e n c o u n t e r o d d u r i n g h i s t r a v e l s ,

t h a t Fox t h r o u g h a r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f mind came t o s e e

t h e t r u t h . One r e v e l a t i o n t o l d him t h a t many C h r i s t i a n s

we re s u f f e r i n g u n d e r a g r e a t i l l u s i o n i n t h i n k i n g t h a t

t h e y were C h r i s t i a n s , a n o t h e r d i d away w i t h t h e n e c e s s i t y

o f a u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n f o r m i n i s t e r s , and a t h i r d

s u g g e s t e d t o him a r e c o n c B p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e C h u r c h ,

T h e s e and o t h e r s u c h r e v e l a t i o n s u s u a l l y grew o u t o f

F o x ' s l i f e e x p e r i e n c e s and p e r s o n a l m e n t a l a g i t a t i o n .

They were f r e q u e n t l y m e d i a t e d e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n ­

d i r e c t l y by t h e B i b l e . In a l m o s t e v e r y c a s e F o x ' s

r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f mind was q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e n o r m a l

s t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s and o n l y r a r e l y d i d i t a p p r o a c h

e c s t a c y , T hes e i n s i g h t s t h e n came t o s e r v e two b a s i c

p u r p o s e s * 1 ) In many c a s e s F o x ' s e a r l i e s t r e l i g i o u s

b e h a v i o r s we re l a r g e l y s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e and u n p r i n c i p l e d

t h e r e v e l a t i o n s a l w a y s o c c u r r e d a f t e r t h e b e h a v i o r s were

p e r f o r m e d and s e r v e d a s t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n ,

2 ) The r e v e l a t i o n s a l s o became t h e b a s i c o f F o x ' s

m e s s a q e - - t h e p r i n c i p l e s by wh ic h he s o u g h t t o o r d e r t h e

b e h a v i o r s o f o t h e r s ,

Numbered among F o x ' s m os t i m p o r t a n t i n s i g h t s

was h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n a t h a t n o t o n l y h e , b u t a l l men p e r ­

s o n a l l y . had t o a c t u a l i z e r e v e a l e d t r u t h w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s

I t became h i s s t r o n g e s t c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e a n s w e r t o

282

man’ s s p i r i t u a l d i s t r e s s l a y i n a n o n - r a t i o n a l , i n t u i ­

t i o n a l e p i s t s m o l o g y , E v e r y man had t o know t r u t h n o t

o n l y r a t i o n a l l y b u t a l s o i n w a r d l y .

Thes e e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e n , p r e p a r e d Fox Fo r t h e

c h a r i s m a t i c m i n i s t r y wh ic h o c c u p i e d t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f

h i s l i f e . H i s d e p r e s s i n g e n c o u n t e r s w i t h p r o f e s s o r s

o f r e l i g i o n an d p r i e s t s l e f t Fox d i s i l l u s i o n e d and

e n c o u r a g e d him t o d i s a s s o c i a t e f r om a l l t r a d i t i o n a l and

o r g a n i z e d r e l i g i o n . He d e v e l o p e d a h i g h d e g r e e o f i n ­

d i v i d u a l i t y a nd e x c l u s i v e n e s s w h i c h h e l p e d him a v o i d

t h e myop ic m a l a d i e s o f n a r r o w m i n d e d n e s s and s t e r e o t y p e d

v a l u e s y s t e m s o f s i n g l e g r o u p p e r s o n s wh ic h f r e q u e n t l y

h a n d i c a p s t h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i t h mass

a u d i e n c s s , A l s o , F o x ' s t r a v e l s a s a s p i r i t u a l p i l g r i m

b r o u g h t him i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h a h o s t o f i d e a s , v a r i o u s

e n v i r o n m e n t s , an d s u n d r y p e o p l e w h i c h p e r m i t t e d him

t o have a m u l t i p l e p e r s p e c t i v e upon t h e w o r l d and

s y n t h e s i z e a m e s s a g e w h i ch was r o o t e d i n a b r o a d p o p u l a r

i d e o l o g i c a l b a s e , t o g e t h e r w i t h a p r a c t i c a l kn o wl e d ge

o f t h e p e o p l e t o whom i t was c o m m u n i c a t e d .

George F o x ’ s C o m m u n i c a t i v e B e h a v i o r

UJh'on Georoe Fox began t o m i n i s t e r , h i s r h e t o r i c a l

o b j e c t i v e was t o r e v i v e New T e s t a m e n t C h r i s t i a n i t y i n

t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H i s s t r a t e g y i n c l u d e d t u r n i n g

283

p e o p l e f r om d a r k n e s s t o t h e l i g h t , w h i ch i n c l u d e d t h e

d e n u n c i a t i o n o f a l l f o r m s o f l e g a l and t r a d i t i o n a l

a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t e n c o u r a g e d o b j e c t i v i t y a t t h e e x ­

p e n s e o f s u b j e c t i v i t y , and t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f thB

L i g h t w i t h i n . T h i s was F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l p l a t f o r m w h i c h

m o t i v a t e d a l l o f h i s r e l i g i o u s a n d s o c i a l b e h a v i o r s .

I t was t h e m a i n s p r i n g f o r h i s m e s s a g e - f o r m u l a f rom w h i ch

he p r e s c r i b e d a l l o f h i s o t h e r m e d i c i n e s and r e m e d i e s

f o r t h e s i t u a t i o n a l n e e d s o f h i s f o l l o w e r s . In o r d B r

f o r Fox t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s o b j e c t i v e , i t was n e c e s s a r y

f o r him t o p r o c l a i m d i r e c t l y wha t t h e i n w a r d L i g h t was

t o t h o s e who d i d n o t know, I t a l s o was n e c e s s a r y t o

d i s p e l t h e i l l u s i o n o f t h o s e who knew t h e L i g h t o b ­

j e c t i v e l y b u t n o t s u b j e c t i v e l y . L a s t l y , i t i n v o l v e d

t h e u s e o f e d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e t h r o u g h w h i c h s u b j e c t i v i t y

o n c e e x p e r i e n c e d m i g h t be e n h a n c e d .

D u r i n g t h e y e a r s o f F o x ' s i n c i p i e n t c h a r i s m a t i c

m i n i s t r y h i s a p p e a l was l i m i t e d and h i s v i c t o r i e s m o r a l

r a t h e r t h a n m a t e r i a l . H i s d i s c o u r s e s were o r a c u l a r i n

n a t u r e . D r a m a t i c a l l y , Fox would a p p e a r upon t h e s c e n e

o f an u r g e n t n e e d , d e l i v e r a t e r s e l y worded m e s s a g e ,

and t h e n u n o s t e n t a t i o u s l y d i s a p p e a r , To F o x , h i s m e s s a g e

was a d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d , " t h u s s a i t h t h e L o r d , " I t

was f r e e f rom human i n v e n t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s and no n d e d

no a r g u m e n t s t o s u p p o r t i t s v e r a c i t y . I t was an

o m n i s c i e n t - o m n i p o t e n t f o r m u l a o r p r e s c r i p t i o n t h a t , i f

p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d an d f a i t h f u l l y f o l l o w e d , would

r e m e d y t h e l i s t e n e r ' s c o n d i t i o n , f r o m t h e r e c e i v e r ' s

v a n t a g e p o i n t , F o x ' s r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r was p e r c e i v e d

a s e n i g m a t i c , p a r a d o x i c a l an d e v e n a p o c a l y p t i c a l . When

Fox a c t u a l l y b e g a n t o p r e a c h " s e r m o n s , " h i s m e s s a g e s

a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r o r a c u l a r n a t u r e , b u t t h e

e s s e n t i a l f o r m u l a - t h e m e was u s u a l l y e x p a n d e d and d e ­

v e l o p e d i n an i m p r o m p t u s t r e a m - o f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s m a n n e r .

T h o s e who r e s p o n d e d f a v o r a b l y t o h i s m i n i s t r y ,

Fox r e f e r r e d t o a s " c o n v i n c e d , " By t h i s he mean t t h a t

a p e r s o n h a d o b j e c t i v e l y and s u b j e c t i v e l y u n d e r s t o o d

h i s m e s s a g e , At f i r s t Fox made no d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

c o n v i n c e m e n t an d p e r s u a s i o n ( b e h a v i o r c o r r e s p o n d e n t

t o e s s e n t i a l k n o w l e d g e ) . The o r d e a l o f p u b l i c l y

p r o f e s s i n g t o be a Q u a k e r and t h e s u b s e q u e n t s c o r n

a nd p e r s e c u t i o n we re s u f f i c i e n t d e t e r r e n t t o h a l f ­

h e a r t e d f o l l o w e r s . How eve r , a s t h e movement g a i n e d i n

p o p u l a r i t y and r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , Fox f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y

t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a " c o n v i n c e d e s t a t e " and a

" c o n v e r t e d e s t a t e , "

Now, Fox d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t i t was t h e p r e a c h e ]

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o c o n v i n c e men o f t h e t r u t h . R a t h e r ,

t h s p r e a c h e r ’ s f u n c t i o n was t o a c t a s a m i d w i f e i n

h e l p i n g t h e l i s t e n e r s e e t h e L i g h t ( t r u t h ) w i t h i n

h i m s e l f a n d t h e r e b y be c o n v i n c e d o r e n l i g h t e n e d by t h e

L i g h t i t s e l f . T h i s t h e p r e a c h e r b r o u g h t a b o u t by

" s p e a k i n g t o t h a t o f God w i t h i n e v e r y man" and " s p e a k i n g

t o c o n d i t i o n s . " In F o x ' s m i n d , e v e r y one p o s s e s s e d

t h e L i g h t o r s o m e t h i n g o f God w i t h i n h im. I t was t o

t h i s t h a t t h e m e s s a g e was a d d r e s s e d , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e

i n t e l l e c t , e m o t i o n s , o r w i l l p e r s e . I f t h e p r e a c h e r ' s

wo rd s e i t h e r a s g e n e r a l e x h o r t a t i o n s o r s p e c i f i c d e ­

n u n c i a t i o n s c o n v i n c e d an i n d i v i d u a l , t h e n t h e L i g h t

w i t h i n t h e m i n i s t e r had had a d i v i n e - m o r a l s u a s i v e n e s s

t h r o u g h t h e L i g h t w i t h i n t h e l i s t e n e r . S i n c e t h i s

c o n c e p t o f s p e a k i n g t o t h e L i g h t was p o s t u l a t e d by F o x ,

he t h o u g h t i t f r e e d him f rom c o n v e n t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l

p r a c t i c e s and s t a n d a r d s o f e l o q u e n c e , and p e r m i t t e d him

t o e s t a b l i s h h i s own b e h a v i o r s f o r b o t h a v e r b a l and

n o n - v e r b a l r h e t o r i c .

Fox l i v e d i n an e r a o f t h e B i b l e , and he f o u n d

i t r h e t o r i c a l l y a d v a n t a g e o u s t o e mp lo y t h e S c r i p t u r e s

w h en ev e r p o s s i b l e . F o x ' s r e v e l a t o r y e p i s t e m o l o g y f r e e d

him f rom t h e P u r i t a n ' s n e e d o f s e a r c h i n g f o r c h a p t e r

and v e r s e i n o r d e r t o s u b s t a n t i a t e e v e r y c l a i m he made,

T h e r e f o r e , h i s p r e a c h i n g was n o t e x p o s i t o r y n o r t e x t u a l j

286

t h a t i s t o s a y , Fox , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , d i d n o t " p r e a c h

t h e B i b l e . " Fox p r e a c h e d h i s own r e v e l a t i o n s , t h a t i s ,

he p r o c l a i m e d w ha t had b e e n p e r s o n a l l y and i m m e d i a t e l y

r e v e a l e d t o him by God, How eve r , s i n c e Fox F i r m l y

b e l i e v e d t h a t h i s r e v e l a t i o n s were c o n s i s t e n t and even

i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e B i b l i c a l w r i t e r s ' r e v e l a t i o n s , he

made a p r o F u s e u s e oF S c r i p t u r a l t e x t s and p h r a s e o l o g y

i n e x p r e s s i n g h i s awn i n s i g h t s .

A l t h o u g h Fox was g a i n i n g r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l , h i s

a u t h o r i t y a s a l e a d e r was s t i l l l i m i t e d . I t was

n e c e s s a r y Fo r him t o w a i t u n t i l h i s c h a r i s m a t i c image

e q u a l e d and ove n s u p e r s e d e d h i s n a t u r a l a b i l i t i e s a s a

c o m m u n i c a t o r b e F o r e h i s v i s i o n oF a s p i r i t u a l movement

c o u l d ha v e any momentum. S l o w l y a t F i r s t , b u t t h e n

w i t h a m a z i n g r a p i d i t y , p e o p l e b e g a n t o have hope i n

Fox , t h a t he p o s s e s s e d t h i s m a g i c a l power w h i c h c o u l d

s a t i s F y t h e i r s p i r i t u a l h u n g e r s . A d e a t h - b a d p r o p h e c y ,

a p s y c h i c a l t r a n c e - l i k e e x p e r i e n c e , a t e l e p a t h i c

i n s i g h t , a d i s c e r n i n o s p i r i t , an e x t r a o r d i n a r y

k n o w l e d g e a b i l i t y o f s e c r e t t h i n g s , v i s i o n s beyond t h e

v a l e o f t i m e , e x c e p t i o n a l F o r t u n e , p o w e r F u l p i e r c i n g

e y e s , and m i r a c u l o u s c u r e s oF p h y s i c a l and m e n t a l

d i s e a s e s drew c e r t a i n p e o p l e t o t h e s i d e o f Fox l i k e

p i e c e s o f i r o n t o a m a g n e t . They o b s e r v e d , t h e y

287

l i s t e n e d , t h e n t h e y p r o c l a i m e d h i s f am e , a nd e v e n t u a l l y

f o l l o w e d him w i t h a d i v i n e d e v o t i o n .

The C h a r i s m a t i c m i n i s t r y

The t r a n s i t i o n o f p r e - c h a r i s m a t i c t o c h a r i s m a t i c

m i n i s t r y was c o m p l e t e i n F o x ' s own mind when he r e c e i v e d

h i s d i v i n e c a l l t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r r e s i s t i b l e c o m p u l s i o n

t o p r o c l a i m h i s m es sa ge t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d and s e e k

t o a l t e r r e a l i t y . F o x ' s s e l e c t i o n a s a l e a d e r c o n ­

t r a d i c t e d t h e s t e r e o t y p e d r a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r o f l e a d e r ­

s h i p d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n an o r d e r e d s o c i e t y . He was n o t

p r e p a r e d f o r l e a d e r s h i p by e i t h e r e d u c a t i o n o r o r d i n a t i o n .

He was n o t v o t e d i n t o o f f i c e n o r l e g a l l y a p p o i n t e d .

As a God p r o c l a i m e d l e a d e r , he wa3 o u t s i d e , a b o v e , and

be yo nd t h e p a l e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , w h ic h had no

power t o r emove o r im pe ac h h im. B e c a u s e he r e p r e s e n t e d

an a n t a g o n i s t i c power s t r u c t u r e , he was a n a t u r a l t h r e a t

t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l and l e g a l a u t h o r i t i e s , when he

c h a l l e n g e d them t o a c o n f r o n t a t i o n o v e r t h e r i g h t t o

r u l e t h e m a s s e s . Fox r e a l i z e d t h a t he was an i n d i v i d u a l

e x t r a o r d i n a r i u s , b u t h i s r e v e l a t i o n s were s t i l l l a r g e l y

p r i v a t e . I f he was t o f a t h e r a movemen t , he wou ld ha v e

t o i n c r e a s e h i s v i s i b i l i t y and hope t o have h i s b e ­

h a v i o r s c h a r i s m a t i c a l l y p e r c e i v e d .

288

Fox b e l i e v e d i n t h e power o f e v e r y s i n g l e c o n v e r t

t o F u r t h e r h i s c a u s e . T h e r e f o r e , he a l w a y s t o o k t i m e t o

c o n v e r s e w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s , e s p e c i a l l y when l a r g e r

a u d i e n c e s were n o t a v a i l a b l e . I t a p p e a r e d t h a t Fox had

s u c h en o rm ou s c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e power and t h e r a p e u t i c

v a l u e o f h i s m e s s a g e t h a t he p u r p o s e l y s o u g h t o u t t h e

mos t d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n s . Whenever an e s p e c i a l l y

" h a r d " p e r s o n was h e l p e d o r a " d i s t r a c t e d " p e r s o n d e ­

l i v e r e d , F o x ’ s c h a r i s m a t i c a p p e a l s k y r o c k e t e d . He

seemed a b l e , by an a c t o f c o n t a g i o n , t o co m m u n i ca t e

h i s c o n f i d e n c e t o t h o s e who n e e d e d a f a i t h t o b e l i e v e

i n . H i s image a s a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r i n f l u e n c e d h i s

r h e t o r i c , and a l s o u n d e r g i r d e d i t . I t gave h i s m es sa ge

a d i v i n e s a n c t i o n , made l o g i c a l " p r o o f " f o r t h e t r u e

b e l i e v e r l e s s n e c e s s a r y , and was an e f f e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n -

g e t t i n g d e v i c e .

S om e t i m es Fox made u s e o f n o n - v e r b a l r h e t o r i c

i n o r d e r t o g e t a s p e c i a l m e s s a g e a c r o s s t o h i s a u d i e n c e .

In t h e s e i n s t a n c e s he t r i e d t o wake up t h e i n d i f f e r e n t

by c r e a t i n g h i g h l y a mb ig uou s s i t u a t i o n s t h r o u g h h i s

" f r e a k i s h " b e h a v i o r , i n t h e hope o f p r e c i p i t a t i n g an

e x i s t e n t i a l c r i s i s i n t h e member s o f h i s a u d i e n c e . By

and l a r g e , h o w e v e r , Fox d i d n o t f e e l t h a t su c h i n d i r e c t

c o m m u n i c a t i o n wa3 a l w a y s n e c e s s a r y , s i n c e a l t h o u g h

289

many l a b o r e d u n d e r t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e y were C h r i s t i a n s ,

v e r y few o f t h o s e j o i n e d F o x ' s movement o f t r u e b e l i e v e r s

w i t h o u t g e n u i n e l y e x p e r i e n c i n g i n w a r d n e s s , b e c a u s e o f

t h e t r e m e n d o u s c o s t i n t e r m s o f p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l

a b u s e wh ich one s u f f e r e d by b e i n g c a l l e d a Q u a k e r .

Fox much more p r e f e r r e d a s i m p l e , d i r e c t p r o c l a m a ­

t i o n o f h i s b e l i e f s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s t e e p l e h o u s e s whBre

he had a r e a d y - m a d e a u d i e n c e . On t h e s e o c c a s i o n s he

em p lo y ed a c h a l l e n g e - c o n f u s i o n t a c t i c . A f t e r t h e p r i e s t

had f i n i s h e d h i s s e r m o n , Fox u s u a l l y s t o o d upon t h e pew

i n wh i ch he had been s i t t i n g and a d d r e s s e d t h e c ro w d ,

At t h e s e t i m e s t h e b a s i c t heme o f t h e m es sa g e was

u s u a l l y t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e L i g h t w i t h i t s c o n s e q u e n t

i m p l i c a t i o n s . The d e c l a r a t i o n o f h i s p r i n c i p l e s was

e s s e n t i a l i n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s f o r t h e a d v a n c e m e n t

o f h i s movement b e c a u s e ho was s p e a k i n g t o an a u d i e n c e

wh ich had a v e r y l i m i t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e new o r d e r

he was e n d e a v o r i n g t o i n a u g u r a t e . He, t h e r e f o r e , had

t o s e t f o r t h t h e o b j e c t i v e c o n t e n t , Ln o r d e r t o r a i s e

t h e f l a g a r o u n d which f o l l o w e r s c o u l d r a l l y .

Fox a l s o u se d t h e s e o c c a s i o n s t o d e n o u n c e t h e

p r i e s t s and t h e e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s .

Hi s de m a n d in g and i n s u l t i n g r h e t o r i c was d e s i g n e d t o

c r e a t e , i d e n t i f y , and e m b a r r a s s t h e o p p o s i t i o n , and

290

a l s o t o b o l s t e r h i s own c h a r i s m a t i c im a g e . H i s d i r e c t

p r o c l a m a t i o n s a nd d e n u n c i a t i o n s u s u a l l y r e s u l t e d i n

a number o f c o n v i n c e m e n t s , b u t a l s o i n v i o l e n t b r u t a l

o p p o s i t i o n and e v e n i m p r i s o n m e n t .

By f a r t h e m os t s u c c e s s f u l a p p r o a c h t h a t Fax em­

p l o y e d f o r s t i m u l a t i n g h i s m o v e m e n t ' s g r o w t h was t h e

p r a c t i c e o f l o c a t i n g s e p a r a t i s t g r o u p s , e d i f y i n g l y

d i s c o u r s i n g w i t h t hem a b o u t h i s r e v e l a t i o n s , and t h e n

f r e q u e n t l y g a t h e r i n g and u n i t i n g t h o s e c o n v i n c e d i n t o

s m a l l c e l l g r o u p s For f e l l o w s h i p a nd w o r s h i p . P a r t i c u ­

l a r l y i n n o r t h e r n E n g l a n d among t h e S e e k e r s , Fox fo un d

an a u d i e n c e p r e p a r e d f o r h i s m i n i s t r y , They r e s p o n d e d

en masse t o F o x ' s m e s s a g e , h u n d r e d s a nd e v e n t u a l l y

t h o u s a n d s o f t hem. He e n c o u r a g e d them t o g a t h e r

t o g e t h e r i n s i l e n t m e e t i n g s . T h e r e was v o c a l m i n i s t r y

i n t h e s e m e e t i n g s b u t i t was a l w a y s b a r n o u t o f s i l e n c e .

The t h e o r y was t h a t a s p e o p l e met t o g e t h e r s i l e n t l y

m e d i t a t i n g , i g n o r i n g t h e i r own t h o u g h t s and m a c h i n a t i o n s ,

t h e y would be r e n d e r e d i n a f r am e o f mind t h a t was

e s p e c i a l l y r e c e p t i v e , and n a n - c r i t i c a l t o any wo rd s

t h a t m i g h t be s p o k e n . A l l member s o f t h e g r o u p were

a l s o e x p e c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e by t h e i r " f e e l i n g " w h e t h e r

t h e y were t o g i v e an u n p r e m e d i t a t e d a d d r e s s . From

r e p o r t s i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s e s i l e n t m o o t i n g s

291

e x e r c i s e d a s t r a n g e p e r s u a s i v e power and u n u s u a l

c o n t a g i o u s e f f e c t upon t h o s e who a t t e n d e d , e v e n upon

n o n - b e l i e v e r s , f i n a l l y » f rom o u t o f t h e s e m e e t i n g s

d e v e l o p e d f o x ' s c h a r i s m a t i c l i e u t e n a n t s , who t o g e t h e r

w i t h t h e i r l B a d e r , f u n c t i o n e d a s i n d e f a t i g a b l e i t i n e r a n t

p r e a c h e r s and p r o l i f i c j o u r n a l i s t s , and t h e r e b y s p r e a d

t h e m e s s a g e o f Q ua k e r i sm f a r an d w i d e ,

The R o u t i n i z a t i o n o f C h a r i s m a

f rom t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , t h e Qpake r movement was

an o r g a n i s m n o t an o r g a n i z a t i o n . The u n i t y w h i c h

e x i s t e d among t h e members o f a s i l e n t m e e t i n g was

l a r g e l y t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i r common r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s

w h i ch bon de d t hem t o g e t h e r , an d t h e i r n e e d t o be m u t u a l l y

e d i f i e d by one a n o t h e r ' s d i s c o u r s e s . O r g a n i z a t i o n be ­

t w e e n t h e n u m er o u s s i l e n t m e e t i n g s was e v e n r a r e r . Any

i n t e r c o u r s e o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h d i d e x i s t among

g r o u p s i n d i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n s was a t f i r s t

a t t r i b u t a b l e s o l e l y t o t h e p e r s o n a l c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ­

s h i p o f f o x o r t h e r a l l y i n g p o i n t wh ich h i s r h e t o r i c

p r o v i d e d a s ho t r a v e l l e d f rom p l a c e t o p l a c e . As t h e

movement grew and t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l i e u t e n a n t s became

a c t i v e , t h e y a l s o a s s i s t e d f o x i n p r o m o t i n g a " f e e l i n g "

o f u n i t y among t h e v a r i o u s s i l e n t m e e t i n g s by f u n c t i o n i n g

i n p a r t a s news r e p o r t e r s o f Q u a k e r i s m ' s g r o w t h

t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n .

T h i s F r e e s p o n t a n e o u s F e l l o w s h i p oF b e l i e v e r s

u n i t e d t h r o u g h t h e i r common n e e d s and commi tment t o

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p oF Fox and h i s l i e u t e n a n t s

was p r o b a b l y t h e way Fox wo u ld have w a n t e d t h e movement

t o c o n t i n u e , b u t o t h e r F o r c e s were a t work w h i ch wou ld

make t h i s i m p o s s i b l e . I t s h o r t l y became a p p a r e n t t o

Fox t h a t w h i l e c h a r i s m a was an e m i n e n t l y s u c c e s s F u l

o r i g i n a t i n g p r o c e s s , i t c o n t a i n e d t h e F a t a l F l aw oF

i n s t a b i l i t y , T h e r e F o r e , i F t h e movement was t o be more

t h a n a t r a n s i t o r y phe nomenon , a mare s t a b l e Form oF

o r g a n i z a t i o n was n e e d e d .

Almost From t h e f i r s t , s c h i s m s a p p e a r e d i n t h e

movemen t , c h a l l e n g e s t o F o x ’ s c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y .

Howeve r , when t e s t e d , Fox was a l w a y s a b l e t o “ p r o v e "

h i m s e l F s u p e r i o r t o a l l c o n t e n d e r s . B u t , a s a r e s u l t oF

t h e s e s k i r m i s h e s , Fox e s t a b l i s h e d n o n - c h a r i s m a t i c

o v e r s e e r s on t h e l o c a l l e v e l t o e n c o u r a g e i n t e r g r o u p

r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a c t a s l e g a l a r b i t r a t o r s i n d i s p u t e s

among members oF t h e s i l e n t m e r i t i n g , and mos t i m p o r t a n t l y

t o p o l i c e t h e f a n a t i c s . T h i s was F o x ' s F i r s t co mmi tmen t

t o e x t r a - c h a r i s m a t i c means t o m a i n t a i n t h e movement .

I t d i d n o t p r o v e s u f f i c i e n t . An i n f l u e n t i a l Q u a k e r ,

293

James N a y l e r , soon t h e r e a f t e r h ad a F o l l o w i n g g a t h e r

a b o u t h i m s e l f , and t h e Q u a k e r s were a g a i n t h r e a t e n e d

w i t h d i v i s i o n . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e c o n f l i c t r e s o l v e d i t s e l f

w i t h F o x ' s c h a r i s m a v i n d i c a t e d . Howeve r , Fox became

e v e n more s u s p i c i o u s oF u n c h e c k e d i n d i v i d u a l i s m and he

t e n d e d t o w a r d i n c r e a s e d c o n t r o l s . He b eg an by t r a v e l l i n g

t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n e x p l a i n i n g a n d c l a r i f y i n g t h e

m e s s a g e he had e a r l i e r p r o c l a i m e d . The e m p h a s i s was

t o w a r d c o n s e r v a t i s m . From h e n c e f o r t h , t h e t e m p t a t i o n

wou ld be t o m e a s u r e i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e movement l e s s

i n t e r m s o f e m o t i o n a l d e v o t i o n t o t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r ,

and more i n t e r m s o f a g r e e m e n t w i t h a s t a t e m e n t o f f a i t h .

The n o n - c h a r i s m a t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e movement became

more a p p a r e n t a s t h e c h u r c h - a f f a i r s m e e t i n g s eme rg ed

a s d i s t i n c t f r om t h e m e e t i n g s Fo r w o r s h i p .

In t h e f o l l o w i . n g d e c a d e s t h e r e were s t i l l o t h e r

a t t e m p t s t o s u p p l a n t t h e c h a r i s m a o f F ox , and p a r t i c u ­

l a r l y a f t e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n , t h e c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p

was p r e v e n t e d f rom F u n c t i o n i n g p r o p e r l y due t o p e r s e c u ­

t i o n s and i m p r i s o n m e n t s . F o x , who was more a n x i o u s t o

c o n s e r v e t h e g a i n s a c h i e v e d t h a n t o b o l s t e r h i s own

c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y , c o n t i n u a l l y o p t e d i n f a v o r o f

o r g a n i z e d c o n t r o l s w h i c h c o u l d s u p p l e m e n t h i s c h a r i s m a

a nd e v e n t u a l l y r e p l a c e i t . The r e s u l t was t h a t t h e

294

g u i d a n c e o f t h e movement s h i f t e d o u t o f t h e h a n d s o f

t h e c h a r i s m a t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d p e o p l e a n d p a s s e d i n t o t h e

h a n d s o f t h e s t a t e s m e n o f Q u a k e r i s m . S l o w l y b u t

d i s c e r n i b l y , c h a r i s m a was r o u t i n i z e d a nd t h e c h a r i s ­

m a t i c Qu a ke r movement was r a t i o n a l i z e d i n t o t h e i n s t i ­

t u t i o n a l S o c i e t y o f F r i e n d s .

I m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y

The u l t i m a t e v a l u e o f a n y r e s e a r c h r e s t s n o t o n l y

i n i t s i n t e r e s t t o t h e r e s e a r c h e r , b u t i n t h e c o n t r i b u ­

t i o n w h i c h i t makes t o t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f k n o w l e d g e .

T h i s s t u d y d i d n o t p r e t e n d t o f u r t h e r t h e h i s t o r i a n s '

k n o wl e d o o o f Qu a k e r i s m o r e v e n o f George Fox. The

a u t h o r d o e s n o t b e l i e v e t h a t he h a s u n e a r t h e d a n y new

h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e , The s o u r c e s wh i c h he c o n s u l t e d ,

o t h e r s had e x a m i n e d i n t h e p a s t . Howeve r , i t i s b e ­

l i e v e d t h a t by v i e w i n g George F o x , t h e f o u n d e r o f

Q u a k e r i s m , i n t e r m s o f a c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r , a

f r e s h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and f u r t h e r u n d e r s t a n d i . n o o f an

h i s t o r i c a l f i g u r e a n d movement h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d ,

T h i s s t u d y may a l s o h a v e v a l u e t o s o c i o l o g i s t s

a n d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s who b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s more

t h a n one way t o a t t a c k t h e p r o b l e m o f c h a r i s m a . I t i s

a c a s e s t u d y o f a man whom t h e f a t h e r o f c h a r i s m a

r e s e a r c h , Wax Weber , s i n g l e d o u t a s c h a r i s m a t i c . I t

295

p r e s e n t s a g r e a t d e a l o f d a t a , a l b e i t n o t e m p i r i c a l ,

wh i c h f o r t h o mo s t p a r t s u b s t a n t i a t e s t h e g e n e r a l

s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t c h a r i s m a . I t e s p e c i a l l y

p r o v i d e s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f t h o s i t u a t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a n t s f o r t h e a u d i e n c e s '

r e s p o n s e t o c h a r i s m a . I t a l s o b r i n g s t o l i g h t t h e i m­

p o r t a n c e o f t h e " r e v e l a t o r y s t a t e o f mi nd" whi ch o t h e r

r e s e a r c h e r s i n c h a r i s m a ha ve t e n d e d t o i g n o r e .

I n t h e F i n a l a n a l y s i s , h o w e v e r , t h i s s t u d y s h o u l d

have i t s g r e a t e s t v a l u e t o t h o s e s c h o l a r s i n t e r e s t e d i n

r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y . An e n t i r e c h a p t e r was d e v o t e d t o

t h e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f d e v e l o p i n g a h e u r i s t i c p a r a d i g m

f o r c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n , In a l a r g e r s e n s e t h i s

e n t i r e d i s s e r t a t i o n h a s i n v o l v e d t h e t e s t i n g o f t h e

p r o p o s e d m o d e l . I t i s t h e a u t h o r ' s f r a n k o p i n i o n , t h a t

t h e s y n t h e s i z e d p a r a d i g m r e p r e s e n t s t h e mo s t c r e a t i v e

c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s t u d y , f o r w i t h o u t i t t h e r e m a i n d e r

o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n c o u l d n o t h a v e heen c o m p l e t e d , and

f rom i t and i t s f u r t h e r e x p l i c a t i o n , i l l u s t r a t i o n , and

a m p l i f i c a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i v e

b e h a v i o r s o f George F o x , a r o s e a g r e a t e r c o n c e p t u a l

a w a r e n e s s o f t h e c h a r i s m a t i c , s u b j e c t i v e , and n o n -

d i s c u r s i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e r h e t o r i c a l p r o c e s s .

The p a r a d i g m i s a l s o o f v a l u e b e c a u s e i t i s

e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o h i s t o r i c a l and c o n t e m p o r a r y c a s e s .

Wi t h r e g a r d t o t h e l a t t e r i t h a s t h e power o f p r e ­

d i c t a b i l i t y . F a r i n s t a n c e , a t t h e t i m e o f t h i s d i s ­

s e r t a t i o n ^ w r i t i n g , t h e n a t i o n a l news me d i a a r e c a r r y ­

i n g r e p o r t s o f a " J e s u s R e v o l u t i o n . " Suc h a phenomenon

s h o u l d n o t s u r p r i s e u s . F o r y e a r s we have h e a r d a b o u t

c e r t a i n A m e r i c a n ’ s g r o wi n g d i s c o n t e n t w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d

d e n o m i n a t i o n a l r e l i g i o n . I n d i v i d u a l s i n a u g m e n t i n g

n u mb e r s a r e a b s e n t i n g t h e m s e l v e s From t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

w o r s h i p s e r v i c e s o f t h e h i s t o r i c c h u r c h e s . Wh i l e some

o f t h e d i s i n c l i n a t i o n w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y may ha v e r e ­

s u l t e d From t h e s p r e a d oF s e c u l a r i s m , i t i s a l s o t r u e

t h a t many have d i s a s s o c i a t e d t h e m s e l v e s From o r g a n i z e d

r e l i g i o n b e c a u s e i t no l o n g e r s a t i s f i e s t h e i r n e e d s .

S e e k e r s a f t e r a more s p i r i t u a l , e x p e r i e n t i a l l y o r i e n t e d

r e l i g i o n a r e a p p e a r i n g . D u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e c o t t a g e

p r a y e r m e e t i n g s and i n d e p e n d e n t n o n - d e n o m i n a t i o n a l

r e l i g i o u s g a t h e r i n g s i n t h e home h a v e g e o m e t r i c a l l y

i n c r e a s e d , The mo s t c u r r e n t i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e m o u n t i n g

d i s c o n t e n t w i t h r i t u a l i s t i c a nd n o n - r e a l i s t i c w o r s h i p i s

t h e " J e s u s P e o p l e . " A c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o d e l , t h e c o n ­

d i t i o n s a r e c a l l i n g f o r a c h a r i s m a t i c p r o p h e t . Wh i l e i t

i s p o s s i b l e t h a t no man w i l l h e a r t h e c a l l , i t i s morn

l i k e l y t h a t i n t h e " f u l n e s s o f t i m e " a m e s s i a n i c a l l y

p e r c e i v e d l e a d e r w i l l m a n i f e s t h i m s e l f . He w i l l s t a n d

o u t s i d e t h e c h u r c h a n d c h a l l e n g e t h e c l e r g y t o come

i n t o t h e s t r e e t s a nd c o n t e n d For t h e r i g h t t o l e a d t h e

m a s s e s , IF he s u c c e s s F u l l y a r t i c u l a t e s t h e p a p u l a r

F e l t n e e d , i n t e n s i F i e s t h e s i t u a t i o n a l n e e d , g a i n s

v i s i b i l i t y , a r o u s e s o p p o s i t i o n , and p r o v e s h i s b h a r i s m a

he w i l l e me r ge a s t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ' s George Fox

and g r e a t p a r a l l e l s i n t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r s s h a l l

be n o t e d .

E v a l u a t i o n s

I n s o F a r a s t h i s s t u d y p r o p o s e d a p a r a d i g m For

c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i t s u g o e s t e d c r i t e r i a w h i c h

s e r v e d a s t h e c r i t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e

r h e t o r i c a l b e h a v i o r s oF George Fox , 3ome oF t h e mo s t

n o t e w o r t h y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h i s r e g a r d may t h e r e F o r e

be s p e c i F i e d , A l s o , s i n c e t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n a t t e m p t e d

t o t e s t t h e p r e l i m i n a r y c h a r i s m a t i c mode l by c o m p a r i n g

i t w i t h t h e a c t u a l r h e t o r i c oF F o x , a Few oF t h e mo s t

s i g n i f i c a n t r e F l e c t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h i s m a t t e r s h a l l be

n o t e d . C h a r i s m a a s p o p u l a r l y c o n c e i v e d i s a l m o s t

t o t a l l y t h o u g h t o f i n t e r m s o f a p e r s o n ’ s char m o r magi.

Howeve r , i t was h e r o i n h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t s i t u a t i o n a l

F a c t o r s a r e p o w e r f u l d e t e r m i n a n t s oF t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

and r h e t o r i c a l r e s p o n s e . They mu s t t h e r e f o r e be t a k e n

i n t o a c c o u n t . The e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s

29B

s u r r o u n d i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f Fox c l e a r l y s u b s t a n t i a t e d

t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e p a r a d i g m and i t p r o v e d so v i t a l a n d

e n l i g h t e n i n g t h a t a more c o m p l e t e s e t o f g u i d e l i n e s f o r

i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e l e v a n t

s t r e s s - p r o d u c i n g phenomena a nd t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e c h a r i s ­

m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r ' s r h e t o r i c mu s t be more f u l l y d e ­

t a i l e d i n F u t u r e m o d e l s .

Fox a s a c o m m u n i c a t o r s u c c e e d e d i n i d e n t i f y i n g

and a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e p o p u l a r F e l t n e e d , b u t he n e g l e c t e d

t o h e i g h t e n t h r o u g h r h e t o r i c h i s a u d i e n c e s ' a w a r e n e s s

o f t h e i r p s y c h o - s o c i o l o g i c a l n e e d s , A l t h o u g h h i s

d e n u n c i a t o r y s p e e c h e s a n d l e t t e r s d e f i n e d t h e s i t u a t i o n ,

t h e y d i d n o t a p p r e c i a b l y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h b s i t u a t i o n a l

c r i s i s . Fox c o n s e q u e n t l y o v e r l o o k e d h i s o p p o r t u n i t y

t o a s s i s t t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n c r e a t i n g a n e e d f o r h i s

m e s s a g e . F u r t h e r , Fox d i d n o t c o n s c i o u s l y a t t e m p t t o

a b s o l v e h i s p o t e n t i a l f o l l o w e r s From t h e i r p e r s o n a l

f r u s t r a t i o n by b l a m i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , By f a i l i n g

t o e mp l o y t h i s c a t h a r t i c r h e t o r i c , Fox on t h o one ha nd

m i s s e d an a d d i t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y t o f o c u s and c h a n n e l

h i s l i s t e n e r s ' g r i e v a n c e s a g a i n s t h i s o p p o s i t i o n , On

t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h i s a l s o r e s u l t e d i n t h o n e g l o c t o f an

i m p o r t a n t means f o r l e g i t i m i z i n g t h o r o l e and p u r p o s e

o f t h e movement .

2 9 9

The r h e t o r i c o f p r o c l a m a t i o n o c c u p i e d an e ven

g r e a t e r p l a c B i n c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a n was

a n t i c i p a t e d . A l t h o u g h t h e a c t u a l p r a c t i c e oF Fox c l o s e l y

a p p r o x i m a t e d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s , i t uias d i s ­

c o v e r e d t h a t he u s e d a d d i t i o n a l Forms oF d i r e c t d i s ­

c o u r s e , s u c h a s m y t h i F i c a t i o n , a n d d e n u n c i a t i o n , ThesB

n e e d t o be i n c l u d e d i n t h e mode l b e c a u s e t h e Fo r me r i s

a v i t a l t e c h n i q u e i n s a n c t i o n i n g t h e b e l i e F s , a c t i o n s ,

a n d g o a l s oF t h e movemen t , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r i s a t a c t i c

t h a t may e n h a n c e t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r ’ s c h a r i s m a .

I n d i r e c t d i s c o u r s e , a t l e a s t a s a c o n s c i o u s

t a c t i c , was a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e d by Fox , T h i s may

be a c c o u n t e d For by t h e F a c t t h a t p e r s e c u t i o n p a r a l l e l s

t h e F u n c t i o n oF i n d i r e c t i o n , i . e . , t h e p h y s i c a l c o s t

oF b e i n g a Qua ke r d u r i n g t h e e a r l y d a y s oF t h e movement

d i s c o u r a g e d i n s i n c e r n b e l i e v e r s From r a l l y i n g a r o u n d

Fox , Howeve r , s i n c e Fox d i d n o t a t t i m e s e mp l o y i n ­

d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n , two n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s

o c c u r r e d , F i r s t , he was F r e q u e n t l y i g n o r e d a nd l a b e l l e d

an e n t h u s i a s t o r F a n a t i c by p e o p l e who p e r c e i v e d t h e m ­

s e l v e s a s s i n c e r e b u t s o n s i b l e C h r i s t i a n s . IF Fox

had made g r e a t e r u s e oF i n d i r e c t i o n , he may h a v e s u c ­

c e e d e d i n p r e c i p i t a t i n g an e x i s t e n t i a l c r i s i s i n some

o f t h o s e p e o p l e . S e c o n d , s i n c e Fox d i d n o t e n d e a v o r

300

t o s o l v e r h e t o r i c a l l y t h e d i l emma o f how t o make

C h r i s t i a n s o u t o f p e o p l e who a l r e a d y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y

wer e C h r i s t i a n s , Qu a k e r i s m t o w a r d t h e c l o s e o f t h e

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y e x p e r i e n c e d an i n f l u x o f c o n v i n c e d

b u t u n c o n v e r t e d b e l i e v e r s . The l e a d e r s h i p w i t h o u t a n y

g u i d e l i n e s f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t i n a i d i n g C h r i s t i a n s by

i l l u s i o n o n l y .

E d i f y i n g d i s c o u r s e was, c r u c i a l t o t h e c h a r i s ­

m a t i c movement . Ho we v e r , Fox was n o t a l i t e r a r y m a s t e r

o f e d i f i c a t i o n . He d i r e c t l y i n f o r m e d men t h a t t h e y

m u s t be s u b j e c t i v e , b u t h i s s e r m o n s and e p i s t l e s by

t h e m s e l v e s d i d n o t r e a d i l y s t i m u l a t e p a s s i o n a t e i n ­

w a r d n e s s o f f a i t h . He d i d n o t s u c c e e d i n p o r t r a y i n g

t h e i n w a r d p r o c e s s o f s t r i v i n g t o w a r d t h e i d e a l i t y , He

was u s u a l l y s o p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e wh a t o f h i s r e v e l a ­

t i o n t h a t he d e v o t e d l i t t l e e n e r g y t o t h e how o f

a p p r o p r i a t i o n . I t i s somewha t a n a l o g o u s t o t e l l i n g a

man t h a t he mu s t l o v e h i s n e i g h b o r , h u t s t o p p i n g s h o r t

o f r h e t o r i c a l l y i n s p i r i n g t h a t l o v e . Y e t , i t mu s t be

o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e e a r l y Qu a k e r s we r e . i n t e n s e l y s u b ­

j e c t i v e and s p i r i t u a l . Even t h o u g h much o f h i s r h e t o r i c

was i n f o r m a t i o n o r i e n t e d , when he a d d r e s s e d an a u d i e n c e

i t was n o t i n t h e ma n n e r o f a d i s p a s s i o n a t e l e c t u r e r ,

b u t a l i t o r a l o u t p o u r i n g o f h i s s p i r i t - l i f e . In d o i n g

301

t h i s ho made h i s own s u b j e c t i v i t y v i s i b l e and t h e r e b y

a f f o r d e d h i s l i s t e n e r s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f c o n t e m p o r a n e ­

o u s l y p a r t a k i n g o f h i s i n n e r l i f e a n d hencB b e c o m i n g

s u b j e c t i v e . T h a t t h i s o c c u r r e d i s e v i d e n t f r om t h e

s t r e a m - o f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s s t y l e o f h i s u i or ks , a n d t h o

t e s t i m o n i e s o f t h o s e who h e a r d him p r e a c h . The s e c o n d

r e a s o n p e o p l e became s u b j e c t i v e was a r e s u l t o f F o x ' s

i n s i s t e n c e t h a t h i s m e s s a g e s were p r o c l a i m e d w i t h

d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y , T h e r e f o r e , t h e l i s t e n e r was i n ­

s t r u c t e d n e v e r t o c e n s u r e o r a n a l y z e t h e d i s c o u r s e , b u t

s i m p l y t o a l l o w i t t o c r i t i c i s e h i m, T h a t a c h a r i s m a t i c

c o m m u n i c a t o r c a n i n c u l c a t e s u c h a f r ame o f mi nd w i t h i n

h i s l i s t e n e r s i s o f e n o r mo u s s i g n i f i c a n c e i n u n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s . F i n a l l y , i n t h i s

same r e g a r d , I m u s t m e n t i o n a g a i n t h o s i l e n t m e e t i n g s

a nd t h e i r p o w e r F u l p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t upon t h o s e

p r e s e n t . The i d e a o f w a i t i n g i n s i l e n c e a s a t a c t i c

t o c r e a t e a s i n g l e - m i n d o r . I n e s s a nd u n i t y among t h e

member s o f t h e g r o u p mu s t be a d d e d t o t h e l i s t o f

t e c h n i q u e s wh i c h c h a r i s m a t i c c o m m u n i c a t o r s may empl oy

i n e n c o u r a g i n g t h e s u b j e c t i v e a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e i r

m e s s a g e .

Re c o mme n d a t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h

Mo s t u d y e v e r a n s w e r s a l l o f t h e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h

c o n c e r n t h e s u b j e c t i n v e s t i g a t e d . In f a c t , t h e new

p r o b l e m s wh i c h a p i e c e o f r e s e a r c h r a i s e s m i g h t be a s

p r o f i t a b l e a s t h e s o l u t i o n s i t p r o v i d e d , In t h i s

c o n n e c t i o n a f ew s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h m i g h t

be h e l p f u l , f i r s t , t hB p a r a d i g m o f c h a r i s m a t i c com­

m u n i c a t i o n a s I c o n c e i v e d i t i s mos t t e n t a t i v e , a n d

i t t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l y more r e f i n e m e n t .

T h i s m i g h t be a c c o m p l i s h e d i n e i t h e r o r b o t h o f two

ways : 1 ) p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y - by e x a m i n i n g t h e t h e o r e t i c a l

w r i t i n g s o f p e r s o n s i n t e r e s t e d i n c h a r i s m a t i c - o r i e n t e d

r e s e a r c h , and 2 ) c r i t i c a l l y - by a n a l y z i n g t h e com­

m u n i c a t i v e b e h a v i o r s o f t h o s e p r a c t i t i o n e r s who a r e

g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s c h a r i s m a t i c , f o r e x a m p l e , H i t l e r ,

C a s t r o , L e n i n , M u s s o l i n i , N a s s e r , P e r o n , Mao, R o o s e v e l t ,

Nkrumah, S u k a r n o , e t c . A n o t h e r way t o r e f i n e t h e

c h a r i s m a t i c mo d e l wou l d be f o r an e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n ­

c l i n e d r e s e a r c h e r t o e n d e a v o r t o o p e r a t i o n a l i z e some o f

t h e c o n c e p t s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s t u d y , a n d t h e n s e e k t o

t e s t t hem u n d e r c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s . S e c o n d , t h i s

s t u d y o f f o x ' s r h e t o r i c was d o c i d e d l y s p e a k e r - c e n t e r e d .

I t wou l d be m o s t p r o f i t a b l e i f someone woul d u n d e r t a k e

an a u d i e n c e - c e n t e r e d s t u d y o f f o x ’ s c h a r i s m a t i c com­

m u n i c a t i o n , One l a s t r e c o m m e n d a t i o n c o n c e r n s t h e

r h e t o r i c o f t h e r o u t i n i z a t i o n o f c h a r i s m a , I t i s an

a c c e p t e d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t c h a r i s m a mus t be r a t i o n a l i z e d .

I t i s a l s o a s s u me d t h a t some movement s a r e more

s u c c e s s f u l t h a n o t h e r s i n a c h i e v i n g p o s t - c h a r i s m a t i c

s t a b i l i t y , Those wh i c h s u c c e e d r e m a i n t o i n f l u e n c e

p o s t e r i t y , a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s l e s s d y n a m i c a l l y t h a n

d u r i n g t h e i r c h a r i s m a t i c s t a g e . Those movemen t s w h i c h

f a i l t o r o u t i n i z e , d e c e a s e w i t h t h e d e a t h o f t h e c h a r i s ­

m a t i c l e a d e r s h i p , The r h e t o r i c o f r o u t i n i z a t i o n ,

t h e r e f o r e , p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

f u t u r e o f t h e move me n t , and i s w o r t h y o f much more

a t t e n t i o n t h a n i t h a s r e c e i v e d i n t h e p a s t .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

P r i m a r y S o u r c e s

B a n k s , J o h n , A J o u r n a 1 o f t h e L i f e , L a b o u r s , T r a v e I s , and S u f f e r i n g s o f John B a n k s , Wi t h a C o X l e c t i o n o f Hi s E n i s t i e s , London: P r i n t e d by F, S o w l e ,1 7 1 2 .

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Be s s o , J o s e p h , Su f f e r i n os o f t h e P e o p l e C a .1.1 e d Quako r s ,L o n d o n : P r i n t e d by J , S o w l e , 1 7 3 3 , 1738,

B e v a n , J o s e p h Gur ne y . Memo i r s o f t h e L i f e o f I s a a cP e n i n n t o n , London: P r i n t e d by W i l l i a m P h i l l i p s ,1 8G7.

Bownas , S a mu e l , j\n Accoun t o f t h o Li f e , T r a v e I s , an dC h r i s t i a n Lxp u r i c n r . e s o f Sanuo 1 Bown as , C o m p i l e d by J , B a s s e , London: J ames P h i l l i p s , 1 7 95 ,

Burn y e a t , J o h n , J mn ' n a I _of t h n L i f e a nd Cn s p s 1 L a b o u r serf J o h n Burn yea t , i n J\ Sa lt: c 1: bn r i n s , d i o n r n p h l c a l , M a r r a t jwn , IT ;i .i s t o l a " y , an cl h i s e e 1 l a n e o u s , Voi VI , E d i t e d by John B a r c l a y , London: D a r t o n a ndH a r v e y , 1339.

C a r t e r , R i c h a r d , The. 5c h i s r.; a t i n k 5 1 ion a t i z e d , London : P r . i n t o d by F . Oa k s , f o r F r a n c i s C o l e s , 1 6 4 1 ,

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C r i s p , S t e p h e n . The C h r i s t i a n E x p e r i e n c e s , G o s p e 1 L a b o u r s and W r i L i n n s o f S t e p h c n C r i s o . P h i l a d e l p h i a ! Be n j a mi n a n d Thomas K i t o , 1 8 22 ,

C r o s s e , C e r a r d , The Gener a 1 H i s t o r y o f t h e Q u a k e r s , London: John Oun t t onV 1 69'6",

D a v i s , J o s e p h , _A D i o e s t o f L a p i s l a t i v e E n a c t m e n t s ,Re l a t i n o t o t h e S o c i n t y o f F r i e n d s , 2nd e d , London: E*.~ Ma r s h , 1B49.

De ws b u r y , W i l l i a m . The F a i t h f u l T e s t i m o n y o f T h a tA n c i e n t S e r v a n t o f t h e L a r d , London: P r i n t e dby A. S o w l e , 1689 ,

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E d w a r d s , J o h n , The P r e a c h e r . 3 v o l s , London: P r i n t e df a r J , R o b i n s o n , 17 05 ,

E d w a r d s , Thomas , G a n q r a e n a , London: P r i n t e d f o rRa l p h S m i t h , 1646 ,

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E v o r a r d , J o h n , Thja Gospe 1- T r e a s t j r y O p e n e d . London:P r i n t e d by John O w s l e y , f o r Repha H a r f o r d , 16 57 ,

E x t r a c t s £rgm t h e 01 i.nu t e s a n r) Adv j cn s o_f _t he Y e a r l y Plan f i no oj_: Fj’ i . ends he U1 j_n I.r,: u ! cn , f r o;;i I t s F i r s t . I n s t i t u t i o n , 2nd e d , London: W. P h i l l i p s® .

F ox , Ge o r g e , Annua I Da t a . l oeue o f C c o r r r Fo x 1 s P.i.L'ilTii> CoiTioijnd i n 1 694 ~ 1 69 £ d j.l.e (.j ( w i t h u i n i s s ion: ;and a d d i t i o n s ) by He n r y J . C a d b u r y . P h i l a d e l p h i a F r i e n d s ' B o o k s t o r e , 1939 ,

3D7

F o x , Ge o r g e . P e a r F r i e n d s Keep Your Meet i n o s . [[London j

n . p . , 1 664 j .

_fl D i s c o v e r y o f some F r u i t s □ f t h e P r o f e s s i o n ,R e l i q i o n , M i n i s t r y , G o v e r n m e n t , o f t h i s N a t i o n . London: P r i n t e d f o r T. S i mmons , 1G5G.

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