TOLBAGA: UPPER PALEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE TRANS- BAIKAL REGION

Copyright © 2010, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2010.02.005

Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 37/4 (2009) 13–34

E-mail: [email protected]

ARCHAEOLOGY,ETHNOLOGY& ANTHROPOLOGYOF EURASIA

Introduction

Approximately 43 – 40 ka BP, early Upper Paleolithic humans migrated from Gorny Altai eastward along the mountains and piedmont areas of Southern Siberia (Derevianko, 2001; Derevianko, Shunkov, 2004). While no skeletal remains of that time are available from Southern Siberia, the fact that similar blade industries spread over large areas of Eurasia at approximately the same time suggests that the event was related to the dispersal of anatomically modern humans. The Upper Paleolithic traditions spread over Eurasia rather fast; ca 40–38 ka BP, blade-based industries of the Upper Paleolithic appeared in the Trans-Baikal region (Khotyk, Kamenka, Podzvonkaya) and in Northern Mongolia (Tolbor-4, Orkhon-1 and 7).

TOLBAGA: UPPER PALEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE TRANS- BAIKAL REGION*

*Supported by the Russian Foundation for the Humanities (Projects 09-01-00028a and 07-01-00417a) and by the Russian Academy of Sciences Program for Basic Research “Historical and Cultural Heritage and the Spiritual Values of Russia” (Project 1.7).

The paper describes Tolbaga – one of the key early Upper Paleolithic (35–25 ka BP) sites in the Trans-Baikal region. The description focuses on the relationships between the transportation of stone to the site, knapping techniques and utilization of stones and bones, planigraphy of the site, and the consumption of game. Based on the interrelation between subsistence strategy and the utilization of stone, it is concluded that the life cycle of humans was adapted to seasonal hunting activities.

Keywords: Late Pleistocene, early Upper Paleolithic, lithic technologies, archeozoology, settling systems.

The Trans-Baikal sites representing the easternmost periphery of the distribution area of early Upper Paleolithic blade-based industries in Eurasia are of suf cient interest for reconstructions of the early Upper Paleolithic adaptations to paleogeographic conditions existing in the contact zone between major environmental and landscape provinces of Northern and Central Asia (Germonpre, Lbova, 1996; Klementyev, 2001; Rybin, Lbova, Klementyev, 2005). The present work is based on the archaeological remains recovered from the cultural horizon at Tolbaga. The site, studied during the 1970s–1990s, provided the base for establishing the rst local (Tolbaga) culture of the early Upper Paleolithic in Southern Siberia (Geologiya i kultura…, 1982). The Tolbaga site, distinguished by vast excavated area, rich lithic assemblage, and representative collection of fauna remains, can be regarded as one of the key archaeological localities of the Trans-Baikal region. The site was examined in a number of publications (Ibid.; Ovodov, 1987; Konstantinov M.V., 1994; Goebel, 2004; Vasiliev, 2005). However, these publications touched upon only some aspects of the site or described only a part of

S.G. Vasiliev1 and E.P. Rybin2

1A.K. Kuznetsov Trans-Baikal Museum of Regional Studies,Babushkina 113, Chita, 672000, Russia

E-mail: [email protected] of Archaeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences,

Akademika Lavrentieva 17, Novosibirsk, 630090, RussiaE-mail: [email protected]

13PALEOENVIRONMENT. THE STONE AGE

14 S.G. Vasiliev and E.P. Rybin / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 37/4 (2009) 13–34

lithic assemblage discovered there. The present authors have taken into account all the available archaeological materials from Tolbaga. Using modern methods of analyzing lithic tools and faunal remains from this key site, we attempted to assess the relationships between stone reduction techniques, settlement patterns, mobility, and subsistence strategies of early humans in the Trans-Baikal region.

Location, stratigraphy, and dates of the site

The Tolbaga Paleolithic site was discovered by M.V. Konstantinov in 1971. The site is situated at 51°12 43.1 N and 109°19 17.3 E (Fig. 1). It is located 230 km east of Lake Baikal, on the deluvial slope in the Khilok River valley (the right tributary of the Selenga River), at elevation of 35–50 m over the water level (758–773 m asl). The deluvial train containing remains of the site represents an accumulative surface that dips at 8–12° and stretches horizontally along the valley to 500–600 m. The surface was formed by deluvial-proluvial processes resulting in the creation of a longitudinally wavy surface. A network of shallow gullies repeatedly formed along several narrow ravines on the slope. The gullies were conducive to the transportation of material from the site, located along one such

ravine (Fig. 2). The site was excavated by the Chita archaeological team headed by M.V. Konstantinov and S.G. Vasiliev in the 1970s–1990s. Currently, the total excavated area equals 1100 m2. The presence of archaeological nds in some test pits allowed researchers to establish the location of the site on the plain surface that stretches along the slope to 100–120 m and is up to 30 m wide. The long axis of the plain is oriented north–south

Fig. 2. General view of the site. In the box: stratigraphic column of the sediments

at the site.

0 1 m

0 105 km

Tolbaga site

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the Tolbaga site.

S.G. Vasiliev and E.P. Rybin / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 37/4 (2009) 13–34 15

and is perpendicular to the river. The pro le, over 100 m long corresponding to the dip of the slope, demonstrates dipping of lithological layers with a gradual increase in their thickness towards the oor of the section. The mean depth of the pro le wall is 1.0–1.5 m. The stratigraphic situation is homogenous and generally corresponds to the deluvial and proluvial soft sediments of the Karga and Sartan horizons (Fig. 2). Four lithological layers containing archaeological remains were recorded: (1) soil; (2) sandy loam of chestnut color; (3) brown sandy loam with grit; (4) yellowish-gray loam containing remains of two paleosols. Below this was a layer of grit and rubble representing the upper portion of a thick unit of rubble and sand (traced to a depth of 3 m). The hypsometry of the surface of this layer surface determined the character of utilitarian structures at the site. Lithological layers 3–1 are regarded as redeposited due to slope processes. The cultural component associated with layer 4 served as the source of archaeological materials. This layer revealed the remains of eight dwellings, about 30 hearths and spots of burnt soil. This layer contained 77.6 % of nds including lithic artifacts and animal bones.

Tolbaga is among a few early Upper Paleolithic Siberian sites containing dwelling remains. The site has become widely known due to the discovery of a piece of prehistoric art – a sculpture of a bear head made on a woolly rhinoceros vertebra (Konstantinov M.V. et al., 1983). The following 14C dates on bone samples from layer 4 were obtained for the site: 27,210 ± 300 BP (SOAN-1523); 34,860 ± 2100 BP (SOAN-1522) (Geologiya i kultura…, 1982); 26,900 ± 250 BP (SOAN-3078) (Orlova, 1998); 25,200 ± 260 BP (AA-8874) and 29,200 ± 1000 BP (AA-26740) (Goebel, Waters, 2000). The scatter of dates suggests that human occupation of the site was considerable, spanning the entire second half of the Karga interstadial.

Planigraphy and taphonomy

In order to understand the planigraphy of site, it is important to reconstruct the slope surface during the Paleolithic human habitation. The transverse profile walls showed that the lower border of lithological layer 4 containing cultural remains inclines discontinuously and becomes horizontal every 5–10 m. This leveling of the lower border of layer 4 is associated with speci cs of the relief of the ancient land surface formed under the conditions of progressive weathering of gneiss. The surface of bedrock represents an agglomerate of rock debris forming low ranges at some places along the slope. The surface was gradually covered with products of rock weathering. This stratum of grit and rubble underlies the layer of yellowish-gray loam (lithological layer 4), whose lower portion includes remains of two

Karga paleosols. Hearths, utilitarian complexes, and the majority of artifacts and animal bones are associated with this layer.

Settling at this place, therefore, humans were able to choose small platform areas on the slope (Fig. 3). Most such platforms were likely formed in the narrow ravine in which the site was situated. People were able to adapt the habitation area to their needs without much effort by removing large blocks and debris and leveling the places of gneiss outcrops.

This hypothesized model of the habitation oor is supported by the excavation materials. Due to the physical properties of the dense and viscous loam overlying the habitation oor, many features of the settlement structures have been preserved at the bottom of layer 4 at Tolbaga (Geologiya i kultura…, 1982). Most artifacts, including unique pieces of Paleolithic art, stone and bone tools, were found in association with the plain areas. Only a few artifacts were recovered from inter-dwelling areas. They were mostly found in the redeposited overlying horizons.

The northern portion of the site contains features suggestive of dwelling constructions and production activity zones that have not been previously recorded (Fig. 3). One complex, including slab of gneiss found in association with bone remains, can be interpreted as a butchering area. Another platform is located close to a large hearth. A at boulder representing an anvil and several large ribs with cut off ends were found on another platform. The cultural horizon and the redeposited layers in an area approximately 20 m long located down the slope yielded fewer artifacts compared to the complexes situated above. A hearth with numerous bones and ochre was recorded there. In the southern portion of the site, dwelling complexes were discovered in the 1970s–1980s (Ibid.; Konstantinov M.V., 1994). They also stretch along the slope. Such a “socket” location of dwelling complexes and production activity zones can be explained by the speci cs of the habitation oor. The creation of dwelling platforms along the slope suggests that the site presumably expanded up the slope. This pattern of spatial expansion affected the formation of the cultural layer, the growth of which was permanently interrupted by slumping.

It is very important to understand the process of redeposition of archaeological remains at Tolbaga. To solve this task, the issue of the duration of the site’s existence and the possibility of redeposition of cultural materials should be examined. The character of lithological layer 4, represented by a carbonaceous loam 0.3–0.5 m thick, should be taken into consideration.

The lower portion of this layer contains the remains of burial surfaces; all the artificial constructions were associated with these ancient surfaces. Layers of redeposited material scattered in the direction


“downward on the slope – upward in the stratigraphic sequence” are located above. These layers contain some horizons of the cultural layer and overlying lithological horizons. Most bones were concentrated in the middle portion of the layer (66 %) and close to its bottom (21 %). A small part (1 %) was located at the level of the lower border. The proportion of bones in levels 1 and 2 of layer 4 decreased (9 % and 3 %, respectively). Up the pro le, lithological layers 3–1 contain 1–3 % of the bones. Thus, the “bone-bearing” horizon is associated with the habitation oors containing the hearths and dwelling remains in the lower portion of lithological layer 4. The lower level was also the source of lithic artifacts transported to the overlying layers up to the modern day surface.

Analysis of distribution of faunal remains in the horizontal plain has revealed three major accumulations of bones. They were found in association with dwellings and hearths. The largest accumulation was noted at the northern part of the site. Two other bone accumulations were located near dwelling remains in the central part of the site (Konstantinov M.V., 1994: 49–50). Accumulations of bones belonging to the main hunted animals coincide with the zones of concentration of faunal remains in general. The northern and central concentrations of bones have also yielded bone tools. The proportion of bone tools is the greatest in the northern part of the site. Tools were mostly associated with hearths. Bone akes and chips were accumulated within the dwelling. Bones without traces of arti cial

Fig. 3. Dispersal density of animal bones in correlation with the established activity and living zones.


modi cation are mostly located within the areas not occupied by dwelling complexes.

Analysis of the lithic industry from layer 4

Most artifacts in the collection are made of effusive (volcanic) rock (primarily acidic) varying in color from black to various shades of gray (93 % of all the artifacts). Some implements are made of sedimentary rock (sandstone and mudstone), chalcedony, and quartz (7 %)*. Artifacts retain areas of well-rounded pebble cortex. According to M.V. Konstantinov (Geologiya i kultura…, 1982: 35), the petrographic composition of the lithic assemblage corresponds to that of the pebble alluvium of the Khilok River.

The study focuses on archaeological remains recovered from layer 4. Artifacts from redeposited horizons in layers 1–3 were excluded, since they represent a mixture of artifacts possibly including some younger pieces. The sample includes 3184 lithic artifacts (Table 1). All the artifacts and unretouched spalls (complete akes and their proximal fragments) were examined. Other unretouched pieces (distal and medial parts as well as akes shorter than 2 cm) were not included into the sample.

Reduction technique

The collection of cores totals 217 specimens (Table 1). Cores have been classi ed into two main categories by the stage of preparation and exhaustion. The rst category comprises pre-forms (116 specimens): at, cube- and cylinder-shaped pebbles of various sizes. Most pre-forms do not bear prepared platforms or have platforms made through a single detachment. Flaking surfaces show from one to three scars produced by irregular test- aking. The second category comprises core-like forms

(“formal” cores, 101 specimens). Cores of this category bear prepared striking platforms, and aking surfaces demonstrate traces of regular aking. Mostly parallel aking was employed. The number of prepared platforms

and the degree of convexity of the aking surface vary across the sample.

Most single platform cores with one aking surface (Table 2) (32 specimens, 32.7 % of all formal cores) represent the initial stage of reduction. On the basis of this sample, the technique of core preparation was reconstructed. The technique of aking depended on the initial shape of piece. Flat pebbles were reduced from their narrow ends. Cylindrical or cube-shaped pebbles were reduced along the natural edges or along a rough

crest that was prepared through transverse flaking. Usually reduction was stopped upon the detachment of a few akes that caused ake fracture. Apparently, the morphology of the blank stipulates the two major types of cores of this assemblage. These types have been determined as double platform cores with one at aking surface (23 specimens, 22.8 %; Fig. 4, 1, 5, 8, 9, 13) and double platform cores with one convex aking surface (27 specimens, 26.7 %; Fig. 4, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11). Judging by the scars preserved on aking surfaces, the parallel aking strategy was used for reduction of these cores.

Flaking was executed from opposing striking platforms. Blades and sub-rectangular akes represent the principal spall-blanks. Approximately one third of all the cores retain a wavy crest that was prepared on the lateral side through transverse aking and retouch. Despite various degrees of convexity of aking surfaces, there is no ground to suppose that these two types re ect different techniques or stages of reduction. The pattern of location of the negative scars on the aking surfaces is generally

Table 1. Typological classi cation of artifacts from the cultural layer

*Petrographic analysis was performed by N.A. Kulik.

Type Number %

Cores and pre-forms 217 6.8

Tools 644 20.2

Flakes larger than 2 cm 491 15.4

» smaller than 2 cm 1 005 31.6

Lamellar akes 564 17.7

Including:

bladelets 48 –

pointed blades 10 –

blades 506 –

Technical akes 77 2.4

Including:

crested blades 24 –

platform rejuvenation akes 13 –

cortical blades 18 –

semi-cortical blades 7 –

cortical akes 15 –

Fragments and chips 164 5.2

Hard/soft hammers 14 0.4

Unprocessed pebbles 8 0.3

Total 3184 100.0


Table 2. Typological classi cation of cores common for both types. Both types demonstrate the “shuttle” pattern of flaking in which flaking was executed from one side of the striking platform to the other. The aking surface was made convex by detaching cortical akes (40.8 % of all technical akes). In some cases, cortical and semi-cortical blades (23.1 %) were detached for the same purpose. Most of these technical blades (from 45 to 70 %) are from 60 to 90 mm long. Based on these values, the original size of most cores can be estimated. No difference has been noted in the length of exhausted cores (Table 3). If these artifacts represented various stages of reduction and if the at cores resulted from the utilization of sub-prismatic ones, the difference would be evident. However, the size of the aking surface on the at cores exceeds that

Fig. 4. Lithic artifacts from the cultural layer (lithological layer 4).

1

2

3

4 5

6 7

8

9 10

11

12

13

0 3 m

0 3 m

Type Number %

Orthogonal 5 5.0

Single platform cores with one aking surface 33 32.7

Flat double platform cores with one aking surface 23 22.8

Sub-prismatic double platform cores with one aking surface 27 26.7

Small narrow-face cores for bladelets 5 5.0

Sub-prismatic microcores 6 5.9

Centripetal cores 2 2.0

Total 101 100.0


Table 3. Main metric indices of cores

of the sub-prismatic cores. The sub-prismatic cores are considerably thicker than the at cores. Comparisons of the cores retaining original pebble shape have shown that the degree of convexity of the aking surfaces depends on the original shape of the blank. For this reason the assumption that the at cores represent “archaic” or “Levallois” technique of reduction differing from the Upper Paleolithic prismatic knapping technique seems questionable. Flat cores were mostly prepared on at pebbles, while the sub-prismatic cores were made on thick pebbles.

Cores of other varieties are less numerous, forming up to 18 % of all the formal cores. This miscellaneous category includes small narrow-face cores for bladelets. Narrow bladelets not exceeding 15 mm in width were detached from the narrow edge of such cores. It also includes sub-prismatic microcores (Fig. 4, 10) that were formed on small pebbles and akefragments, on which negative scars of bladelet detachments occupy 3/4 of the aking surface. There are several cores illustrating the

orthogonal (sub-cross) and centripetal aking patterns of reduction.

Analysis of primary reduction with respect to the aking pattern of scars on the dorsal surface of complete

artifacts has been carried out through the method proposed by D. Adler*. This method makes it possible to evaluate the distribution and direction of aking scars from the main and additional striking platforms of the core. In accordance with Adler’s method, the artifact is placed with its proximal part (or the main striking platform) upward and the dorsal surface of all the complete akes (longer than 2 cm) or cores is divided into four equal sections. The upper left section (the left part of the proximal end) is designated as section A, then clockwise section B, C, and D (the left part of the distal end of the tool). The number and the percentage of the negative scars detached from the distal and proximal parts as well as from the left and right lateral sides of the blank are calculated for each section. On the basis of the noted distribution of the scars over the core sections (the sample includes all the complete formal cores) the following pattern has been established (Fig. 5): most flakes in the upper core sections were detached from the upper striking platform (approximately 83 %). From 40 to 43 % of the scars of akes from the

*Mean indices for all the types are given in parentheses.

CoresM

ean

leng

th/s

tand

ard

devi

atio

n, m

m

Max

imum

leng

th/m

inim

um

leng

th, m

m

Mea

n w

idth

of t

he

aki

ng s

urfa

ce/s

tand

ard

devi

atio

n, m

m

Max

imum

wid

th o

f a

king

su

rface

/min

imum

wid

th,

mm

Mea

n th

ickn

ess

/sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion,

mm

Max

imum

thic

knes

s/m

inim

um th

ickn

ess,

mm

Mea

n pl

atfo

rm a

ngle

, gr

ades

Flak

ing

area

/sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion,

mm

2

Mea

n le

ngth

of t

he

long

est n

egat

ive

scar

/m

axim

um le

ngth

., m

m

Mea

n w

idth

of t

he lo

nges

t ne

gativ

e sc

ar/m

axim

um

wid

th, m

m

Tota

l, sp

ecim

ens

Sub-prismatic and narrow-face cores for bladelets 41.8/15.6 68/30 25/8 37/15 19.8/4.9 26/15 80 1032/408 28/41 11/15 11

Single platform cores with one aking surface 63.9/14.3 90/38 51.5/11.5 81/26 35.5/7.7 62/20 83 3316/1 209 41/71 25/41 33

Orthogonal and centripetal cores 54.2/10 69/43 42.6/11.4 57/29 31.4/15.6 57/21 76 2279/630 30/38 25/40 7

Flat double platform cores with one striking platform 69.4/24.8 138/43 58.5/17 103/29 24.5/8.6 45/9 76 4403/2 094 43/90 25/44 23

Double platform cores with one convex aking surface 69.3/15.2 108/46 44.8/9.7 64/30 37.5/10.7 61/24 80 3099/947 42/65 23/45 27

Total, specimens* 64 (18.4) 138 (30) 48 (15.7) 103 (15) 32 (10.8) 62 (9) 79 3243 (1943) 39 (90) 23 (45) 101

*Adler D.S. Late Middle Palaeolithic Patterns of Lithic Reduction, Mobility, and Land Use in the Southern Caucasus. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. 2002. Harvard Univ.


upper striking platform reached the lower part of the core. Only 39–43 % of akes were detached from the lower striking platform. The upper portion revealed only approximately 8 % of the akes that were detached from the lower striking platform. This value is notably smaller than the number of detachments from the upper striking platform; approximately 40 % of them reached the lower part of the core. Thus, the technology reconstructed on the basis of analysis of the exhausted cores represents the typical technique of longitudinal knapping. The lower striking platform was used to detach short akes in order to keep the distal part of the aking surface convex. One of the striking platforms was used more intensively than the other. Based on the mean numbers of the negative scars noted on the core flaking surfaces, it has been determined that on the average 3.5 scars were resultant of aking from the main striking platform and 1.5 scars represent removals from the opposing additional striking platform.

Apparently, the knapping technique at Tolbaga was aimed at blade production. This inference has been made on the basis of analysis of by-products of primary

reduction. The lamination index (Ilam) at Tolbaga is 39. The lamination index was calculated based on 17.7 % of unretouched blades and blade fragments in the total number of artifacts as well as on technical akes with proportions typical of blades (crested, primary, and secondary flakes) and the blades that were modified into tools. The proportion of modi cation of blades into tools is rather high – 41.9 %. Most blades are wider than 15 mm. The share of bladelets (flakes narrower than 15 mm) is relatively small.

Most akes show a unipolar aking pattern (41.6 %); akes displaying bipolar aking (24 %) and orthogonal aking (19.5 %) of the dorsal surface are less numerous.

Flakes retaining pebble cortex form 12.7 %. As the analysis has shown, the longer the blank, the more features suggesting bipolar aking are present on it; 67 % of akes longer than 90 mm show the bipolar aking pattern of the dorsal surface (Fig. 6).

In sum, core reduction usually began with bipolar aking. The shorter the core became, the fewer akes

were detached in order to keep the distal surface convex. This inference is supported by the high frequency of

Fig. 5. Schematic distribution of negative ake scars on the dorsal faces of the main artifact categories (%).

Fig. 6. Distribution of akes with signs of preparation on the dorsal face by length (only complete artifacts (457 specimens) over 20 mm long were considered).


dorsal surfaces with the unipolar aking pattern in smaller akes (54 % of artifacts with elements of unipolar aking

versus 3 % with the bipolar aking pattern). The maximal percentage of artifacts retaining pebble cortex is noted among the smallest specimens. These akes represent the products of primary core preparation.

The striking platforms of akes are mostly plain and retain pebble cortex (74.5 % of all striking platforms). The index of faceted and dihedral platforms (IFlarge) is 20.2; the index of faceted butts (IFstrict) is 5.2. Punctiform and linear platforms are very rare; they form only 5.3 %. The analysis of preparation of striking platforms and the fact that most bulbs of percussion are convex suggest that aking was mostly performed with hard hammers.

Typological characteristics of the tool kit

The character of primary reduction becomes apparent through the examination of the composition of blanks used for tool production: 70.5 % of tools were made on blades. This index exceeds considerably the lamination index of the industry as a whole. It shows that blanks with the longest working edge were preferred in tool manufacture. Tools were also made on akes (26.4 %) and modi ed pebbles and cores (3.1 %).

Typologically, the tool kit of the industry from layer 4 at Tolbaga includes several major components (Table 4). The category of expedient tools comprises implements that were not labor-consuming to produce. These artifacts were just slightly modi ed. Most tools of this category demonstrate only one working edge prepared with the help of lightly modifying retouch. The tools demonstrate simple working, mostly through only one technique. Retouch was applied to the portion of the edge not exceeding 1/4 of the perimeter. Such tools were mostly fashioned on small akes not longer than 60 mm. These tools were produced in order to meet the necessities that emerged in the course of work. This category includes akes with irregular retouch (8.1 % of the tools); notched and denticulate tools (6.5 % in the total); spur-like tools (perforators) (6.8 %; Fig. 7, 29, 31); knives (2.6 %); and chisel-like tools (3.9 %; Fig. 7, 18, 33).

The second typological category includes grattoirs (6.5 %). Among the composite tools, 22 specimens demonstrate scraping elements, which makes the proportion of grattoirs as high as 9.9 %. The grattoirs can be further subdivided into two main groups that are approximately equal in number: angular endscrapers (Fig. 7, 7) and endscrapers (Fig. 7, 6, 16, 26). Most grattoirs are fashioned on akes. Sidescrapers on akes (6.1 %) can also be included into this typological category. Most of them (16 specimens) represent the longitudinal

variety. Others show elements of retouch along the perimeter (Fig. 4, 12). Transverse and convergent varieties of sidescrapers are also attributed to this category.

Multifunctional tools on blades (44.7 %) constitute the most salient category of implements, largely de ning the typological appearance of the Tolbaga assemblage. As M.V. Konstantinov noted (1994), the division of these tools into typological units was mostly conventional. The attribution of tools to a certain category was based on the character of secondary working or in some cases, on the features of the used blank. We have attributed retouched blades (23.4 %; Fig. 7, 1, 2, 9, 12, 13) to the category of multifunctional tools. Eighty-eight specimens show signs of working only along one long edge. Most tools (98 specimens) demonstrate traces of light modifying retouch. Only one morphological element of secondary treatment is present on 138 implements. Eighty- ve specimens show traces of intentional fragmentation. The artifacts with sparse traces of working are the largest in the industry and are 94 mm long on average. They possibly represent tool-blanks that could be further modified and fragmented with respect to emerging necessity or else used for various purposes requiring minimal working. Sidescrapers on blades (14.9 %) represent the type of the most intensively worked

Table 4. Typological classi cation of tools

Type Number %

Retouched blades 151 23.4

Retouched akes 52 8.1

Grattoirs 42 6.5

Sidescrapers 39 6.1

Burins 7 1.1

Denticulates 13 2.0

Notches 19 3.0

Notch-denticulates 10 1.6

Knives 17 2.6

Beak- and spear-shaped tools (perforators) 44 6.8

Chisel-like tools 25 3.9

Blades with retouched stems 5 0.8

Points 36 5.6

Sidescrapers on blades 96 14.9

Composite tools 74 11.5

Pebble tools 14 2.2

Total 644 100.0


Fig. 7. Lithic artifacts from the cultural layer (lithological layer 4).

0 3 cm

1

2

34

5 6

78

9 1011 12

13 14 15 16 17

18 19 20 21

22 23 24 25 26 27

28 29 30 3132 33


and speci c tools in this industry. These are long and wide akes that can be differentiated from retouched blades by traces of modifying working through abrupt stepped and scalar retouch. As M.V. Konstantinov notes (Geologiya i kultura…, 1982; Konstantinov M.V., 1994), such specimens were subjected to secondary working and after that they were fragmented in order to increase the number of tools that can be used for various purposes (Fig. 7, 11). This strategy is suggested by the retouch facets that were divided into two parts by a strong transverse blow. Of the total of 96 specimens, 71 tools show signs of intentional fracturing that was executed mostly through transverse blows; some specimens bear traces of additional retouching with the purpose of smoothing the fractured area (Fig. 7, 25). The assemblage contains 14 complete tools (Fig. 7, 4, 6, 14), as well as 24 proximal (Fig. 7, 15), 31 medial (Fig. 7, 20, 24), and 27 distal (Fig. 7, 27, 30) fragments. The distribution of fragments is rather even suggesting that fragmentation was executed at the site. Fragmentation made the tools very standard. The most relevant examples are medial fragments of sidescrapers that demonstrate similarity in elements of secondary working and in size. Points on blades constitute 5.6 % of the tools (Fig. 7, 8, 10, 22). They represent one of tool types most characteristic of the Upper Paleolithic in Southern Siberia. Convergence of the lateral edges on such tools is the result of secondary working. Points are narrower and thinner compared to sidescrapers on blades. Some evidence of intentional fragmentation is discernible: 19 tools are represented by distal fragments including 15 specimens with traces of truncation. Various techniques of secondary working have been noted; many of the tools can be considered as speci c and stylistically signi cant in the area stretching from Gorny Altai to Mongolia. Blades with stems prepared through retouch (Fig. 7, 3) form 0.8 % and represent one more stylistically signi cant tool type. These are large blades, in which long edges in their proximal parts are prepared with the help of strongly modifying, accommodating retouch resulting in the formation of a special stem.

The assemblage also contains several burins (1.1 %) represented by angular and dihedral varieties (Fig. 7, 23, 31) and pebble tools (2.2 %; Fig. 4, 2). The Tolbaga assemblage is characterized by tools bearing elements of different morphological types; composite tools form 11.5 % (Fig. 7, 17, 19, 21).

Secondary working

The intensity of secondary reduction is relevant for the function of the artifacts. Retouch was mostly applied to the dorsal surface (89.9 % of all tools). The following

retouch types have been identified by the shape of retouch facets: parallel (35.8 %), scalar (32.5 %), and stepped (12.3%). Tools displaying a combination of these retouch types form less than 20 %. Another classification of retouch is based on the angle of inclination of the facets: at retouch is noted on 18.5 %, semi-abrupt on 46.1 %, abrupt on 30 %, and steep on 5.4 % of the tools. Artifacts have been classi ed by the degree of modi cation of the tool through secondary working: the proportion of slightly modifying retouch is quite low (24.1 % of all the tools); most tools were prepared with moderately modifying (46.6 %) and heavily modifying retouch (29.3 %). Traces of secondary retouch over the half of perimeter or more have been noted on 57.7 % of tools; 12.6 % of implements demonstrate traces of working over the entire perimeter. Two or more working edges have been noted on 44.6 % of the tools. The proportion of tools showing two or more morphological elements of secondary working is considerable (34.9 %). Tools demonstrating intentional fragmentation are numerous (278 specimens; 45.5 %). The study of the Tolbaga assemblage has made it possible to demonstrate, for the rst time in Siberia, the wide use of this technique (Geologiya i kultura…, 1982; Mescherin, 1988; Konstantinov M.V., 1994). Intentional fracturing is evidenced by distinct traces visible on the fracturing surface of tool fragments. The high proportion of fragmented tools and the noted diversity of techniques of secondary working suggest that the tools were heavily modi ed in the course of labor processes.

In order to establish a correlation between the tool size and the intensity of secondary working and the variety of employed techniques, the total assemblage of complete tools has been subdivided into four size categories (Fig. 8). The tools shorter than 40 mm revealed the smallest degree of modi cation. This means that such tools were not reduced considerably in the course of secondary working. It seems that these tools were made for short-term and non-intensive usage. Tools 40–70 mm long demonstrate similar features. Thus implements of these sizes can be de ned as expedient or non-formal tools. The tools (mostly retouched blades) longer than 100 mm demonstrate a small variety of secondary working similar to the tools of the rst two categories. However, tools from the size category of more than 100 mm show considerably longer portions of retouched edges and greater numbers of working edges and morphological elements compared to the shorter tools. The tools 70–100 mm long demonstrate the highest degree of modi cation and the most intensive secondary working by various techniques. Artifacts belonging to this size category differ signi cantly from tools of other sizes. Exactly these tools could be subjected to subsequent fragmentation.


Intensity of core reduction

Our analysis of the morphology of artifacts as an indicator of the intensity of stone reduction was based on the following assumptions: the higher the degree of reduction, the lower the percentage of the natural cortex on the surface, the smaller the number of artifacts retaining natural cortex in the assemblage and the smaller the size of artifacts; the higher the degree of core utilization, the smaller the share of pebble cortex, the shorter the core length and thickness, and the fewer the number of ake scars preserved on the core surface.

Approximately 70 % of the cores and pre-forms are 50–90 mm long (Fig. 9). Pre-forms and formal cores are roughly the same size. Only a few pre-forms are longer than 90 mm. In instances of intensive usage of cores and repeated rejuvenation of striking platforms, the cores should become shorter. However, the noted minor difference between the length of the cores and that of the pre-forms suggests that core reduction was not

particularly intensive and that many cores were rejected upon rst failed attempts at knapping.

The cores were classi ed according to the proportion of natural cortex on the aking surface: 53.5 % of artifacts retain natural cortex, while natural cortex occupied more than 1/4 of the aking surface on 19.8 % of the specimens. Given the great number of small akes retaining natural cortex, the noted high proportion of artifacts with natural cortex suggests that primary core preparation was among the principal activities of humans at the site.

Comparisons of the metric data on the cores retaining natural cortex on the flaking surface with those with completely prepared surfaces (Table 5) have shown the general similarity in the size of cores of these two categories. If the knapping of cores was part of a single technological sequence at the site, then artifacts without natural cortex should correspond to a more advanced stage of reduction and thus be smaller. Actually, however, cores lacking the natural cortex are much larger (thickness disregarded) than those on which cortex is present. Comparisons between the artifacts of particular size categories have shown the same picture: with the exception of two artifacts, 135 mm and 138 mm long, respectively, without natural cortex (Fig. 4, 1, 8), the proportions of the artifacts bearing natural cortex and those without cortex are practically equal to one another within every size category. Occurrences of large specimens among the cores without natural cortex suggest that some prepared blanks were transported to the site. However, mostly unprepared pebbles were transported to the site and were subjected to primary reduction there. This supposition is supported by the great number of pre-forms in the assemblage. It is noteworthy that cores demonstrate the pattern of aking of the dorsal surface similar to that present on tools and

Fig. 8. Distribution of tools by the length of the prepared edge and the degree of modi cation.

Fig. 9. Distribution of cores (101 specimens) and pre-forms (116 specimens) by length.


Table 5. Main metric indices of cores with or without pebble cortex on the aking surface

unretouched akes (Fig. 5). If the cores were aked more intensively and most of the cores were exhausted, the akes and cores would have demonstrated different patterns of dorsal flaking, because they belonged to subsequent production stages.

Data obtained by comparison of the length of the maximum negative ake scars on cores and the length of the exhausted cores add to the results discussed above.

No traces suggesting the maximal usage of raw material have been traced. The cores on which the longest negative scars are shorter than 50 mm constitute 82 %, while the proportion of the cores of similar size is only 20 % (Fig. 10). Only 2 % of the cores bear negative scars longer than 70 mm, while the proportion of cores of the relevant size is 37.5 %. Thus, core reduction was stopped at the stage when further reduction still was

Core aking surface

Mea

n le

ngth

/sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion,

mm

Max

imum

leng

th/

min

imum

leng

th, m

m

Mea

n w

idth

/sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion,

mm

Max

imum

wid

th/

min

imum

wid

th, m

m

Mea

n th

ickn

ess/

stan

dard

dev

iatio

n,

mm

Max

imum

thic

knes

s/m

inim

um th

ickn

ess,

m

m

Mea

n le

ngth

of t

he

larg

est n

egat

ive

scar

/m

axim

um le

ngth

, mm

Mea

n w

idth

of t

he

larg

est n

egat

ive

scar

/m

axim

um w

idth

, mm

Flak

ing

area

/sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion,

mm

2

Tota

l, sp

ecim

ens

With pebble cortex 64/16.5 108/30 46.8/14.5 81/15 34.3/12.1 62/9 37.5/71 23/45 3071/1405 54

Without pebble cortex 64.9/20.5 138/30 49.7/17 103/17 30/8.5 49/14 42/90 23/44 3441/2420 47

Fig. 10. Ratio of the core length to the length of the maximum negative ake scars on cores.

Fig. 11. Proportions of the longest negative scars on cores, unretouched akes, and tools.


possible. Presumably, prepared cores were stored for later use at the site.

The analysis of the ratio of maximum length of the negative flake scars on cores and the length on unretouched akes and tools has shown that unretouched akes and negative scars are similarly distributed by

length (Fig. 11). However, the tools demonstrate a quite different situation: 45 % of tools are longer than 50 mm while only 2 % of the negative ake scars and 12.5 % of the unretouched akes belong to this size category. Given the data on the low intensiveness of core reduction and the fact that the reduction of most cores was stopped at the stage of detaching akes and small blades, it is possible to assume the there must be a discrepancy between the size of the tools and cores in the collection. Judging by the morphological features, the cores could not be used for tools on large blades typical of the Tolbaga assemblage. The comparison of metrical data on akes and tools (Table 6) has revealed a considerable predominance of the length of tools over

that of unretouched akes. By the width and thickness, akes and tools are statistically similar. This fact can

possibly be explained by reduction of tool size in the course of secondary working. All other indices (the ake area, indices of elongation (the length (l) to width (m) ratio), indices of thickness (the width (m) to thickness (n) ratio)) suggest that the size of surface of tools was greater than that of akes. It also shows that tools were longer and thicker than akes. It is likely that most large tools were transported to the site.

Certain behavioral features can be inferred from the amount of the natural cortex on the dorsal surfaces of the unretouched flakes and tools. The total share of artifacts retaining pebble cortex is considerable and reaches 33.6 % of all the complete flakes and proximal fragments. The indices showing the ratio of the length of the tools and akes to the area covered by pebble cortex on the dorsal surface suggest that the share of natural cortex becomes smaller on larger tools (Fig. 12). For instance, among the tools longer that

Table 6. Main metric indices of unretouched akes and tools

Fig. 12. Distribution of akes and tools by their length and the proportion of the dorsal surface covered with pebble cortex.

Category

Mea

n le

ngth

/st

anda

rd d

evia

tion,

m

m

Max

imum

leng

th/

min

imum

leng

th,

mm

Mea

n w

idth

/st

anda

rd d

evia

tion,

m

m

Max

imum

wid

th/

min

imum

wid

th, m

m

Mea

n th

ickn

ess/

stan

dard

dev

iatio

n,

mm

Max

imum

thic

knes

s/m

inim

um th

ickn

ess,

m

m

Dor

sal s

urfa

ce/

stan

dard

dev

iatio

n,

mm

2

m :

n, s

tand

ard

devi

atio

n

l : m

, sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

Tota

l, sp

ecim

ens

Unretouched spalls 51/19.6 153/20 36.4/14.5 98/5 10.3/5.5 31/2 1950/1333 4.24:2 1.57:0.7 392

Tools 71/26 155/24 38.8/13.4 122/10 11.7/3.9 27/4 2850/1677 3.47:1 1.96:0.7 175


100 mm, only 17 % of specimens bear natural cortex over the area less than a half of the dorsal surface. In contrast, 34 % of the unretouched akes belonging to the same size category retain natural cortex over the area that is not less than a half of the dorsal surface. It is likely that the largest ake-blanks were produced outside the site. Such blanks might be detached from decorticated cores that were larger than the cores found at the site. Universal blanks, mostly retouched large blades, belong to the category of artifacts longer than 100 mm. They were brought to the site and fragmented there in order to get the maximum number of tools. The main cycle of reduction was performed at the site on the basis of blanks and unprepared pebbles that were brought from elsewhere, as well as on akes produced at the site and utilized when the need arose.

Osteological assemblage

The assemblage comprises 4630 complete bones and bone fragments. Taxonomic identi cation was carried out for 1055 specimens (identi cation by Dr. N.D. Ovodov). The taphonomic status of the collection has been evaluated using four grades: from fragments with the high degree of surface preservation to the bones with the completely decayed surface. The preservation of bones is mostly satisfactory, making it possible to identify them and to diagnose the species.

Bone remains affected by predators constitute 9 % (of 1374 modi ed bones). This fact points to the

dominant role of humans (91 % of the total number of bones) in the formation of the Tolbaga taphocenosis. It should be kept in mind that predators could consume the remains discarded by humans. The main signs of predator consumption noted on some bones and bone fragments include the tooth-marks U-shaped in cross-section. These marks differ from the cut marks that were left by stone tools. Some bones, especially large diaphyses, show gnawing marks on spongy bone tissues.

Bone remains of Coelodonta sp. (35.4 %), Ovis ammon L. (25.1%) and Equus (Equus) sp. (15%) dominate the assemblage. The share of bones of these animals exceeds the total amount of bones belonging to other animals. Remains of bovids form a relatively high percentage: Procapra gutturosa Pall. (4.7 %), Spirocerus cf. kiakhtensis M. Pavl. (2.7 %), Bison sp. (1.9 %), and Poephagus baikalensis N. Ver. (1.8 %). Bones of Canis lupus L. (7.2 %) are also present. No mammoth remains have been recorded; the only exception is a small piece of mammoth tusk found in the layer. Generally speaking, the Tolbaga bone assemblage corresponds to fauna constituting the Upper Paleolithic complex identified by E.A. Wangenheim (1977: 102) in the Trans-Baikal region.

The calculation of minimum number of individuals of every species (Fig. 13) has revealed the dominance of argali, horse, and rhinoceros. Other species are represented by isolated specimens. Taking into account the bone loss that occurred prior to bone deposition in the cultural layer, the number of hunted animals could be much higher. The number and composition of bones

Fig. 13. Minimum number of individuals of animals.


at Tolbaga is in uenced by the fact that the butchering of game was executed at the place of hunting and only some portions of the carcasses were brought to the dwelling site. The anatomical composition of the assemblage corroborates this supposition. The total number of anatomically identi ed bones is 2385 (Fig. 14). Most bones represent extremities (66.5 %) dominated by the distal parts of hind legs. Bones of the distal parts of forelimbs form the second large category. The bones of the shoulder and pelvic girdles and those of the proximal parts of extremities constitute approximately equal percentages (5–6 %). The bones of the trunks, including vertebrae and ribs, form 14.1 % of all identi ed bones. No complete skulls have been recovered. Among skull fragments (19.4 %), bones of the maxillae and mandibles prevail.

Exploitation of lithic raw material

What place does the Tolbaga pattern of stone utilization occupy among other such patterns reconstructed for Southern Siberian sites? To answer this question, we analyzed the archaeological materials from nine sites including technocomplexes recovered from 17 cultural horizons (Rybin, Kolobova, 2004; Rybin, Lbova, Klementyev, 2005; Derevianko et al., 2007). All the technocomplexes represent blade-based cultures of the early Upper Paleolithic of Southern Siberia and correspond to 45–30 ka BP. The sites are distributed over a vast region stretching from the western border of the blade-based early Upper Paleolithic cultures in Gorny Altai to the eastern border in the Trans-Baikal region and Mongolia. Elements of secondary working and ratios of main artifact categories within a particular industry have

been taken as the indicators of intensity and diversity of labor activity (Table 7).

In the Southern Siberian industries, medium and heavily modifying retouch is typical of 40–60 % of tools. The Tolbaga index of modifying retouch is the highest in the region and constitutes 75.9 %. Comparable values were recorded at Kamenka A(C ), Khotyk (horizon 2), and Kara-Tenesh. At Tolbaga, tools showing signs of working over one half or more of the working edge constitute 57.7 % of tools. In all other relevant Altai and Mongolian industries such tools constitute less than 50 %; in the Trans-Baikal region, the percentage is higher than at Tolbaga, reaching 62–73 %. The proportion of the Tolbaga tools demonstrating more than one technique of working is 34.9 %. At Tolbaga, this index is lower than in most Gorny Altai industries characterized by the polymorphic working of tools. Similar values have been recorded in all Trans-Baikal assemblages and in some layers of Kara-Bom; the Tolbaga index is higher than that of Ust-Karakol and Tolbor-4. However, at Tolbaga, tools bearing two or more working edges are relatively numerous forming 44.6 %.

The percentage of cores in the Tolbaga industry is among the highest in Southern Siberia. The share of tools is close to the average calculated for Siberia. It is close to that of Trans-Baikal sites. It is notably smaller than in the Ust-Karakol and Maloyalomanskaya assemblages (these sites were identi ed as short-term hunting camps (Rybin, Kolobova, 2004)), but larger than at the Tolbor-4 workshop site. The percentage of unprepared akes at Tolbaga is lower compared to the relevant values in other technocomplexes under discussion. The numerical proportions of certain artifacts may be relevant for human activities. The cores versus tools ratio illustrates the efficiency of core utilization. The tools versus

Fig. 14. Proportions of animal skeletal pieces.


Site

Layer

Total number of artifacts in the sample

Artifacts with slightly modifying retouch, %

Artifacts with medium and heavily modifying retouch, %

Artifacts with retouch over 1/4 of the perimeter or less, %

Artifacts with retouch over 1/2 of the perimeter or more, %

Artifacts with one element of secondary working, %

Artifacts with more than one element of secondary working, %

Cores : tools

Tools : by-products + cores

Cores : akes + tools

Proportion of cores in the assemblage, %

Proportion of akes in the assemblage, %

Proportion of tools in the assemblage, %

Gor

ny A

ltai

Kar

a-B

omU

P6

878

59.8

40.2

55.3

44.7

56.3

43.7

1:8.

91:

51:

52.7

1.8

79.7

16.3

UP

559

462

.137

.961

.338

.761

.938

.11:

11.5

1:6.

21:

821.

283

.713

.6

UP

1–4

395

57.9

42.1

70.0

30.0

44.3

55.7

1:9.

11:

4.4

1:48

.32.

079

.518

.5

Den

isov

a C

ave

1113

2639

.160

.967

.033

.053

.446

.61:

4.9

1:4.

51:

263.

778

.318

980

446

.553

.564

.235

.843

.956

.11:

31:

4.8

1:16

.95.

677

.117

.3

Ust

-Kar

akol

-111

184

78.2

21.8

95.5

4.5

84.6

15.4

1:4.

21:

2.1

1:12

.17.

660

.332

.1

1029

652

.048

.083

.017

.064

.036

.01:

6.7

1:1.

91:

12.1

5.1

60.8

34.1

962

861

.039

.085

.015

.073

.926

.11:

5.6

1:2.

21:

16.9

5.6

63.4

31.0

Kar

a-Te

nesh

no n

umbe

r80

927

.672

.454

.145

.942

.157

.91:

4.8

1:6.

31:

342.

883

.113

.6

Mal

oyal

oman

skay

ano

num

ber

4850

.050

.050

.050

.071

.428

.6 1

:81:

2 1

:23

4.1

62.5

33.3

Tran

s-B

aika

l

Kho

tyk

hor.

267

521

.678

.437

.362

.760

.839

.21:

6.4

1:3.

61:

282.

879

18

hor.

349

142

.058

.032

.068

.062

.038

.01:

41:

3.3

1:16

.55

74.5

20.5

Kam

enka

()

970

20.7

79.3

27.0

73.0

58.6

41.4

1:8.

31:

2.7

1:32

2.6

74.4

23

Tolb

aga

hor.

431

8424

.175

.942

.357

.765

.134

.91:

31:

3.7

1:12

.86.

872

.920

Nor

ther

n M

ongo

lia

Tolb

or-4

hor.

449

6640

.359

.751

.748

.365

.834

.21:

3.6

1:11

.71:

44.6

1.1

92.8

6.1

hor.

569

9243

.756

.357

.043

.088

.211

.81:

2.4

1:10

.71:

27.3

2.8

90.5

6.7

hor.

650

3553

.646

.476

.823

.287

.512

.51:

1.5

1:15

.51:

23.5

2.7

93.3

4.0

Tabl

e 7.

Mai

n ca

tego

ries

of l

ithic

art

ifact

s in

the

earl

y U

pper

Pal

eolit

hic

indu

stri

es o

f Sou

ther

n Si

beri

a


unretouched flakes and cores ratio is suggestive of the intensity of tool manufacture. The cores versus unretouched akes and tools ratio illustrates the intensity of primary reduction.

At Tolbaga, the ratio of cores to tools is one to three; this is the lowest index of effectiveness of core utilization in the region under discussion. It exceeds only the values calculated for the workshop site at Tolbor-4. The intensity of stone knapping is very low: one core corresponds to 12.8 akes. A lower index has been noted at Ust-Karakol. The highest indices of core reduction are characteristic of workshops (Tolbor-4) and sites with abundant raw material brought from outside (Kara-Bom, Kamenka, and Khotyk).

At Tolbaga, indices of the intensity of tool production are rather high (one tool corresponds to 3.7 unretouched pieces). They basically coincide with those calculated for other Trans-Baikal sites and are lower than the values for Ust-Karakol and Maloyalomanskaya Cave. The typical indices for the Altai are from four to six products of primary reduction to one tool; that for the workshop of Tolbor-4 is from 10 to 15 primary reduction products to one tool. In general, the Tolbaga collection is close to the technocomplexes that have been identi ed as short-term hunting camps (Rybin, Kolobova, 2004; Rybin, Lbova, Klementyev, 2005) by the proportions of the major categories of artifacts. However, the Tolbaga technocomplex reveals certain speci c features. On the one hand, the assemblage is characterized by a high percentage of cores that were slightly reduced and seemingly poorly utilized. This follows from the small amount of tools corresponding to one core. On the other hand, at the site, every fourth artifact was modi ed into a tool.

The Tolbaga technocomplex comprises a considerable number of cores retaining natural cortex. The utilization of such cores was restricted to detaching a few akes. As mentioned above, the primary reduction of most cores was executed at the site. The large number of non-exhausted cores may testify to the abundance of raw material (evidently local) which was brought to the site with the view of utilizing it. This circumstance possibly determined the low intensity of reduction and low ef ciency of utilization of cores. The abundance of small “expedient” tools that were used for some short-term and speci c purposes can be regarded as one of the results of this utilization strategy. Such tools often retain pebble cortex and show minimal additional working. However, the Tolbaga assemblage also contains a considerable number of tools (mostly large and wide blades more than 70 mm long) that show traces of the most intensive and deliberate secondary working. As the comparison of the major categories of lithic artifacts of the Tolbaga industry has demonstrated, both unprepared pebbles (core blanks) and large deliberately worked

tools were brought to the site. Artifacts were used for various long-term operations and also for intentional fragmentation with the purpose of increasing the number of implements suitable for work. The abundance of universal (“formal”) tools may account for the seeming discrepancy between the numerical proportions of artifact categories (high intensity of tool production and the extremely low ef ciency of core utilization) and the high level of polymorphic and heavily modifying secondary reduction.

Transportation and consumption of animals. Arti cial modi cation of bones

The osteological assemblage of Tolbaga comprises practically all the elements of animal skeletons. Bones of extremities, especially their distal parts, prevail due to the multiplicity of such bones in the skeletons of all animal species. The presence of limb bones in the faunal assemblage suggests that complete or partially butchered animal carcasses were transported to the site. The lower parts of limbs that are the least valuable parts for consumption could be cut off at any stage of butchering or else consumed during a food crisis. No traces suggesting scavenger behavior of humans at the site have been noted in the course of analysis of the amount and composition of game.

The faunal assemblage is dominated by the bones of rhinoceros (35.6 %). Other taxa include argali (23.5 %), horse (12.4 %), wolf (7.5 %), bison (6.2 %), reindeer and gazelle dzeren (3.6 %), spiral-horned antelope (3.3 %), Baikal yak (2.6 %), red deer (1 %), wild ass kulan, and bear (0.3 %). The distribution of forelimbs and hindlimbs according to species is broadly the same. Some species are represented exclusively by limb bones: kulan, Baikal yak, and bear. The bones of the trunk mostly belong to rhinoceros, argali, and horse. Few trunk bones of dzeren and reindeer have been noted. The most frequent craniodental remains are those of the horse followed by the argali, rhinoceros, reindeer, wolf, dzeren, bison, spiral-horned antelope, and red deer.

The analysis of limb bones belonging to argali, as the most representative species (Fig. 15), makes it possible to comment on the specifics of game consumption at Tolbaga. Unlike humeri, forearm bones are represented only by proximal epiphyses. More than half of the radii show clear arti cial cut marks. Thus, the lower parts of forelimbs, as the least valuable parts for consumption, were removed at the butchering place. The relevant bones have not been noted at the site with a few exceptions. Two nearly complete metacarpi deposited in anatomical order have been recovered from the border area of the living zone. This fact supports our hypothesis that the lower parts of forelimbs were not consumed and probably were


not transported to the site. It should be noted that the lower parts of hindlimbs are the most numerous parts in the assemblage.

Our analysis of the faunal remains have shown that humans not only removed the lower parts of legs of the hunted animals, but also intentionally cut, scraped, grinded, and polished bones. Bones were also subjected to thermal treatment and used in the production of tools and adornments (Fig. 16). The assemblage comprises 639 intentionally cut bones and more than 2000 bone fragments and chips, indicating a high degree of

fragmentation. Several bone cores have been noted. They were prepared for detaching akes. Epiphyses of leg bones of large animals were used for this purpose. Bone akes with sharp edges might have been used for various operations. However, bone tools were not as durable as stone tools. They could be used only as long as the “fresh” bone was preserved. The working edges of tools made on bone cores were additionally crumbled and smoothed out.

Bone tools form approximately 5 % of bones bearing signs of arti cial treatment. Bone tools were shaped with

1

2

3

15

1

25

15

8

12

15

8

9

31

7

6

Fig. 15. Number of identi able bones of argali.

Fig. 16. Variants of modi cations produced by humans on animal bones.


a new interpretation of the Tolbaga site. Formerly it was considered to be a long-term or seasonal (most likely winter) camp (Konstantinov M.V., 1994: 142; Konstantinov A.V., 2001: 163–164). Given the new analytical data, we propose to de ne the site as the camp that was repeatedly occupied by humans for quite long periods of time. The location of structural features of the site, at a distance of 100 m from one another in the comparatively narrow gully running along the slope perpendicular to the Khilok River, resulted from the regular and long-term displacement of the occupation “spots” down the slope, depending on the availability of convenient plain areas. The recognized dwelling structures represent habitation episodes, while the site territory exceeding 1000 sq. m can be regarded as a sort of palimpsest resulting from overlapping episodes.

Humans chose this place primarily due to the hypsometry of the slope. Precisely in this place, a shallow gully protected by the high watersheds from the north and the west is traceable. The slope faces the river valley and receives sunlight throughout the day. The slope faces south and dips towards the river at 8–12°. The area provides a good view over the valley for 2 km. A wide oodplain adjoins the slope containing the site from the

south. This place provided good opportunities for hunting steppe-dwelling animals (rhinoceros, horse, dzeren, and wild ass). Forested elevated areas adjoining the site to the north provided good opportunities for hunting argali, deer, and bear. Pollen spectra obtained primarily from the lower part of the pro le indicate the presence of forest (pine and birch), shrub (alder and hazelnut), and herb (Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, and Gramineae) vegetation in the valley. The character of the pollen spectra suggests that periglacial steppe with sparse pine and birch forest occupied the slopes and piedmonts, and shrubs formed the undergrowth (Konstantinov M.V., 1994).

The most frequently hunted animals at Tolbaga were Coelodonta sp., Ovis ammon L., and Equus (Equus) sp. Their habitats can overlap only within the river valley, which is wide. The rhinoceros has a propensity for boggy areas vegetated with shrubs; argali prefers mountain meadows, while horse mostly inhabits open steppe areas.

The Tolbaga locality occupies a special position in the Khilok River basin. The river ows between ridges of the Tsagan-Khurtei Mountain range and forms a comparatively narrow, about 2 km wide, section of the valley. Animals might cross this area moving from one broad section of the valley to another. Taking into consideration the landscape surrounding the site, it can be hypothesized that the hunting areas were located comparatively close to the site (within a radius of 2–3 km), primarily along the river valley. According to N.D. Ovodov, who identi ed species in the Tolbaga bone assemblage, people hunted mainly near the camp. This

Fig. 17. Bone tools.1, 2 – awls on limb bones; 3 – sidescraper on femur diaphysis

of woolly rhinoceros; 4, 5 – end tools on ribs.

respect to the anatomical proportions of bones, their morphology, and speci c features of complete bones and bone parts. Large ribs were used in the production of tools with working ends (Fig. 17, 4, 5). Most implements of this sort show signs of special treatment and use-wear marks on fractured ends. Ribs were also used as hafts in composite tools: two specimens have arti cial grooves in the middle of the lateral sides. Wide and rounded ends (epiphyses) of the distal parts of limb bones served as awl handles (Fig. 17, 1, 2) (Vasiliev et al., 1999). The Tolbaga sidescrapers with hafts made on femur epiphyses of woolly rhinoceros (Fig. 17, 3) have no parallels in other Paleolithic assemblages.

Conclusions

Results obtained through the analysis of the lithic industry and the archaeozoological assemblage together with data on the stratigraphy and planigraphy allow

0 5 cm

0 5 cm

1 2

3

4

5


inference arises from the comparatively large amount of bones of “poorly eatable” pieces of carcasses, like distal parts of limbs and pieces of crania (Ovodov, 1987: 124).

The Tolbaga bone assemblage contains evidence of hunting practiced in various seasons of the year. The presence of bones of newly born rhinoceros suggests hunting during spring and summer seasons. Phalanges lacking signs of consumption point to availability of food resources most likely in summer and autumn. This inference is supported by the predominance of argali bones in the assemblage. The best period for hunting these animals is autumn, when they form large groups during the rut period (Nazemnye zveri Rossii…, 2002: 254).

Judging by the composition of skeletons of the main hunted animal species, butchering and consumption took place at the site. The representation of skeletal parts is roughly the same as in the actual biomass, implying that all body parts were present at the site. Various methods of game utilization were likely employed. Complete carcasses of medium size animals were likely transported to the site. Carcasses of large animals, like rhinoceros, yak, and bison, were possibly dismembered elsewhere and then large parts of the carcasses were brought to the site. Interestingly, skulls of large animals are rare at the site, although they are normally well preserved. Possibly, heavy skulls were discarded at butchering places outside the site. Heavy pelvic bones (absent in the Tolbaga assemblage) seem to have also been left at butchering places.

The comparison of the reconstructed subsistence strategy with the pattern of stone utilization suggests that the lifestyle of ancient people was based on discontinuous occupation, apparently during the hunting seasons – summer and autumn. Analysis of the Tolbaga taphocenosis makes it possible to identify the locality as an occupation site where the complete process of butchering the game and its consumption (considerable modi cation of bones) took place. The sojourn period at the site was characterized by intensive production activities: people hunted in the vicinity of the camp, brought animal carcasses there, and butchered them using tools produced from pebble raw material that was imported from the banks of the Khilok River. Supposedly, prepared large blades, unprepared akes, and prepared large cores were brought to the site. At the site, the transported tools were modi ed, fragmented, and thus gained multiple functions. The wide range of techniques used by the Tolbaga population is noteworthy. Bone tools were intensively used at the site. They might have been functionally similar to “expedient” stone tools of the assemblage. During their visits to the site, people accommodated the area to their needs. The living area reveals remains of dwelling constructions, hearths, and production zones. In sum, the analysis of subsistence strategies of the early Upper Paleolithic inhabitants of

the Western Baikal area reveals a peculiar and complex settlement pattern, a high technological level, and high environmental adaptability.

Acknowledgments

The authors are deeply thankful to A.A. Anoikin. M.V. Konstantinov, N.A. Kulik, and M.N. Mescherin for their comments and help during the preparation of this article.

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Received June 15, 2009.

TOLBAGA: UPPER PALEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE TRANS- BAIKAL REGION

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