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The Scandinavian 8 Million City, COINCO II
Cross‐border freight transports by rail, Oslo–Gothenburg–Copenhagen–Hamburg
‐ Challenges and opportunities
BO‐LENNART NELLDAL
HANS BOYSEN
Report
Stockholm 2014
TRITA‐TEC‐RR 14‐006 KTH Arkitektur och samhällsbyggnad ISBN 978‐91‐87353‐45‐1 Avdelningen för trafik och logistik www.kth.railwaygroup.kth.se KTH, SE‐100 44 Stockholm
3
Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) TRITA‐TEC‐RR 14‐006
School of Architecture and the Built Environment ISBN 978‐91‐87353‐45‐1
Division of Transport and Logistics
The Scandinavian 8 Million City, COINCO II
Cross‐border freight transports by rail, Oslo–Gothenburg–Copenhagen–Hamburg
‐ Challenges and opportunities
Bo‐Lennart Nelldal
Hans Boysen
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Division of Transport and Logistics
KTH Railway Group
31 Jan 2014
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ForewordThe Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg corridor is currently being studied in two
different projects: The Corridor of Innovation and Cooperation (COINCO) Oslo–Gothenburg–
Malmö–Copenhagen and Green Corridor Oslo–Randstad (GreCOR). KTH was tasked to describe
the technical, administrative, and organisational conditions for developing rail freight transport
by the COINCO project. This report shows market and client requirements, administrative
processes for rail and highway vehicles, and infrastructure standards and operational conditions
for freight transports by rail in the Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen corridor and onward
to Hamburg.
The project manager for this project within COINCO was Kenneth Wåhlberg, assisted by Pernilla
Ngo, both of the Swedish Transport Administration. Tom Granquist from Akershus County also
took part in the work. A workshop was organised in Oslo on December 11, 2013 to discuss the
opportunities for improving cross‐border transports with transport clients and operators.
Valuable material in this connection was thereby contributed by Björn Thunqvist, of Green
Cargo.
The work was carried out within the KTH Railway Group in the Division of Transport and
Logistics. Bo‐Lennart Nelldal was the project manager, and authored the majority of this report
together with Hans Boysen of KTH. Lars Ahlstedt, European Rail Consult, was sub‐consultant; he
conducted interviews with goods clients and operators, and summarised the administrative
processes. The authors are themselves responsible for the conclusions of the report.
Stockholm, 31 Jan 2014
Bo-Lennart Nelldal Professor emeritus
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Table of contents
Foreword 4 Summary 7
1. Introduction 10 1.1. Background 10
1.2. Purpose 10
1.3. Methods 10
1.4. Delimitation 11
2. Market and client requirements 12 2.1 Goods transports via railway through the corridor in the countries 12
2.2 Cross‐border freight transports 15
2.3 Client requirements on the transport market 18
2.4 Transport quality and transport volume 24
2.5 Stakeholder interviews 27
2.6 Summary of client experiences 28
3. Administrative routines for rail and truck companies 31 3.1. Government agency requirements for companies 31
3.2. Taxes and fees 32
3.3. Creating connections 35
3.4. Vehicles and technology 36
3.5. Staff 38
3.7. Transport law 40
3.8. Government agency supervision 40
3.9. Comparison between railway and trucks 41
3.10. Results of stakeholder workshops 45
4. Infrastructure and operational assumptions 47 4.1. Introduction 47
4.2. Number of tracks 52
4.3. Maximum permitted speed 56
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4.4. Power supply 58
4.5. Signalling and traffic management systems 60
4.6. Gradients 62
4.7. Axle load 65
4.8. Linear Load 67
4.9. Loading gauge 69
4.10. Intermodal gauge 74
4.11. Train length 77
4.12. Train weight 81
4.13. Intermodal terminals 83
5. Conclusions and proposals 84 5.1. Introduction 84
5.2. Measures that can be implemented in the short term 84
5.3. Infrastructure and operational rules 85
5.4. Infrastructure investments, agreed on and planned 92
5.5. Long‐term strategy for prioritised freight corridors 93
5.6. The missing link 98
References 99
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Summary Cross‐border freight traffic has increased quite rapidly as a consequence of the developments in
international trade. The market share of the railways in international transports is much lower
than that of highways, despite long distances and large volumes. As an example, a truck crosses
the border between Oslo and Gothenburg every 30 seconds, and a freight train every 4 hours.
According to the EU’s 2011 white paper on transports, a larger percentage of long‐distance
freight transports should go by rail and maritime shipping in order to stand up to environmental
objectives and facilitate the free movement of goods.
The KTH Railway Group was tasked by COINCO to investigate the conditions for cross‐border
freight transports by rail and highway in the Oslo–Copenhagen corridor. This was accomplished
through a review of the administrative processes for transport companies, interviews with
transport clients, and an analysis of the technical conditions for railways and combined
transports.
Since the market share of railways in Sweden for international transports is 7% compared with
25% for domestic transports, few clients have experience with rail transports. Those who use
railways are often satisfied, but the problem is that few use them. Even though rail transports
are deregulated, there are a few companies to choose from, while there are hundreds of road
carriers. To put it somewhat simply, it could be said that a transport manager is needed to
purchase rail transports, and a telephone is needed to purchase truck transports.
Rail companies also need to take into account a much larger bureaucracy than a road carrier
has. A timetable slot must be sought nearly a year earlier, wagons and locomotives can be
leased in certain cases or new wagons and locomotives ordered 1 to 3 years prior and approved
in every country; training train drivers and rules on working hours entail high staff costs. Trucks
are approved for traffic in all of Europe and need no timetables, and drivers from low‐wage
countries are used frequently, especially in international traffic. This last factor means that
trucks can also be less expensive than the railway. Transport cost is the factor that weighs
heaviest when clients choose transport, given that the fundamental requirements for quality
are met.
In order to improve the conditions for the railways, joint operational rules should be introduced
in the international freight corridors to the greatest possible extent. This applies, for example, in
the short term to braking rules, and in the long term to the permitted length, weight, and make‐
up of trains. The operators can start traffic in several relations by coordinating the transports of
several clients. Transport clients must be prepared to jump on the train so that the traffic gets
going and can be expanded with more trains, and thereby more flexibility. A greater selection
could be offered if the operators can collaborate in a common network and information system.
8
Infrastructure and operational conditions vary along the corridor with single and double tracks,
various gradients and various speeds, and–for example–the fact that different train lengths,
weights, linear loads, axle loads and loading gauges are permitted, which has great significance
for freight traffic. 835‐metre trains are permitted from Hamburg through Denmark; 630‐metre
trains as a rule in Sweden, and in southern Norway 580‐metre trains. To increase the
effectiveness of the railways an even, high standard is desirable. A good example is the Öresund
Link, which already today allows 1,000‐metre trains weighing 4,000 tons to have 25 tons axle
load, and the cars to be of a height that allows 4.5 metre‐high trailers to be transported on the
railways. The fixed connection under Fehmarnbelt is planned for the same standard, but there is
no joint plan for other streches of the corridor.
It is just over 1,000 kilometres between Oslo and Hamburg via Fehmarnbelt. When the current
plans are implemented, likely around 2030, there will be approximately 900 kilometres of
double track between Oslo and Hamburg. Approximately 90% of the entire route will then be
double‐track, while the 100‐kilometre single‐track Halden–Öxnered stretch will become the
weakest link. This “missing link” should be planned, financed, and built jointly between Norway
and Sweden, much like the Öresund Bridge was.
It will take a long time to plan, invest in, and build the infrastructure. It is therefore a question
of finding measures that can improve cross‐border rail transports in the short term. Measures
identified in this project are as follows:
Infrastructure holders and government agencies
Create common braking rules
Expedite the implementation of international freight corridors
Simpler customs routines and vehicle approval
Station a pusher locomotive in Halden and Loenga to overcome the grades
Establish a joint regulatory agency for Norway and Sweden
Better supervision so that all trucks follow regulations
Operators and clients
Establish trains in the most important connections – Try to fill the train with several
clients’ freight – Expand later into more runs/relations
Create an intermodal supply registry to make the existing supply visible, and make it
possible for smaller clients to use the railways through “trainpooling”
Collaboration between clients to find joint solutions and balanced flows
Smaller measures in the infrastructure
Measures to raise standards that can be implemented in connection with other work
9
Establish a higher, wider loading gauge by removing obstacles
Extend passing sidings for longer trains and build individual new passing stations
Improved signalling system, e.g. simultaneous approaches
Figure: The Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg corridor and remaining
bottlenecks, standard for freight traffic around 2030 with starting point from current plans.
10
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
The Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg corridor is currently being studied in two
different projects: COINCO Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen and Green Corridor Oslo–
Randstad (GreCOR). KTH has been tasked with describing the technical and organisational
conditions for developing rail freight transport by the COINCO project.
Rail traffic in Sweden has undergone very positive development since 1988, when infrastructure
was separated from operation and an economic approach started to be applied to investments
in infrastructure. The rail network has improved, and new train systems have been established.
The deregulation of rail traffic has also been of great significance, especially for freight traffic.
Cross‐border traffic, however, has not developed as positively. The market share of the railways
in international transports is only half that of domestic transports, despite long distances and
large volumes. This means that railways on the Oslo–Gothenburg–Copenhagen route have a
very small share of the market. If the quality and capacity of the railways had been better, more
transports could have gone by rail or intermodal transport.
A number of the causes for goods transport by rail not being sufficiently attractive are due to
problems during border passages. Apart from technical reasons, for example with electrical
systems and signalling systems, loading gauges, axle loads and train lengths, administrative
procedures can sometimes be an obstacle. It could, for example, be a question of different rules
for train make‐up, brake settings, requiring new approvals for the vehicles to be operated in
another country, and so on. In certain cases it may be that there are technically no problems
with crossing the border, but the administrative obstacles are too great, especially for small
operators.
1.2. Purpose
The purpose of this project is to describe any problems that can be ascribed to goods transports
across national borders, primarily between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The problems can
be both technical and administrative. As far as it is possible, suggestions as to how the problems
can be reduced or eliminated will also be made.
1.3. Methods
The methods used are:
Studies of the literature to compile existing knowledge, especially concerning issues of a
technical nature.
Interviews: In‐depth interviews are conducted with various operators in the industry,
particularly to survey the administrative problems
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Workshops: A workshop was arranged in Oslo after the interviews about the administrative
processes and the experiences of transport clients had been compiled
Analysis and report: After analysis, all the material is compiled in a final report with suggestions
for measures and continued work.
1.4. DelimitationThis report shows the conditions for cross‐border freight transports by rail in the Oslo–
Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen corridor and on to Hamburg, as the Copenhagen–Hamburg
stretch is of great significance for the development of the Oslo–Copenhagen stretch; see Figure
1.1.
ELLER Figure 1.1. The Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg–Lehrte corridor.
12
2. Market and client requirements
2.1 GoodstransportsviarailwaythroughthecorridorinthecountriesThe total transport volumes by rail through the countries along the corridor in 2011 were:
Norway 3.6 billion ton‐kilometres; Sweden 22.9; Denmark 2.6; and Germany 113.3 billion ton‐
kilometres. The development from 1995 to 2011, excluding Germany, is shown in Figure 2.1. As
a comparison, Switzerland with 11.5 billion ton‐kilometres, and Finland with 9.4, are also
shown.
The development of the railways’ market share of total transports by rail, truck and canal
shipping is shown in Figure 2.2 for the countries included in the corridor. Canal shipping is found
only in Germany, which is why the figures of all the other countries show the distribution
between rail and truck. The market share of railways was highest in Sweden with 38% in 2011;
Germany came second with 23%; Norway with 16% and Denmark with 14%. Finland had 26%
and Switzerland had the highest market share in Europe with 46%. This means that the
predominant share of freight went by truck in all countries.
Railway market share decreased in Norway from 22% in 1995, but has stabilised after 2000. In
Denmark, the market share has increased over the past few years from a low level. In Germany,
the railway market share increased throughout the entire period. In Sweden and Finland,
market share has been rather constant at a relatively high level. In Switzerland, market share
has decreased over the past few years.
Market share has increased in the more deregulated countries. In Germany, the railways have
gradually lost market share ever since the end of the Second World War, but since 2000 it has
increased. It has also increased in the United Kingdom, Austria and Switzerland; in Sweden it has
remained stable at a high level. This is due to new private railway companies being established
and their selection being increased at the same time as the old State‐owned railways have
become more efficient as a consequence of competitive pressure. The development has not
been dramatic, but from a historical perspective with constantly sinking market shares, this
could entail a change in trends.
Figure 2.3 shows the development of transports in Denmark and Sweden from 2007 to 2011. It
shows that domestic transports account for a very small share of the total transports in
Denmark, while those in Sweden account for more than half. A very large part of the traffic in
Denmark is transit traffic from Sweden, and to a certain extent from Norway and Finland. It also
shows that trucks and railways increased roughly the same amount from 1995 to 2010 in both
countries.
Figure 2.4 shows the development of freight traffic by rail in Norway from 1993 to 2011. Total
traffic volume increased between 2003 and 2009, chiefly through intermodal traffic.
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International traffic, however, has decreased. The development of transport volume in tons is
similar, though the statistics of the past few years are incomplete.
Figure 2.1. Total transport volume by rail in billion ton‐kilometres, 1995–2011, in Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark, with Finland and Switzerland as a comparison.
Figure 2.2. Railway market share in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Germany, with Finland and
Switzerland as a comparison.
0
5
10
15
20
25
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011
Total rail tonnes‐kilometres
Total rail tonne‐kilometres
Sweden
Switzerland
Finland
Norway
Denmark
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011
Rail m
arket share % of rail + road
+ in
land waterw
ay
Rail market share of truck+rail
Switzerland
Sweden
Finland
Germany
Norway
Denmark
14
Figure 2.3. Transports by rail and truck in Denmark and Sweden. Source: Sylvans transport datalab, 2012.
Figure 2.4. Freight transport by rail in Norway. Right: transport volume in million ton‐kilometres
distributed by international, domestic, and LKAB iron ore traffic. Left: transport volume in thousand tons
distributed by domestic and international traffic, excl. LKAB iron ore traffic. Source: Jernbanestatistikk
2000, 2008 and 2012 combined by KTH. The statistics for the past few years is incomplete.
15
2.2 Cross‐borderfreighttransports
Freight transports between Sweden and Norway, Denmark and Germany in 2020 are shown in Tables 2.5 and 2.6. They relate to freight volumes in millions of tons, excluding iron ore and oil, divided into estimated export and import from Sweden. The total transport volumes are greatest in Germany with 19.5 million tons; next is Norway with 12.1 million tons; least is Denmark with 7.2 million tons. Note that these figured apply to transports between these countries; transit traffic that crosses over borders–between Norway and Germany, for example–are added to this.
Studying the distribution of means of transport between different countries and for export and import is of interest. Between Sweden and Norway, trucks have a market share of 60%, railways 15% and maritime shipping 28%. Trucks thus predominate. Between Sweden and Denmark, trucks have 49%, railways only 3% and maritime shipping 48%. Trucks and maritime shipping here have an equal share, and railways are marginalised. Between Sweden and Germany, trucks have 34%, railways 34% and maritime shipping 31%. Trucks, railways, and maritime shipping are equally strong here.
If we then analyse the different directions, railways dominate exports to Germany but it has a very small share of imports, where trucks predominate. This is likely due to export freight being dominated by the base industries, while import freight is dominated by more high‐value goods.
There are four border stations between Sweden and Norway: Kornsjø, Charlottenberg, Storlien and Riksgränsen (Vassijaure). On the Oslo–Gothenburg corridor, Kornsjø is the border station for railways and Svinesund is for trucks. A survey of truck traffic across the border at Svinesund, Missing Link 2013–Ramboll 2013[40] was conducted in 2013. The results show that 2,462 heavy trucks crossed per day, with an average load weight of 15.6 tons. At Kornsjö, 6–8 freight trains passed per day, and the load weight was estimated at 350 tons. The total transport volume is estimated to amount to 7 million tons. With this as a starting point, the market share of trucks in this section is calculated to be 93% and the market share of railways to be 7%.
If we study only the distribution between railways and trucks, the market share of railways between Sweden and Norway is 18%. The market share on the Gothenburg–Oslo corridor is thus lower than average between Sweden and Norway (iron ore removed). This indicates that the relative standard of railway transports is lower on this corridor than on the others. The total transport volume is thus significant, so there should be basis for railway transports on the corridor.
There are therefore quite large differences between the developments of domestic and
international transports. Figure 2.7 shows the development of international transports by rail
and truck (excluding iron ore and oil) in Sweden since 1970. Both railways and trucks
transported around 5 million tons at the time. In 2012, trucks had increased to 38 million tons,
while railways had only increased to 7 million tons. Nearly the entire increase has been taken by
trucks, despite this involving long distances and large volumes.
Figure 2.8 shows railway market share in Sweden for domestic and international transports,
excluding iron ore and oil. Note that maritime shipping is also included in these statistics. It
16
shows there that railway market share in international transports is less than half as large as in
domestic transports. It also shows that market share for international transports have
decreased since the middle of the 1990s, while it has increased for domestic transports. This is
largely due to deregulation, which until now has been positive for domestic rail transports but
negative for international transports. As regards the deregulation of truck traffic, it has been the
other way around: it had the greatest effect on the liberalisation of international transports.
Figure 2.5. Transport volumes by trucks, railways and maritime shipping between Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Germany, 2010. Source: Jakob Wajsman, Swedish Transport Administration.
Figure 2.6. Market shares for trucks, railways, and maritime shipping between Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Germany, 2010. Source: Jakob Wajsman, Swedish Transport Administration.
Between Sweden 2010 Million tons excl. iron ore and oil
and Road Rail Maritime Total
Norway Export 2,5 0,6 1,9 5,0
Import 4,7 0,9 1,5 7,1
Total 7,2 1,5 3,3 12,1
Denmark Export 1,9 0,1 1,8 3,9
Import 1,6 0,1 1,7 3,4
Total 3,6 0,2 3,5 7,2
Germany Export 2,0 5,8 4,7 12,4
Import 4,7 0,9 1,5 7,1
Total 6,7 6,7 6,1 19,5
Between Sweden 2010 Market share
and Road Rail Maritime Total
Norway Export 50% 12% 37% 100%
Import 66% 13% 21% 100%
Total 60% 13% 28% 100%
Denmark Export 50% 3% 47% 100%
Import 49% 2% 49% 100%
Total 49% 3% 48% 100%
Germany Export 16% 47% 38% 100%
Import 66% 13% 21% 100%
Total 34% 34% 31% 100%
17
Figure 2.7. International freight transports to/from Sweden by rail and trucks in millions of tons, 1970–
2012, excluding iron ore and oil.
Figure 2.8. Market share for domestic and international transports by rail in Sweden, excluding iron ore
and oil.
18
2.3 ClientrequirementsonthetransportmarketThe requirements that industry has for freight transports by rail are due to factors such as the
nature of the goods, where in the production process the goods are, the financial strength of
the goods, and the (export) market as well as competition with other means of transport. These
requirements can be for different types of transports as regards capacity, quality and vehicle
equipment. It can also be for different industries with different geographical structures that
impose particular requirements on the transports. An additional dimension is the size of the
company, from large to small businesses, and the size of the consignment.
The most important client requirements are cost and quality. The environment is also becoming
an increasingly important requirement through demands from the clients. The following figure
provides a more complete picture of client requirements:
Figure: 2.9 Client requirements for freight transports
Lundberg’s Godskunders värderingar (2006) reports on the results of a survey conducted in
2005. It incorporated both a questionnaire with multiple‐choice questions or open responses,
and an SP survey. What distinguishes this survey is the fact that it had a very high response rate.
Out of a selection of 100 transport managers, 99 responded to the telephone interview, which
was supported by an interview questionnaire sent out in advance. The selection was distributed
among various industries across Sweden and companies that use trucks, railways, and maritime
19
shipping. In this summary, the responses to some of the questions linked to delays are reported.
Since there were 99 companies, this means that 10 companies represent 10% of the total.
Transport costs
The results show that transport costs are of very great significance in the choice of carrier. The
transports maintained a high level of quality with few delays and little damage in transit with
today’s transportation systems. At the same time, a high degree of competition prevails in the
transport market, which is one of the reasons that transport clients are sensitive to prices. The
threshold for changing transport suppliers is 3.8% lower price on average, if everything else
remains unchanged. Businesses hire many transport companies; nearly all hire more than one
and over half hire more than 10 transport companies.
Quality and environment
One condition for changing transport companies is likely that the level of quality achieved is
retained. Purchasers of transport are prepared to pay some, but not a lot, for more
environmentally friendly transport; 50% of the environmental impact was valued at 2% of the
transport price. This may seem low, but the company is also very sensitive to price.
Approximately 40% of the companies are prepared to change carriers in the event of a price
difference of less than or equal to 3%, but on average the threshold for changing carriers is
3.8%. This means that, for example, halving the environmental burden would not be enough for
most companies to change carriers, provided that everything else remains unchanged.
Transport times and frequency
Shorter transport times and higher frequency of shipments were given low values. Short
transport times are of greater significance, however, for high‐value goods than for low‐value.
The satisfaction of transport managers with current transportation solutions may be due to the
fact that production and transports are adapted to each other as concerns both transport time
and frequency. With current production, there is thus no reason to change the transport
system; cheaper transports can always be required instead.
The analysis of binary choices also shows this. A difference of 10% risk for delay corresponds to
a willingness to pay of 1%; that is, price is 10 times more important than an increased risk of
delay. A difference of 16% in transport times corresponds to a difference in transport price of
1%, and a difference of 15% corresponds to a willingness to pay of 1%. Price is thus clearly the
most important, next is that the risk of delay does not increase, and thereafter shorter transport
times and higher frequency. Purchasers of transport are known for being sensitive to price; this
is emphasized in this study as well as other studies done previously.
20
Since the selection of companies seems to be reasonably representative compared with
transports across all of Sweden in various aspects, the conclusions should also be relatively
representative and apply in general to transports in Sweden.
Figure 2.10. Results from the question: At what price difference will companies change carriers, if there are equivalent alternatives?
Figure 2.11. Results of the Stated Preference survey with ranking standardised to price %.
Change of carrier with subsequent price difference
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0,5% 1% 2-3% 4-5% 10% 20%
No. of companies
21
Occurrence of delays
A question was asked about how large a percentage of transports in the largest outflows were
delayed at the recipient, calculated in percent of transports per year. Access to delay statistics
were limited, but the respondents assessed the occurrence of delays according to Table 7 and
Figure 6. 18 companies, or 18%, felt that they had no, or hardly any, delays at all. 46% had
between 0.5% and 4% delayed transports. 19% had delays of 5–10% of their transports, and 6%
had delays of 20–30% of their transports.
Additional costs in the event of delays
If the transport is delayed, it can entail a cost for the shipper or the receiver. A question was
asked about how delayed a transport has to be for it to entail an additional cost for the
company or the recipient; the results are shown in Table 8 and Figure 7.
9% believe they incur an additional cost from the first minute a transport is delayed. 45% incurred an additional cost if the transport was 2–8 hours delayed. After 1 and 2 days’ delay, an additional cost arose for 21% and 10% of the companies, respectively. 11% believed they incurred additional cost only after 3 days’ delay.
It is clear that the impact of the longer delays is clustered around uniform days, with delays of 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. This was an open question, so the transport clients could freely choose the number of hours, but obviously the daily rhythm has great significance for freight transports.
Transport times
It may be of interest to relate the results to transport times. Transport times varied according to
Table 9. 28% of the companies had a transport time shorter than 5 hours, which can be
interpreted as being transports that run during the day. 33% had a transport time of between 6
and 25 hours, which can be interpreted as being transports that run over night or take one night
and one day. 11% had transports that took 2 days, in which all of Sweden and the Nordic
countries–and certain parts of Europe–can be reached by truck or train. 16% of companies had
transports that too from 3 to 4 days; in that time, large parts of Europe can in principle be
reached. 11% had transports that took more than 4 days, which makes it possible to reach
anywhere in the world, at least for high‐value goods (per unit weight).
22
Table 2.12. Summary of responses to the question “How large a percentage of transports are delayed”.
Table 2.13. Summary of responses to the question “When is additional cost incurred by delays”.
Table 2.14. Transport times for the companies studied
Delayed Number of Shareshipments companies %
0% 18 18%0.5-1% 40 40%2-4% 16 16%5-10% 19 19%
20-30% 6 6%
Total 99 100%
Delay Number of Share Category Categoryhours companies % % delay
1 9 9% 9% 1 hr2-3 17 17%4-6 17 17% 45% 2-8 hrs6-8 11 11%16 1 1%24 21 21% 21% 1 day36 2 2%48 10 10% 10% 2 days72 2 2%
>96 9 9% 9% 4 daysTotal 99 100%
Transportation Number of Share Categorytime (h) companies % %
<=5 28 28% Over day6-10 22 22% Over night
11-25 11 11% Over night+day26-49 11 11% 1-2 days50-99 16 16% 3-4 days>100 11 11% >4 days
Total 99 100%
23
Figure 2.15. Percentage of delayed transports out of total transports. Source: Sofia Lundberg (2006).
Figure 2.16. Responses to the question “When is additional cost incurred by delays?” Source: Sofia Lundberg (2006).
När uppstår en merkostnad vid en försening
0
20
40
60
80
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91företag
timmar
9 företagfår en mer-kostnad efter 4 dygn
9 företagfår en mer-kostnad direkt
Hours
How long time it takes before the business will be negative affected of a delay
9 companies will be affected direct
Companies
9 companies will be affected after 4 day and nights
24
2.4 TransportqualityandtransportvolumeThe quality of transports is an important factor in the choice of means of transport. It can be
said, in a somewhat simplified way, that provided that the base quality is met, then the lowest
price is what matters in the choice of transport company. Sometimes the environment is
allowed to squeeze in, but as a rule transport clients do not want to pay that much; instead,
they prefer to get it as part of the bargain.
There is, however, a demand for environmentally friendly transport; more and more companies
are taking climate issues seriously and are trying to minimise their emissions of greenhouse
gases at every stage. For this reason, but also because rail transports can be very cost‐effective,
there is today a great demand for rail transports–perhaps larger than what rail companies can
currently satisfy.
This is sometimes due to the fact that rail transports are also more expensive than truck
transports, which has become more common over the last few years since road carriers with
drivers earning extremely low wages have become a common occurrence. This not only impacts
the railways negatively, but also road carriers that pay normal wages. In addition, the
transportation market is impacted in general; as market prices fall and profitability falls, there is
no space for improving the transport system.
A contributing factor is also that the railways cannot always guarantee sufficiently certain
delivery times, which means that freight–primarily time‐sensitive freight–sometimes avoids rail
transport even though it is much cheaper than truck transport. Rail transport may have an
undeservedly poor reputation for poor punctuality; in Sweden, for example, Green Cargo has
improved punctuality significantly over the last 10 years up through 2010. This applies to
deliveries to clients and, above all, the lesser disruptions of a few hours.
What has happened over the past few years is that the larger interruptions to traffic of a day or
more have increased, partially as a consequence of extreme weather, likely due to the climate
crisis. Events like this have struck the railways both in Sweden and Norway, where the extreme
winters of 2010 and 2011 are an example. Statistics from CargoNet show how first, punctuality
went down, and after that transport volumes followed around a year later, see figure. After
that, Norway was struck with several major interruptions due to torrential rains.
There have also been longer traffic interruptions in Sweden due to derailments as a
consequence of increased traffic and neglected maintenance, see Figures 2.19 and 2.20. A
longer interruption also occurred in Denmark, which stopped nearly all traffic on the railways
through Denmark to and from Germany for more than two weeks.
The problems with the long traffic interruptions is that they can cause total stoppages in
deliveries, which means that companies with time‐sensitive freight hesitate to use the railways.
For smaller volumes, temporary re‐arrangements with truck transport can be an alternative, but
25
for larger volumes it can be both difficult and expensive. Better redundancy in the railway
system is required in order to handle these larger volumes, with alternative transport routes
and preparedness for putting the track in order more quickly after an accident.
It may seem an irony of fate that railway transports are sometimes stopped by extreme weather
following in the tracks of the climate crisis caused to some extent by truck transports, which
ultimately results in more freight going by truck.
Figure 2.17. Development of punctuality and transport volume for intermodal transports in
CargoNet in Norway.
Figure 2.18. Development of transport volume for all intermodal transports in Norway.
26
Figure 2.19. Traffic interruptions in Sweden for freight traffic of at least one day, distributed over
the years in number of days of interruption in Sweden from 2000 up through December 2013.
Source: [41] (KTH 2014).
Figure 2.20. Causes of traffic interruptions for freight traffic of more than one day in Sweden
from 2000 up through 2013. Source: [41] (KTH 2014).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
No. o
f days with in
terruption
No. of days with interuptiona and causes per year
Derailment Storm Others
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Derailment
Storm, natural disaster
Fire on train or alongthe track
Collison at roadintersection
Collison on railway
Interruptions, total number of days
Cause for interruption in days
27
2.5 StakeholderinterviewsThe project included interviewing a number of stakeholders who make use of cross‐border
transports about their experiences of transports, and what requirements they have for the
transports. The questionnaire is shown in Appendix 1. A summary of the results of the
interviews is shown below.
1. Does the company have cross‐border transports in some part of the Norway–Sweden–
Denmark–Germany/Continental corridor?
All connections were represented in the interviews.
2. How large are the amounts of goods per year, roughly?
There were no answers to this question that could be compiled, but the companies interviewed account for relatively large transport flows.
3. How great a percentage (% of tonnage) of incoming and outgoing freight, respectively, is
shipped via the different means of transport? The answers are shown in the table below:
Percentage of tonnage (%)
Incoming Outgoing
Truck 70% 65%
Railway 5% 15%
Maritime Shipping
20% 20%
4. What are your experiences of the different means of transport?
Trucks are simple as regards both procurement and delivery. They are easy to load and handle
in daily operations.
Railways can be difficult to implement in the operations. They can create more internal handling
than trucks.
Maritime shipping often takes place via truck or railway; the transport is then as described
above.
Transports with container traffic are routines that are well developed in shipping companies.
Maritime transports are often overseas transports where there are no alternative solutions.
5. Have the companies investigated the possibilities of transports via rail?
28
The answers here are evenly divided. Shipping agents often follow the selection within
intermodal traffic but come up with no alternative solutions for their freight, which previously
took place with, for example, consolidated shipping.
6. If the companies do not use railways, what is this due to?
They are currently satisfied with the solutions they have, and the only thing that could increase
railway use is that it is of interest as regards pricing. The railways generally have a poor
reputation concerning keeping to schedule, handling goods, and price.
Note that when we speak of keeping a schedule, it concerns not minutes, but days.
7. What would get companies to increase the amount of freight on the railways?
See above. If the railways can make it so that the experience of poor quality is not correct, and the cost is right, railways will have no problems. One good example is the Port of Gothenburg, with the shuttle trains there. Here, the poor reputation of the railway comes to nothing
8. How do companies experience treatment by the shipping companies and railway
companies, respectively? What are their strong and weak points? Any suggestions for
improvement?
Railway companies are in a tight spot, unable to ensure the quality of its transports with the
resources freight traffic can get in the existing infrastructure. This creates difficulties in
conducting reasonable dialogue with clients.
Road carriers have better control over their operations, and can thereby be clearer and more
certain in their dialogue with clients. Talking with road carriers is therefore perceived as simpler.
9. Do you feel that there is functional competition and more transport companies on the
railways to choose from?
This is perceived only by the companies that use railways to a greater extent.
2.6 Summaryofclientexperiences
The picture that came out in the interviews confirms the picture found in previous studies and
research into transports. Regarding clients’ choice of means of transport, cost and quality are
the crucial factors; the environment is sometimes allowed to squeeze in.
Truck traffic is readily available, and there are often many road carriers to choose from. In this
sense, deregulation of truck traffic has been successful, but according to some stakeholders it
has gone too far as prices are pushed too far down and competition does not occur under the
same conditions.
29
Deregulation of the railways has not yet been fully implemented in practice in all countries,
which means that sometimes it has been complicated for the operators to drive on the railways,
and thus more difficult for clients to choose the railways. There is a limited number of rail
companies to choose from, and it is not possible to purchase railway transports on all
connections.
This primarily affects smaller clients with smaller volumes and dispersed flows, who do not have
the resources to procure transports over the long term. To put it somewhat simply, it could be
said that a transport manager is needed to purchase rail transports, and a telephone to
purchase truck transports; they may not always need to make the call themselves as sometimes
road carriers looking for return loads call them.
The larger companies, however, have profited from deregulation as they have more operators
to choose from, which has meant more efficient arrangements and lower prices.
Getting an offer for rail transport can take weeks, while getting an offer on truck transport often
takes just days. But it is not always possible to get an offer on rail transport if there is no traffic
established. Intermodal transport is more flexible and is an opportunity for certain types of
freight, but is not suitable for all transports.
30
Figure 2.21. Simplified picture of transport clients’ selection situation. Used as a basis for
workshop discussion, KTH.
Figure 2.22. Summary clients’ experience of railway and trucks. Used as a basis for workshop
discussion, KTH.
31
3. Administrative routines for rail and truck companies
3.1. Governmentagencyrequirementsforcompaniesa. Legal
Railway
Upon application for a licence to operate railway traffic, a number of requirements shall be met.
The government agencies of the respective countries have their own requirements for issuing
part B Safety Certificates.
For example, Sweden requires an extract from the criminal database on the management
group, as well as that the intended company can present a budget that is approved by the
agencies, and that the owners are solvent or that their capital is deemed to be of sufficient
scope.
The licence shall be renewed every 5 years.
Truck
Road carriers established in the EU/EEA can, with the support of a Community permit (a blue
permit) awarded by the Swedish Transport Agency, operate international transports and
temporary domestic transports in the EU/EEA. A copy shall be carried in the vehicle.
Solvency requirements apply to road carriers in order to obtain transport authorisation: 85,000
SEK for the first vehicle and 45,000 SEK thereafter.
b. Economic
Railway
“Permits may be granted to persons who, with regards to professional skills, economic ability
and good reputation are deemed suitable to provide tractive force and carry out rail traffic, and
are regarded as meeting the requirements in the Railway Act and the provisions issued with the
support of the Act.”
c. Other
Railway
The railway company shall present to the respective agencies its own safety management
system, which shall be accepted by the respective agencies.
The Part A Security Certificate shows that the company meets the requirements for a safety
management system; the Part B Security Certificate shows that the company meets the route‐
specific requirements, i.e. the Swedish safety requirements, and has vehicles that are approved
in Sweden and/or meet harmonised technical operational compatibility requirements, or TSD
requirements. Additionally, the company shall show that they have insurance or other
equivalent arrangement covering the liabilities for damage that may arise as a consequence of
32
the traffic to which the safety certificate applies. Currently, the requirement is protection
corresponding to at least 300 MSEK.
There can be only one railway company responsible for the same traffic. This company is thus
responsible for vehicles, staff, and other resources in the operations, even if they themselves do
not own the vehicles or have not employed the staff.
The Swedish Transport Agency has a turnaround time of four months after the full and
complete application for security certifacate has been submitted and is paid. Incomplete
applications, i.e. deficiencies in the appendices, etc., will delay handling.
Different countries have different requirements that are to be met and handled, although the
requirements often have their origins in the same EU regulations.
Truck
Competency requirements for management. Tests shall be taken.
3.2. Taxesandfeesa. Basic taxes
Railway
No special taxes.
Truck
National vehicle taxes for truck tractors of approximately 13,000 SEK per year.
b. Road‐dependent taxes and fees – track charges
The track charges in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Germany are shown in Table 3.1 in local
currencies and in Table 3.2 in euros.
Norway
In principle there are track charges in Norway, but the price is set at 0. Driving trains is thus free
in Norway, as regards track charges.
Sweden
Track charges in Sweden consist of several components. Train path charges, paid per train
kilometre, vary between 0.20 SEK/train km and 4.29 SEK/train km. Accident charges and
operating charges totalling 1.06 SEK/train km are added to this. Then there is a track access
charge to cover wear on the track, which is 0.0045 SEK/gross tonne‐kilometre. There are special
tolls for the major city areas and for the Öresund Bridge, which are paid per train. In addition to
this there are a number of other fees for diesel operation, disposition, and delays.
33
Figure 3.1. Track charges in countries along the Oslo–Hamburg corridor in local currencies, 2014.
Figure 3.2. Track charges in countries along the Oslo–Hamburg corridor in euros, 2014.
Norway Sweden Denmark Germany
2014 NOK SEK DKK EUR Recalculation factor
Priority
Train km charges
Trunk lines SEK/trainkm 0 4,29 4,73 Express 1,65
Average load SEK/trainkm 0 0,60 2,96 Standard 1,00
Low load SEK/trainkm 0 0,20 2,10 Single locomotive 0,65
Service train 0,50
Accident charges SEK/trainkm 0 0,88
Operating charges SEK/trainkm 0 0,18
Tolls
Major cities SEK/train 0 260
Öresund Bridge 2950 2552
Store Bält Bridge 6237
Track charges SEK/grosstonkm 0 0,0045 0,0038
Other charges
Emissions charges SEK/liter 1,50
Storage charges SEK/100m and h 0 8,00
Delay charges SEK/minute 0 25
Norge Sverige Danmark Tyskland
2014 EUR EUR EUR EUR Recalculation factor
Priority
Exchange rate SEK/EUR 0,12 0,11 0,13 1,00
Train km charges
Trunk lines SEK/trainkm 0 0,47 4,73 Express 1,65
Average load SEK/trainkm 0 0,07 2,96 Standard 1,00
Low load SEK/trainkm 0 0,02 2,10 Single locomotive 0,65
Service train 0,50
Accident charges SEK/trainkm 0 0,10
Operating charges SEK/trainkm 0 0,02
Tolls
Major cities SEK/train 0 29
Öresund Bridge 325 332
Store Bält Bridge 811
Track charges SEK/grosstonkm 0 0,00050 0,00049
Other charges
Emissions charges SEK/liter 0,17
Storage charges SEK/100m and h 0 0,88
Delay charges SEK/minute 0 2,75
34
Denmark
Track fees in Denmark consist of a track access fee of 0.0038 DKK/gross tonne‐kilometre, which
is roughly the same as in Sweden. The Öresund Bridge toll is roughly the same, converted to
€332 compared with €326; the differences are due to changes in currency. The fee for the Great
Belt fixed link of €811 is added to this, which can be compared with the total fee of €656 for the
Öresund Bridge.
Germany
In Germany, the fees are simple, but high. The train path charges on trunk lines are €4.73/train km–10 times higher than in Sweden. It is as low as €2.10/train km on less‐trafficked routes. There is also a weighting of track fees; standard trains and freight trains have a weight of 1.0 while express trains have a weight of 1.65.Truck
Fees (Maut) in Germany. Road tax between 8,000 and 13,000 SEK for a windscreen sticker valid
in Sweden, Denmark, and Benelux; for other countries, a road tax is paid per country in
connection with crossing the border. The road taxes can most often be paid at fuelling stations
and the like near the border. As a rule, road taxes need only be paid for motorways.
Congestion charges and local road taxes, where they occur, are as a rule only charged to
national vehicles.
c. Surtaxes
Railway
No special taxes.
d. Other charges
Railway
Annual fees to regulatory agencies in Sweden. No fees are charged in the other countries.
For small to medium‐sized companies, e.g. CFL: Vehicle charges 5,330 SEK; inspection fees
121,992 SEK; hazardous goods 13,200 SEK per company.
For large companies such as GreenCargo: vehicle charges 1,023,620 SEK; inspection fees
283,392 SEK; hazardous goods 52,692 SEK; market surveillance 12,996 SEK.
Inspection fees are also charged by the regulatory agencies in Denmark, but these are variable
and production‐dependent (according to Hector Rail).
Truck
Inspection fees in Sweden are charged to Swedish companies.
35
3.3. Creatingconnectionsa. Application for schedule
Railway
The Swedish Transport Administration is responsible for all planning of traffic on the tracks and
maintaining the rail network. It develops train plans for traffic and time for track work.
Work on the train plan covers the period from three years before the start of the planning
period to the end of the planning period.
For the Administration to be able to control planning the allocation of times on track (capacity)
prior to and during construction of the train plan, the work follows two processes–a long‐term
and a short‐term.
In Sweden, for example, the railways are not codified into a Railway Network Statement
regarding the intermodal gauge (loading profile for intermodal traffic), which means that a great
deal of the trains run as special transports, with the administrative handling and costs this
entails.
To carry out an arrangement through several countries, railway companies must communicate
with the respective countries.
The allocation process (long‐term)
Applications for time on the rails are handled in the allocation process. This is done annually and
runs from December to December.
Ad hoc process (short‐term)
The ad hoc process concerns adjusting allocated capacity or entirely new needs. It is used to
allocate train paths from a short‐term perspective. The applicant receives a response within 5
days.
All dates and a detailed description are found in the Railway Network Statement.
One ambition is for coordination in the corridors to take place at a European level. What the
solution will look like when the trip runs outside the corridor is not presented. This work has
been going on since the end of the previous century.
Truck
Nothing special is required to run every truck transport (provided that there is a valid driving
licence and operating permit, etc.).
36
3.4. Vehiclesandtechnologya. Acquisition
Railway
Delivery times: locomotives 6 months to 2 years; ERTMS equipment 6 months to 3 years; freight
cars 3–6 months.
The above applies to vehicles of a previously approved type.
Truck
Acquisition time for standard vehicles 1–3 months, given a rich supply.
b. Approval
Railway
A vehicle for rail traffic shall be approved by the Swedish Transport Agency before it is put into
use in Sweden. This applies to new, imported, and substantially rebuilt vehicles. In the same
way, a new or substantially rebuilt state‐owned track or technical system is approved before it is
put into use. This is regulated in the Railway Act (SFS 2004:519). The names of junctions and
training plans shall also be approved.
Approvals issued by the Swedish Railway Inspection are valid, and do not need to be redone as
long as there are no modifications made to a sub‐system. All equipment that was in use when
the new Railway Act entered into force is also to be regarded as approved.
Which approval process does the Swedish Transport Agency apply?
The Agency’s provisions on approval describe two different processes. The first is harmonised
within Europe and is applied to standardised railway systems (specified in the TSD, the technical
specifications for operational compatibility). This process shall be applied to railway systems in
the majority of cases, as all sub‐systems have been covered by TSD since 2011. The other
process is a national one, and is applied to sub‐systems that are based on national regulations
(for example, systems for the underground and trams, as well as national security components).
In changes to the infrastructure, a description shall always be submitted to the Transport
Agency, which will determine if approval is required and which approval process shall be
applied.
Who should apply for approval?
Applicants could be persons building or procuring a vehicle, infrastructure or a technical
system–for example, a railway company, a manufacturer, or an infrastructure administrator.
37
Truck
The vehicle is approved in the country that manufactures the vehicle.
c. Equipment requirements
Railway
ERTMS will be introduced on the West Coast Line in Sweden between 2017 and 2025, but can
be pushed forward and coordinated with EU Corridor B, as well as through Denmark before
2019 http://www.bane.dk/hentmedie.asp?filID=15848 http://www.bane.dk/db/filarkiv/12405/Fjernbane%20udrulning_A3_230412.pdf; this means
that locomotives and multiple‐units must be equipped with ETCS and STM for the different
versions in question. There is still some uncertainty for certain locomotive types and whether
the total operational capacity is in place. Train vehicles shall be equipped with Mobisir
telephony; different rules apply for different countries. Norway, for example, requires 8 watts of
fixed mounted telephones, plus hand phones at 2 watts each.
The requirements for vehicles currently look different. For example, the requirement on the
width of the pantograph is different in Norway and Germany, which means that they are not
compatible.
Truck
Germany requires road tax (Maut) readers; in Norway, tractor vehicles must be equipped with
snow chains in the winter.
d. Maintenance
Railway
All companies that own vehicles must have an ECM–Entity in Charge of Maintenance–for their
vehicles. This requires very high competence. Most smaller companies purchase this service
from two independent companies in Sweden; in other countries, this probably happens in much
the same way. As this was quite recently introduced, there is still little experience from this.
Truck
Trucks use standard components to a greater extent. Truck shops are available in many larger
localities. Maintenance is therefore flexible and can be carried out close to the transport
assignments.
38
3.5. Staffa. Acquisition
Railway
As there is a prevailing partial shortage of trained driving staff on the railways, the price for this
staff is relatively high, especially in the Nordic countries. In Germany, the costs for this staff are
20% lower than in Sweden.
Truck
There is a shortage of drivers in Western Europe and a surplus in the new EU states. This means
that there is strong downward pressure in the wage situation for driving staff in highway traffic.
This, in turn, creates tremendously low transport prices on highways. Younger staff are
perceived as less useful today: “People born after 1985 are spoiled rotten”–a quote from a
transport manager in one of Sweden’s most successful road carriers.
b. Training
Railway
There is external training only for locomotive drivers, signal staff, controllers, and railway
technicians at places like the Railway Training Centre, and for engineers at places like KTH.
Training for locomotive drivers occurs in two steps: the first step is basic training at driving
school for approximately 1–2 years. After that, company‐specific training should take place.
Knowledge of national languages is required in international railway traffic.
Training for other professions only takes place at the corporate level. Today there are no
schools, and to a large extent no career paths, that can school staff at the middle level. For
example, transport and traffic planners or managers, staff planners for mobile operations,
security managers, and so on.
Truck
A national driving licence and a professional license are required. The requirements for a
professional license are often set lower in eastern Europe than in northwestern Europe.
c. Approval
Railway
The regulatory agencies approve trained driving staff and issue driving licences.
Truck
Driving licenses are normally issued during a diagnostic driving test, which takes place through
the regulatory agencies of the respective countries.
39
d. Work time regulations
Railway
Work time regulations are grounded both in legislation and in national work time agreements,
which can look different for the collective agreements of the respective countries.
As regards the railways, there is the following limitation, according to laws adopted within all EU
states regarding international traffic:
The new regulations generally ought not to entail any need for major changes of the work time
situation and the staffing that is currently valid within international railway transports. For
certain employees–those who have a lot of working hours and who work long shifts for certain
periods–the regulations can entail certain limitations. The greatest limitation is found in the
situation that the number of overnight stays away from the residence is limited to one before
the employee must again take his or her rest in his or her normal residence. Today, there are no
such limitations. It is very difficult to assess whether this will lead to increased costs for the
company, and how large they will be in that case.
As regards the employers, they say that the directive, and in particular this limitation of the
number of overnight stays away from residence for employees, entails a competitive
disadvantage for train traffic, primarily compared with truck transports. There is, however, no
opportunity to otherwise implement the directive in this part. Furthermore, the number of
routes with international train traffic covered by the new law is low. Moreover, the law will not
be applied to certain border traffic, for example the Malmö–Copenhagen route; see Section 4.3.
The number of operators on the other routes is currently relatively low, and even if the
common market means that the number of operators could increase, the nature of the
infrastructure in itself means that the number of operators that could be covered by the law,
even in the future, will not be particularly great. In principle, all these operators are relatively
large companies that ought to have organisational conditions for the administrative changes
that the proposal entails.
The rules above create difficulties in utilising staff effectively according to the existing work time
agreement. For example, driving through Denmark takes 5 hours. There are then 3–4 hours of
work time to be used, but if staff cannot be used farther than the border, the railway loses in
efficiency.
Truck
Work time regulations for professional traffic is legislated within the EU/EEA. There is, however,
no equivalent in legislation that forbids drivers from crossing borders as there is regarding
railway staff.
40
3.6. Informationsystems
Railway
The railway industry in Sweden and Europe shall have interoperable information exchanges on
bills of lading, carriage data, train information, request for routes, TAF TSI XML messages and
joint standards data and station codes. Communications between railway companies and
infrastructure managers, as well as between railway operators in the transport chain from
sender to recipient in Sweden and Europe, must take place through a Common Interface and
WIMO. This is intended to be in place by 2018.
Truck
For hazardous goods, the regulations of the European Agreement Concerning the International
Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) apply. ADR is a Europe‐wide set of regulations for
transport of hazardous goods on highways. The Swedish version of the regulations is called ADR‐
S and is published by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB in Swedish).
Otherwise, there is no information system on loads and routes for trucks that has been
established by government agencies.
3.7. Transportlaw
Railway
The rules are drawn up in documents such as the Convention concerning international carriage
by rail (Cotif), with international freight transport under the Uniform Rules concerning the
contract of international carriage of goods by rail (CIM), the design of freight wagons in the
General Contract for the use of wagons (CGU), and the maintenance rules of the Entity in
Charge of Maintenance (ECM).
3.8. Governmentagencysupervision
Railway
Supervisory government agencies conduct audits of all railway companies that perform
transports in the respective countries.
A company with traffic in several countries always has audits, cases, and injunctions from some
regulatory agency in progress. For a medium‐size company like Hector Rail, it is estimated that 4
person‐years are needed to satisfy the regulatory agencies.
General market supervision has been marginal up to now.
41
Truck
For road transports, inspections are only carried out on the own country’s companies after
irregularities are discovered. For example, the police discover violations of the law in connection
with traffic safety inspections. Several road carriers in the study asked for better checks on the
observance of laws in Sweden. This can be compared with Germany, where it is felt that the
police are less bureaucratic, but harder on obvious violations of the law. Vehicles are seized
until the fines are paid. This applies to the road carriers of all countries.
3.9. Comparisonbetweenrailwayandtrucks
A more careful compilation of the administrative processes for transporting by rail and trucks is
shown in Table 3.5. This section provides a simplified picture with an emphasis on the
differences between the administrative processes required to be able to transport by rail and
trucks.
As regards starting a transport company on the railways or with trucks, the requirements are
roughly the same: the company must have an economy, and the management must have
freedom of conduct. But the railway company must have its own safety regulations and must
apply for a permit every 5 years. There is also a requirement for insurance that is very
comprehensive, especially for small operators.
As regards taxes and fees, they vary from country to country. Track charges for freight traffic in
Norway are set at 0; in Sweden and Denmark they are set on an economic basis, and in
Germany they are set for full cost coverage of maintenance. Tolls over the Öresund Bridge and
the Great Belt, or alternatively via ferry, are added to this.
For trucks there are national vehicle taxes and fuel taxes, as well as a special kilometre charge
called Maut in Germany. For international traffic, an annual Euro windscreen sticker fee in
countries such as Sweden and Denmark is required, though it is quite low. Trucks, of course, pay
tolls on the Öresund Bridge and the Great Belt, as well as in Svinesund. It is more common for
trucks to take the ferry than the railways to the Continent, as this can be used as rest time for
the drivers.
As regards establishing a connection, perhaps the largest differences can be found here; see
Figure 3.1. If a schedule is desired for a freight train, an application must be submitted in April
for the schedule that becomes valid in mid‐December for the next year. In the best‐case
scenario, notification is received in September. An ad hoc status can be applied for, however,
but then you have to take the times that are feasible and it cannot be switched to another train.
In emergency cases, a schedule can be obtained more quickly for an individual train. Regarding
trucks, it is simply a matter of “honking the horn and driving off”.
42
Then, of course, if a schedule for a freight train has been obtained, other customers can be
offered a ride on the train at any time. But many trains are unit trains, run for the needs of a
particular customer. General wagonload traffic with individual wagons or wagon groups are
becoming increasingly limited, as feeder traffic is discontinued and industrial tracks are shut
down. Intermodal traffic is expanding instead, but it runs on connections between Terminals A
and B and not on the network, so the selection still remains limited.
As regards staff, the railways have much stricter rules as regards both training and work time
regulations. A national driving licence is required for trucks, and there are work time
regulations, but they are not always followed to the letter or checked. A contributing factor to
the differences is that the unions have always had a very strong position on the old State‐owned
railways. There is no equivalent to the low‐wage driver on the railways, but here it is the
railways that are rather a model from a work environment perspective.
By way of summary, it can be said that the structure of the regulations for railways is more
adapted to large railway companies such as the old State‐owned railways, while those for trucks
are more adapted to small businesses that dominate the road carrier industry. The deregulation
of truck traffic has actually meant a simplification, especially for those transports crossing
borders, while the opposite applies to rail transports. Previously, everything within the national
State‐owned railways was inspected, but as more operators are able to run on the same track,
supervision and inspection must lie outside the railway companies–which has sometimes led to
a new bureaucracy that is sometimes difficult to overcome. It is certainly not as simple to
deregulate the railways, which are a complex system, as it is for trucks. There is an ambition
within the EU to simplify the regulations and processes, but there are still national stakeholders
to overcome. It could therefore be said that currently, rail transport are setting boundaries, and
truck transports are crossing them.
43
Figure 3.3: Simplified comparison between administrative processes required to transport by rail and a
truck in a particular connection. Used as a basis for workshop discussion, KTH.
Figure 3.4: Comparison between administrative processes required to transport by rail and truck. Used as
a basis for workshop discussion, KTH.
44
Table 3.5: Overview of administrative processes for rail and truck
Railway operators
Road
hauliers
Rail
Truck
Authority rules must be taken into account in
Number of companies which can
Railway companies:
Road hauliers:
NO
SEDK
DE
NO
SEDK
DE
perform
transports
4 of approx. 100 possible
Approx. 20 000 possible of which approx 2000 perform
international transports
in the corridor
1. Requirements on companies from authorities
a.Legal
Management will proof a resepctable life
Management will proof a resepctable life
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
b.Economic
Budget to Transportstyrelsen and owner must be solvent
Solvency € 10000 for first truck and then
€ 5000 per truck
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
c.Other requirem
ents from athourities
Create and maintain own security regulations
National transport permission and blue permission
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Apply for new
permission every 5 years. N
o coordination between companies
The requirem
ents may be different in each
country
2. Taxes and fees
a.Basic taxes
No vehicle taxes
National vehicle fees approx 11,000 SEK
per year in Sweden
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
b.Distance fees
Track access charges
Maut in Germany
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Energy charges
National tax on fuel
c.Supplement taxes
Svedish road charge also guilty in Dk and BeN
eLux
Congestion charges in some towns for national companies
d.Other charges
Charges for companies to transport authorities in SE & DK, qaulity
fees to Trv
Road fees 9'‐13' kr per year on motorw
ay and E12,E14 & E4 north of Gävle.
no
yes
No ?
No ?
3. Creating connections
a. Apply for time table
Apply for regular time table 7 months before, ad hoc 5 days before
No external administration
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
Application in each
country
4. Vehicles and technology
a.Acquisition
Norm
ally 6 months ‐ 2 years
Norm
ally 1‐3 months
b.Approval
National approval for vehicles for each
company
European approval for vehicels by the manucfacturer
yes
yes
yes
yes
c.Equipment requirem
ents
ERTM
S‐STM, M
obisir
Maut‐measures in Germany
Different rules for details i.e. pantograph not compatible between
Norw
ay and Germany
5. Staff
a.Acquisition
Shortage of trained
staff. Agreement in each
country
Shortage of drivers in W
estern Europe
b.Training
Basic training and company specific training is needed, every
National drivres licences. No specific training for international traffic
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
company issues drivers licensce, language requirem
ents
Profession competence approval, no language requirem
ents
c.Approval
Divers licence for engineers in two steps
d.W
ork tim
e regulations
National agreements and european laws
European laws
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Problems to use staff efficient in international traffic
6. Inform
ation systems
a.Interactive communications
European laws
No authority requirem
ents
TAF‐TSI
TAF‐TSI
TAF‐TSI
TAF‐TSI
No
No
No
No
b.Follow up
Report train compsition to IM
c.Delays
Quality fees to IM in Sweden
No authority requirem
ents
7. Transport law
CIM
, GCU, ECM, Cotif
CMR rules for Cabotage
a.Agreements
At norm
al provisisons or NSAB
According to NSAB
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
b.Billing
No special rules
No special rules
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
8. G
overnment agency supervision
Control of companies by Transport authorities in each
country
Random control by Transport Authorities on national level, max penalty 200' SEK
yes
yes
N/A
N/A
N/A
yes
N/A
N/A
Companies with international transports have many control issues
Control of cabotage, w
orking hours and international trucks are week
Market control is week
Market control is week
yes
45
3.10. Resultsofstakeholderworkshops
A workshop was arranged in Oslo to discuss the results of the interviews and the review of the administrative processes, and to propose measures to improve and simplify cross‐border transports. Approximately 10 people participated in the workshop, where there were representatives from transport clients, operators, shipping agents, and project managers as well as researchers.
The workshop was arranged so that the researchers spoke about the results of the interviews and the review of the administrative processes. After that, the results were discussed and there was quite a lively debate on the measures that could be taken in the short term to improve cross‐border transports.
The proposals that came out of the meeting are shown in the table below.
46
Table 3.6. The results of the workshop on measures to improve cross‐border freight transports by rail.
Infrastructure managers and regulatory agencies
Implement international freight corridors in practice
Prioritise freight trains in schedule planning and operationally – especially during major holidays
Create rules and routines in common as much as possible, for example braking rules
Joint infrastructure planning across borders – such as train lengths
Simpler customs routines and vehicle approval
A common language across borders
Start with Sweden–Norway and then go further
Station a pusher locomotive in Halden
Establish a joint regulatory agency for Norway and Sweden
Operators and transport brokerage companies
Establish trains in the most important connections, for example
o Jönköping‐Oslo (Postnord)
o Göteborg‐Oslo (GCAB)
Try to fill the train with several clients’ freight
Expand later into more runs/connections
Start traffic from EU to Scandinavia, and then return transport by rail instead of truck
Transport more forestry raw materials and recycling materials by train – try to obtain a balance in the flow of goods
Transport clients
Collaborate to find joint solutions
Contact operators and try to get them to compete
Create a “trainpooling” site to bring smaller clients’ freight along
Politicians
Risk reduction in starting new intermodal traffic
Introduce truck charges in some form
Better enforcement so that all truck drivers follow regulations
47
4. Infrastructure and operational assumptions
4.1. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the standard for the infrastructure and the
operational conditions of significance for freight traffic in the Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–
Copenhagen–Hamburg corridor, called “the corridor” in this report. The standard for the
infrastructure is described for the starting point in December 2013 and for the plans now known
for changes in the future.
Furthermore, the purpose is to point out possible improvements to facilitate freight transports
by rail for the needs of industry. These improvements consist of various parts:
Operational conditions and rules that can be changed
A common standard that can be applied in the corridor in the event of larger
investments
Smaller investments that can be carried out in the shorter term
Recurring measures required for effective freight transports when the plans now known
are implemented
Method
The method used is to study the standard for the infrastructure that is of significance for freight
transports. The standard for the infrastructure in a transport corridor sets both the physical
boundaries for capacity and transport times, and for the length and weight of the train and the
size of the individual consignments. The infrastructure standard also affects transport costs and
reliability in a corridor.
Transport times, capacity, and punctuality are determined by:
The number of tracks (single, double, or multiple) and passing stations
Maximum speed for the track and the vehicles used
Signalling and traffic management systems
Electrical operation with current system or diesel operation
Size and capacity of the trains determined by:
Maximum gradients and tractive force
Maximum train weight
Maximum train length
48
Size and capacity of the wagons determined by:
Maximum linear load or load per metre of track
Maximum axle load
Loading gauge, i.e. permitted height and width
Apart from capacity for the different links in a corridor, capacity in the nodes in the form of rail
freight depots and stations–and connecting tracks as well–are of significance. The capacity in a
transport system is never better than the weakest link.
Sources
The primary sources for the current standard are the Railway Network Statements (JNB in
Swedish) from the infrastructure managers. Not all parameters are published or presented
consistently, which is why significant work has been put in to bring about the most complete
maps possible of the corridors concerned.
The primary sources for future infrastructure standards are national plans that, in general, cover
a period of around the next 10 years. One part of these plans has been established, but they can
be updated and changed during the period. The most important plans are the following:
Norway: Nasjonal transportplan 2014‐2023 [19], Handlingsprogram 2014‐2023 [20];
Sweden: Nationell plan för transportsystemet 2010‐2021 [21];
Denmark: Politisk aftale om fast forbindelse over Femern Bælt [22], Aftale om en grøn
transportpolitik 2009 [23], Trafikplan for den statlige jernbane 2012‐2027, Aftale om
elektrificering af jernbanen 2012;
Fehmarnbelt: Traktat om en fast forbindelse over Femern Bælt [24];
Germany: Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2003‐2015, Sofortprogramm
Seehafenhinterlandverkehr Traffic 2008‐2013 [25], Wachstumsprogramm 2009‐2017
[26], Verkehrsinvestitionsbericht 2012 [27], Ergebnisse der Überprüfung der
Bedarfspläne für die Bundesschienenwege und die Bundesfernstrassen 2010.
Delimitations
The corridors being analysed are:
From Oslo via Kornsjö and Trollhättan to Gothenburg
49
From Gothenburg to Halmstad and further on to Malmö via Ängelholm or
Hässleholm
From Ängelholm via Helsingborg or Åstorp to Malmö
From Malmö to Copenhagen via the Öresund Bridge
From Copenhagen to Hamburg via Padborg, and via a future fixed service via Rödby‐
Puttgarden
Ferry connections in this analysis. Connecting lines are shown on the report, but are not
included in the analysis. The standard on tracks other than those shown above is not necessarily
updated.
Measurements on standards for the infrastructure
The following infrastructure parameters have been surveyed and are shown on the maps with
commentary:
Number of tracks; single, double, or multiple tracks
Maximum permitted speed
Power supply: Electrical or diesel operation, current system
Signalling and traffic management systems
The highest gradients, southbound and northbound
Maximum permitted axle load
Maximum permitted linear load
General loading gauge
Loading gauge for intermodal transport
Intermodal terminals
Greatest permissible train lengths
Siding length on single tracks
Maximum permitted train weights
50
Current network
The current network in the corridor is shown in Figure 2.1. From Oslo, the railway runs along the
Østfold Line to Gothenburg via Moss, Halden, and Kornsjø, which is a border station. From
there, it runs on into Sweden to Brålanda on the Norway–Vänern Line, where it continues to
Gothenburg via Öxnered and Trollhättan. Between Gothenburg and Malmö, it runs on the West
Coast Line. There are several routes between Halmstad and Malmö. Most passenger trains run
via Helsingborg and Landskrona, whereas most freight trains currently go the longer route via
Markaryd and Hässleholm. Between Ängelholm and Malmö there is a shorter, more level route:
the Söderås Line and the Lomma Line, which is currently utilised by only a few freight trains.
Between Malmö and Copenhagen, the railway runs across the Öresund Bridge. There are also
alternative routes to the Continent via ferries from Trelleborg and Ystad. These, however, are
not dealt with in this report.
From Copenhagen, the freight trains run over Fyn and Jutland via Fredericia to Padborg, which is
the border station with Germany, and on to Hamburg. Most passenger trains, however, go via
Fehmarnbelt and by ferry between Rødby and Puttgarden.
Future network
The following structural changes in the current net will take place when the plans currently in
effect have been completed:
The tunnel through Hallandsås is planned to open to traffic in 2015. This means a
new double‐track stretch all the way between Halmstad and Ängelholm. As it will
have lower gradients, it can be used by freight trains without problem instead of the
longer route via Markaryd–Hässleholm.
A new fixed service between Denmark and Germany via Fehmarnbelt is planned to
open in 2021. This means that a new high‐capacity line will open with an
approximately 170 km shorter route than via Padborg. It is intended for both
passenger and freight traffic.
In connection with the Fehmarnbelt Connection, a new Copenhagen–Køge–Ringsted
main line is being constructed in Denmark to relieve the current Copenhagen–
Roskilde–Ringsted line; completion is planned for 2018. In addition, the shorter
Køge–Næstved route is being electrified, with completion planned for 2018.
Fehmarnbelt is being constructed as a tunnel link for a double‐track railway and
highway between Rødby and Puttgarden. Compared with current service via
Padborg, the route will be shortened by 170 km between Copenhagen and Hamburg,
and more for transports east and south of Lübeck. The new fixed service via
51
Fehmarnbelt will initially have a capacity of 33 freight trains per day and direction,
which will increase to 39 freight trains per day and direction when the Puttgarden–
Bad Schwartau double track is competed for 2028. In addition, the capacity on the
fixed service via Padborg will remain [28].
Mere gods på banen 2012:
“From 2020, the capacity between Puttgarden and Lübeck will be 1 freight train per hour and
direction during daylight hours. At night (10 PM–6 AM) it will be possible to run 2 freight
trains per hour and direction. This yields, in theory, a total of 33 trains per day and direction.
All freight trains, in addition, must drive over Fyn.
By 2027 at the latest there will be a double track, and the 39 trains per day and direction,
which are initially planned in practice to be run on Danish infrastructure, would be served
through Germany.
Roughly speaking, the freight train capacity through Denmark will increase by 50% in 2027 in
relation to today.”
52
4.2. Number of tracks On a single track, trains have to meet at passing sidings. This means that every train movement
must be planned in detail. A double track makes it possible for the trains to meet without
stopping. This yields at least four times as much capacity as a single track and reduces travel and
transport times at the same time as the traffic becomes less vulnerable to disruption. If the
utilization of a double track is high while the speed differences between different trains is great,
however, the trains being unable to pass each other can be a problem. A quadruple track then
yields the greatest capacity, as the slower trains have one pair of tracks and the faster trains
another pair.
The current standard in the corridor is shown in Figure 2.2. The greater part of the corridor is
double track with the following exceptions: the length of the singe‐track stretches is indicated
with the longest stretch between passing stations in parentheses:
Norway: Sandbukta–Såstad (Rygge) 10 km (4 km), Haug–Kornsjø 95 km (9 km)
Sweden: Kornsjø–Öxnered 98 km (26 km), Varberg–Hamra 7 km, Båstad Norra–
Vejbyslätt 18 km (9 km), Ängelholm–Helsingborg 26 km (7 km), Ängelholm–Arlöv 74
km (25 km).
Denmark: Via Padborg: Vamdrup–Vojens 18 km (6 km), Tinglev–Padborg 12 km (6
km), via Fehmarnbelt: Vordingborg–Rödby 63 km (7 km)
Germany: Via Fehmarnbelt: Puttgarden–Bad Schwartau 82 km (7 km)
Future plans
Planned and ongoing expansions of the infrastructure in the corridor are as follows:
A quadruple track will be created between Oslo and Ski (22km) through constructing
a new double track, primarily in tunnel. The project has begun and completion is
planned for 2021.
Norway: Double track Sandbukta–Rygge (Såstad) planned for completion by 2023,
and double track Haug–Seut by 2024, Seut–Sarpsborg by 2026, and Sarpsborg–
Halden by 2030.
Sweden: Double tracks on a new Båstad–Ängelholm (Hallandsås) stretch is planned
for completion in 2015, quadruple track Lund(Högevall)–Arlöv planned for
completion by 2025, double track on a new Varberg–Hamra stretch planned for
completion around 2024.
Denmark: Via Padborg: Double track Vamdrup–Vojens planned for completion 2015.
53
Denmark: Via Fehmarnbelt: A double track on a new Copenhagen–Køge–Ringsted
stretch is being constructed, and planned for completion in 2018. Køge–Næstved,
Vordingbord–Orehoved, with a new Storstrømmen Bridge and Orehoved‐Rødby
double track, improved by 2021.
Germany: Via Fehmarnbelt: Double track Puttgarden–Fehmarnsund planned for
completion 2028, Fehmarnsund–Bad Schwartau is planned for completion by 2028 at
the latest.
When these track expansions are completed according to plans currently in effect, the following
single‐track sections will remain in the corridor, with the longest distance between passing
stations in parentheses:
Norway (around 2030): Halden–Kornsjø 33km (19 km)
Sweden (around 2021): Kornsjø‐Öxnered 98 km (26 km), Maria‐Helsingborg 5 km,
Ängelholm‐Arlöv 74 km (25 km)
Denmark (around 2021): Køge‐Næstved 37 km (9 km)
Germany (around 2028): Fehmarnsund Bridge 1 km
The longest, and weakest, link in the corridor when the currently planned expansions are
complete is the single track Halden–Öxnered, which is 131 km long with at most 26 km between
passing stations. There are no alternate routes here, as there are on the other stretches.
In Sweden, additional and longer passing sidings on Ängelholm–Arlöv could be needed as traffic
increases.
55
Figure 4.2: Number of tracks in the corridor through Sweden, 2013. Source: Swedish Transport Administration.
56
4.3. Maximum permitted speed A high maximum permitted speed over long distances yields shorter travel and transport times,
but encounters on single track and large differences in speed between different trains on
double tracks, which entail the need for one train overtaking the other, can reduce the gains in
travel time.
The maximum permitted speed in the corridor is shown in Figure 2.3 and below. Most often, the
maximum permitted speed can only be used by passenger trains. Normally, freight trains have a
maximum permitted speed of 100 km/h, but technically it is possible today to drive a number of
freight trains at 120 km/h.
Norway: Oslo–Kornsjø 130‐160 km/h
Sweden: Kornsjø–Skälebol–Öxnered 160 km/h, Öxnered–Gothenburg–Malmö 200 km/h,
Ängelholm–Åstorp 130 km/h, Åstorp–Teckomatorp 90 km/h, Teckomatorp–Kävlinge 140
km/h, Kävlinge–Arlöv 110 km/h
The Öresund Link: Denmark 180 km/h, Sweden 200 km/h
Denmark: Copenhagen–Ringsted 180 km/h, Ringsted–Vordingborg 160 km/h,
Vordingborg–Rødby 120 km/h to 140 km/h, Køge–Næstved 120 km/h, Ringsted–Padborg
180‐160‐120 km/h
Germany: Flensburg–Hamburg 160 km/h, Puttgarden–Bad Schwartau 100‐160 km/h, Bad
Schwartau–Hamburg 160 km/h
Exceptions from these speeds can be found on shorter stretches and at stations.
The average speed, however, is significantly lower, especially on single‐track stretches with high
capacity utilisation. On the Oslo–Halden stretch, the average speed for the fastest freight trains
in 2012 was 59 km/h, which is 10 km/h slower than on other main lines in
NorwayJernbanestatistikk 2012, JBV 2013 ] (136 km/2h20m).
Future plans
The following speed increases are planned in connection with infrastructure expansions:
Sweden: Båstad–Ängelholm 200 km/h (2015), Åstorp–Teckomatorp 140 km/h (2015)
Denmark: Ringsted–Odense to 200 km/h, Ringsted–Vordingborg to 160 km/h
Germany: Puttgarden–Bad Schwartau to 160 km/h (2021)
Currently, the maximum permitted speed is most often sufficient for freight traffic, even at 120
km/h. In Denmark a number of timetable slots for freight trains at 120 km/h are planned so as
to be able to put in more freight trains in between passenger trains during the day.
57
Many newly‐built lines in Sweden such as Gothenburg–Öxnered and parts of the West Coast
Line are built for 250 km/h, but this can only be applied when the ETCS signalling system has
been introduced.
Figure 4.3: Maximum permitted speed, Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg. KTH.
58
4.4. Power supply
Electrical operation means high tractive force, which makes high and even speeds, rapid
acceleration and heavy trains possible provided the power supply is dimensioned for it. All
railway lines in the corridor are electrified except for the future fixed service via Fehmarnbelt.
The following current system is applied; see also Figure 2.4:
Sweden, Norway and Germany have the same current system, 15 kV, 16‐2/3 Hz (16.7 Hz)
Denmark has another current system: 25 kV, 50 Hz
The boundary between the Swedish and Danish current systems is at Lernacken, the Swedish
shore. This means that a train running from Sweden to Denmark must have two current
systems, since the locomotive cannot be changed at the shore. In Padborg, however, it is
possible to change locomotives, as it will be in Puttgarden.
Future plans
The future fixed service via Fehmarnbelt will be electrified as follows:
Denmark: 25 kV, 50 Hz; Køge–Næstved by 2018, Ringsted–Rødby by 2021.
Germany: 15 kV, 16.7 Hz; Puttgarden–Bad Schwartau by 2021.
59
Figure 4.4: Power supply and diesel operation, Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg.
Source: KTH.
60
4.5. Signalling and traffic management systems
Sweden and Norway have the same signalling system, while Denmark and Germany have other
signalling systems, as follows and in Figure 4.5:
Sweden and Norway have ATC (Automatic Train Control)
Denmark has a system called ATC‐KVB 450
Germany has an ATP system called Indusi
There are thus three different systems that are incompatible. A train running from Norway or
Sweden to Germany must thus be equipped with three signalling systems and two current
systems.
This is one reason for the new European Traffic Control System (ETCS) and the European
Railway Traffic Management System (ERTMS) being developed.
Future plans
The EU has decided that ERTMS will be introduced when new railways are constructed or larger
expansions are carried out. The six cross‐border freight corridors in Europe will also be equipped
with ERTMS before 2020, in accordance with a 2009 decision. The following plans exist for
introducing ERTMS Level 2 into the corridor:
Norway: Østfold Line, eastern branch between Sarpsborg–Ski will be a pilot route in
2014; ERTMS will be introduced into the rest of the network 2014–2023
Sweden: Kornsjø‐Gothenburg‐Malmö 2025, [29];
Öresund: Installation is prepared, but the time for implementation has not been decided
upon.
Denmark: Copenhagen–Ringsted–Rødby 2020 and Ringsted–Kolding–Padborg 2019
http://www.bane.dk/hentmedie.asp?filID=15848 http://www.bane.dk/db/filarkiv/12405/Fjernbane%20udrulning_A3_230412.pdf;
Germany: Padborg–Hamburg and Puttgarden–Hamburg 2020.
62
4.6. Gradients
High gradients are chiefly a problem for freight trains whose wagon weight must be limited if
they are to get up the grades without losing too much speed or stopping. They must also be
able to start up again in the event of a stop on a grade, even in bad weather with a risk of
skidding. Furthermore, the power supply must be sufficient so that all trains are able to run on a
section of line at the same time.
In Sweden the aim for main lines is to be constructed with maximum 10‰ gradient. This means
that the track rises 10 m over 1 km. There can be exceptions, however, on shorter stretches or
in the event of particularly difficult natural obstacles. 10‰ means that a freight train with a
regular Rc locomotive or the equivalent can pull a freight train of 1600 gross tons, and a modern
Traxx locomotive or the equivalent can pull a train of approximately 2,200 gross tons. If a
section of line has an incline greater than 10‰, the train weight must be reduced or more
locomotives used, and the transport cost rises.
In Germany the aim for new lines with freight traffic is to be constructed with maximum 12,5‰
gradient.
The northbound gradients can be different than the southbound ones on a line, which is shown
on the maps in Figures 2.6A and 2.6B. The following maximum gradients and exceptions to
these are found on the lines in the corridor:
Norway: Oslo–Kornsjø 13 ‰ but 25 ‰ southbound Halden–Aspedammen and 25 ‰
northbound Oslo–Bryn (near Alnabru)
Sweden: 10‰ Kornsjø–Malmö, but 12.5‰ over Hallandsåsen at Ängelholm; 12.9‰ at
Markaryd and 25‰ between Helsingborg and Landskrona (trafficked only by passenger
trains)
The Öresund Link: 15.6‰ at Peberholm
Denmark: 15.6‰ at Great Belt (eastern tunnel)
Germany: 12‰ at Rendsburg
The most difficult gradients that limit train weight are found at Oslo and Halden, as well as on
the Öresund Link and Great Belt. Additionally, the current railway over Hallandsåsen is curvy,
with a large risk for slipping under certain weather conditions.
Future plans
In certain cases, new lines will yield lower gradients, as follows:
Sweden: Halmstad–Ängelholm 10‰ on the new stretch through Hallandsåsen (2015);
Denmark: Via Fehmarnbelt: Planned not to exceed 12.5‰ (2021)
63
When these investments are completed, the gradients at Oslo and Halden will still constitute a
considerable constraint. For transports via Fehmarnbelt, this will be reduced through the
gradient at Great Belt being bypassed and the gradient at the Öresund Link being limiting
instead.
Figure 4.6A: Gradients southbound on Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg. Source KTH. Germany normal gradient ≤ 12.5 ‰, but exact values are not published in network statement.
64
Figure 4.6B: Gradients northbound on Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg. Source: KTH. Germany normal gradient ≤ 12.5 ‰, but exact values are not published in network statement.
65
4.7. Axle load
A high axle load is favourable for freight traffic, as more weight can be loaded on each wagon,
or there can be fewer axles per wagon. It is also an advantage if the locomotive has a higher
axle load, as the adhesion weight can be increased, which reduces the risk of slipping and allows
for higher train weights. The maximum permitted axle load applied on most of the main lines in
Europe is 22.5 tons. This weight has been gradually raised; previously, it was 20 tons.
In some countries, an upgrade of the axle load to 25 tons is in progress on selected sections of
line with heavy transports, and most new lines are dimensioned for 25 tons axle load. On the
Iron Ore Line, 30 tons axle load applies and tests for 32.5 tons are being planned.
The following maximum permitted axle loads are allowed in the corridor; see also Figure 2.7:
Norway: Oslo–Kornsjø 22.5 tons
Sweden: Kornsjø–Skälebol: 22.5 tons; Skälebol–Öxnered–Gothenburg–Halmstad: 25
tons; 22.5 tons;
Öresund Link: 25 tons
Denmark: 22.5 tons
Germany: 22.5 tons (25 tons axle load applied, however, on routes such as Hamburg–
Lehrte and, from 2015, Rostock–Berlin.)
Future plans
The following plans exist for upgrading tracks in the corridor to a higher axle load:
Denmark: Copenhagen–Køge–Ringsted 25 tons (2018)
Fehmarnbelt Link: The tunnel: 25 tons (2021)
The tunnel through Hallandsås is dimensioned for 25 tons axle load; when the double track is
built on the connections to Fehmarnbelt, there will be a possibility over the long term to obtain
a continuous route for 25 tons axle load along the entire corridor in accordance with the
requirement for newly‐constructed TEN‐T main lines (Core) in TSI Infrastructure.
66
Figure 4.7: Maximum permitted axle load, Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg. NB: Some lines may have been given a lower permitted axle load in 2013. Source: KTH.
67
4.8. Linear Load
A high permitted linear load is important for freight with high density, and allows for high
loading factors on shorter wagons. This in turn means that train length can be limited, and that
heavier trains can be operated on lines where passing sidings are short, and that more wagons
can fit into yards and sidings. A high linear load is important for efficiency, especially for steel
industry transports. A large number of wagons for steel industry transports are dimensioned for
8.3 tons/metre and 25 tons axle load. New bridges in Sweden are dimensioned for 11
tons/metre.
The following weights per metre are applied in general and in the corridor in question, see also
Figure 2.8:
Norway: In general: 6.6 tons/metre; Oslo–Kornsjø 8.3 tons/metre
Sweden: In general: 6.4 tons/metre; Kornsjø–Skälebol 6.4 tons/metre; Skälebol–
Öxnered–Gothenburg–Halmstad: 8 tons/metre; Halmstad–Malmö 6.4 tons/metre
The Öresund Link: 8.3 tons/metre
Denmark: In general: 8 tons/metre; via Fehmarn Bält Copenhagen–Rødby: 7.2
tons/metre
Germany: In general: 8 tons/metre; via Padborg on the Rendsburg Bridge: 6.4
tons/metre
Future plans
The following upgrades to higher weights per meter are planned for implementation:
Denmark: Copenhagen–Køge–Ringsted: not established
Fehmarnbelt: The tunnel: 8.3 tons/metre
Germany: Rendsburg Bridge from 6.4 tons/metre to 8 tons/metre in 2016 (for one
train per direction, simultaneously) [36]
Sweden: Main lines for freight transports will gradually be upgraded to 8 tons/metre
where there is demand for heavy transports.
A suitable future common standard for the corridor could be 8.3 tons per metre in combination
with an axle load of 25 tons.
69
4.9. Loading gauge
A generous loading gauge is important both for low‐density volume freight in wagonload traffic
and for intermodal traffic. For low‐density goods, volume is limiting instead of the weight; the
loading gauge thus has greater significance than axle load and weight per metre. For intermodal
traffic, it is often the height that is limiting, as a trailer or a container is placed on a railway
wagon. The loading gauge for intermodal traffic is dealt with in more detail in Section 4.10.
The loading gauge is defined as the maximum cross section that a wagon and its load can have
at different heights over the top of rail, including a margin for dynamic movements while under
way so as not to come too close to fixed objects along the track or trains on parallel tracks. For
special transports, the normal loading gauges can be exceeded in certain cases by carefully
measuring the stretch and the transport being run with special supervision or at a lower speed.
The loading gauges in the corridor are shown in Figure 4.9A and below. Loading gauges are
designated by letters, and the measurements relate to the maximum dimensions (width x
height).
Norway: Oslo–Kornsjø M+U (3.40 x 4.595)
Sweden: Kornsjø–Skälebol A (3.40 m x 4.65 m); Skälebol–Gothenburg–Halmstad C (3.60
x 4.83 m); Halmstad‐Malmö A (3.40 m x 4.65 m)
The Öresund Link: GC (3.15 m x 4.65 m)
Denmark: Via Padborg: Öresund–Kolding–Padborg: G2 (3.15 m x 4.65 m), via
Fehmarnbelt: G2 (3.15 m x 4.65 m)
Germany: G2 (3.15 m x 4.65 m)
For new construction in Sweden loading gauge C (3.60 m x 4.83 m) is applied, which is bigger
than GC (3.15 m x 4.65 m). Larger loading gauges are also applied today in Norway for logs
(3.50m x 4.352 m), and planned for the Öresund Link (3.60 m x 4.83 m). The broader C gauge,
3.60m x 4.83 m, is used for transports of paper containers within Sweden. Loading gauge C in
height also makes more efficient intermodal transports possible, as well as transports of certain
other types of goods. It can also be utilised in passenger traffic where the width makes
passenger trains with a sufficiently comfortable 3+2 seating possible, which yields 20% higher
capacity per train metre than 2+2 seating.
A particular problem for many traditional loading gauges (SE‐A, DE‐G2, NO‐U, UIC‐GC) is that
they are narrower at the top, thus limiting the height of a trailer or container placed on top of a
railway wagon; see Figure 4.9B.
To compare, the volume that different loading gauges enable is shown in Figure 4.9D as the
area of the largest rectangle that can fit above floor level (1.2 m) into the different gauges. The
differences, as can be seen, are great. Loading gauge C allows for a 79% larger rectangular cross
70
section than the current gauge in Denmark and Germany (G2). Loading gauge GC allows for a
38% larger rectangular cross section than the current gauge there. Figure 4.9E shows that
capacity in Sweden increases 50% if loaded to gauge C in height, and 125% if also loading to
gauge C in width.
Future plans
The Öresund Bridge plans to allow loading gauge C. Even the fixed service under Fehmarnbelt is
planned for gauge C. A relatively large, and increasing, portion of the Swedish railway network is
also fully available for the use of C–that is, both in height and in width. An even larger part of
the Swedish railway network allows for loading gauge C in height, i.e. P/C 450; see Section 4.10.
Figure 4.9B: Loading gauge for wagons and intermodal transports in Germany, Fehmarbelt, Denmark, the Öresund Link, Sweden and Norway.
Table 4.9C: Maximum general loading gauges, and loading gauges for intermodal transport, [16], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34]. Exceptions exist.
Germany, Denmark
Öresund Link Sweden Norway
General loading gauge G2 UIC GC A M, U Height (m) 4.65 4.65 4.65 4.595Width (m) 3.15 3.15 3.40 3.40
Intermodal gauge P/C 410 P/C 450 P/C 450 P/C 410 Height (m) 0.33+4.10 0.33+4.50 0.33+4.50 0.33+4.10Width (m) 2.60 2.60 2.60 2.60
71
Figure 4.9D: Possible rectangular area within loading gauge over floor level (1.2 m above top of rail) today and in planned services.
Figure 4.9E: Opportunities for loading more freight on existing wagons. A = Current loading; B = It is currently already possible to load two stacks higher in large parts of Sweden; C = Possible with loading gauge C and new wagons, an additional three stacks across can be loaded.
7,29
13,07
7,29
10,04
8,30 8,35
6,67
13,07 13,07
10,04
0
1
2
34
5
6
78
9
10
1112
13
14
Useful cross
section (m2)
Maximum total height
483 cm
above top of
rail
Overhead contact wire
Wagon
Packagedlumber
Packagedlumber
Load width210 cm
Load width315 cm
Packagedlumber
Today Tomorrow In the future
+50% +125%
72
Figure 4.9A: General loading gauge, Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg–Berlin. Note:
Transport permits are required in certain cases. Source: KTH.
73
Figure 4.10: Loading gauge for intermodal transport with a maximum width of 2.6 m, Oslo–Gothenburg–
Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg–Berlin. Note: Transport permits are required in certain cases. Source:
KTH.
74
4.10. Intermodal gauge
Intermodal gauge P/C 450 (2.60 m x 4.83 m) facilitates transport of trailers from Sweden and
Norway that could be 4.5 m high on a standard pocket wagon with a floor 0.33 m above top of
rail. This also facilitates transport of trailers from Denmark and continental Europe that could be
4.00 m high on a flat wagon with a floor 0.83 meters above the rails. A wagon of this type can be
made more cheaply than a pocket wagon, and means that trailers can be rolled onto the wagon
via a ramp. This is of great significance, as perhaps only 90% of today’s trailers are liftable. A
sufficiently high loading gauge is thus of crucial significance for the opportunities for intermodal
traffic to develop.
Loading gauge P/C 450 means that the gauge’s measurements are 2.60 m wide by 4.83 m high,
and that the gauge is rectangular, i.e. it is not narrower at the top corners. For intermodal
traffic, the height is thus crucial, but for wagonload traffic, the width is also significant. The
loading gauge that occurs most frequently on the Continent today is G2, which is 3.15x4.65 and
thereby does not allow for transport of trailers from Scandinavia in an efficient manner.
The P/C loading gauge for intermodal transports in the corridor is shown in Figure 2.10 and
below.
Norway: Oslo‐Kornsjø: P/C 410;
Sweden: Kornsjø–Skälebol P/C 400; Skälebol‐Gothenburg‐Halmstad‐Malmö: P/C 450.
The Öresund Link: P/C 450
Denmark: Via Padborg: Öresund–Kolding–Padborg P/C 410; via Fehmarnbelt: Ringsted‐
Rödby: P/C 400
Germany: P/C 410, but P/C 405 at Bad Oldesloe.
Future plans
The following plans allow for larger loading gauges:
Norway: New lines since 1990 must be dimensioned for loading gauge UIC‐GC, i.e. also
P/C 432
Sweden: Kornsjø–Dals Rostock is being raised in 2014–2015 in connection with planned
electric overhead line replacement
Fehmarnbelt: The tunnel: P/C 450 (2021)
Denmark: Copenhagen–Køge–Ringsted: P/C 432
75
Figure 4.10A: Use of high, rectangular gauge P/C 450 in intermodal traffic
Figure 4.10B: Use of high, rectangular gauge P/C 450 in intermodal traffic, which allows for ramp loading of trailers. (Trailer train)
76
Figure 4.10C: Examples of 4.5 m high trailers that allow loading on two levels. (Hellgrens, Independent Cargo Express)
77
4.11. Train length
Operating longer freight trains is an effective way of increasing carrying capacity per train
regardless of type of freight. This also makes it possible to fully utilise the greater tractive power
in modern locomotives. This is especially significant for trains with low weight per metre such as
intermodal trains. Since a large part of the cost of operating a freight train consists of
locomotive and staff costs that are fixed, longer trains are a way of reducing the cost per wagon
for the benefit of both transport clients and operators, provided that demand is sufficiently
high.
The most important factors that determine the maximum train length–apart from tractive
power–are the lengths of passing sidings, braking performance and braking rules, and the
signalling system.
The practical train length that can be handled is often limited by the length of passing sidings,
yards and terminals. Figure 4.11A shows the lengths of passing sidings in the corridor, and 4.11B
shows the longest tracks in rail freight yards.
Apart from the infrastructure, braking performance and brake rules also set limits on possible
train lengths for freight trains with air brakes. This is due to the fact that the train brakes from
the locomotive, and it takes time before the air brakes are applied or released on the last
wagon. The longer the train, the more time it takes before the brakes on the last wagon react,
and the greater the longitudinal forces within the train, which in the worst case can cause a
derailment.
There are different settings for the braking speed in G mode (goods) and P mode (passenger).
The P‐brake is used for shorter trains with a quick reaction, while G‐brakes are used for longer
trains with slower reaction. The rules of train formation, however–that is, how to set the brakes
and how long train consists are allowed–are different in different countries.
In addition, the signalling system is of significance, mainly the distance between the distant
signals and the home signal. The distant signal shows the aspect of the next home signal. If this
is set to “stop”, the driver must manage to stop the train. Since longer trains require longer
braking distances, the driver must get the notification early enough, i.e. at a long distance from
the home signal.
With regard to the braking rules currently in effect, the following maximum train lengths are
permitted:
Norway: 850 m with G‐brake up to 80 km/h; 700 m with P‐brake up to 80 km/h; 600
m up to 90 km/h; 500 m up to 100 km/h
Sweden: 880 m with G‐brake up to 80 km/h; 730 m with P‐brake
78
The Öresund Link: 1000 m in accordance with UIC
Denmark: 835 m with G‐brake up to 100 km/h; 600 m up to 120 km/h
Germany: 835 m Padborg–Maschen (by Hamburg); otherwise: 740 m
With regard to the lengths of sidings, the following train lengths can currently be handled in the
corridor:
Norway: Oslo‐Kornsjø: 580 m
Sweden: Kornsjø‐Skälebol‐Gothenburg‐Malmö 630 m
The Öresund Link: 1000 m
Denmark: Via Padborg: Höje Taastrup‐Kolding‐Padborg: 835 m
Germany: Padborg‐Maschen: 835 m
As seen above, the maximum train lengths in the countries along the corridor are different.
Even the level of ambition in future expansions differs. In Norway, the Norwegian National Rail
Administration has as its strategic goal to extend sidings to 750 m on the Østfold Line and the
Kongsvinger Line toward Sweden 2. In Sweden the general objective is to extend the length of sidings from 630 m to hold 750 m‐trains, in new construction and reconstruction. The
infrastructure in Denmark between Copenhagen and Padborg was expanded long ago for 835‐
metre trains.
Future plans
The following plans exist to make longer trains possible in the countries along the corridor:
Norway: Some short passing sidings on Oslo–Kornsjø are planned for expansion for
750‐metre train lengths. Double track is planned for construction on Oslo–Halden up
through 2030.
Sweden: Passing sidings are planned to be extended for 750‐metre train lengths on
Åstorp–Teckomatorp (2015) and are being investigated for Kävlinge–Arlöv.
Denmark: Sidings on single‐track sections between Kolding and Padborg are already
longer than 930 m. The line via Fehmarn Bält is planned for 1000 m long trains.
Germany: The sidings have been extended for 835‐metre train lengths between
Padborg and Hamburg
Extending these for longer trains, however, may be the most cost‐effective measure to increase
capacity for freight traffic in a corridor, compared with building double tracks, for example. In
contrast to the measures needed for higher axle load and linear load along the entire line,
79
measures for longer trains can often be limited to point‐by‐point measures such as passing
sidings at certain stations.
The longer trains in Denmark can partially be handled owing to longer distances of 1200 m
between distant signals and running signals on the main lines. In Germany and Sweden, 1000 m
is generally applied on the main lines.
Producing unified braking rules between countries is a pressing measure. Currently, trains in
some cases must stop at the borders and the brakes reset by hand, due to the braking rules
being different even if the conditions are otherwise the same.
Figure 4.11A: Length of passing sidings on single‐track sections in the Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg corridor.
80
Figure 4.11B: Long tracks in the Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg rail freight yards.
Source: KTH.
81
4.12. Train weight
Increased train length and increased weight per metre make increasing the load weight per
train possible, and thereby also the gross weight of the train. The train weight is determined by
the tractive force of the locomotive, the gradients and curves of the track, and finally the
strength of the couplers. On electrified lines, the train weight may be limited in some cases by
the power supply.
The following rules currently apply for maximum wagon weights in the corridor:
Norway 3,950 tons with screw coupling, but limited on each line by the existing
gradients; more with pushing engines.
Sweden: No absolute limit, determined for each line and locomotive type.
The Öresund Link: 4,000 tons
Denmark: 2,500 tons between Copenhagen and Padborg
Germany: 4,000 tons with screw couplers
In Sweden, the permitted train weight depends on gradients and curves on every line. For trains
with double electric locomotives, the power supply may constitute a limitation. Sometimes the
wagon weight may also be limited by impaired adhesion and weather conditions, which
happens, for example, on the current track over Hallandsås.
At 10 ‰ gradients, the maximum wagon weight for a Swedish standard Rc locomotive is 1,600
tons; for a modern BR185 locomotive approximately 1,800 to 2,200 tons; and for BR193
locomotives a somewhat higher tractive force is expected even under difficult conditions owing
to higher axle load. At 17‰, 3,200 tons is permitted with a double BR185 locomotive or three
Rc locomotives. These are the heaviest trains currently found in normal operation in Sweden
outside the Iron Ore Line.
In Denmark, 1,700 tons is permitted with modern 4‐axle BR185 locomotives or the equivalent
over Great Belt with the gradients of 15.6‰ and the curves found there. The absolute limit for
train weight of 2,500 tons is thus lower than what would be possible to drive with, for example,
double BR185 locomotives.
As a comparison, a train loaded with paper up to 22.5 tons axle load weighs approximately 3.8
tons/metre, which for a 790‐metre loaded train (excluding locomotive) would mean
approximately 3,000 tons of wagon weight. The current absolute limit of 2,500 tons thus limits
the possible carrying capacity through Denmark.
The normal standard for screwing couplers specifies a tensile strength of 850 kN (EN
15566:2009), which is higher than the tractive force of two modern four‐axle locomotives of 300
kN each. At most two modern locomotives should be placed at the front of the train in order to
avoid coupler failure. Screw couplers are also available in higher strength classes.
82
Future plans
If the absolute train weight limit between Copenhagen and Padborg were to be raised from
2,500 tons to 4,000 tons, it would make trains of 4,000 tons wagon weight possible all the way
from Sweden to Germany.
It could be studied over the long term whether a higher wagon weight of 4,000 tons could be
permitted via the Fehmarnbelt Link, which is planned for a gradient of at most 12.5‰. The
ruling gradient in southern Sweden is 10‰ in general, and less than 12.5‰ in Denmark (except
at Great Belt) while it is between 15.4‰ and 15.6‰ (westbound–eastbound) on the Öresund
Link. One possibility that arises when the fixed service via Fehmarn Bält is completed is driving
freight trains with double locomotives in Sweden, adding a third locomotive across Öresund and
then continuing with two locomotives in Denmark to Germany without needing to change the
composition of the train. This would, however, put a greater demand on the electrical power
supply.
One possibility over the long term of operating 4,000‐ton trains with two locomotives
southbound all the way from Sweden to Germany could be if the proposed bypass between
Peberholm and Kastrup could be built with a maximum 12.5‰ gradient. Future locomotives can
be expected to be constructed somewhat heavier than today’s in order to attain an axle load of
22.5 tons to 25 tons, thereby being able to perform greater tractive force under slippery
conditions.
83
4.13. Intermodal terminals
Intermodal traffic has developed rapidly over the last 20 years. There are many intermodal
terminals along the corridor, as shown in Figure 2.13. On the other hand, there are no train
services between all terminals. Intermodal traffic thus does not constitute a network in the
same way as wagonload traffic. Intermodal traffic to and from the Port of Gothenburg is the
part that has developed the most rapidly, and has services to approximately 25 terminals in
Sweden and Norway.
Figure 4.13: Intermodal terminals, Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg. Source: KTH.
84
5. Conclusions and proposals
5.1. Introduction
This chapter discusses what measures can be taken to improve freight traffic on the railways.
The measures cover a rather wide field, from administrative measures to investments in
infrastructure as follows:
Measures that can be implemented in the short term
Infrastructure and operational rules
Long‐term strategy for prioritised freight corridors
Infrastructure agreed upon and planned
The missing link
Shorter‐term measures
Joint planning of cross‐border routes
Initially, measures that can be implemented in the short term without larger investments in infrastructure.
5.2. Measures that can be implemented in the short term
It takes a long time to plan, invest in, and build infrastructure. This applies particularly if there
are no completed plans from the beginning, as is the case with the missing Halden–Öxnered
link. It is therefore a question of finding measures that can improve cross‐border rail transports
in the short and medium term, and which do not require major investments. Some measures
like this have been identified in this project, including as the results of a workshop with the
stakeholders.
Infrastructure holders and government agencies
Create common brake rules
Expedite the implementation of international freight corridors
Simpler customs routines and vehicle approval
Station pusher locomotives in Halden and Oslo to overcome the gradients
Establish a joint regulatory agency for Norway and Sweden
Better supervision so that all trucks follow regulations
Operators and clients
Establish trains in the most important relations – Try to fill the train with several
clients’ freight – Expand later into more runs/connections
85
Create an intermodal supply registry to make the existing supply visible, and make it
possible for smaller clients to use the railways through “trainpooling”
Collaboration between clients to find joint solutions and balanced flows
Smaller measures in the infrastructure
Measures to raise standards that can be implemented in connection with other planned
work: expanding loading gauges during contact wire replacement, raising axle loads and
linear loads during track and bridge replacement
Establish a higher, broader loading gauge in the relations demanded by actively
removing obstacles
Adapt track circuits and signal positions, and extend passing sidings for longer trains,
even with simultaneous entrance, primarily in Skjeberg (458 m), Halden (580 m), Ed (595
m), Bäckefors (659 m), Brålanda (664 m), Åstorp (395 m), Billesholm (493 m) and Flädie
(493 m)
Remove the lowest speed restrictions, primarily at Ski (50 km/h), Vestby (50 km/h), Moss
(35 km/h), Fredrikstad (40 km/h), Sarpsborg (50 km/h), Halden (40 km/h) and Kornsjø
(55 km/h)
Build individual new passing sidings, primarily where there are stops for passenger
traffic, so that the passenger train stops to exchange passengers can be used
simultaneously for passing trains
If individual shorter distant signals exist, extend these and extend the brake tables
correspondingly
Improve signal systems
5.3. Infrastructure and operational rules
Common brake rules
Brake rules are one of the factors determining how long and heavy trains are permitted, and
train composition with regard to light and heavy trains, 2‐axle wagons, close‐coupled and
articulated wagons, etc., and in some cases how fast one can drive under different conditions.
As shown in Section 2.11, different brake rules are applied in the countries along the corridor;
many times without the physical conditions differing. This also leads to unnecessary stops at the
borders, as the brakes on the wagons in some cases must be reset manually before being
allowed to travel from one country to another. We therefore propose that the brake rules are
reviewed and that a join working group is set up with the regulatory agencies in the countries in
the corridor to align the brake rules.
86
High and narrow intermodal gauges on the railways: P/C 450 (2.60 m x 4.83 m)
Norway, Sweden, France, the United Kingdom and Ireland have similar practical vehicle heights
on the roads–4.50 m or more–which yields great volumes and which can be used for double
loading levels for palleted goods and roll cages, which are used for such things as daily goods
and mail. Otherwise, many European nations apply a maximum height of 4.00 m for trucks.
The P/C 450 intermodal gauge makes it possible to load a 4.50‐metre high trailer on a standard
pocket wagon, where the floor lies 0.33 m above top of rail. The total height is thus 4.83 metres;
in addition to this, margins to contact wires and other fixed obstacles are needed [42] Boysen
2013.
The P/C 450 intermodal gauge makes possible:
‐ semitrailer heights of 4.50 m on a UIC standard pocket wagon (with 0.33‐metre floor
height)
‐ semitrailer heights of 4.00 m, roll‐on roll‐off on low flat wagons (0.83‐metre floor height)
‐ swap body heights of 3.65 m on a UIC standard container wagon
‐ packaged lumber in standard packages loaded three high (3x1.10 m) on a standard flat
wagon
‐ larger house sections.
The P/C 450 intermodal gauge fits under normal contact wire height, but local obstacles may
exist; therefore it cannot be applied generally without investigating each section of track in
detail. Here, it is proposed that a study be made of the opportunities and costs of introducing
the P/C 450 intermodal gauge in the corridor. We wish to point out the following opportunities:
During new construction: The Follo Line Oslo–Ski 2020 and during continued
expansion towards Moss–Halden, alternatively the eastern Ski–Sarpsborg line, which
has fewer tunnels
Kornsjø–Dals Rostock in connection with the planned Kornsjö–Dals Rostock contact
wire replacement 2014–2015
On the Dals Rostock–Malmö–Kastrup stretch, there are no stopping obstacles,
according to a preliminary study
Copenhagen–Køge–Ringsted–Rødby–Lübeck in connection with new construction
and electrification, respectively, through 2021
Lübeck–Hamburg in connection with expansion of triple and quadruple tracks for the
Bargteheide–Hamburg commuter train through 2020
Continued surveying of existing obstacles, Hamburg–Rotterdam–Ghent–Lille (the
“Fran–Scan Corridor”)
According to surveying done by the Swedish Transport Administration and KTH of more than
half the railway network in Sweden–over 7000 km–there are 18 stopping obstacles (highway
87
overpasses, electrical overhead lines, tunnels, etc.) for the P/C 450 intermodal gauge, of which
roughly half will be eliminated by projects already planned. This is thus a measure that does not
need to mean great additional costs when reconstruction and new construction still must be
done. This emphasizes the importance of having a forward‐looking standard.
High and normal or wide rectangular loading gauges: 3.15 m x 4.83 m and 3.60 m x 4.83 m
Apart from the high loading gauge, the wide loading gauge makes possible:
‐ SECU jumbo containers, 3.6 m x 3.6 m
‐ paper rolls up to 3.56 m height in closed wagons
‐ large volume for forest products, house sections, car parts, consumption goods, etc.
‐ 5 individual seats wide in passenger trains
Rectangular loading gauge 3.15 m x 4.83 m yields a 57% larger usable cross section than the
current gauge in Denmark and Germany (G2), but with the same width.
Here, it is proposed that a study be made of opportunities and costs of introducing the larger
3.15 m x 4.83 m and 3.60 m x 4.83 m loading gauges in the corridor. Potential extent: Norway–
Sweden–Lübeck (in connection with construction of the Fehmarn Belt Link), Lübeck–Hamburg
2020 (in connection with construction of quadruple track for S‐Bahn 4). Expanding the lateral
space on the curves is also important, as it allows for wider wagons, especially in Denmark and
Germany.
It should be pointed out that TSI Infrastructure (2011) Section 4.2.2 permits larger loading
gauges: "The TSIs shall not be an impediment to decisions by the Member States concerning the
use of infrastructures for the movement of vehicles not covered by the TSIs. It is therefore
permissible to design new and upgraded lines such that they will also accommodate larger
gauges, higher axle loads, greater speeds and longer trains than those specified.”
88
Figure 5.1: Use of wide, high gauges in freight transports.
Figure 5.2: Use of wide gauges up to 3.60 m for passenger traffic in Sweden and Denmark.
89
Long trains
In Denmark and northern Germany, 835‐metre trains are currently used, while in southern
Norway and Sweden (except the Iron Ore Line) a maximum of 580 metres and 630 metres
respectively is used. This yields more than 30% higher capacity per train. The circumstances
under which 835‐metre long trains could also be driven further into Sweden and Norway should
also be studied.
It is also important to conduct test drives to gather operating experience, especially in cold
weather, as a basis for decisions on which train length the infrastructure should be adapted to
over the long term, e.g. 835 metres, 880 metres, or 1,000 metres. The test runs should be
conducted with regard to brake performance and operating safety in cold with an up to 1,000‐
metre intermodal train on main lines with 10‰ gradient.
One objective should be to set unified strategic goals across the borders for train length and to
adapt the infrastructure to these as improvements and new construction are done. Routes, rail
yards, and terminals should thereafter be prioritised.
If long trains and large loading gauges are combined, the load volume per train more than
triples compared with current national limits, see Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Carrying capacity in m3 per train in the Germany–Scandinavia corridor, 2013 and planned.
3882 4228
6972
12179
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
Volume loading capacity (m3)
Volume loadingcapacity (m3)
90
Heavier trains
As shown in Chapter 2.13, different train weights are permitted in Denmark: 2,500 tons, but in
Germany and the Öresund Link 4,000 tons, and in Norway up to 3,950 tons depending on
gradient. In Sweden, there is no absolute limit. Just as when it concerns braking rules, it is
desirable that the same rules apply in all countries and on general routes under otherwise
similar conditions, and then preferably as heavy trains as practicable to attain the greatest
possible efficiency.
One way of bringing about heavier trains without making them longer is to raise the linear load.
In southern Sweden, a linear load of 6.4 tons per meter is normally permitted. Already existing
wagons for steel sheet coils are 12.04 metres long, however, which with an axle load of 25 tons
results in a weight per metre of 4x25 tons/12.04 m = 8.3 tons/metre. 25 tons of axle load is thus
desirable in combination with 8.3 tons of linear load instead of 8.0 tons. The Öresund Bridge
and the Fehmarnbelt have already adopted 8.3 tons/metre, which also applies to Oslo–Kornsjø.
TSI (Technical Specifications for Interoperability) standard is 8.0 and 8.8 ton/meter, the higher
standard are applied to several new links in Europe i.e. the Betuweroute and Brenner Base Rail
Tunnel.
Carrying capacity per wagon, and thereby the cost per wagon, so that certain transport needs
are affected directly by axle load. A gradual raise of the axle load from 22.5 tons to 25 tons is in
progress on selected lines. The Fehmarnbelt tunnel is planned for 25 tons of axle load, which
agrees with the performance on many tracks in Sweden, the Öresund Bridge, and
Banedanmark’s plan for Copenhagen–Køge–Ringsted.
Faster freight trains
Most freight trains currently have a maximum permitted speed of 100 km/h, but technically
many freight trains are adapted for 120 km/h and locomotives for 140 km/h. The advantage of a
higher speed for freight trains is primarily that more freight trains can be run during the day
between passenger trains, which have a higher average speed. It is thus possible to increase
capacity in this way. For freight trains, this means fewer stops for overtaking, and that longer
stretches can be covered between each overtaking; a higher average speed is thus attained.
In Denmark, a number of train paths are being planned for 120 km/h, and it should presumably
also be possible in other countries. This should be tested in connection with the cross‐border
freight corridors being planned.
Normally, new wagons are equipped with brakes for 120 km/h for unloaded wagons, and with
reduced load weight for loaded wagons. It is also desirable that the freight wagons that have
newly been acquired be equipped with brakes for 120 km/h (SS) both for empty and for fully
91
loaded wagons. An incentive may need to be created here for wagon owners to expedite a
transition.
Over the long term, the opportunities can be improved through adapting the distance of the
distant signal. When ETCS is introduced, the train will receive continual information on signal
aspects ahead, which is why speed can be decided without being limited by fixed signal
distances.
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5.4. Infrastructure investments, agreed on and planned
Many large investments have already been made, and are decided on or planned for
implementation in the corridor; it is rather a question of analysing what are the critical links
when these are implemented sometime between 2020 and 2030.
Norway, in a proposal to Nasjonal Transportplan 2014–2023, suggested an Oslo–Sarpsborg
double track by 2026, and Sarpsborg–Halden by around 2030. Shorter travel times and less
susceptibility to disruptions will make the railways more attractive.
Figure 5.6: Proposed investments, Oslo–Halden, in proposal to Norwegian transport plan, 2012–
2023.
In Sweden, the West Coast Line between Gothenburg and Malmö has gradually been expanded
to double track, with a few exceptions (see below), and the latest new double track was opened
in 2012 between Gothenburg and Trollhättan‐Öxnered. In combination with the Öresund
Bridge, this means that there is a double‐track railway nearly all the way between Öxnered and
Copenhagen, constructed for a maximum permitted speed of 200‐250 km/h.
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The following sections currently lack double tracks on the West Coast Line but are being
expanded as follows:
‐ Varberg–Hamra (8 km), double track decided upon, to be built through approximately
2024
‐ Through Hallandsåsen, Båstad norra–Vejbyslätt (18 km), in progress, built through 2015
‐ Ängelholm–Maria (22 km), decided on, to be built through approximately 2025.
Upgrading the single‐track route primarily for freight trains through Ängelholm–Åstorp–
Teckomatorp–Kävlinge–Arlöv (76 km) has been decided upon with centralised traffic control
Åstorp–Teckomatorp and passing sidings in Billesholm by 2015, but more passing sidings are
planned to introduce passenger traffic.
In Denmark, the new connection at Fehmarnbelt is being built with electrified double track all
the way from Copenhagen (Ny Ellebjerg) to Rødby, with a speed standard of 200–250 km/h. As
regards the service via Padborg, Vamdrup–Vojens (20 km) will be expanded to double tracks by
2015, while there are currently no plans to expand Tinglev–Padborg (14 km).
In Germany, the Puttgarden–Lübeck stretch will be electrified by 2021, and Puttgarden–Bad
Schwartau will be gradually expanded to double track by 2028 and quadruple track nearest
Hamburg. Expansion according to current treaties is thus somewhat later than in Denmark, and
everything will not be ready when the fixed service is to open in 2021.
This means that with the current plans, there will be a double track Oslo–Halden and almost the
entire Öxnered–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg road by around 2030, with
exception for the track between Ängelholm and Arlöv that is important for freight traffic and
across Fehmarnsund. There will also be two routes through Denmark on to Germany–via
Padborg and via Fehmarnbelt. Between Halmstad and Malmö there are alternate roads via
Kattarp–Helsingborg–Landskrona–Lund (with a gradient of 25‰, it is suitable only for passenger
trains), between Åstorp–Teckomatorp–Kävlinge–Arlöv which is the best road for freight trains
(where no passenger trains currently run between Åstorp and Teckomatorp) and Eldsberga–
Markaryd–Hässleholm–Lund, which is longer but it is also possible to operate freight trains.
5.5. Long-term strategy for prioritised freight corridors
According to the EU’s 2011 white paper on transports 43 a larger percentage of long‐distance freight transports should go by rail and maritime shipping; the fixed connections between
Scandinavia and the Continent then have crucial significance. For the railways’ future
competitiveness, it is therefore important that new construction and reconstruction of railways
strive for as high a standard as is practically possible, as its marginal cost in the current situation
is deemed to be low.
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The Öresund Bridge has a standard that even today permits 25 tons axle load, 8.3 tons weight
per metre, high loading gauges and 1000‐metre trains; see Table 5.4. This “Öresund standard”
is, in several regards, the highest in Europe. The fixed service across Fehmarnbelt is also planned
for this standard (the Betuwe Line between Rotterdam and the Ruhr area has a similar
standard).
A relatively large, and increasing, portion of the Swedish railway network is also fully available
for the use of the C loading gauge (3.60 m 4.83 m)–that is, both in height and in width. An
even larger part of the Swedish railway network allows for loading gauge C in height: intermodal
gauge P/C 450 (2.60 m 4.83 m). According to the above, there are only 18 obstacles that could
stop the P/C 450 gauge along more than 7,000 km of the most important freight routes in
Sweden; half of these will be eliminated in projects that are already planned. A contiguous
network for P/C 450 already exists from Haparanda to Gothenburg, Öresund and Trelleborg.
It may also be possible that P/C 450 (2.60 m 4.83 m) and 3.154.83 can be implemented a bit
into northern France and to the Eurotunnel, which already has a high loading gauge. If the
service via the Fehmarnbelt is adapted to this, it will facilitate the future creation of a corridor
for transport of trailers with a height of 4.50 m as well as high wagon loads between
Scandinavia and France and the United Kingdom.
The width can also be utilised by passenger trains in order to obtain more seats and/or higher
comfort. Extra wide passenger trains (Green Train) approximately 3.54 m wide with lateral
bump stops corresponding to the Regina (3.45 m) are possible on most stretches in Norway and
Sweden, but only isolated physical obstacles remain and it may also be possible on many
stretches in Denmark [44] Andersson‐Persson 2014. High trains–double‐decker trains–higher
than G1 for increased comfort can possibly be arranged with P/C 450
A common standard that can be applied during investments in infrastructure in the corridor
should be developed. For freight traffic, a high standard is desirable regarding loading gauges,
train lengths, train weights, gradients, linear loads and axle loads. We propose that the
following standard be considered in new construction and larger reconstruction:
Maximum gradient 10.0‰–12.5‰. In Sweden 10‰ is applied and on Fehmarnbelt
up to 12.5‰ is planned, while the Öresund Link has 15.4–15.6‰.
Sidings adapted as much as possible to 835‐metre trains over the short term; optimal
train and track length should be investigated over the longer term.
Loading gauge 3.60 m x 4.83 m corresponding to Swedish loading gauge C, or–if this
is not possible–3.15 m x 4.83 m with full width for the whole height (i.e. rectangular)
Axle load 25 tons and linear load 8.3 tons/metre
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Train weight of approximately 5,000 tons on 10‰ gradient and 4,000 tons on 12.5‰
gradient
The ETCS signalling system level 3 over the long term
Maximum speed 200‐250 km/h for passenger trains on lines with mixed traffic
Freight train paths for 120‐140 km/h during the day and 100 km/h at night
Most of this standard already exists on the Öresund Link, and is also planned for the fixed
service under Fehmarnbelt. This is a good example for planning future infrastructure, which
would make railway traffic considerably more competitive and meet EU goals for a long‐term
sustainable transport system.
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Figure 5.3: Technical standards normally used for new construction and major improvements of railways in different countries and for the fixed services over Öresund and Fehmarn Bält, as well as TSI for track and freight wagons (weight per metre). Note that variations may occur.
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Table 5.4: The Öresund standard for infrastructure applied to the Öresund Bridge and
planned for application to the fixed service over Fehmarn Bält.
Öresund Link
Network statement 2014
Fehmarn Belt planned
Speed 200 km/h (passenger) √
Train length 1000 m √
Wagon weight 4000 tons √
Loading gauge SE‐C (3.60 m x 4.83 m) planned √
Intermodal gauge P/C 450 (2.60 m x 4.83 m) √
Weight per metre 8.3 tons/metre √
Axle load 25 tons √
Distant signals 2200 m 1800 m
Gradient WB <12,4‰ (bridge), <15,4‰ (tunnel) EB <15,6‰ (bridge), <15,4‰ (tunnel)
<12,5‰
Figure 5.5 Permitted vehicle height on the road system as of 1 October 2013 and the future
Scandinavia–France–United Kingdom railway corridor (the “Fran‐Scan”).
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5.6. The missing link
There are 1,028 kilometres between Oslo and Hamburg via Fehmarn Bält. Around 2030, there
will be 136 kilometres of double track between Oslo and Halden. Then there will be
approximately 656 km of double track between Öxnered and Puttgarden and likely all the way
between Puttgarden and Hamburg (105 km). Approximately 900 km of the entire route will then
be double‐track, while 100 kilometres, or 10%, is still single‐track: the Halden–Öxnered stretch.
Considering the need for capacity for increased passenger and freight traffic, the Halden–
Öxnered stretch will then be the weakest link. There are as yet no concrete plans to expand it in
the infrastructure planning of either Sweden or Norway. In addition, it has the incomparably
worst standard for freight transport, with a 25‰ gradient at Halden–Aspendammen, a
maximum 80 km/h for Dalskog–Dals Rostock freight trains, and a partially low loading gauge.
For freight traffic, a thoroughly high standard is also desirable regarding train lengths, train
weights, axle loads, weights per metre and loading gauges. The Öresund Link already exists here
with a very high standard, and the fixed service over Fehmarn Bält is planned with the same
high standard. The Copenhagen–Rödby–Puttgarden–Hamburg route should therefore also be
planned to the same high standard, as a suggestion down to Lübeck. Furthermore, the same
standard should be considered on the stretches that will be built new from Oslo towards
Gothenburg.
There are particular difficulties with planning cross‐border railway lines. This is obvious where
Oslo–Gothenburg is concerned. In Norway, there are plans right up to the border, but in Kornsjö
there is no larger market so, in practice, the plans go up to Halden. In Sweden it is similar: the
plans go up to Öxnered since there is a railway hub midway between Trollhättan, Vänersborg,
and Uddevalla. But if Oslo and Gothenburg had been in the same country, there probably would
already have been a railway with a good standard between these cities.
But the fixed service over Öresund is a good example of it being possible to plan service
between two major cities in two countries despite the major difficulties of building over water.
A railway between Oslo and Gothenburg, or at least between Halden and Öxnered, should be
planned, financed, and build jointly between Norway and Sweden.
This also applies to many other seemingly simpler issues discussed in this report–everything
from common braking rules to how long and heavy freight trains can be. Issues that are
important for the competitiveness of the railways and of industry. Close collaboration is needed
between the countries in order to bring about a railway network without borders.
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100
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KTH Railway Group
The railway group at KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm conducts interdisciplinary research and training in railway technology and rail traffic planning. The purpose of the research is to develop methods and to contribute knowledge that can develop the railways as a means of transport, making trains more attractive for clients and more profitable for railway companies and society. The Railway Group is financed by groups such as the Swedish Transport Administration, Bombardier Transportation, SJ and Vectura.
This report was produced on commission by the COINCO project, and is an analysis of the infrastructure and operational conditions for running freight transports by rail on the Oslo–Gothenburg–Malmö–Copenhagen–Hamburg corridor. Its purpose is to analyse how the conditions for freight transports can be improved in both the short and the long term.
Another KTH report, “COINCO 8MC: High‐speed trains on the Oslo–Gothenburg–Copenhagen corridor–Market and forecasts”, handles the conditions for high‐speed passenger traffic and the aggregate need for capacity in passenger and freight traffic on the same corridor.
All Railway Group reports can be found on our website:
www.kth.railwaygroup.kth.se