The Benton Phenomenon and Middle Archaic Chronology in Adjacent Portions of Tennessee, Mississippi,...

THE BENTON PHENOMENON AND MIDDLE ARCHAIC CHRONOLOGY IN ADJACENT PORTIONS OF TENNESSEE, MISSISSIPPI, AND ALABAMA

Charles H. McNutt

Review of Early and Middle Archaic dates from portions of Tennessee, Mississippi and Alabama suggests a refinement of pertinent chronology, including the temporal placement of strata at the Eva site. Climatic factors appear to be major stimuli for the Benton phenomenon. Conclusions reached herein will also serve to correct statements made previously by this author about Benton chronology.

Some time ago I suggested (McNutt 1996:199-200) that the Benton phenomenon would be an appropriate

marker with which to begin the Late Archaic period. There is considerable evidence of population increase and expansion during the Late Archaic, and I suspect ed that the Benton phenomenon signaled the beginning of this growth within a limited area of the Southeastern United States. I also suggested that the Benton

development was "post-hypsithermal." This sugges tion places undue strain on accepted chronology for the Benton phenomenon on the one hand and terminal

Hypsithermal on the other and can no longer be maintained. A reexamination of relevant chronology was obviously in order. The results of this study produced several items of interest that are the subject of this paper.

Introduction

The Middle Archaic period began with and extends

throughout most of the relatively dry Hypsithermal interval, which began ca. 7500 B.C. Although there are

slight differences regarding the beginning of the Middle Archaic, there is general agreement that it ended ca. 5,000 years ago, or roughly 3000B.C.

(Anderson et al. 1996:15; Bentz 1988:307; Chapman 1990:1; McGahey 2000:87; Morse and Morse 1983:99;

O'Brien and Wood 1998:106). The Middle Archaic period appears to be a time of

general but not universal population decrease and/or

population retraction in the Southeast. Although a

wide variety of projectile forms appear during this

period, there is initially limited evidence of such cultural phenomena as semipermanent or permanent base camps with prepared living floors, established trade networks, or developed ceremonialism. Toward

the end of this period, during the fifth millennium B.C., such developments do appear as a complex in adjacent portions of west-central Tennessee, northeastern Mis

sissippi, and northwestern Alabama (Figure 1). This complex is associated with producers of a

distinctive projectile form that was named "Benton"

by Madeline Kneberg (1956), for Benton County, Tennessee. The associated cultural developments soon became known as the Benton culture, and terms such as "Benton period," "Benton phase," "Benton com

plex," and "Benton Interaction Sphere" soon appeared in the literature. These various cultural developments

will be referred to herein as the "Benton phenomenon," and the time frame of this phenomenon as the "Benton

period." References to Benton points (PPKs) and the distribution of Benton points, which is wider than that of the Benton phenomenon, will be specific. Excellent discussions of various aspects of the Benton phenom enon can be found in Deter-Wolf et al. (2004), Dowd

(1989), Dye (1985), Futato (1983), Hofman (1985), Johnson and Brookes (1989), Meeks (1999), Peacock

(1988), Peterson (1973), Rafferty (1980), and Weinstein (1981).

Eva and Middle Tennessee

It soon became obvious that I had made an initial mistake is uncritically accepting the "5200 B.C." radiocarbon date for the Eva site (Lewis and Lewis

1961:13), and for this reason I began with a review of Tennessee chronology relevant to the Eva deposits, with particular interest in the Benton occupation.

To initiate the reanalysis, the previously mentioned radiocarbon date from the early Middle Archaic

component at Eva was reexamined, as were dates from

Kays Landing (Lewis and Kneberg 1959:163). These are some of the initial dates from the University of

Michigan laboratory. For these dates, the standard deviation was doubled before publication in hopes of

compensating for errors caused by factors beyond the

simple laboratory counting process (Crane and Griffin

1958:1099). The Eva date (M-357) is given as 7150 ? 500 B.P. (Crane 1956:666); "B.P." is used in the traditional sense of radiocarbon years before A.D. 1950. The 5200 B.C. date in the Eva report is simply the radiocarbon

age-1950; calibration curves had not been worked out when the report was published. My calibrations use a

sigma of ? 250. The Kays Landing date (M-108) of "2800 B.C. ? 500" (Lewis and Kneberg 1959:169) was

45

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SOUTHEASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 27(1) SUMMER 2008

1. Perry 2. Dust Cave 3. little Bear Creek 4. Stanfield-Woriey 5. lFr562

6. lFr310 7. lFr358 8. Sheeps Bhiff Shelter 9. Maim* 10. F.L. Brinkley 11. Moores Creek 12. Emmett O'Neal 13. Hex 14. Walnut 15. Hickory 16. Beech* 17. Poplar* 18. Palmer/Camatihan*

Benton Cache

19. Vaugian* 20. Stockton* 21. East Aberdeen 22. Gmbbs* 23. Neault* 24. Spring Creek

25. Eva 26. Anderson 27. Hart* 28. Flint River 29. Shell Midden (Morgan County)* 30. Shell Midden (limestone County)* 31. Johnson 32. Austin 33.40RD77 34. Bailey 35. Hayes 36. Ensworth School* 37. Ervin i

*

50

Figure 1. The Benton area: Dated components and caches (cf. Meeks 1999:Figure 3.1).

46



Table 1. Radiocarbon Dates from Middle and East Tennessee.

ID# Site Name/TN # Lab #

1 Icehouse Bottom MR23 GX-4126 2 Patrick MR40 GX-4122 3 Icehouse Bottom MR23 GX-4125 4 Rose Island MR44 GX3564 5 Rose Island MR44 GX-3565 6 Bacon Farm LD35 GX-4707 7 Johnson DV400 TX-7695 8 Rose Island MR44 GX-3597 9 Johnson DV400 TX-7453 10 Bench MU433 GX-8821 11 Johnson DV400 TX-7693 12 Puckett SW228 TX-7412 13 Rose Island MR44 GX-3167 14 Johnson DV400 TX-7694 15 Rose Island MR44 GX-3168 16 Icehouse Bottom MR23 1-9138 17 Rose Island MR44 GX-3598 18 Harrison Branch MR21 GX-4119 19 Icehouse Bottom MR23 1-9137 20 Puckett SW228 TX-7413 21 Calloway Island MR41 GX-7727 22 Rose Island MR44 GX-3169 23 Rose Island MR44 GX-3563 24 Patrick MR40 GX-4121 25 Icehouse Bottom MR23 GX-4123 26 Icehouse Bottom MR23 GX-7726 27 Harrison Branch MR21 GX-4120

Rcy B.P. S.D. Med. Prob. Cal B.C.

9435 9410 9350 9330 9110 9105 8980 8920 8940 8885 8830 8820 8800 8810 8700 8715 8660 8545 8525 8490 8120 8060 8020 7810 7790 7725 7570

270 290 230 250 145 190 80

325 110 360 170 180 270 80

300 140 180 245 355 180 195 350 190 175 215 185 250

8775 8743 8658 8632 8336 8316 8135 8073 8072 8040 7949 7941 7933 7916 7826 7821 7774 7620 7591 7531 7089 7015 6952 6714 6702 6611 6445

THE BENTON PHENOMENON

Comments

Kirk Corner Notched Kirk Corner Notched Kirk Corner Notched Kirk Corner Notched Kirk level, no assoc. Kirk Corner Notched Kirk Corner Notched

LeCroy Bicurfate Tradition Eva-Morrow Mt. Kirk Corner Notched Kirk Corner Notched St. Albans Kirk Corner Notched St. Albans Kirk Cor. Not. (too recent) St. Albans

Early Archaic Kirk Cor. Not. (too recent) Kirk Corner Notched

LeCroy Kirk Corner Notched (??) Kirk? Stemmed

Stanly Stanly LeCroy Middle Archaic

Reference

Chapman 1976 Schroedl 1978

Chapman 1976

Chapman 1975, 1976

Chapman 1975, 1976

Chapman 1978 Barker and Broster 1996

Chapman 1975, 1976 Barker and Broster 1996 Hall et al. 1985 Barker and Broster 1996 Norton and Broster 1993

Chapman 1975, 1976 Barker and Broster 1996

Chapman 1975, 1976

Chapman 1976

Chapman 1975, 1976

Chapman 1976

Chapman 1976 Norton and Broster 1993 Davis 1990

Chapman 1975, 1976

Chapman 1975, 1976 Schroedl 1978

Chapman 1976 Davis 1990

Chapman 1976

handled in the same way and was calibrated as 4750 ?

250 B.P. (Two other dates exist for Kays Landing but are later than the time period under consideration.)

Dates in the text and tables are calibrated using Calib 5.0.1 (Stuiver, Reimer, and Reimer 2005). This program

provides calibrations at one and two sigma intervals, but it does not provide an intercept. Rather, a "median

probability" date is computed, as it is a more stable basis for averaging dates. The authors note, however, that the median probability date "is not recommended as a replacement for the cal age ranges or the complete probability distribution" (Stuiver, Reimer, Reimer

2005:7). For the figures, dates were recalibrated using OxCal v 3.10 (Bronk Ramsey 200), which does provide a graphical profile of the complete probability distri bution and one and two sigma ranges. A white dot was

placed in each profile, indicating the location of the median probability date obtained from the Calib

program.

The Eva date calibrates as 6239-5761 B.C (p =

1.00), with a median probability of 6032 B.C. (All date ranges are for one standard deviation.) The Kays Landing date

(M-108) calibrates to 3792-3311 B.C. (p =

.82), with a

median probability of 3489 B.C. The latter date refers to

the early, pre-shell mound occupation at Kays Land

ing. Although reported almost 50 years ago, the Eva site

still provides us with one of the best sequences for the Middle Archaic in central Tennessee. More than two meters of deposits were excavated at Eva by Douglas Osborne in late 1940. Five strata and the plowzone are

said to represent three major components?Eva (Strata

V and IV), Three Mile (Stratum II) above an essentially sterile Stratum III, and Big Sandy (Stratum I and the

Plowzone) (Lewis and Lewis 1961:5-13). The first two

components are regarded as Middle Archaic while the last is ascribed to the Late Archaic. The distributions of

Kirk Serrated, Eva I, Eva II, Morrow Mountain, Sykes, and Benton points are of particular interest to this discussion.

Kirk Serrated points at Eva probably represent the earliest component at the site, being concentrated in Stratum V and extending into lower Stratum IV (Lewis and Lewis 1961:40). Two somewhat aberrant (rather

large, unserrated) LeCroy points occur at the site, but

they were recovered above the Kirk Serrated forms

(Lewis and Lewis 1961:43, Plate 9 m-n) and were

probably introduced (collected?) by later occupants. Early stemmed points, such as Kirk Serrated and

Stanly, are usually taken to represent initial Middle Archaic. Although classic Kirk Serrated forms are rare in East Tennessee (Chapman 1978:45), initial Middle

Archaic (Stanly) is dated ca. 6700 B.C. in that area

(Table 1). This is compatible with the 6239-5761 B.C. date from lower stratum IV at Eva (presumably for Eva I points) and suggests that the Eva date can be taken as a terminus ad quern for Kirk Serrated points in the western Tennessee River Valley. (I would be surprised if Kirk Serrated forms lasted much later than 6500-6300

B.C.)

Additional dates signaling the beginning of the Middle Archaic are few and far between in Middle Tennessee (Table 1). Based largely on information from the east, an initial date of either 7000 B.C. or 6500 B.C.

47




would seem acceptable, depending largely upon ones inclination to include or exclude the Stanly/Kirk Stemmed horizon in the Middle Archaic I have

adopted the former alternative, regarding the early (Kirk Serrated) component at Eva as Middle Archaic and beginning at approximately 7000 B.C. (Recent dates from Dust Cave in Alabama suggest that Kirk Serrated points may date as early as 7500 B.C. [Sher wood et al. 2004:538]. These dates are unusually early.)

Eva II, Cypress Creek II, Morrow Mountain I, Big Sandy, and unclassified side-notched points are con

centrated in Stratum II (Three Mile component) at Eva

(Lewis and Lewis 1961.Tables 6, 8). Faulkner and

McCollough (1973:129-130) have defined an "Eva Morrow Mountain Cluster," and the term has found wide use. Examination of the forms involved suggests that the term "Eva II-Morrow Mountain Cluster"

might have been happier (see also Brookes 1979:42). Given this, most of the Eva-Morrow Mountain cluster

dates probably relate to the Three Mile component at Eva. A large number of dates, in particular those from the fairly unsullied Morrow Mountain component at the Anderson site (Dowd 1989), suggest that a time

period of 5900-5300 B.C. or a bit later, would pertain to

early Stratum II at Eva (see Table 2 and Figure 2). Austin Cave (40RB82) in Robertson County, Tennes

see (Barker 1997a) is a Middle Archaic site character ized by a number of projectile forms, but predomi nantly by side-notched points. It is difficult to compare side-notched forms because of their long duration. There is no obvious Benton occupation at Austin

however, and the side-notched occupation is quite probably pre-Benton. The Austin side-notched forms are smaller than those at Eva, and the majority exhibit basal thinning or grinding (Barker 1997a:194). The Big Sandy points from Eva, associated primarily with the Three Mile Component, do not exhibit basal grinding (Lewis and Lewis 19613:37).

Table 2. Middle Archaic* Radiocarbon Dates from Middle and East

ID # Site Name/TN # Lab #

28 Cheek Bend Cave MU261 GX-7855 29 Cave Spring MU141 UGa-3752 30 Howard MR66 GX-4704 31 Anderson WM9 UCR-1941 32 Eva BN12 M-357 33 Icehouse Bottom GX-4124 34 Cave Spring MU141 UGa-3752 35 Anderson WM9 GX-8215 36 Anderson WM9 UCR-1940 37 Ervin MU174 GX-9082 38 Austin Cave RB82 TX-7690 39 Cave Spring MU141 UGa-3753 40 Eoff m CF107 UGa-777 41 Anderson WM9 GX-8365 42 Cedar Creek MU432 GX-8822 43 Austin Cave RB82 Beta-51272 44 Austin Cave RB82 TX-7691 45 Clay Mine MU347 A-2367 46 Ervin MU174 GX-9954 47 Leftwich MU262 A-2365 48 Ervin MU174 GX-8918 49 Austin Cave RB82 TX-7692 50 Hayes ML139 GX-9081 51 Ervin MU174 GX-8917 52 Anderson WM9 GX-9900 53 Hayes ML139 GX-10492 54 Hart DV434 UGa-518 55 Ryan RD77 Beta-12160 56 Hayes ML139 GX-10491 57 Tom's Shelter MU430 GX-8734 58 Hayes ML139 GX-9315 59 Hayes ML139 GX-10490 60 Tom's Shelter MU430 GX-8733 61 Bailey GL26 Beta-20702 62 Bailey GL26 Beta-21244 63 Kays Landing HY13 M-108 64 Cheek Bend Cave MU261 UGa-2775 65 Spring Creek PY207 GX-2746 66 Bailey GL26 Beta-20990 67 Hayes ML139 GX-10489 68 Leftwich MU262 A-2366 69 Tom's Shelter MU430 GX-8732 70 Leftwich MU262 A-2553

Rcy B.P. S.D. Med. Prob. Cal B.C.

7505 7250 7255 7180 7150 6995 6885 6720 6700 6645 6620 6420 6525 6495 6375 6250 6200 6240 6160 6160 6115 5990 5870 5765 5680 5660 5610 5540 5525 5370 5245 5140 5115 4960 4780 4750 4655 4595 4450 4390 4190 4185 4130

440 350 165 230

"250" 245 90

220 150 185 80

110 165 205 215 60 60

500 175 330 205 90

165 200 200 190 75 70

190 190 230 185 185 100 80

"250" 75

210 80

170 260 165 130

6423 6139 6134 6059 6032 5889 5781 5644 5623 5576 5560 5496 5471 5430 5309 5225 5146 5118 5090 5063 5037 4887 4748 4636 4544 4521 4447 4393 4367 4190 4067 3953 3924 3761 3556 3489 3448 3303 3141 3070 2773 2760 2698

* And some later.

48

Comments Reference

Indet. Archaic Pure Morrow Mountain Sealed Morrow Mountain Morrow Mountain Eva component Sealed Morrow Mountain Pure Morrow Mountain Morrow Mountain Morrow Mountain Eva component Austin Side Notched Pure Morrow Mountain Eva-Morrow Mt. Morrow Mountain Eva-M Mt./WSpr-Sykes Austin Side Notched ? Austin Side Notched

WSpr-Sykes Transit WSpr-Benton Indet. Archaic Transit WSpr-Benton Austin Side Notched ? Pre-Benton

Early Benton Morrow Mt. (late? chm) Benton cluster Lev. III-E Benton burial ? Benton cremation Benton cluster Lev. III-E White Springs-Benton Benton Benton cluster Lev. III-A Benton Ledbetter phase Ledbetter phase Early Kays, pre-shell midden Ledbetter Benton (late ?? chm) Ledbetter phase Benton cl. Lev. III-A (late?) Benton/Ledbetter Ledbetter Benton/Ledbetter

Hall et al. 1985 Hofman 1982

Chapman 1979 Dowd 1989 Crane 1956

Chapman 1979 Hofman 1982 Dowd 1989 Dowd 1989. Hofman 1984 Barker 1997a Hofman 1982 Hofman 1982 Dowd 1989 Hall et al. 1985 Barker 1997a Barker 1997a Hofman 1984 Hofman 1984 Hall et al. 1985 Hofman 1984 Barker 1997a

Klippel & Morey 1986 Hofman 1984 Dowd 1989

Klippel & Morey 1986 Hofman 1984 Barker 1997b

Klippel & Morey 1986 Hall et al. 1985 Hall et al. 1985

Klippel & Morey 1986 Hall et al. 1985 Bentz 1988 Bentz 1988 Crane 1956 Hall et al. 1985 Peterson 1973 Bentz 1988

Klippel & Morey 1986 Hall et al. 1985 Hall et al. 1985 Hall et al. 1985




Atmospheric data from Rfiimer et al (2004);OxCal v3.10 BcookRamsey (2005); cub r.5 s412 prob usptchroo]

1 Kirk 9435?270BP_

2 KirkCN 9410?29QBE

3 KirkCN 9350?230B?

4 sm Kirk 9330?25QBJP_

5 Kirk 9U0?145BP

6 Kirk 9I05?190BP

7 KirkSer 8980?80BP

8 Lecroy 8920?325BJP_

9 Bifurcate 8940?110BP

10 Eva-MMt 8885?3fiQBE

11 KirkSer 8830?170BP

12 KirkSer 8820?I80BP

t3 St. Albans 880O?270BP


15 St. Albans 8700?30OBP.

16 Kirk 8715?140BP

17 St. Albans 8660?180BP

18 E Archaic 8545?245BP

19 Kirk 8525?355BP


21 ?? 8I20M95BP

22 Kirk?? 8060?350BP

23 e Mid Arch 8020?190BP

24 Stanly 78I0?175BP

25 Stanly 7790?215BP

26 ?? 7725?185BP

27 Mid Arch 7570?250BP

i_i_

12000CalBC lOOOOCalBC 8000CalBC Cablmeddate

6000CalBC

Figure 2. Early radiocarbon dates from Tennessee. White dots indicate median probability.

49




Dates from the Austin site suggest that the side notched forms there date to ca. 5600-4800 B.C. (Table 2,

Figure 2). This is coeval and a bit later than the dates from Anderson, and these two sites suggest that the Three Mile phase at Eva (Stratum II) may date to ca. 5900-?800 B.C. (Barker 1997a:Table 2, Figure 2).

It is worth noting that, although basal grinding is common on very early projectile forms, Chapman does not feel that this trait is chronologically significant for his Kirk Corner-notched points from the Bacon Farm

site, suggesting that "basal grinding is not as tempo rally diagnostic as once thought" (1978:54).

Sykes points are found in all three components at

Eva, but not in the plowzone. Seven occur in Stratum I, three occur in Stratum II, none in Stratum III, and four occur in Strata IV and V (Lewis and Lewis 1961:Table

6). Faulkner has distinguished early and late forms of

"Sykes" points, with the earlier designated "White

Springs," while "Sykes" is reserved for the later, less

finely finished, form (Faulkner 1968). Both forms were

incorporated into the "White Springs-Sykes cluster" defined by Faulkner and McCollough (1973:127-128),

comparable to Justice's "White Springs Cluster"

(1995:108-110). Available dates for the White Springs-Sykes Cluster

are generally later than the Eva II-Morrow Mountain

group and extend from ca. 5250^600 B.C. At Eva the earlier Sykes points in Stratum V and Stratum IV are

arguably older than this time-span. This would suggest that most of the dates ascribed to the White Springs Sykes Cluster actually pertain to Sykes points as defined by Faulkner (1968) and that these dates are also appropriate to Stratum II (i.e., late Three Mile

Component) and Stratum I (Big Sandy Component) (see Table 2).

Finally, we come to the Big Sandy Component. The Benton points, along with Big Sandy, Sykes, and Ledbetter are ascribed to this component. It was

probably the presence of the latter that led Lewis and Lewis to assign the Big Sandy Component to the Late Archaic. It should be noted, however, that while Ledbetter points occur in the plowzone, neither Benton,

Big Sandy, nor Sykes points are found there. Also, Lewis and Lewis observe that the "plowzone and Stratum I represent the Big Sandy phase of occupation, but the burial pits originating in Stratum I were somewhat earlier than those from the plowzone, and the same is true of the inclusive artifacts" (Lewis and Lewis 1961:9). The presence of "a series of superim posed, burned clay levels inclusive in Stratum I"

(Lewis and Lewis 1961:15), a very Benton-like archi tectural feature, is of interest in this regard. In short,

whereas the plowzone may definitely be Late Archaic,

regarding all Benton, Big Sandy, and Sykes points as

contemporary with the Ledbetters and attributable to the Late Archaic is at least open to question.

Although not regarded as evidence of the full-blown Benton phenomenon, two, apparently female, burials at Eva (burials 115 and 171) had virtually identical large Benton "daggers" placed at their pelves. These burials were found in Stratum I and the top of Stratum II,

respectively (Lewis and Lewis 1961:142-143), and

certainly suggest ceremonial concerns.

Unfortunately, the outstanding Benton component at the Ensworth School site (40DV184) in Davidson

County, Tennessee, returned highly anomalous dates

(Deter-Wolf et al. 2004:127-128). A number of small Benton cache blades was found with burials, suggest ing that development of the Benton phenomenon was

underway. Individual radiocarbon samples associated with LeCroy, with Big Sandy, and with Benton points, as well as with Withers Fabric Marked pottery, all returned AMS dates between 3520 ? 40 and 3360 ?

40 cal B.P. An apparently intrusive Benton cache at the Anderson site (Dowd 1989: PI. 35) also consisted of

relatively small (10-15 cm) points. The Hermitage Springs site (49DV551; Allen 2007) has produced a

number of Benton points in at least six burial deposits. The points are of comparable size to those found at Ensworth School and Anderson. At Hermitage Springs, burial deposits usually consisted of one, two, or three

points, but the idea of placing particularly well-made

points with burials obviously existed. Evidence from other sites in Tennessee, such as the Hayes site

(40ML139; Klippel and Morey 1986) and from crema tions with Benton points at Hart (40DV434; Hofman

1984) and Ryan (40RD77; Barker 1997b) indicates that the Benton phenomenon may have appeared as early as ca. 4500 B.C. in the Nashville Basin and lasted into the Late Archaic (Table 2 and Figure 3).

Unfortunately, the operational definition of Benton Points has strayed from Kneberg's (1956) original emphasis on beveling of the stem and basal edges. These might now be regarded as "classic" Bentons, while the "Benton Cluster" embraces additional, nonbeveled and late forms, such as those from the

Bailey site (Bentz 1996). Not surprisingly, the Bentons

figured for Eva (Lewis and Lewis 1961:Plate 6) are classic Bentons. It may be premature to assign these to the Late Archaic.

Kidder's data in his recent discussion (2006) of the Late Archaic-Early Woodland "transition" suggest that initial Late Archaic is probably no earlier than 3000 B.C. Recent work in Mississippi and Alabama suggests a terminal date of 3900 B.C. for Benton components (Meeks 1999; Peacock 1988). In the absence of adequate data from Tennessee, I would suggest assigning the

early, pre-plowzone Big Sandy Component to the late Middle Archaic and adopting the 3900 B.C. (terminal Benton) date for the end of this early Big Sandy phase. (Lewis and Lewis [1961:34] actually refer to "the early Big Sandy component" when discussing Bentons.) This

50




would leave an interesting period (Eva plowzone?) between 3900 (Terminal Benton) and 3000 B.C. (initial Late Archaic), to be commented on below.

The various chronological suggestions presented above have been used to produce a revision of Lewis and Lewis's (1961) Figure 16. It is presented as

Figure 4. The rather neat arrangement shown in Figure 4 may

conflict with other studies in this portion of the Tennessee River Valley. Kerr and Bradbury (1998), in their study of Kentucky Lake, date the Middle Archaic to ca. 8000-6000 B.P. and the Late Archaic ca. 6000-3000 B.P. It is a bit difficult to determine when these authors are using calibrated dates and when uncalibrated dates. Assuming the former, this chronology does not

place too great a strain on Figure 4, although their

relatively early termination of Middle Archaic (and initiation of Late Archaic) is open to question.

Kerr and Bradbury regard Benton as 'Transitional

Middle/Late Archaic" (1998:11), relying heavily on Bentz's excavations at the Bailey site (1988). They observe that "radiocarbon dates for Benton compo nents in the middle and western Tennessee region range from 5765 to 4595 B.P." (1998:12), citing Bentz's notes on his Bailey site excavations (1988). These dates are uncalibrated however (Bentz 1988:15, 1996:85). In addition to his own dates at Bailey, Bentz lists four other Benton dates from Tennessee. Three do not differ

significantly (Ervin and Hayes sites) and have an

averaged median probability date of 4408 cal B.C. These dates fit comfortably within Peacock's (1988:14)

Mississippi Benton date range of 4750-3900 B.C. The fourth (Spring Creek) has a date of 3534-3085 B.C. (p

=

0.861), with a median probability date of 3303 cal B.C.; this is quite late (cf. Table 2). Many of the Bentons from

Spring Creek are of the classic variety however

(personal observation). It should be noted that, of the 29 points at Bailey that

were classified as Benton, only five had beveled bases and only three had beveled stems (Bentz 1996:140). It seems best to regard these as "Benton Cluster" points. Three dates from Bailey (Bentz 1988:15), attributed to his Ledbetter phase (which contains the "Benton"

points), have median probability dates of 3761 B.C., 3556 B.C., and 3141 B.C. (cf. Table 2). These dates are all later than the Mississippi Benton range and quite comparable to the Spring Creek date and early Kays Landing. They are also quite early for a Late Archaic attribution. Apparently it is the Bailey site but not "classic Benton" that is "Transitional Middle/Late Archaic." Bailey and its early Ledbetters, along with

early Kays Landing (all stemmed points) and some

thing at Spring Creek (I doubt the Bentons), appear to

occupy our 3900-3000 B.C. period. A final comment on the Kerr-Bradbury chronology

concerns the Three Mile component, which they date

to ca. 5500-3250 B.P.?that is, totally within their Late Archaic. These dates, however, are based on Lewis and Kneberg's (1959) uncalibrated chronology. For now, it will suffice to say that the Benton Clu ster apparently persisted into the Late Archaic in Tennessee.

It will be interesting to see if the differences between "classic" and other Benton points are chronologically significant, as it appears here, and/or if there is also have a geographic factor involved. Such a study is well

beyond my present capabilities and concerns however. The foregoing discussion suggests that we must

either accept some stemmed points of the Ledbetter cluster into terminal Middle Archaic or extend the

beginning of Late Archaic back toward 4000 B.C. (as per Kerr and Bradbury!). Although I favor the former

alternative, a previous reader has pointed out that the latter would be more consistent with the manner in

which Early and Middle Archaic are distinguished?on the basis of new projectile forms. This is a matter for future examination by others more familiar with the

chronology and variants of stemmed point variants than I. It will be pertinent to examine the various "undifferentiated" stemmed points at Eva, whose numbers far exceed those of any named type in the Middle Archaic Three Mile component (cf. Lewis and Lewis 1961:Table 6).

Mississippi and Alabama

Much of our information on the Benton phenomenon comes from Mississippi and Alabama. In Mississippi, the "Sykes" occupation at 22Po691 (Bruce 2000), dated ca. 5550-5250 cal B.C., appears comparable to the early or middle Three Mile component at Eva and probably represents a pre-Benton Mississippi manifestation of

White Springs points (Cambron and Hulse 1983:128; Dejarnette et al. 1962:70).

Peacock (1988:14) gives a range of 6700-5850 cal B.P.

(4750-3900 B.C.) as characteristic for Benton sites in

Mississippi. The terminal date of 4544 B.C. for the Anderson site fits rather nicely with Peacock's initial Benton date of 4750 B.C. Following a suggestion by Peacock, I recalibrated his dates. In no case did the median probability dates differ from his intercept dates

sufficiently to produce a significant difference at the p = 0.05 level. Typically, differences were 30-50 years.

More recently, Meeks (1999:32) has summarized a

large number of Benton component dates for Alabama,

Mississippi, and Tennessee, including those presented by Peacock. The Tennessee dates have been discussed

above; we are here concerned with the Alabama and

Mississippi data. (Meeks's early date from Spring Creek in Tennessee [GX-2931], while a good date for

Benton, is derived from a sample described as well

51




28 Archaic GX-7855 7505?440

29 MorrMt Uga-3752 725ftfc3S0BR

30 Morr Mt GX-4704 7255?165BP_

31 MorrMtUCR-1941 7180?23ilB?

32 EVA M-357 71$0?5J1QBE

33 Morr MtGX-4124 6995?245BP_

34 Morr MtUGa-3752 6885?90BP

35 MorrMt GX-8215 6720?220BP

36 MorrMt UCR-I940 6700?I50BP

37 EvaGX-9082 6645?185BP

38 SideNotchTX-7690 6620?80BP

39 MorrMt Uga-3753 6420?I10BP

40 Eva MorMt Uga-777 6525?I65BP

41 MorrMt GX-8365 6495?205BP

42 EvMM/WSpS GX-8822 6375?2I5BP_

43 Side Notch? Beta-51272 6250?60BP

44 Side Notch TX-7691 6200?60BP

45 Wsp-S A-2367 6240?500B?_

Eva -

Morrow Mountain

46 trans Wsp-Ben GX-9954 6I60?I75BP

47 indetArch A-2365 6I60?330BP

48 trans Wsp-Ben GX-8918 6115?205BP

49 Side Notch?? TX-7692 5990?90BP

50 pre-Benton GX-9081 5870*165BP

_._I_._

White Springs Sykes

lOOOOCalBC 8000CalBC 6000CalBC 4000CalBC 2000CalBC

Calibrated date

Figure 3. Middle Archaic radiocarbon dates from Tennessee. White dots indicate median probability.

52




Atmospheric data from Reimer et al (2004) OxCal v3 10 Bronk Ramsey (2005), cub r 5 sd 12 prob uspfchron]

51 e. Benton GX-8917 5765+200BP

52 Mmt(late?) GX=9990 5680?200Bl>

53 Benton clus GX-10492 5660+190BP

54 Benton bur. UGa-518 5610+75BP

55 Benton crem Beta-12160 5540?70bP

56 Benton clus GX-10491 5525+ 19CBP

57 Wsp-Benton GX-8734 5370+190^P

58 Benton GX-9315 5245+230BP

59 Benton clus GX-10490 5140?185$P

60 Benton GX-8733 5115+185BP

61 Bent/Ledbet Beta-20702 4960+1 OpBP

62 Bent/Ledbet Beta-21244 4780+80PP

63 Early Kays M-108 4750+500BP

64 Ledbetter Uga-2775 4655+75BP

65 Benton (!) GX2746 4595+210BP

66 Bent/Ledbet Beta-20990 4450+80BP

67 Benton clus GX-10489 4390+170b|p

68 Bent/Ledbet A-2366 4190+260BP

69 Ledbetter GX-8732 4185+165BP

70 Bent/Ledbet A2553 4130+130BP

Benton

8000CaIBC 6000CaiBC 4000CalBC

Calibrated date

2000CalBC

Figure 3. Continued.

53




cal. B.C. ppk s

L. An

-3000

M. An

- 7000

E. Arch - 8000 -

Scale | -10%

Figure 4. Revision of Eva Site chart, Lewis and Lewis 1961, Figure 16.

below the Benton points [Peterson 1973].) Meeks's dates are summarized in Table 3 and Figure 5. Cali brated median probability dates extend from 4839 B.C. to 4052 B.C., closely comparable to the range proposed earlier for Mississippi by Peacock (1988).

Discussion and Conclusion

The erroneous attribution of Benton to the post Hypsithermal period (McNutt 1996:199-200) has been mentioned. I still feel that the outstanding cultural

developments represented by the Benton phenomenon

have a major climatic component. The concept of a

unitary hot and dry mid-Holocene Hypsithermal has

given way in recent years to a somewhat more

sophisticated idea of regional variability and climatic mosaics. Although it was generally warmer in the northern hemisphere, analyses of various climate

proxies, such as pollen, phytoliths, stable carbon isotope ratios, chemical concentrations in ice cores, paleosols, dendrochronology, otoliths, and deep sea cores (Del court et al. 1999; Driese et al. 2005; Ganapolski et al. 1998; O'Brien et al. 1995; Ruddiman and Mix 1993; Steig 1999; Wurster and Patterson 2001) has indicated considerable variation within and between major areas of the central and eastern United States during the mid-Holocene

period?cooler in northern latitudes, drier and warmer or drier and wetter in middle latitudes, and wetter in Florida and on the North Carolina coastal plain (Gorman and Leigh 2004; Mayewski et al. 2004; Meltzer 1999;

Webb et al. 1998). Some changes were apparently gradual, others very abrupt (Steig 1999). Finer regional distinctions doubtlessly existed, but due to a lack of

adequate proxy information, these distinctions are

increasingly difficult to demonstrate. In the eastern United States, two major methods

appear to be involved in refining climatic reconstruc tion: (1) the use of multiple proxies (and interactions between them) to make climatic assessments (Gano

polski et al. 1998, Driese et al. 2005, 2008), and (2)

Table 3. Benton Dates from Mississippi and Alabama (after Meeks 1999).

My ID#

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Site Lab#

Poplar Mann Dust Cave Walnut

Poplar Site 22It606 Ilex

Walnut Dust Cave East Aberdeen Emmett O'Neal Emmett O'Neal Mann Dust Cave Emmett O'Neal

Poplar Moores Creek Walnut East Aberdeen Site 1FR538

Walnut Russell Cave Mann

Sheeps Bluff Emmett O'Neal Dust Cave Mann Walnut Beech Site 1FR538 Oak Dust Cave Ilex

DIC-1949 GX-6464 Beta 65169 DIC-1953 DIC-1948 DIC-2451 DIC-2040 DIC-1954 Beta 58898 UGa-2634 DIC-2557 DIC-2558 GX-6215 Beta 58895 DIC-2560 DIC-1947 UGa-3872 DIC-1951 UGa-2633 DIC-1478 DIC-2007 1-830 GX-6462 TX-5600 DIC-2556 Beta 48753 GX-6213 DIC-2006 DIC-2483 DIC-1479 DIC-2487 Beta 65168 DIC-2039

Rcy B.P.

5945 5925 5910 5902 5840 5800 5758 5706 5760 5645 5650 5630 5575 5590 5570 5552 5550 5552 5525 5520 5490 5490 5465 5400 5380 5380 5370 5335 5310 5300 5290 5280 5227

S.D.

155 160 70

115 120 60 75 75

120 100 70 55

200 50 65 70 85

155 75 65 70

200 205 60 55 90

195 75 70 60 75

130 70

Med. Prob. Cal B.C.

4839 4815 4787 4780 4703 4649 4608 4552 4523 4492 4487 4460 4425 4418 4412 4401 4401 4400 4379 4374 4341 4325 4295 4252 4232 4204 4190 4165 4144 4135 4129 4115 4052

Comments

Sy-WSp-Ben* Benton Benton

Sy-WSp-Ben Sy-WSp-Ben Sy-WSp Benton Benton Benton Benton

Sy-WSp-Ben Benton Benton Benton

Sy-WSp-Ben Benton Benton Benton Benton Benton Benton Benton Benton

Sy-WSp Sy-WSp-Ben Benton Benton Benton Benton Benton Benton Benton Benton

Reference

Bense 1987

Dye and Watrin 1985 Driskell 1984 Bense 1987 Bense 1987 Bense 1987 Bense 1987 Bense 1987 Driskell 1984

Rafferty et al. 1980 Alexander 1983 Alexander 1983

Dye and Watrin 1985 Driskell 1994 Alexander 1983 Bense 1987

Weinstein 1981 Bense 1987

Rafferty et al. 1980 Futato 1983 Bense 1987 Griffin 1974

Dye and Watrin 1985

Hollingsworth 1991 Alexander 1983 Driskell 1984

Dye and Watrin 1985 Bense 1987 Bense 1987 Futato 1983 Bense 1987 Driskell 1984 Bense 1987

* Sykes-White Springs-Benton.

54




Atmospheric data from Retmer et tl (2004),OxCai v3 10 Brook Ramsey (200S), cub r5 sd: 12 prob usp(chron}

71 S-WS-BenDIC-1949 59451155BP 72 Benton GX-646 59251160BP 73 Benton Beta 65169 5910?70BP 74 S-WS-Ben DIC-1953 5902?115BP 75 S-WP-Ben DIC-1948 5840?120BP 76 S-WS DIC-2451 5800?60BP 77 Benton DIC-2040 5758?75BP 78 Benton DIC-1954 5706?75BP 79 Benton Beta 58898 5670?120BP 80 Benton UGa-2634 5645?100BP 81 S-WS-Ben DIC-2557 5650?55BP 82 enton DIC-2558 5630?55BP 83 Benton GX-6215 5575?200BP 84 Benton Beta 58895 5590150BP 85 S-WS-Ben DIC-2560 5570?65BP 86 Benton DIC-1947 5552+70BP 87 Benton UGa-3872 5550?85BP 88 Benton DIC-1951 5552?155BP 89 Benton UGa-2633 5525175BP 90 Benton DIC-1478 5520?65BP 91 Benton DIC-2007 5490170BP 92 Benton 1-830 5490?200BP 93 Benton GX-6462 5465?205BP 94 S-WS TX-5600 5400?60BP 95 S-WS-Ben DIC-2556 5380?90BP 96 Benton Beta 48753 5380?90BP 97 Benton GX-6213 5370 195BP 98 Benton DIC-2006 5335 75BP 99 Benton DIC-2483 5310 70BP

100 Benton DIC-1479 5300 60BP 101 Benton DIC-2487 5290 75BP 102 Benton Beta 65168 5280 130BP 103 Benton DIC-2039 5227 70BP

6000CalBC SOOOCalBC 4000CalBC 3000CalBC

Calibrated date

Figure 5. Benton component radiocarbon dates from Alabama and Mississippi. White dots indicate median probability.

sophisticated modeling, based largely on comparing

pollen analyses with other proxy models (Webb, Anderson, and Webb 1993; Webb et al. 1993, 1998).

Although this work is still in progress, there have

been specific suggestions for our area of concern.

Driese (2003, cited in Driese et al. 2005) isolated

changes in bulk soil organic matter in East Tennessee

that apparently signal mid-Holocene warming, which

is consistent with pollen records in this region (Delcourt 1979). Li and his associates at the University

55




of Tennessee Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences see great potential in the study of cave

deposits to obtain fine-grained paleoclimatic history in the southern Appalachians (Zheng-Hua Li, personal communication 2007). Studies by Muto and Gunn

(1981:2-19, 3-45) suggest that the upper Tombigbee was warmer than present during the Hypsithermal, and probably somewhat moister on the west side of the

valley. Meeks et al. (2007), building on estimates of past mean annual precipitation, have recently presented data suggesting that it was approximately 10 percent drier relative to the present in West Tennessee,

approximately 10 percent wetter in East Tennessee, while roughly modern conditions existed in central Tennessee during the Middle Holocene.

The Hypsithermal apparently lasted throughout the Middle Archaic period, but its maximum local impact was probably between 5050 and 4450 B.C. (Anon. 2000:12; King and Allen 1977:319-322) or perhaps a few hundred years later (see also Delcourt et al. 1999:26; Muto and Gunn 1981:2-31; O'Brien and Wood

1998:106). Although the Alabama and Mississippi dates for Benton sites are concentrated in the period 4800 4000 B.C. (n

= 31), 25 (81 percent) of them have

intercepts at or after 4452 B.C. There are six earlier

dates, all within the Hypsithermal maximum. Three of these are designated "Sykes-White Springs-Benton," and three as "Benton" (Table 3). Three Benton dates from Dust Cave, published since Meeks's compilation, also produce median probability dates after 4452 B.C.

(Sherwood et al. 2004). In short, it appears that the main development of

Benton followed hot (no pun) on the heels of the

Hypsithermal Maximum, but still within the Middle

CO r

o Cl O O z

z LU CD U_ O ? LU CO 3

5 z>

O

50

46

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

HYPSI. MAX

RAPID

[GROWTH LATE

ARCHAIC

cal. B.C. 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500

Figure 6. Cumulative Benton median probability dates, by 50

year intervals.

Archaic. The size, distribution and mobility of native

groups had been adjusted by centuries of fluctuating and usually warmer and drier climates that reached a

maximum during the five or six hundred year interval centered about 4750 B.C. With ameliorating conditions,

larger group size and population density would

probably have developed, setting the stage for the Benton phenomenon. A cumulative graph of median

probability dates for Benton components provides ample evidence of major growth of Benton between 4500 B.C. and 4000 B.C. (Figure 6).

Figure 1 (after Meeks 1999:Fig.3.1) indicates the location of Benton caches and, presumably, centers for the Benton phenomenon. Although relatively few sites are involved, their distribution suggests three concentrations: the Nashville Basin (Ensworth School, Hart and Hermitage Springs, to which we might add the Ryan site cremation), the middle Tennessee River

Valley (Mann and the shell midden sites in Alabama), and a major concentration on the upper Tombigbee (Beech, Poplar, Palmer/Carnathan, Vaughan, Stock

ton, Grubbs, and Neault). Available (median proba bility) dates from the northern sites are 4447 B.C. at Hart and 4393 B.C. at Ryan, for the middle Tennessee

Valley from 4425 B.C. through 4190 B.C. at Mann, and on the Tombigbee from 4401 B.C. at Poplar to 4144 B.C. at Beech (Tables 2 and 3). In all cases, these develop

ments fit nicely within the 4500 B.C. to 4000 B.C. maximum growth period. It will be interesting to see if future research validates these subdivisions and date

ranges. In passing, it is worth noting that other major

exchange networks (Jefferies 1996), cultural develop ments such as the Denton site and zoomorphic beads

(Connaway 1977; Crawford 2003), Watson Brake, and other early mound sites (Saunders et al. 1998 and references therein) occurred soon after the Hypsither

mal maximum.

Although environmental change is proposed as a

necessary condition for Benton, it is certainly not a sufficient one. It is quite probable that population growth following the Hypsithermal maximum led to continued segmentation and expansion from one or

more "heartlands?within the Tennessee and Tombig bee river valleys perhaps. What appear as Benton trade connections may represent in part ancestral centers and descendant groups mamtaining connections, employ ing the currency of Fort Payne chert. Unfortunately, these speculations are not immediately amenable to

testing. In conclusion, the Benton phenomenon, which began

in earnest about 4500 B.C., belongs to the Middle Archaic period. Lumping Eva, White Springs, Big Sandy, Morrow Mountain, Sykes, and Benton points into a single "period" seems excessive. Tripartite divisions, such as past, present, and future, or Early,

56




Middle, and Late, are deeply rooted linguistic phe nomena. "Middle Archaic" obviously needs refine ment and, ultimately, subdivision. The transitional

period of 3900-3000 B.C., with very few Benton

components and at least some Ledbetter points, certainly invites closer study.

Suggestions for the Future

Not surprisingly, this study has isolated several areas for which better information is sorely needed.

They can be summed up by observing the need to better define variations within what I have called the "Benton phenomenon." It has been frankly assumed in this paper that these variations are not

significant for purposes of rough chronology. This

assumption, which treats the Benton phenomenon as a unitary concept, needs refinement with better

chronological control of variations within and

between, for example, the Nashville Basin and the

upper Tombigbee. More than additional chronology is involved, how

ever. In particular, we need more control of variation in cache composition and context, such as the apparently smaller size of cached blades in the Nashville Basin

compared to those described by Johnson and Brookes

(1989) for Mississippi. We also need better control over

physical variation of any associated functional Benton

points and other artifacts, and of Benton points in

general. Ultimately, a better understanding of the "Benton phenomena" will be necessary for a firmer

grasp of overall cultural development and settlement

patterning in this portion of the interior mid-South

during the late Middle Holocene. The "undifferentiated stemmed" points in the

Middle Archaic Three Mile component at Eva require careful reanalysis. Such a study may well lead to better resolution of the division between Middle and Late Archaic in the Tennessee River Valley.

Finally, in preparing this paper I have come to realize increasingly that the various projectile point "clusters" proposed in the literature, while very convenient for rapid analysis, mask what is obviously significant variation. It is time for more splitting and less lumping.

Notes

Acknowledgments. Sincere appreciation is expressed to Samuel O. Brookes for encouraging me to prepare this paper and for

offering commentary that greatly improved my original draft. Earlier versions have also benefited from comments by Gary Barker, John Connaway, Eugene Futato, Jay Johnson, Scott

Meeks, and Evan Peacock.

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