GEOTHERMALENERGY 1

The Advantages of Geothermal Energy :

Environmental Aspect, Economical Aspect and Non-

Electrical Application

By

Andi Rakhshanda

030110926

Engin Deniz Canbaz

030110033

Mert Yalcinkaya

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

GEOTHERMALENERGY 2

English III (ING 201)

Lecturer : Sule Gokce Enginarlar

December, 2013

Thesis statement :  Geothermal energy, which is the rare renewable

energy, has unlimited possibilities for the future use and many

positive effects which can be determined from the environmental

aspect, economical aspect, and non-electrical applications.

OUTLINE

I. Environmental Aspect

A. Emissions

B. Land Usage

C. Water Usage (DiPippo, 2012)

1. Well Drilling (DiPippo, 2012)

2. Wastewater Injeection

D. Induced Seismicity

1. Seismic Monitoring (Kagel, 2007)

GEOTHERMALENERGY 3

II. Economical Aspect

A. Renewable advantage and bianary system

1. Renewable advantage

(Dickson and Fanelli, 2003)

a. Maximum Generation with Minimum Use

2. Binary System (Simon, 2007)

B. Government Grant (Erec, 2009)

1. Guarentees of Payment

2. Sharing Some Cost by Government

III. Non-Electrical Applications and Benefits

A. Space Heating-Cooling

1. Heating Technologies

a. Greenhouse Heating

2. Cooling Technologies

B. Geothermal Aquaculture

C. Industrial Applications

GEOTHERMALENERGY 4

I . The environment need an eco-friendly energy in order to keep

the balance of life and make clean habitat.

A. The major concern of the waste gas is carbon dioxide

1. The process of close-loop binary gives the possibility

to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide to the

surface.

B. The development of geothermal plan is considered could

damage the land and disrupt local ecosystems that have

been formed on land

GEOTHERMALENERGY 5

1. The geothermal plant can take a place in

multifunctional land that merge with farming, skiing and

hunting and minimize the visual impact.

C. Water is needed at every stage of development of a

geothermal project

1. The process of drilling a hole in the ground for

the extraction of geothermal.

2. Geothermal plants have the potential to

improve water quality

D. The changing phenomenon within rock formation leads to

movement of the fractured rocks.

1. The importance of seismic monitoring.

II. Another area is the well-known beneficial effect on economic

of geothermal energy.

A. Geothermal energy is energy in the clean energy class

with the lowest energy variation, which has the lowest cost of

GEOTHERMALENERGY 6

the Initial cost that means lowest initial investnemen energy

system.

1. Geothermal energy is used in many areas of people

lives as active

2. Usage type of energy relate a size of

platform

3. Other economically system is bianary

system. which include 2 different technique

B. Government support is crucial for geothermal energy.

1. Goverment ensure that purchase all of the

generated energy

2. Other ensuarence of goverment is about sharing of

costs ofcompany

C. geothermal energy has got many risks on progress

stage and on consturction stage

1. 3 kind of basics risks are : devolopment ,

consturction and operation

2. Risk mitigation is other important issue

GEOTHERMALENERGY 7

III. Geothermal energy is recently used to generate electricity,

however non-electrical applications of geothermal energy have

been used for decades.

A. To start with, geothermal sources are used for space

heating and cooling.

1.Firstly, in urbanized and industrial areas, heating

Technologies are used for space heating.

a. Specially, geothermal energy sources play a key role

for greenhouse heating.

2. Another field of usage of geothermal energy is space

cooling technologies.

B. Besides advantages about space and district heating and

cooling, geothermal energy sources are vital for aquaculture.

C. Aside from space heating and cooling and aquaculture,

many benefits of geothermal energy on industrial processes can be

seen.

The Advantages of Geothermal Energy

GEOTHERMALENERGY 8

The Earth has energy and it is hidden under the surface. In

some locations, the energy leaks to the surface. Geothermal

energy is kind of leakage. Also, geothermal energy is described

as the use of heat of the Earth as its energy source (Dickson and

Fanelli, 2005, p. 2). In the 16th and 17th century, the humankind

discovered that the temperature increases with depth and the

inner parts of earth can be used as heat source. In 1827, in

chemical industry, geothermal sources are used as fuel instead of

using wood (Dickson and Fanelli, 2005, p. 3). Using the

geothermal energy led the plant to more economical way and

prevented damaging forests. Nowadays, geothermal energy is used

to generate electricity in many countries. Dickson and Fanelli

state that 47 per cent of the world total geothermal energy are

installed in developing countries, such as Philippines, Kenya and

Mexico (2005, p.3). Being eco-friendly, economical and producing

great amount of energy are the main reasons of the rate. Also

non-electrical applications of geothermal energy represent a huge

market, worldwide. For an example, Turkey has 820 MW geothermal

power installed and uses 15756 terajoule in a year (Dickson and

Fanelli, 2005, p.5). Geothermal energy, which is the rare

GEOTHERMALENERGY 9

renewable energy, has unlimited possibilities for the future use

and many positive effects which can be determined from the

environmental aspect, economical aspect, and non-electrical

applications.

Geothermal energy is used to do many works in human life and

also has effect to enviroment. Therefore, it must be eco-friendly

energy in order to keep the balance of life and clean the habitat

. First of all, geothermal energy is considered to produce less

emission of air pollution. Geothermal power plants release very

few air emissions because they do not burn fuel like fossil fuel

plants. The major concern of the waste gas is carbon dioxide. If

it is found in then environment, carbon can give negative effect

to environment, such as global warming. However, the process of

close-loop binary gives the possibility to reduce the emission of

carbon dioxide to the surface. As Goldstein state, the emission

that is produced by geothermal power plant approaches zero in

closed-loop binary-cycle power plant since heat exchanger goes by

the extracted geothermal fluid and the inserted operational CO2

(2011, p.418). The heat exchanger has an impoetant role in this

GEOTHERMALENERGY 10

system. It reduces the amount of CO2 and also changes into eco-

friendly chemical composition. Thre are other systems that gives

few amount of CO2, such as direct heating, however closed-loop

binary system is really the best amongst the other power plant

system since it will not exude any air pollution . Furthermore,

the closed-loop binary plant system also improves the air quality

in environment which can reduce the symptoms of lung disease and

asthma.

Besides, geothermal energy development may impact the land.

The development of geothermal plant is considered to damage the

land and disrupt local ecosystems that have been formed on land.

However, the geothermal plant can take a place in multifunctional

land that merge with farming, skiing and hunting and minimize the

visual impact. As Kagel, Bates & Gawell state, multifunctional

land is often used as the location of geothermal facilities such

as the use of heat of geothermal water to maintain the water

temperature in Salton Sea and Imperrial Valley’s aquaculture

(2007). The use of geothermal energy to increase the aquaculture

GEOTHERMALENERGY 11

temperature is really helpful and natural, so the energy to

operate the heater will be no longer required.

Furthermore, geothermal energy is considered to pollute

water in the environment. Water is needed at every stage of

development of a geothermal project. The well drilling process

wastes a lot of fresh water. As Ronald di Pippo mentions, these

well drilling step such as chilling the drill bit, getting rid

of the rock chips and preparing the structural integrity of the

hole so the casing can be adjusted involve the water in its

processing (in Di pippo, 2012). These long steps take out a lot

of fresh water for household and also give waste water to

environment. As Prenee states, the amount of water will change

according to objectives that need to be done as well as the site.

For example, 20,000 m3 per well is required for hydraulic

fracturing (2013). However, the mixture of remaining water and

chemicals recirculate again into the surface filtered by the rock

and filtering system that is put in the pipe. Therefore, the

product from condensation will not be harmful. Besides, the

geothermal plants have the potential to improve water need in

GEOTHERMALENERGY 12

society. As Kagel et. al explain, while using the water to

operate its power plant, geothermal plant also producing

consumeable water by taking it out from the gournd and

sterilizing it through the reservoir rock (2007). This indicates

that the need for the purchase of water can be reduced and the

needs of water in all levels of community can be accomplished.

Furthermore, the waste water can be contain any chemical that is

dangerous. However, as already mentioned before, the filtering

system by rock reduces the chemicals in the water so the waste

water also can be consumed.

Lastly, geothermal energy development can have impact on

induced seismicity. As MIT state, induced seismicity lead to

extensional manner by tensile failure or shear failure effects to

the process of opening fracture in sliding manner and produce

acoustic noise during this process (2006). This condition must be

monitored by using seismic monitoring method in order to prevent

further disaster. As Mejer. Et. Al stated, the use of seismic

monitoring are like diagnotistic tools that have been arranged to

calculate, monitor and manage systems actively, such as

GEOTHERMALENERGY 13

communicates the community of any dangerous wastes (2008).

Seismic monitoring can be used as an early prevention of natural

disasters that may occur as the impact of a geothermal power

plant system. The acoustic noise as described above, explains how

big the fracture that may occur by monitoring its soundwave.

Therefore, the engineer can predict how much work that can be

applied to the environment.

Another area is the well-known beneficial effect on economy

of geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is energy in the clean

energy class with the lowest energy variation, which has the

lowest cost of the Initial cost that means lowest initial

investment energy system. Economic energy is the most important

problem on the markets. Although geothermal energy is not set up

everywhere when efficiency of electricity is considered that is

quite profitable and environmental. Facilities established by the

government for the sale of energy is cheaper than other energy

platform. Geothermal energy does not produce waste because there

is no cost for waste treatment. Besides, people can get the money

from selling extremely healthy and lucrative geothermal water.

GEOTHERMALENERGY 14

There is enough potential in Turkey and in Europe for many

facilities had been built in many resources. EGEC states that

Extensive studies of Europe generally focus on Italy, Iceland and

Turkey. There is 0.3 percent usage about all of suitable energy

market (EGEC, 2009). So considered all of the market this

countries has a significant share. Plant efficiency by increasing

the size of the potential. Simon lists that the cost impact of

minor energy generation of qualified geothermal source directly

affects local residants. Source for production platforms under

5 mw is between $1.858 - $3.484 calculated sum of fund up to

property of geothermal , for big platforms sum of fund is lower

than minor, it’s between $1.336-$2.225(,2009). According to this

data when increasing the platform because of the processing more

water together electric efficiency rise. This is based on the

laws of thermodynamics and heat transfer. Establishment of energy

platform is adjusted higher than lowest productivity rate which

is suitable for relevant regulations. Some giant factories at

Europe in order to meet the energy needs of the inexpensive and

environmentally friendly manner established around the geothermal

plants. As an example, in residential areas close to sources of

GEOTHERMALENERGY 15

geothermal energy in Turkey energy unit prices are

significantly cheaper than other regions. Moreover the production

of clean energy is one of the most important aspects of health

tourism. Millions of people around the world receive medical

services in health-care which services established around sources

of geothermal energy. Geothermal energy sources that do not

require high investment established healthcare facilities also

increased in popularity in recent years, along with an

understanding of the benefits of tourism element. Moreover some

platforms are used for only human needs. According to study of

EGEC Minor binary platforms which are under 5 MW rating are

generally used in undeveloped; for need of human such as heating

(2009). So the small platforms are not suitable for generate

energy. Furthermore Simon states that economic calculations are

based on; geothermal source, position on world, energy usage

style, project technology and popularity level of geothermal

energy (2009). Position of the World affect usage type, for

example if people live in cold-climate country they use

geothermal energy for need warming. Otherwise people use for

generate electrical energy. Geothermal resources can be used

GEOTHERMALENERGY 16

directly or indirectly. This raises the need for different

technical units and different technical units will cost different

prices. Energy usage style depends on basic needs of region.

Moreover, system calculation is done with examined well cost,

geothermal planet cost, heat distribution and network cost.

Operation cost is maintain cost on the basis predictions and cost

of personal. Well cost depend on amount of resource ,geological

case and the workmanship value ,geothermal plant cost is

calculated needs of local area and climatic conditions, heat

distribution network cost depend on old investment operation

costs related pumps function and capacity, maintenance cost are

considering that equipment and materials which used on project,

good prediction of personal costs is so important calculation for

calculation about required times for manpower needs. EGEC states

that estimation of international market; geothermal energy

capacity will increase 9 % until 2020, will increase 4 % 2030,

consequently, there will be 50 % decrease by 2050 for expenditure

(2009). Based on this, it can be contact the ratio of

geothermal energy will increase year by year. Other economically

system is binary system which includes 2 different

GEOTHERMALENERGY 17

technics .Simon states that geothermal reservoir supplying hot

water and geothermal resource provides heat by minor boiling

temperature materials for heat exchange .Pentane and butane which

are organic sources are excellent materials for heat transfer

because of low boiling temperature (2009) which means the

implementation of two distinct systems take part in use of

resources provides a very efficient. Thus engineers can supply

recycle of natural gas. Binary system is a closed system which

means chemical gas is could not release atmosphere. That system

is often used for weak geothermal source.

Government support is also crucial for geothermal energy,

because countries have to establish a certain balance of income

and expenses. Energy is a huge burden for countries and energy

costs can create a gap economy. Because of that recyclable energy

is supported for to close this gap. Countries apply various

methods to support companies. Privatization is one of these

methods. With privatization, companies take control field of

energy. In addition, the private sector increases the interest in

geothermal energy with this method. Other methods are

environmental regulations. By making environmental regulations,

GEOTHERMALENERGY 18

investors can focus on geothermal energy. Because geothermal

power plants release less harmful gases than other energy

platforms. Governments can regulate the trade laws and tax issue.

Commercial law can be modified for to support renewable energy.

For example, you can provide facilities for foreign or domestic

investors. In the same way investor can focus geothermal

investment by making tax regulations. When Tax increases and a

reasonable level of profit occur, almost every investor focus on

this investment .Simon states that in 2002, government’s grants

as a proportion of funding increased but have subsequently fallen

to four year low ratio of $2.1 in government funding for every $1

in cost-sharing monies. In fiscal year 2000-2003, the government

was seeking provide a credible commitment to an energy source and

private industry becoming more focused on using energy source

(2009).In some cases money provided by government. If investment

has a risks, government supply cash for investment for create new

energy platform. Guaranteeing the payment is provided by the

banks and government. IMF and other major banks provide

investment for renewable energy, because government support

renewable energy platforms.

GEOTHERMALENERGY 19

When people evaluate the economic aspects of geothermal

energy project, risks calculation and risk mitigation calculation

has great importance. In fact, most of the investments are made

on the basis of the calculation of risk. Risk calculation is a

distinct area of expertise. For calculate possible risks banks

use private consulting firms and own engineers who specialize in

this issue. The risks taken are usually specified in the

contract and these risks are evenly distributed between investors

and banks. Calculation risk of energy production in three areas

which are development, construction, operation. Project risks

include three separate factors which are market risks, regulatory

changes and unforeseen price increases or project delay. The

market risks; signed long-term contracts after the e needs of

energy may change and his affects the signed contract. Moreover

depending on the source of the project's economic benefits may be

disappear.

Regulatory changes: legal Regulations may change or be

removed. It acts directly on the projects economic

calculations. Environmental laws also can be changed by the

GEOTHERMALENERGY 20

goverment . Because geothermal power plants do a little bit of

carbon dioxide and sulphur emissions. Unforeseen price increases

or project delay: energy market rates may change. This sudden

changes directly affect the rate of profit. Even a company may

cause damage. Construction area are examined by three risk.

Fanolle and Dickson states that The 3 building risks for

geothermal energy are unexpected cost, builder delays,

understandart performance, finance mistakes which compares

building cost mistakes, unforeseen situations for builder and

supporter error, less performance, payments could be more than

planned, cost overruns: the law changes, unexpected venue

changes, errors construction contract increase the cost of the

project will adversely affect. Construction delay : construction

mistakes and problems cause delays in the project. How long

period operation of the project that is delayed, operating period

is the date forward. Substandard performance: Even calculations

are perfect in the project, the project has less efficiency than

calculated . market volatility: fluctuations of market creates

negative effects in the energy market. There are many risk

operations. Operating errors and miscalculations can be bog for

GEOTHERMALENERGY 21

companies. Apart from these natural disasters are another major

risks. Even before the Project calculated that detailnatural

disasters can cause a demolition for the project.

Another important issue is the riskmitigation. There are

many ways to alleviate the risk. Best manage risk mitigadone by

make good insurance agreements. With this method, paying a

reasonable fee shall be prepared for theworst scenario. Another

important method is to sign contracts for a permanent and

reliable. Even some companies sign contracts with foreign

countries for firm guarantees. Thus if their countries market on

stagnate or have sudden fluctuations, energy firms continue to

sale energy foreign countries.

Furthermore, geothermal energy is recently used to generate

electricity; however non-electrical applications of geothermal

energy have been used for decades. The water that carries the

heat from the core to the surface created many direct use

applications which are still effective. Lund and Freeston quoted

in Dickson and Fanelli stated that heat pumps with 34.80% is

followed by bathing with a percentage of 26.20%, space heating

GEOTHERMALENERGY 22

with 21.62%, greenhouses with 18.22%, , aquaculture with 3.93%,

and industrial processes making up 3.13% are the most common non-

electrical applications of geothermal energy, worldwide (2005,

p.3). To start with, geothermal sources are used for space

heating and cooling. Space conditioning with geothermal sources

mainly depends on heat pumps. Heat pumps generally are devices

that make the heat flow in the opposite direction instead of

natural one. So, the heat flows from a space with lower

temperature to another space with higher temperature (EREC,

2010, p. 64). Doubtless, this process needs energy whose source

is geothermal. Besides, heat pumps with geothermal energy can be

used for heating and cooling both. Firstly, in urbanized and

industrial areas, heating technologies are used for space

heating. Mainly, Hot water sources have been used for bathing for

centuries and, now, heat of these sources can be considered as

fuel of the heating technologies. Also, there is no consumption

of electricity. For the geothermal source to be used in space

heating, the temperature of the geothermal fluid must be ranging

from 30 to 125 °C (Dickson and Fanelli, 2005, p.54). It is a

known fact that water between these temperatures can be found

GEOTHERMALENERGY 23

easily in volcanic and tectonic areas. So, geothermal energy can

be applied to the residential areas as an alternative way for

space heating. Another important parameter of the geothermal

source, that needs to be considered for its use in space heating,

is its distance to the consumers. A regular geothermal source can

supply energy, through transmission pipelines, up to 60 km with

negligible heat loss (Dickson and Fanelli, 2005, p.57). It means

with several wells, large urbanized areas can be supplied.

Geothermal energy is not only important for houses, but also it

means a lot of thing for agricultural purposes. Specially,

geothermal energy sources play a key role for greenhouse heating.

Greenhouse or glasshouse is a kind of building in which plants

can be grown out of season. Applying the geothermal energy to the

greenhouses has many advantages. Poor energy consuming of

greenhouses, which is one of the low-enthalpy consumers in

agriculture, simple heating installations with small investments,

economic competiveness in many situations, strategic importance,

especially for local food production, are the causes for applying

geothermal energy in this sector (Savascin and Mertoglu, 2005, p

217) . Hence, full-year production with little investments means

GEOTHERMALENERGY 24

profit and that is the main reason why this sector becomes

popular. Also, with geothermal energy optimum growth conditions

of each planet can be set. Light is the main condition for the

optimum growth. Light is not only needed for photosynthesis, but

also needs for the plant temperature. However, when in night and,

particularly, in winter, extra heat source is demanded. The local

climate, plant features, and type of glasshouses construction

determine the amount of extra heat needed. Outside air

temperature and the intensity of solar radiation are main

variables (Savascin and Mertoglu, 2005, p. 221). The heat of

geothermal fluid supplies this demand in greenhouses and plants

are grown in optimum conditions even out of season.

Another field of usage of geothermal energy is space cooling

technologies. Modern air conditioning and industrial

refrigeration technique is vapour compression cycle. To circulate

the refrigerant, mechanical compressor, which gets the energy

from electricity, creates pressure differences. It is not the

only way getting refrigeration effect, but also the absorption

cycle, that geothermal energy can be applied, makes it possible.

GEOTHERMALENERGY 25

Dickson and Fanelli state that in order to obtain refrigeration

effect without an electrical input, two fluids, that are

absorbent and refrigerant, and some quantity of heat input is

used, rather than the classical vapour compression cycle (2005,

p.82) . With the locally available geothermal resources, which is

the heat input in the absorption cycle, significant electrical

energy can be saved. There are differences in cooling

technologies as the cooling temperature is expected. Dickson and

Fanelli indicate that there are mainly two choices for the

absorbent/refrigerant combination; either lithium bromide/water

combination for application below 0 °C or water/ammonia

combination for application above 0 °C (2005, p.82). The

technology, that makes the geothermal cooling possible, is ready.

So, with the cooling temperatures in a large interval, problem of

air conditioning of urbanized or industrial areas can be solved

without cost of electricity.

Besides advantages about space and district heating and

cooling, geothermal energy sources are vital for aquaculture.

Aquaculture, which can be described as aqua farming, involves

GEOTHERMALENERGY 26

raising freshwater and marine organisms, such as catfish, bass,

salmon, crabs and mussels, in controlled conditions. Maintaining

the optimum conditions for aquatic species is the main difficulty

in aquaculture. Normally, the Sun is the heat source. As

mentioned before, when in night or winter, influence of the sun

declines and metabolism of sea creatures is affected due to low

temperatures. Natural climate conditions can be achieved by using

geothermal sources with constant temperature (Dickson and

Fanelli, 2005, p. 114). Every creature lives in different

temperatures but the average is about 30 °C. Good geothermal

source can supply it with ease. Examples of applying geothermal

energy in aquaculture can be seen in many countries. One of them

is launched by Native American Community at Fort Bidwell in

California, USA. The temperature needed in facility for the

optimum growth condition is 27°C and geothermal source at 40 °C

is mixed with cold water to get the right temperature. The

production cost, which includes the cost of construction of the

raceways and well, is $1.36 per kg and products are sold $6.60 to

$8.80 per kg (Dickson and Fanelli, 2005, p. 116). In large scales

big profits can be gained, due to the fact that investments for

GEOTHERMALENERGY 27

the geothermal applications in aquaculture are relatively cheap.

However, there is a problem about construction. Geo-Heat Center

reported that the species, which will be produced, is the main

variable for the optimum size and shape of construction (Dickson

and Fanelli, 2005, p. 116). Besides, chemical content of

geothermal water is need to be considered. There are some

solutions like using heat exchanger to isolate the geothermal

water. However, before making investments, making some tests is

smarter way.

Aside from space heating and cooling and aquaculture, many

benefits of geothermal energy on industrial processes can be

seen. Geothermal energy can be used in many processes such as

process heating, evaporation, drying, distillation,

sterilization, chemical extraction, washing and de-icing. It is

the known fact that industrial areas in large scale have high

energy consumption and geothermal energy installations have been

applied as an alternative way. The main reason of this situation

is usability of geothermal water in wide temperature ranges. To

illustrate, there are processes like de-icing which needs water

GEOTHERMALENERGY 28

in 30 °C or drying of diatomaceous Earth which needs water in 170

°C (Dickson and Fanelli, 2005, p.14). Also geothermal

installations are showed that they are technically efficient and

commercially convenient. The cost of energy per kg with

installations is lower than the usual ways. Dickson and Fanelli

indicate that, in a place, which produces frozen potatoes,

geothermal energy are used in fryers which consume 45 per cent of

process energy of the plant. After the installations, 50 per cent

of the process energy is supplied by geothermal energy (2005, p.

148). Installations reduced the energy consumptions and costs.

Also geothermal sources can have better quality than presently

used water supplies. Sources in better quality reduce the

corrosion in manufacturing. Besides, geothermal sources are

reliable in many situations. By a company in New Zealand,

geothermal energy has been used for forty-two years and the

decline of pressure of wells is in negligible range (Dickson and

Fanelli, 2005, p. 130). It shows that the life of geothermal

energy sources can be longer that the life of the plant. In

addition, using the heat of geothermal waters prevents fire

hazards because of not using fuels and no combustion in

GEOTHERMALENERGY 29

processes. However, geothermal applications in industry are

relatively small compared to the other applications fields. It

needs to be spread.

To conclude geothermal energy, which is the rare renewable

energy, has unlimited possibilities for the future use and many

positive effects which can be determined from the environmental

aspect, economical aspect, and non-electrical applications. The

development of geothermal energy has important influence in human

history since the consumption of fossil fuel has already reduced.

It does not have advantages only in power generating, but direct

uses are also applied widely. Mainly, using the geothermal energy

reduces the consumption of fossil fuels and it helps to decline

carbon emission levels and greenhouse effects. Developing the

well drilling and using the closed loop binary systems will

increase the efficiency of this clean energy production and

prevent the some negative effects of geothermal sources.

Specially, binary systems provide maximum generation with minimum

use. Increasing grant of governments and reducing the taxes will

make the geothermal energy one of the competitive energy sources.

GEOTHERMALENERGY 30

Besides, using the heat of geothermal water directly represents

an economical and efficient way, especially for district heating.

The development of heat transfer and storage technologies will

increase the efficiency the all system.

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