1

Success Stories of Political Marketing in Multi Ethnic Societies:

Case Studies Jokowi-Ahok in Jakarta and Aher-Deddy in West Java1

Dipa Nugraha Suyitno Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta

BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH

According to Kotler and Keller (2006), there are 10 types of entities for marketing

people to be marketed. The 10 types of entities are: goods, services, experiences, events, persons,

places, properties, organizations, information, and ideas. Whilst there are 10 types of entities are

available for marketing people but marketing persons seem to develop slowly compared to other

types of entities. However, recent studies show that this field, especially in the political field, is

growing as some scholars take this issue into surface (O’Shaughnessy, 1990; Lock and Harris,

1996; O’Shaughnessy, 2001; Dean and Croft, 2001; Henneberg, 2008; Dean and Croft, 2009).

The term for this study then coined as this has become a new field. It is a marriage between

marketing and politics and named as political marketing.

Political marketing sees voters as customers and focuses on market-research-driven

policy (Henneberg, 2008; O’Shaughnessy, 2001) since “voters make their electoral decision just

as if they buy products or services” (Dean and Croft, 2009, p. 131). Political marketing believes

1 Research draft in June 2013 for Pursuing Ph.D in Political Marketing at the University of Auckland. This research

draft was intended to be supervised under Assc. Prof. Jennifer Lees-Marshment. However, I canceled out taking

the offer from The University of Auckland to accept an offer from Monash University due to sponsorship

reasoning.

2

that voters can be treated as consumers as they are also affected by the message from word-of-

mouth and mass media (Katz, 1957). Eventhough the direct effect given by mass media to voters

is weak compared to the effect from opinion coming from influential people as Katz and

Lazarsfeld (in Fill, 1999) find this on American voting, but the recent phenomenon is that right

now mass media is used by party and or candidate to affect voters by using influential people.

Thus, it is not relevant anymore to divide the effect of message brought by mass media to

persuade voters and the effect of opinion coming from influential people since they now manifest

into a single package; the application of marketing. Furthermore, Brown and Coates (in Dean

and Croft, 2001) see that political campaigning becoming an art where “product to be prepared,

packaged and marketed with appropriate brand image after careful market research”.

Recently, marketing in politics has been growing into a serious business. It uses

marketing strategies, techniques, and methods in political process as a new breed between

marketing and politics (Menon, 2008). Indeed, Henneberg (2008, p. 170) adds that the theory of

marketing-oriented voter behavior can be used in political marketing as this implies that political

marketing can be understood as a new way to “answer questions regarding impact and

appropriateness” of marketing strategies and tactics in politics.

Political marketing in Indonesia has been developing since the changing of political

system from tyrannical system into democratical system. Indonesia has evolved from tyrannical

system which was held by Suharto (1966-1998) into a democratical system. The transition from

tyrannical system into a real democratic provokes a new atmosphere in the way politics proposed

and educated to voters. After the fall of Suharto, there was some doubt, uncertainty, concern, and

volatility over Indonesian politics. This is a country where there were only two presidents for

over 52 years; Sukarno (1945-1966) and Suharto (1966-1998) before the mass reformation

3

happened in the country. This is truly a country where “the real” democracy is still a new term in

the politics. It all started when Suharto stepped down in 1998 and Habibie gained the power to

ignite the transition into democratic system. However, the most important moment for

Indonesian politics is 2004 election. In 2004 election the parliament and the president were both

directly elected by Indonesian. That was the time when electoral system for parliament and

presidency began (Djalal, 2008) and political marketing became important issue (Alie, 2010).

While the Indonesian politics has been developing into more and more democratic, the

issue of political marketing was just started couple years ago. The first book published in

Indonesia discussing the necessity of new strategy on the political winning in Indonesia by using

political marketing approach was published in 2004. This book, Political Marketing: Strategi

Memenangkan Pemilu Sebuah Pendekatan Baru Kampanye Pemilihan DPR, DPD, was written

by Nursal. The two other books to discuss the same issue were written by Firmanzah: Marketing

Politik – Antara Pemahaman dan Realitas (2006; 2008a) and Mengelola Partai Politik:

Persaingan dan Positioning Ideologi Politik (2008b). There are only two academic articles

written in this subject. The first was written by Suryaningtyas and Satrio based on Kompas

survey, Kapan Pilihan Ditentukan? (2007) which depicts the election of governor of Jakarta and

shows some important points of political marketing in the election. The second article was

written by Widigdo (2009) which talks about the concepts of political marketing. This means

that the serious study on political marketing in Indonesia itself has just started for about eight

years. The number of published books in this field implies that the study of political marketing

has not been developing well in Indonesia as it should have been when considering Indonesia as

one of the biggest democratic countries in the world. While for research which exclusively focus

on political marketing in Indonesia, there are only twelve research available in Indonesia and

4

they were all conducted in 2009s and up above (Setiawan, 2009; Rahmayanti, 2009; Sudariyono,

2009; Wicaksono, 2010; Pramono, 2010; Alie, 2010; Mahu, 2010; Rindaryanto, 2010; Fajar,

2011; Sidabalok, 2011; Situmorang, 2011; Sitepu, 2011). These facts, the lack of academic book

to discuss political marketing and the low number of research done on the same subject, can be

understood since the true democratic era in Indonesia just started in 1998 after the fall of Suharto

(Djalal, 2008) and the political marketing in democratic system in Indonesia was just started

from general election 2004 (Alie, 2010).

What makes interesting also from these facts is that there are only two research which

really manage the marriage between “marketing” as business management subject and “politics”.

The research done by Sudariyono (2009) and Alie (2010) clearly put marketing management as

the basic for their research while others put “public communication” as their domain eventhough

some of them use marketing terms. Sudariyono (2009) used STP (Segmentation, Targetting,

Positioning) and 7Ps marketing mix approaches to analyze the strategic planning of Golongan

Karya party in their 2009 parliament campaign while Alie (2010) used the Theory of Reasoned

Action from Fishbein and Ajzen to explain the important factors which affect the voting behavior

on a political party in Jakarta during general election 2009. While Sudariyono’s and Alie’s

conducted research based on the practices of political marketing in a new democratic

athmosphere, there are still important remarks left behind. They did not take into consideration

within their research that is the most important aspect of Indonesia; multi-ethnicity.

Multi-ethnicity in Indonesia is unique. Since the beginning of this country, the founding

fathers realized that they need a national motto to bond the ethnic diversity. It was in early years

of Indonesian independence, the founding fathers of Indonesia chose “Bhineka Tunggal Ika” as

Indonesian national motto. Bhineka Tunggal Ika was taken from ancient Sanskrit means “Unity

5

in Diversity”. It is a spirit coined by Indonesian founding fathers to show that Indonesia by

nature is a land of many ethnicities but these ethnicities are united as one Indonesia.2 However,

in Indonesia itself the issue of ethnicity against nationalism has never gone. By the coming of

democratization era, ethnic revivalism has found its wake up call against Indonesian-ness

(Gayatri, 2010). This is an era where democratization is not about the changing of political

system from a tyranny but it deals indeed also with ethnicity sensitivism in practicing democracy

as one nation (Ghoshal, 2004).

PROPOSITION OF RESEARCH

To give a clear framework to this research, the researcher assumes a working

proposition that the practices of political marketing in multi-ethnic societies in a new democratic

country can be used as in those well-established democratic country. This research will also

explore how Jokowi-Ahok and Aher-Deddy political campaign teams designed their winning

strategies.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS RESEARCH

This research is important since there is no previous research which defines the creation

of political marketing winning strategies in practice in multi-ethnic such as Indonesia. This

2 Badan Intelejen Negara, accessed on 8 March 2013 at 02:42 p.m. GMT+7

http://www.bin.go.id/wawasan/detil/167/3/26/11/2012/filosofi-garuda-pancasila

6

research will also contribute to:

1. Political Marketing studies; as the results of this research will give another source to

set new strategies in promoting candidate in multi-ethnic societies.

2. Political Studies and Marketing Management; as the results of this research are

expected to bond more tightly between these two fields. This research is hoped to

clarify how marketing strategies are fit and effective to be implemented in political

campaigning as still being questioned by Baines and Egan (2001).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Political Marketing in Western Countries

Although there is still a debate over the ‘acceptance’ of political marketing among

political scientists, but it is here and may be considered as sub-discipline of marketing

management (O’Shaughnessy, 2001). However, O’Shaughnessy himself puts stress that this

political marketing “is also a recommendation” in the study of marketing. He sees that

eventhough this political marketing is claimed by its advocates, esp. in the USA, as essentially

similar with commodity marketing, but O’Shaughnessy believes that political and commercial

context cannot be concluded as similar (O’Shaughnessy, 2001). The British General Election of

1992 and the Canadian General Election of 1993 are proofs given by O’Shaughnessy (2001) in

questioning political marketing as panacea.

On the other hand, in many countries where democracy has been well-established,

relatively, political marketing has become more and more important (c.f. Lees-Marshment and

7

Lilleker, 2012). Political marketing consultants all over the world share ideas and experiences to

each other (Kinsey, 1999; Thurber and Nelson, 2000; Medvic, 2001; Plasser and Plasser, 2002;

Kaid and Holtz-Bacha, 2006; Johnson, 2007; Harding, 2008; Lees-Marshment and Lilleker,

2012). It is important also to note that Gould (in Lees-Marshment and Lilleker, 2012) warns us

that political marketing in practice is not about copying totally to what is successful in another

country. It is but to understand that distinctiveness between countries guarantees different ways

to employ the same techniques. Hence, sharing ideas and experiences between political

marketing consultants has been going until now. It has also created success stories of transferring

and adopting political marketing in a country to other countries. The success stories of Tony

Blair,s New Labour in the UK in 1997, Shroeder’s German SPD, Labour in New Zealand in

1999, New Moderates in Sweden in 2003, Left-Denmark’s Liberal Party in 2005, LDP in Japan

2001-2006, Kevin Rudd’s Australian Labour in 2007 were inspired by similar political

marketing products from Bill Clinton’s 1992 New Democrats campaign (Ingram and Lees-

Marshment, 2002; Lees, 2005; Rudd, 2005; New Zealand Herald, 2007; Pettitt, 2009; Turner,

2009; Wakefield, 2009; Lees-Marshment and Lilleker, 2012).

Political Marketing in Indonesia

Ever since ‘the real democracy’ was started in Indonesia in 1998 and ‘perfect

competition’ as Alie (2010) calls it began in general election 2004, political marketing has had

important place in Indonesian politics.

As Gould (2007) and Humprey (2007) believe that different country may need different

8

strategy to win in a political campaign and Carter (2007) puts stress that ‘even within one

country things change’, the dynamic of political campaigning in Indonesia related to these three

experts is interesting. Anis Matta from Prosperous Justice Party (in Revolusi, 2012) admitted that

his party in 2009 used [political] marketing strategy to gain enormous votes and it succeeded

although did not win majority and so did Alie (2010). Alie claimed based upon his research that

one the upmost of several reasons why Democratic Party won general election 2004 and 2009 in

Jakarta was because the impact of SBY charisma and figure. However, there are interesting facts

from Matta’s statement (in Revolusi, 2012) and Alie’s claim (2010).

Whilst Matta stated that his party applied political marketing strategy but he frankly

said that it did not quite successful. His party in 2009 general election only gained 7.89% or

placed 6th with 45 seats in the parliament3. Alie concluded that Democratic Party won general

election in Jakarta twice in a row because of SBY’s positive influence towards party’s

electability. On the other hand, although SBY was still in charge as the head of Democratic

Party’s senior members and they did get majority votes for DPR (The People’s Representative

Council)4 and DPRD (The People’s Regional Representative Council)5 in Jakarta in 2009 general

election but they lost in Jakarta for Presidential Election6 and two rounds Governor Election in

3 http://www.kpu.go.id/dmdocuments/saku_h.pdf and

http://www.bps.go.id/tab_sub/view.php?tabel=1&daftar=1&id_subyek=34&notab=4

4 http://mediacenter.kpu.go.id/hasil-pemilu-2009.html?start=50 and http://mediacenter.kpu.go.id/hasil-pemilu-

2009.html?start=60

5 http://www.kpujakarta.go.id/view/data/hp-2009-pemilu-legislatif/

6 http://mediacenter.kpu.go.id/images/mediacenter/pilpres2009/rekapitulasi_nasional.pdf and

http://120.89.88.44/view/data/hp-2009-pemilu-presiden/

9

2012.7

Hence, the research adapting Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) from Fishbein and

Ajzen done by Alie (2010) which explored political marketing in context of multi-ethnic society

such Jakarta did not depict ‘the changing situation’ as the nature of political marketing. It did not

give enough evidence to explain why voters in Jakarta chose Jokowi-Ahok8 over Foke-Nara9 in

governor election. It cannot explain why these voters, the same voters who previously gave their

votes to representatives from Democratic Party in legislative election, did not give their votes to

Foke-Nara. Jokowi-Ahok won in the first round (11 July 2012 ) and the second round (20

September 2012) of the governor election by convincing votes compared to their competitors.

Foke-Nara both had such charisma to attract voters in the Jakarta governor election and

for Foke himself was an incumbent without any defect. In addition, this running mates were also

endorsed 5 big parties (Partai Demokrat, PAN, PKS, Golkar, and PPP) but still lost in the first

and second run-off election by Jokowi-Ahok who were endorsed by 2 parties only (PDI-P and

Gerindra). Another interesting fact about the winning of Jokowi-Ahok was the failure of the

same scenario previously successfully conducted by Partai Demokrat in year 2007 delivering

Fauzi bowo as the governor to beat Adang Daradjatun. The strategy done in 2007 governor

election was by making a coalition between parties involved in the governor election to

overcome the competition from Adang Daradjatun who was endorsed by PKS only (Imam

7 http://120.89.88.44/view/data/download/ and http://nasional.kontan.co.id/xml/inilah-hasil-rekap-pilkada-dki-

jakarta-putaran-1

8 Joko Widodo a.k.a Jokowi – Basuki Cahaya Purnama a.k.a Ahok, these two ran for Governor and Vice Governor of

Jakarta in 2012 using nicknames Jokowi-Ahok

9 Fauzi Bowo a.k.a Foke – Nachrowi Ramli a.k.a Nara, these two ran for Governor and Vice Governor of Jakarta in

2012 using nicknames Foke-Nara

10

Sukamto, 2012). Another striking fact from the lost of Foke-Nara from Jokowi-Ahok was

ineffective impact from the use of ethnicity and religious belief issues in the political campaign.

It is interesting also to note that in 2001 when “intruders” from East Java wanted to prevent the

overthroning of Abdurahman Wahid, the Betawi people were united to block these intruders

from entering Jakarta. So then it is also an interesting phenomenon when talking ‘Jakarta for

Betawi people’ or ‘Jakarta for Indonesia’ (cf. Knörr, 2007). Jokowi-Ahok are clearly not Betawi

people but they could win the election against Foke-Nara who are Betawi people.

The case of governor election winning by Aher-Deddy10 is also interesting. These

candidates, Aher-Deddy, were supported by PKS, PPP, Hanura, and Bulan Bintang Party. They

won West Java governor election held on 24 February 2013 under hard situation against the

other four running candidates11. PKS as the leading party of this coalition was facing national

issue after its chairman had been arrested by KPK12. Luthfi Hasan Ishaq, the chairman of PKS,

was arrested by KPK because of trading influence in government import beef quota. However, it

is also interesting that according to survey conducted from 14 February to 16 February 2013 by

Instrat (Indonesian Startegic Institute) Aher and Dedy were above other running mates13

although in national survey done by Lembaga Survei Jakarta from 9 to15 February 2013 and the

result issued on 19 February 2013 PKS, as Aher and Dedy main endorser, placed seventh below

10 Aher is an abbreviation or a nickname for Ahmad Hermawan. Deddy is Deddy Mizwar.

11 Didik Mulyana Arif Mansyur – Cecep N.S. Toyib (Didik – Cecep), Irianto M.S. Syafiuddin – Tatang Farhanul Hakim

(Yance – Tatang), Dede Yusuf – Lex Laksamana (Dede- Laksamana), Rieke Diah Pitaloka – Teten Masduki (Rieke –

Teten).

12 KPK = Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi = Corruption Eradication Commission

13 http://www.instratcenter.com/hasil-survey-elektabilitas-pilkada-jabar-2013/

11

other parties.14 This provokes an interesting question whether in Indonesian voters choose

candidates not based on their parties but the ‘figures’ of candidates as stated by Ambardi (2013:

12) or because of a result of massive political advertisements as done by PKS (Muhtadi, 2013).

Jakarta and West Java have important influence on Indonesian democracy. Jakarta and

West Java are two big provinces in Indonesia based on the number of its residents. Jakarta has

9.6 million residents while West Java has 43 million. This puts Jakarta in the sixth and West

Java in the first biggest provinces from all 34 provinces in Indonesia.15 Jakarta is a melting pot

where multi ethnicities gather in this province or in Betawi term; a gado-gado (see. Knörr, 2007:

9-10). Jakarta, as the capital of Indonesia, of course has great effect on the face and direction of

Indonesian politics. West Java can be said as a province which has enormous impact upon

Indonesian politics because of its number of residents and status as a buffer province of Jakarta.

Maruarar Sirait (in Raka, 2012) and Qodari (in Malik & Qodari, 2012) believe that West Java is

important for every party in Indonesia. Sirait and Qodari say that from three previous general

elections, the parties that won general elections in West Java would also win nationally. This

makes West Java so special in the context of political campaign in Indonesia. In addition, Piliang

(in Malik & Qodari, 2012) also states that for Indonesia, West Java is another melting pot

besides Jakarta because of West Java’s heterogenous people.

By and large, exploring and explaining political marketing in multi-ethnic society in

Indonesia can be undergone by understanding the strategies and tactics designed by political

14

http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2013/02/19/14573447/Elektabilitas.Hanura.Meroket.Kalahkan.Nasde

m

15 http://www.bps.go.id/tab_sub/view.php?kat=1&tabel=1&daftar=1&id_subyek=12&notab=1

12

marketing practitioners in Jakarta and West Java. These two provinces are ‘some kind’ of

Indonesian miniature. They really reflect what really happens in Indonesian politics, in this case,

the marketing of politics.

RESEARCH DESIGN

This research is a grounded research. It tries to construct a theory of political marketing in multi-

ethnic society by using two provinces in Indonesia as reference.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research will use in-depth interview with: 1) Jokowi-Ahok political campaigning

team, 2) experts and or practitioners of politics or political marketing, 3) opinion leaders in

Jakarta, 4) students from some reputable universities in Jakarta. Students are chosen among the

participants of in-depth interview since student population is large and important (Almossawi,

2001 via Alamro and Rowley, 2011) for any marketing campaign and it is homogeneous

(Homburg and Koschate, 2004 via Matzler et al., 2006). Another reason why university students

are chosen as participants in this research is because according to Indonesian political history,

university students have great influence on voters (Adi Negoro in Mawardi, 2012).

This research will apply data trianggulation. Data trianggulation involves various

sources of information “to increase the validity of the study” Guion et al. (2011b, p. 1). Guion et

al. (2011b, p. 1) suggest this method “to gain insight on what the stakeholders perceive”. It

deepens and maximizes the degree of validity of the analysis (c.f. Denzin in Golafshani, 2003;

Cresswell and Miller in Golafshani, 2003). This combination will provide “a clearer

13

understanding of the problem” (Thurmond, 2001, p. 254), or when applied to this research, a

clear and thorough understanding about the antecedent factors of voter preference in Jakarta

governor election.

In-depth interview will be done by face-to-face session (Allmark et al., 2009).

Eventhough there is no exact number of how many informants are needed to claim the interviews

as appropriate but Kuzel (1992) suggests 6 to 8 informants. Along with Kuzel’s, Bertaux (in

Guest et al., 2006) defines 15 informants as minimum number while Morse (1994) gives 6 to 50

interviewees as sufficient enough to make a solid conclusion depending on the complexity of

issue in the research. These numbers suggested by Kuzel, Bertaux, and Morse are not far from

the number suggested by Cresswell (in Guest et al., 2006), which is 5 to 30 interviewees. Based

on the various adequate number of participants in in-depth interview, this research is intended to

involve 30 - 50 participants.

RESEARCH TIMELINE

14

No. Activity

Year 2013

Year 2014

Year 2015

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

1. Proposal Revision and

Development √

2. Instrument

Development √

3. Qualitative Data

Collection √ √ √ √ √ √

4. Data Analysis √

5. Report Writing √ √

6. Dissertation

Presentation √ √

7. International Journal

Publication √ √

15

REFERENCES

Alamro, A. & Rowley, J. (2011). “Antecedents of Brand Preferences for Mobile Telecommunication Services”, Journal of Product and Brand Management. Vol. 20, Number 6, pp. 475-486.

Ambardi, Kuskridho. (2013). “Karakter Kepemimpinan dan Isu Kebijakan pada Pilpres 2014”,

Indonesia 2014, No 2 Edisi Januari 2013 ISSN 2302-9358. Alie, M. (2010). Pemasaran Politik dan Politik Kepartaian di Indonesia: Kajian Pemilihan

Umum 2009 di Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta (a doctorate dissertation). Sintok, Kedah: Northern University of Malaysia.

Allmark, P.J. et al. (2009). “Ethical Issues in The Use of In-Depth Interviews: Literature Review

And Discussion”, Journal Research Ethics Review, 5 (2), 48-54. Almossawi, M. (2001). “Bank selection Criteria Employed by College Students in Bahrain: An

Empirical Analysis”, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 115-25.

Ayanwale, A., Alimi, T. & Ayanbimipe, M. (2005). “The Influence of Advertising on Consumer

Brand Preference”, Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 9-16. Baines, Paul R. & Egan, John. (2001). “Marketing and Political Campaigning: Mutually

Exclusive or Exclusively Mutual?”, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal. Vol. 4 No. 1. pp. 25-33.

Bartels, L. (1988). “Issue Voting Under Uncertainty: An Empirical Test”, American Journal of

Political Science. (30), p. 709-728. Bearden, W.O., Netemeyer, R.G., & Teel, J.E. (1989). “Measurement of Consumer

Susceptibility to Interpersonal Influence”, Journal of Consumer Research 15, 473 – 481. Boyce, C. & Neale, P. (2006). Conducting In-depth Interviews: A Guide for Designing and

Conducting In-depth Interviews for Evaluation Input. Watertown, MA: Pathfinder International.

Byrne, D. (1971). The Attraction Paradigm. New York: Academic Press. Byrne, D., Clore, G., & Worchel, P. (1966). “The Attraction Hypothesis: Do Similar Attitude

Affect Anything?”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 4, 1167-1170. Byrne, D., Clore, G., & Worchel, P. (1986). “The Effect of Economic Similarity-Dissimilarity on

Interpersonal Attraction”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 4, 220-224.

16

Cooper, D.R. & Schindler, P.S. (2000). Business Research Methods – 7th edition. New York:

McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Craig, S.C., Niemi, R.G., & Silver, G.E. (1990). “Political Efficacy and Trust: A Report on the

NES Pilot Study Items”, Political Behaviour, 12, (3), pp. 289-314. Dean, D. & Croft, R. (2001). “Friends and Relations: Long-term Approaches to Political

Campaigning”, European Journal of Marketing. Vol. 35 No. 11/12, pp. 1197-1216. Dean, D. & Croft, R. (2009). “Reason and Choice: A Conceptual Study of Consumer Decision

Making and Electoral Behavior”, Journal of Political Marketing, 8: 2, 130-146. Dermody, J. & Hanmer-Lloyd, S. (2005). “Safeguarding the Future of Democracy: (Re)building

Young People’s Trust in Parliamentary Politics”, Journal of Political Marketing, 4, (2/3), 115-133.

Dermody, J., Hanmer-Lloyd, S., & Scullion, R. (2010). “Young People and Voting Behaviour:

Alienated Youth and (or) Interested and Critical Citizenry?”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 44 No. 3/ 4, pp. 421-435.

Djalal, D.P. (2008). “How Indonesia Has Changed under President SBY, and What It Means for

The Reagion and The World” a transcript of presentation at a speakers forum held by Institute of international Strategic Studies. 7 October 2008. Accesed on 12 March 2012, 3:36 WIB from: http://dinopattidjalal.com/id/speeches/14/how-indonesia-has-changed-under-president-sby,-and-what-it-means-for-the-region-and-the-world---institute-of-international-strategic-studies-(iiss).html

Downs, A. (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper-Row. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., & Jackson, P. (2008). Management Research (3rd edition).

London: Sage. Fajar, A.N. (2011). Strategi Marketing Politik Partai Demokrat dalam Pemilihan Presiden 2009

di Sulawesi Selatan (undergraduate thesis). Makassar: Hasanuddin University. Fill, C. (1999). Marketing Communication: Contexts, Contents, and Strategies (the second

edition). Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall. Fill, C. (2006). Marketing Communication: Engagements, Strategies, and Practice (4th edition).

Harlow: Prentice Hall. Firmanzah. (2006). Marketing Politik – Antara Pemahaman dan Realitas. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor

Indonesia.

17

Firmanzah. (2008a). Marketing Politik – Antara Pemahaman dan Realitas edisi kedua (revisi).

Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. Firmanzah. (2008b). Mengelola Partai Politik: Persaingan dan Positioning Ideologi Politik.

Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. Franklin, C.H. (1991). “Eschewing Obfuscation? Campaigns and The Perceptions of US Senate

Incumbents”, American Political Review, (85), pp. 1193-1214. Fuholin, E. (2001). “Image of Subtance? Candidate of Campaign? A Case Study of a Presidential

Election Campaign in Finland”, Corporate Communications: An International Journal. 6(3): 124-130.

Gayatri, Irine H. (2010). “Nationalism, Democratisation and Primordial Sentiment in Indonesia:

Problems of Ethnicity versus Indonesian-ness (the Cases of Aceh, Riau, Papua, adn Bali)”. Journal of Indonesian Sosial Sciences and Humanities. Vol 3., 2010, pp. 189 – 203.

Gioia, D.A. & Thomas, J.B. (1996). “Identity, Image, and Issue Interpretation: Sense Making

During Strategic Change in Academia”, Administrative Science Quarterly, (41), 3, pp. 237-241.

Glazer, A. (1990). “The Strategy of Candidate Ambiguity”, American Political Science Review.

(84), pp. 237-241. Golafshani, Nahid. (2003). “Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research”.

The Qualitative Report, Volume 8 Number 4, pp. 597-606. Ghoshal, Baladas. (2004). “Democratic Transition and Political Development in Post-Soeharto

Indonesia”. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 26(3). Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). “How Many Interviews Are Enough?: An

Experiment with Data Saturation and Variability”, Field Methods, 2006; 18; 59. DOI: 10.1177/1525822X05279903.

Guion, L.A., Diehl, D.C., & McDonald, D. (2011a). Conducting an In-depth Interview. Florida:

Dept. of Family, Youth and Community Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

Guion, L.A., Diehl, D.C., & McDonald, D. (2011b). Triangulation: Establishing the Validity of

Qualitative Studies. Florida: Dept. of Family, Youth and Community Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

18

Harding, J. (2008). Alpha Dogs: How Political Spin Became A Global Business. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.

Henneberg, S.C. (2008). “An Epistemological Perspective on Research in Political Marketing”,

Journal of Political Marketing, 7: 2, 151-182. Horowitz, Donald. (1985). Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, University of California Press. Ingram, P. and Lees-Marshment, J. (2002). “The Anglicisation of Political Marketing: How Blair

‘Out-Marketed’ Clinton. Journal of Public Affairs, 2(2), 44-56. Israel, G.D. (1992). “Determining Sample Size”, Fact Sheet PEOD-6, a series of Program

Evaluation and Organizational Development, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.

Jamieson, K.H., Falk, E., & Sherr, S. (1999). “The Enthymeme Gap in the 1996 Presidential

Campaign.”, Political Science & Politics, (32), 1, pp. 12-16. Johnson, D. (2007). No Place for Amateurs: How Political Consultants Are Reshaping American

Democracy. New York: Routledge. Kaid, L. And Holtz-Bacha, C. (1995). “Political Advertising Across Cultures” in Political

Advertising in Western Democracies (L. Kaid and C. Holtz-Bacha eds.). London: Sage. pp. 206 – 227.

Katz, E. (1957). “The Two-step Flow of Communication: An Up-to-date Report of a

Hypothesis”, Public Opinion Quarterly, 21: 61-78. Kinsey, D.E. (1999). “Political Consulting-bridging the Academic and Practical Perspectives” in

Handbook of Political Marketing (B.I. Newman, ed.). London: Sage. pp. 113 – 128. Knörr, Jacqueline. (2007). “Creole Identity and Postcolonial Nation-Building: Examples from

Indonesia and Sierra Leone”, Série Antropologia Vol. 416 - ISSN 1980-9867- Departamento de Antropologia da Universidade de Brasília.

Kotler, P. & Keller, K.L. (2001). Marketing Management 12e. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Kuzel, A. (1992). “Sampling in Qualitative Inquiry” in Doing Qualitative Research, ed. B.

Crabtree and W. Miller, 31–44. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Krejcie, R.V., & Morgan, D.W. (1970). “Determining Sample Size for Research Activities”,

Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610. Lees, C. (2005). “Political Marketing in Germany: The Case of the SPD in Political Marketing in

Comparative Perspective (D.G. Lilleker and J. Lees-Marshment, eds.). Manchester:

19

Manchester University Press, 114-131. Lees-Marshment, J. (2001). “The Marriage of Politics and Marketing”, Political Studies, Vol. 49,

pp. 692-713. Lees-Marshment, J. (2002). “Marketing Good Works: New trends in How Interest Groups

Recruit Supporters”, Journal of Public Affairs, Vol. 3 No. 4. Lees-Marshment, J. (2006). “Political Marketing Theory and Practice: A Reply to Omrod’s

critique of the Lees-Marshment Market-Oriented Party Model”, Politics, Vol. 26 No. 2, pp. 119-125.

Lees-Marshment, J. and Lilleker, D.G. (2012). “Knowledge Sharing and Lesson Learning: Consultants Perspectives on the International Sharing of Political Marketing Strategy”. Contemporary Politics, 18: 3, 343-354.

Lijphart, Arendt. (1979). “Religious vs. Ethnic vs. Class Voting: The ‘Crucial Experiment’ in

Comparing Belgium, Canada, South Africa, and Switzerland”, The American Political Science Review. 73, 442-458.

Lock, A. & Harris, P. (1996). “Political Marketing – Vive la Différence!”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 30 No. 10/11, pp. 14-24.

Luhmann, N. (1979). Trust and Power. Chichester, UK: John Wiley. Mahu, S. (2010). Marketing Politik Partai Demokrat dalam Pemilu Legislatif 2009

(undergraduate thesis). Semarang: Diponegoro University. Malik, Aviani & Qodari, M. (Host and Co-Host); Suryadi, Karim; Maryana, Dede; Piliang,

Yasraf A.; Supriatna, Yayat & Saidi, Acep I. (Panelists). (Sunday, 24 February 2013; 12.30 -15.30 GMT +7). Quick Count Jabar Memilih. Metro TV – Special Program.

Mancini, P. (1993). “Between Trust and Suspicion: How Political Journalists Solve The

Dilemma”, European Journal of Communication, 8, (1), pp. 33-51. Matzler, K., Würtele, A., & Renzl, B. (2006). “Dimensions of Price Satisfaction: A Study in The

Retail Banking Industry”, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 216-31.

Mawardi, Bandung. (2012, 3 November). “Memori (Ilusi) Demokrasi”. Solopos (Newspaper),

pp. 4. Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D.R. (2004). “Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findings, and

Implications”. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), pp. 197-215. Medvic, S.K. (2001). Political Consultants in U.S. Congressional Elections. Clumbus: Ohio

20

State University Press. Menon, S.V. (2008). Political Marketing: A Conceptual Framework. Ahmedabad: ICFAI

Business School. Morse, J. (1994). “Designing Funded Qualitative Research” in Handbook for Qualitative

Research, ed. N. Denzin and Y. Lincoln, 220–235. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Muhtadi, Burhanuddin. (3 March 2013). “PKS, antara Ideologis dan Elektoralis”. Tempo edisi 25

Februari-3Maret 2013. pp. 46-47. Newcomb, T.M. (1978). “The Acquaintance Process: Looking Mainly Backward”, Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, (36): 1075-1083. New Zealand Herald. (2007). “Rudd Momentum Stirring Déjà Vu”, 7 November. Available from

http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10474421 [Accesed 8 March 2013, 02:47 a.m. GMT+7)

Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric Theory (2nd edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. O’Shaughnessy, N. J. (1990). The Phenomenon of Political Marketing. Basingstoke, UK:

Macmillan. O’Shaughnessy, N. J. (2001). “The Marketing of Political Marketing”, European Journal of

Marketing, Vol. 35 No. 9/10, pp. 1047-1057. Osborne, J.W. & Waters, E. (2002). “Four Assumptions of Multiple Regression that Researchers

Should Always Test”, Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 8(2). Pettitt, R.T. (2009). “Learning from The Master: The Impact of New Labour on Political Parties

in Denmark in Political Marketing: Principles and Applications J. Lees-Marshment (ed.). Oxon: Routledge. pp. 249-251

Plasser, F. And Plasser, G. (2002). Global Political Campaigning: A Worldwide Analysis of

Campaign Professionals and Their Practices. Westport, CT: Praeger. Popkin, S.L. (1994). The Reasoning Voter: Communication and Persuasion in Presidential

Campaigns. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pramono, E. (2010). Model Marketing Politik dalam Pemilihan Gubernur Lampung Tahun 2008

(undergraduate thesis). Lampung: Lampung University. Rahmayanti, D.R. (2009). Pemasaran Politik (Political Marketing) Partai Golongan Karya dan

Partai Demokrat (Studi Tentang Perbandingan Pemasaran Politik Partai Golkar dan Partai Demokrat dalam rangka Menarik Massa pada Pemilihan Umum Legislatif Tahun

21

2009 di Daerah Pilihan II Kabupaten Madiun) (undergraduate thesis). Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University.

Raka, Mang. (1 October 2012). “PDIP Belajar dari Pilgub Jakarta”, radar-karawang.com n.pag.

Web. Accessed 24 February 2013. Revolusi, Prabu (Interviewer) & Matta, Anis; Qodari, Muhammad; Kaban, M.S.;

Romahurmuziy, M. (Interviewees). (Tuesday, 21 August 2012; 21.30 – 22.30 GMT +7). Nasib Parpol Islam di 2014. Metro TV, Today’s Dialogue.

Rindaryanto, Y. (2010). Marketing Politik Partai Gerindra dalam Pemilu Legislatif DPRD II

Kabupaten Grobogan Tahun 2009 (undergraduate thesis). Semarang: Diponegoro University.

Rose, R. & McAllister, I. (1990). The Loyalties of Voters: A Lifetime Learning Model. London:

Sage Pub. Rudd, C. (2005). “Marketing the Message or the Messenger? In Political Marketing in

Comparative Perspective (D.G. Lilleker and J. Lees-Marshment, eds.). Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 79-96.

Schiffman, L.G., Sherman, E., & Kirpalani, N. (2002). ”Trusting Souls; A Segmentation of the

Voting Public”, Psychology and Marketing, 19, (12), pp. 993-1007. Setiawan, A. (2009). Strategi Kampanye Kemenangan SBY-Boediono dengan Satu Putaran

Pemilu dalam Pilpres 2009 (undergraduate thesis). Yogyakarta: Yogyakarta State University.

Sidabalok, T.S. (2011). Peranan Marketing Politik Dalam Pemenangan Pemilu (Studi Kasus:

Strategi Politik Oloan Simbolon, ST dalam Pemenangan Pemilu Legislatif 2009 dari Daerah Pemilihan VIII Sumatera) (undergraduate thesis). Medan: University of North Sumatera.

Situmorang, C. (2011). Strategi Marketing Politik Pemilukada Purbalingga 2010 (undergraduate

thesis). Semarang: Diponegoro University. Sitepu, E.S. (2011). Partai Politik Dan Pemilu (Suatu Studi Marketing Politik Terhadap Partai

Demokrat dalam Pemilu Legislatif 2009) (undergraduate thesis). Medan: University of North Sumatera Utara.

Sudariyono, G. (2009). Analisis Perencanaan Strategis Partai Politik Studi Kasus: Marketing

Golongan Karya Golongan Karya dalam Menghadapi Pemilu Legislatif 2009 (master thesis). Bogor: Graduate Program of Management and Business – Bogor Agricultural University.

22

Sukamto, Imam. (11 August 2012). Ini Strategi Foke-Nara di Putaran Kedua Pilkada DKI. Tempo.co Metro.

Retrieved from http://www.tempo.co/read/news/2012/08/11/064422868/Ini-Strategi-Foke-Nara-di-

Putaran-Kedua-Pilgub-DKI Suryaningtyas, T. & Satrio, B.E. (2007). “Kapan Pilihan Ditentukan?” in Jakarta Memilih:

Pilkada dan Pembelajaran Demokrasi by Budiman Tanuredjo and Chris Verdiansyah (eds.). Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kompas.

Thurber, J.A. and Nelson, C.J., (eds). (2000). Campaign Warriors: Political Consultants in

Elections. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press Thurmond, V. (2001). “The Point of Triangulation”, Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33(3), 254-

256. Turner, J. (2009). “International Political Product Marketing” in Political Marketing: Principles

and Applications by J. Lees-Marshment (ed.). Oxford: Routledge, pp. 251-253. Wakefield, B. (2009). “Principle versus Patronage: The Lees-Marshment Method and Political

Marketing in Japan. in Political Marketing: Principles and Applications by J. Lees-Marshment (ed.). Oxford: Routledge, pp. 71-72.

Widigdo, I. (2009). “Penerapan Konsep Political Marketing di dalam Pilkada”, Dinamika

Manajemen, Vol. 1, No. 1, November 2009, Semarang State University. Wicaksono, A.C. (2010). Marketing Politik Calon Anggota Legislatif (undergraduate thesis).

Surabaya: Airlangga University. Zhao, X., & Chaffe, S.H. (1995). “Campaign Advertisements versus Television News as Source

of Political Issue Information.”, Public Opinion Quarterly, (59), 1, pp. 41-65.