Style and purpose in

JOEL P. BRERETON

STYLE AND PURPOSE IN R. GVEDA II 1 1

0.1. Three fundamental characteristics dictate the nature of Vedic hymns and must govern their interpretation. First, the hymns were expressions of the truth about the divine powers which shape and maintain the world. These truths took the form of myths, which disclosed the functions or nature of the gods, or of

descriptions, which expressed their true character. But it was not only the truth of the hymns which made them effective: it was also the way that truth was expressed. The Vedic hymns were intricate, elegantly crafted compositions, for only such hymns could invoke and empower the divinities understood in the poet's insight. This, then, is the second characteristic of Vedic hymns: they were complex poems, meant to appeal to the superior mind of the gods. It was no defect if a human audience could not grasp the full meaning or intricacies of the poems. They were composed not for them, but for an audience above them. The third feature of the hymns is that they were composed to accompany a ritual. The recitation of the hymns was integral to the rites, and the hymns fulfilled their religious purpose only in that context. The neglect of any one of these features will misrepresent

the hymns and produce an interpretation that does not reflect their historical and religious context.

0.2. These last two characteristics of the hymns, their complexity and ritual context, will be the focus of this study. In it, I hope to demonstrate that a much richer and more complete interpretation of the hymns results when they are taken into account fully. To do so, I will study one hymn in detail, RV II 11, and I will

analyze particularly its structural and stylistic features in order to show how these reflect its context and intent.

0.3. RV II 11 is tile first hymn of the Indra cycle of the second man.dala.

It is an excellent composition and a good example of the power of the Grtsamada poets. In the following, I give a translation of the hymn together with a commentary, which explains my translation and interpretations. The translation of this hymn is particularly problematic because several verses preclude unilinear interpretations. In these instances, the translation accords with the reading of the verse most strongly suggested by the context, while other readings are discussed in the commentary. Such an approach diminishes the complexity of the poetry but clarifies the rendering. Since the commentary is intended to justify the translation and to discuss the interpretation of the hymn as completely as practical, it includes material which does not directly bear on the principal concern of this paper. The discussion of the

Indo-lranian Journal 28 (1985) 237-262. 0019-7246/85.t0. �9 1985 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.

238 JOEL P. BRERETON

stylistic features which reflect the hymn's religious purpose is found principally

in the commentary on vss. 3 and 7 -8 , especially w w and 7.1-8.15, and in

the conclusion, w

1. grudh i hdvam indra ma ris.anyah. , syama te ddvdne vdsfmdm ima hi tvam ~rjo vardhdyanti, vasftydvah, s[ndhavo nd ks.drantah.

"Hear (our) summons, Indra. Be not offended. We would be those (who are) to be given good things from you. Flowing like rivers, these nourishments strengthen you in their quest for goods."

1.1. This verse offers no particular difficulty. It is a straightforward declaration

of the principle of exchange which governs the Vedic ritual. Indra is invited to

accept the offerings which will give him the strength and the inclination to help

his worshippers.

1.2. ma risanyah.: Not so much "versieh dich nicht" as Geldner translates

(so also Renou: "ne fais pas d6faut")) The forms of risanya-, like the other verbal

derivatives of ris, can mean not only "injure" but also "be injured," as in II 37.3b

arisan.yan v~l.ayasvd vanaspate "Being without damage, stand solidly, o tree."

Elsewhere, risan.yd- means "injure" or "be injured" in the sense of "offend, be

offended." A transitive risanyd- with this nuance appears in VIII 1.1 abc ma cid

anydd vi gamsata, sdkhdyo ma risan.yata, indram it stotd vfsanam "Praise no other

thing. Comrades, offend him not. Praise only Indra, the bull." The poet warns the

singers not to honor anything at all before Indra, for the god will otherwise be

offended. An exact parallel to II 11.1, however, is VIII 20.1, where risanyd- occurs

intransitively in the sense of "be offended": 1 ab d gantd ma risanyata, prdsthdvdno

mapa s thdtd . . . "Come hither. Be not offended. Do not keep away, o you who go

forth." Here the poet asks that the Maruts not stay away because of some offense

which their worshippers might have committed.

2. s.r]6 mah {r indra ya dpinvah, pdris.thitd 6hind gara parvih. dmartyam, cid ddsdm mdnyamdnam, dvdbhinad ukthMr vdvrdhdndh.

"You released the many great (waters), which you caused to swell, when they were entrapped by the serpent, o hero. You cut down the barbarian, even though he thought he was immortal, when you became strong through the hymns."

2.1. The poet now introduces the myth of Indra's battle with Vrtra and the

release of the waters. The "strengthening" of Indra, mentioned in line d, links this verse with the preceding one. In ancient times, Indra provided the life-giving water

when he was made strong; now, since he is again being strengthened, he ought to

satisfy the poet's present needs. Note also that according to 2d, Indra derives his

power from hymns of praise like the one being sung to him. Although the ancient

singers are not named, they are probably the Maruts, who elsewhere in the RV

STYLE AND PURPOSE IN RGVEDA 239

inspire Indra with their songs, cf. the following verse and 1 52.15; III 47.4; V 29.2,

30.6, 31.4f.

3. ukthOsv in n(t ~ftra yd.su cdkdn, stdmes, v indra rudriyes.u ca NbhyOd eta y~su mandasdndh. , prd vdydve sisrate nd ~ubhrdh

"(Delight) now in the hymns and the praises like those of the Rudras, in which you took pleasure, o hero, lndra. These, in which you find exhilaration, leap forth to you like the resplendent (Maruts leap forth) to the wind."

3.1. Once again, the poet returns to the present worship and especially to the

hymns that, like the Maruts' ancient praises, exhilarate the god. The poet's elliptical

style, however, has made the proper translation difficult. 3.2. Against Geldner and Renou, I take ab and cd as separate sentences. In ab,

there is an ellipsis of an imperative form, a relatively common device in the RV. 2

The verb to be understood is suggested by cdlain in 3a: the poet asks that Indra

enjoy again hymns like those which delighted him in the past, especially when he

battled the serpent (cf. vs. 2). The use of imperative forms of ran with the locative

provides a close parallel to the kind of expression we expect here. Examples are III 41.4 rdrandh i sdvanesu na, esfi stdme.su vrtrahan, ukth~sv indra girvanah. "Delight in

our pressings and in these praises, o smasher of obstacles; (delight) in (these) hymns,

o Indra, whose prize is the song." and VIII 34.1 lab a no ydhy fipagruty, ukthOsu

ranayd ihd "(In&a), drive hither to us to hear (us). Delight in the hymns here. ' '3

3.3. s t 6 m e s u . . , rudriye.su ca: The word order is unusual, but Vedic poetry

occasionally shows displacement of ca. Sometimes the poets postpone ca to the end

of the line or place it after the entire phrase it connects. Both of these processes could explain parallels such as VI 9.1 ab dhag ca lff..sndm dhar drjunam, ca, vi vartete . . . .

Normal word order would be (1hag ca drjunam*. Similar also is AV V 7.8, in which ca logically connects cittdm and dkatirn but is postponed to the end of the line: 8bcd svapnayd sacase ]dnarn, drdte cittarn virtsanty, akatim, p~ru.sasya ca. 4

3.4. rudriye.su: As Geldner correctly notes, this word refers to the Maruts. Ruclriya is a common epithet of them (e.g., Ili 26.5; V 57.7: VII 56.22), and

reference in this verse to the Maruts' hymns accords well with vss. 2 and 3. In vs.

2, the poet mentioned the invigoration of Indra by the Maruts' praises. Here he

calls his own hymns "Rudrian" in order to underline his hope that they, like the

hymns of the Maruts, will empower Indra to perform great deeds. Similarly, in

1 62.1, the poet would sing hymns like those of the Afigirases, that is, hymns which will be as powerful as those of the Afigirases were: lab prd manmahe ~avasdnaya

gasdrn, dhgasdm girvanase ahgirasvdt "We compose an inspiring hymn for him who acts with might, (a hymn) in the manner of the Afigirases for him whose prize is the song." In both this verse and in II 11.3, the poets share the same desire to imitate the hymns and successes of their mythical prototypes.


3.5. Lines 3cd constitute the most difficult part of the verse, but also the most interesting. The first problem is that the subject has been deliberately suppressed and is only indicated by the feminine plural pronoun etdh.. To what does this pronoun refer, and why has the poet chosen to express himself so elliptically? Geldner suggests two possible antecedents for etdh: either the waters mentioned in vs. 2 (so Oldenberg) or, as Sgyana suggests, the hymns. In addition, there are at least two other alternatives: the hr/ah. "nourishments" (vs. 1) and the dhdrdh "streams (of soma)." s

3.6. To interpret the etah as the waters makes excellent sense within the context of these two lines. As Geldner and Oldenberg both note, Indra is elsewhere said to be exhilarated (mand) amid the waters. Compare X 50.2cd vigvdsu dhars(~ vdjal~..'tyesu satpate vrtrO vdpsv dbhi ggwa mandase "Among all the chariot-poles, in the contests for the prizes of victory, or amid the waters at the (destruction of) Vrtra, you become exhilarated, o hero." Furthermore, (prd) sr, which describes the action of the eta.h, often characterizes the motion of the waters as they come streaming forth at the destruction of V.rtra, as, for example, in II 17.3cd rathest.hOna hdryagvena vicyutdh. , prd firdyah, sisrate sadhrydtk pfthak "Propelled by (Indra),

standing on his chariot with his bay horses, the streams run forth individually toward the same goal." 6

3.7. But although this solution explains these lines, it makes less sense in the context of the whole verse. First, such a sudden return to the story of the slaying of Vrtra is surprising. In lines ab, the poet calls attention to the link between his present action and the mythic prototype on which the effectiveness of that action is based. We would have expected him to continue to invoke the myth with reference to the acts of worship and not to return to the myth alone. Second, the shift in subject back to the waters, which are mentioned in the first half of the preceding verse, would be uncomfortably abrupt.

3.8. Perhaps, then, Sgyana is correct, and etah. refers to the hymns. Hymns delight and invigorate lndra, so they might be described as "these in which you find exhilaration." Compare VIII 64.1a (~t tvd mandantu stdmdh. "Let the hymns of praise exhilarate you." However, this interpretation is not without its own difficulties. First, if the etah. are "these (songs)," the suppressed noun cannot be either ukthd or stoma from 3ab, neither of which is feminine, but stutf (Sfiyana's gloss) or, more likely, gir. 7 Second, I have not found a description of the hymns "running forth" to Indra.

3.9. Then again, the etah. might be the uriah. "nourishments." The effect of the {~rjah. on Indra described in vs. 1 is similar to that of the etah in vs. 3. Through the ~rjah. he becomes strong; among the etdh he is exhilarated. These ~rja.h are probably the soma offered to Indra, 8 and thus this interpretation is substantially equivalent to the suggestion that dhdrdh "streams (of soma)" is to be supplied with etdh.. The description of the etdh in vs. 3 does apply well to the soma. The


soma draughts could be those among which Indra becomes exhilarated; cf. VIII

97.6abc sd nah s6mesu somapd.h, sut~su gavasas pate, mdddyasva . . . . "Find exhilaration amid our pressed soma, o drinker of soma, lord of strength." Likewise,

not only the waters, but also the oblations poured to lndra run (st) to him. 9 This

interpretation is highly plausible, but it is not so compelling that it excludes the

two others. 3.10. Thus, the ellipsis remains ambiguous, and this ambiguity, I believe, is

entirely deliberate. In these lines, the poet simultaneously describes both the action

of the myth, which is the theme of his praise, and of the ritual accompanying his

recitation. "These," which run forth to Indra, are both the waters and the offerings

- the soma or the hymns or both. His purpose in creating such an ellipsis is to

suggest that the "running forth" of the offerings will cause Indra to release the

waters once again, just as he did at the destruction of V.rtra. In a more subtle

way than the Br~hmanas, the poet has used a fundamental Brghmanic ploy: by

identifying both the offerings and the waters with the etah and hence with one

another, he implies that the presence of the offerings will mean the coming of the waters. In the poet's vision, the ritual acts have become a reiteration of mythic

action. Thus, lines cd carry forward the method and intent of ab. In the first two lines of this verse, Indra is asked to enjoy the praises, which are like those which

inspired him when he released the waters. In the last two, the offerings are described as running to Indra, just as the waters ran forth before and, hopefully, will run forth

again. 3.11. A second instance of intentional ambiguity occurs in the last line of

this verse, in the phrase vdydve. . , nd gubhrd.h. The interpretation of the simile

turns on the identity of the gubhrah. Elsewhere in the RV, Yubhrd in the plural

describes the Maruts (8X), the soma (2X) - as well as 4X in the singular - and the

gods, dawns, waters, and rivers once each. Thus, ~ubhrd is an epithet of the Maruts

and of the soma. In the context of this verse, the "resplendent ones" might well be

the Maruts for two reasons. First, they were already alluded to both in vs. 2 and in

vs. 3ab. Second, "running forth to the wind" is a likely description of the Maruts.

A similar scene occurs in VIII 7.3, 4 (td irayanta vdyftbhir, vds'rdsah, pfgnimdtarah., dhuk.sdnta pipy@?m (sam / vapanti marftto mfham, prd vepayanti pdrvatdn, ydd ydmam yanti vdy~bhih. "(The Maruts) rose with the winds as they bellowed, they

whose mother is Prgni. They milked out the swelling, refreshing liquid. The Maruts

scatter the mist. They make the mountains tremble when they drive with the winds

on their course." The verse describes the Maruts as they ride the monsoon winds. 1~ This parallel also suggests a possible motivation for the introduction of the simile. If the reference to the poet's hymns as "Rudrian" and the first ellipsis in cd both

suggest that the offerings of praise and soma will inspire Indra to set free the waters, then the comparison of the motion of these offerings with that of the rain-bearing


Maruts underscores the results which the poet hopes his offerings will produce.

Through the simile, the offerings become the Maruts, running forth to the winds

to bring the rain. 3.12. But the identification of the gubhrd as the Maruts does not preclude

other possibilities. Since gubhrd also frequently describes the soma, perhaps iubhrdh

here is intended to evoke not only the Maruts but also the soma. If so, then vdydve

probably designates not the wind but the wind-god, V~yu. The prafiga iastra,

which in the later ritual is recited by the hotar at the morning soma offering, may

explain why soma should leap to Vgyu. This recitation, which originates in the RV

itself (cf. RV 1 2-3) , is an invitation to the gods to attend the rite, and the divinity

summoned first is Vgyu. The "running forth" of the soma to him, therefore, might signify the offering of soma to V~yu and the other gods who follow him or to V~yu

and Indra. This pair is frequently invoked, as in I 135.4, in which the poet invites

Indra and Vgyu to drink, 4e parvapkyam, h i vdm hitdm "for to you two is assigned the first drink." ax

3.13. If these interpretations of the ellipses are correct, we can read this verse

on several levels simultaneously. Putting the possibilities of meaning together, we have the following: these offerings of praise and soma, which imitate and thereby

bring the waters, are rushing to Indra, just as the water-bearing Maruts rush to the wind or the invigorating soma rushes to Vgyu at the beginning of the rite.

Behind the poet's complex and compact diction is the union of myth, rite, and result in a single expression. By uniting them in this formal and truthful declaration

which is his hymn, he causes the power and accomplishment of the god, which are expressed in the myth, to become as present and real as the rite accompanying

the hymn) 2

4. gubhr6m nft te gfts. mam. vardhgzyantah, (ubhrdm vd]ram bdhv& d~dhdndh gubhrds tv6m indra vdvrdhdn6 asm~, ddsTr vfgah, sftryena sahydh.

"(In that we are) now strengthening your resplendent power, (are now) placing the resplendent mace in (your) arms, (and in that) you, the resplendent one. o Indra, (are) grown strong among us, (therefore) you should overwhelm the barbarian tribes by means of the sun."

4.1. The poet invokes Indra as the conqueror not only of Vrtra but of all

enemies that stand between the ,~ryas and their prosperity. Already in vs. 2, V.rtra was identified as a ddsa; in this verse, Indra is the victor over all ddsas. These victories, however, depend on the worship offered to Indra.

4.2. s~ryena: The sun as the symbol of light is the weapon through which Indra overcomes the ddsas, here represented as powers of darkness. Cf. Bergaigne,

Rel. red. II: 210f.

5. gfthd hitdm, gfihya .m gTil.hfim apsv, ~p~v.rtam mdyinam, ks.iydntam ut6 ap6 aydm tast~bhv~ms~m, ~h~nn ~mm ~ar~ v~ry~n, a


"Through your manly power, o hero, you slew the serpent, the secretive one, hidden in secret, secreted away amid the waters, the guileful one, dwelling under cover, and blocking the waters and the (light of) heaven."

5.1. The poet returns to the destruction of Vrtra and its consequences.

Although the Vrtra myth described the freeing of the waters, the defeat of Vrtra

came to represent the victory over all that opposes life. Thus, according to 1 32.4,

when Indra destroyed Vrtra, he brought forth not only the waters but also the sun,

heaven, and dawn.

6. st{lvd n~ ta indra purvya mahany, uth stavdma n~ttand krtani stt~vd v6]ram bdhv6r ugt~ntam. , st{lvd ht~r[ s~ryasya ketu "

"Now I shah praise your ancient, great (deeds), Indra, and we shall praise your present deeds. I shall praise the eager mace in your arms. I shall praise your two steeds, the twin banners of the sun."

6.1. Again the poet evokes Indra's past deeds in order that he may perform

similar ones now.

6.2. suryasya keta: The horses of Indra herald the sun, which was released

by Indra. This vision of the sun led by Indra's horses recalls the release of light

described in vs. 5 and the desire of the poet in vs. 4 that Indra defeat the powers

of darkness.

7. h6rf nfi ta indra vay~yantd, g h.rtagefttam, svdrdm asvdrs.tdrn v{ samana bh~rnir aprathistfi, -ram. sta pdrvatag eit sarisy~n

"'Now your two steeds, competing for the prize, o Indra, have cried out their cry, dripping with ghee. The rich (read: sdmana) 13 ground was spread out. Even the mountain, which was about to run, became quiet."

7.1. This verse must be taken in conjunction with vs. 8, and together the two

verses represent the poet's most complex attempt to integrate the acts of the ritual

with the action of the myth.

7.2. ghrtagcittam svdrdrn: According to Shyana, the "cry dripping with ghee"

is the thunder. Ltiders (Phil. Ind. 770f.), however, has argued that the neighing of

a horse signified good fortune and victory. Thus, the cry of the horses is gh.rtagc(~t

because it augurs the winning of ghee, i.e., the rain. In this way, the poet's quest

for water is linked with the arrival of Indra, who is racing to the sacrifice.

7.3. In the second half of the verse, however, the poet dramatically shifts

attention from the present to the ancient deeds of Indra. In line c, he alludes

to the 1.~gvedic myth that Indra extended the land and propped up the heaven in order to provide room for men to live. a4 Line d refers to the myth that Indra

settled the mountains, which were making the earth unsteady by moving about : s

In the Brfihma_9. ic versions of the latter story, the mountains could fly, and Indra stopped them by cutting off their wings.


7.4. In the RV, besides II 11.7, this myth is mentioned also in II 12.2b yd.h pdrvatdn prdkupitah dramn.dt "(Indra), who quieted the mountains which were

quivering"; II 17.5a sd prdcindn pdrvatan d.rmhad 6jasd "By his strength (Indra) made firm the mountains which were moving forth"; and VI 30.3cd n t'pdrvatd admasddo nd sedus, tvdyd drl.hdni sukrato rdjdmsi "The mountains settled down

like flies. The regions were made firm by you, o you of powerful will." Note that

in none of these passages are the mountains explicitly described as winged as in the

later version. In II 11.7, in fact, the mountains are envisioned as rearing horses,

which Indra, like a charioteer, must rein in and bring under control. We see this

from IV 17.14, in which the'same words used in II 11.7 to describe the taming

of the mountain describe the taming of the horse Eta~a: 14b ny ~tagarn rframat sas.rmdn, itm "(Indra) quieted Etaga, who was running."

7.5. These myths of the organization of the world are not difficult or unusual

in themselves; it is their occurrence in this verse which is problematic. In lines ab,

the poet introduced the verse with n~, which signals that he is about to discuss something involving the current ritual or the "present deeds" of Indra. 16 Quite

appropriately, therefore, he describes the racing of Indra's steeds to the sacrifice

in those lines. Why, therefore, does he mention two myths which apparently have no immediate connection with the present and with the worship? In some manner,

these great "former" deeds ought to relate to something in the present. I think they

do, but the clue to the interpretation of this verse is given in vs. 8.

8. nl pdrvatah ,sffdy dprayuchan, sdm rndt/bhir vdva~dnd akrdn dard pdr~ vdnfm, vardh{tyanta, indresitdm dharndnim paprathan nf

"The mountain, without lapsing, has been set down. Having lowed with its mothers, it bellowed. Increasing their voice to the furthest distanee, they [the priests] flattened the vein, which is hastened by Indra."

8.1. The first words, nipcirvatah, sddi, again refer to the myth of the quieting of the mountains. Thus, 8a begins where vs. 7 ended. But the whole of 7 and 8a

is cast into a quite different light by what follows in 8ab. 8.2. The first surprise is the poet's characterization of the mountain as

dprayuchan. This word normally describes gods and characterizes them as never ceasing in their watchful care for men. In I 143.8, for example, Agni dprayuchan is asked to become a constant guard: 8ab dprayuchann dprayuchadbhir agne, givdbhir nah. pdyftbhih, pdhi gagmafh. "Agni, do you, who are unlapsing, protect us through

your unlapsing, kindly, mighty protections." So also is II 9.2, again addressed to Agni: 2d dprayuchan didyad bodhi gopdh. "Shining without lapse, be our (unlapsing) guardian." In this latter verse, dprayuchan functions as a gle.sa, describing the flames of Agni as well as the protection he offers. Jlprayuchan, therefore, is an irregular


description of one of the mountains settled by Indra. If a mountain is unlikely to be "unlapsing," then pdrvata must represent something else or something more.

8.3. Line b gives a further indication of what that something might be. There is no evidence of a change of subject between lines a and b, but if there is no change, then this mountain is also lowing and bellowing. Now if a mountain is said to be "unlapsing," "lowing with its mothers," and "bellowing," it must represent something which distinctively and typically shows these characteristics. In the RV, there is

only one being which does so: Agni, the god of fire and the sacrificial fire itself. 8.4. Let us examine the characteristics of the pdrvata one by one. First, it

is aprayuchan. This is an epithet of various gods. Specifically, it describes Agni (6X), the divine "Rescuer" (devds trat~) (2X), Savitar (1X), PQsan (1X), the sun (1X), the gods in general (IX), and the protections (pdyfi) provided by Agni (IX). In addition, there are single attestations of dprayutvan, which describes the powers of Agni and of dprayuta, which characterizes the inspiration (matt) which Visnu gives his worshippers. Excluding II 11.8, of the 15 attestations of dprayuchan and related words, 9 directly involve the person or activity of Agni, with only scattered references to other gods or divine powers.

8.5. Second, the mountain is "lowing" (vdg). The root vdg usually describes the sound of cattle, especially cows and calves. 17 Since in 8b, the subject is "lowing with its mothers," it must be a noisy calf. is This characterization fits Agni well, for the poets often call him a calf(vatsd) (e.g., III 55.4, 6; 1 95.4; VIII 72.5; X 8.2) and mention the loud noises of the fire (cf. 1 44.12, 94.10, 11 ; III 2.11; V 25.8; VII 3.6). These two descriptions of the fire are combined in X 8.2, in which the newly kindled fire is called a calf: 2b asremd vatsdh gfmTvd~ ardvft "No miscarriage, the vigorous calf cried out." Similar also is X 1.2, quoted in w

8.6. That this "lowing calf" has several mothers also identifies it as Agni. Negatively, it rules out Indra as the subject of the line, for although Indra's mother is mentioned in the RV, he is never said to have several mothers. In fact, there are only two figures in the RV to whom this description could apply: Agni and Soma. But explicit reference to the mothers of Soma, except possibly for X 123.3 is restricted to the IXth ma.n.dala. Thus, elsewhere in the RV, the only god regularly described as having mothers is Agni, though the identity of these mothers is not consistent. They are the sticks of wood in IV 7.6 and probably also in I 141.5; III 23.3; and X 1.2; the waters in III 9.2; X 91.6; and probably I 141.2. In 1 95.4, 7 and VIII 102.17 they are unnamed and unidentifiable. Elsewhere, the poets also speak of the ten fingers of the priest and the kindling wood as those who have given birth to Agni (cf. Macdonell VM: 91). Our passage gives no decisive evidence for the identity of the mothers, but if the subject is Agni, then this verse finds an echo in X 1.2cd citrdh, gigu.h pdri tdmamsy aktan, pr[i mdt~.bhyo [ldhi k6nikradad ga.h


"The bright child (has overcome) the darkness and the nights. Bellowing, you came forth from your mothers." Here the newly-born Agni comes noisily out of his mothers, who are probably the kindling sticks. The verse is strikingly similar to II 11.8b, for in both Agni is a child, his mothers are mentioned, and the sound is described by the root krand "bellow."

8.7. Finally, the root krand also links the pdrvata with Agni. This word normally describes the sound of a bull or horse (cf. Grassmann Wtb.: 355) or of anything similar to a bull or horse. These latter include the thunder (e.g., X 44.8), the rushing rivers (e.g., I 54.1), the soma as it is purified (e.g., IX 42.4; 97.33; 3.7), the pressing stones (IX 94.2), Indra (VIII 51 [Vdl. 3] .4), Parjanya (VII 36.3), and, of course, Agni (I 36.8; 58.2; 123.3; 173.3; III 26.3; X 1.2, 21.8, 45.4). The references to the bellowing of Soma are more numerous than those to the bellowing of Agni, but there are enough of the latter to consider krancl a typical

description of Agni's sound. 8.8. Note that there is an apparent discrepancy in describing the sound

of the same animal as both vdg, which is characteristic of calves and cows, and krand, characteristic of horses and bulls. But this inconsistency can be resolved by identifying the animal as Agni. The phrase sdm mdt/bhir vdvagdndh describes the fire as it first emerges from the wood, but as it quickly swells, it no longer "lows" but "bellows" (akrdn) like the bull it has grown to be. The perfect participle (vdvagdndh.) here describes an event occurring in a more distant past than the aorist (akran). By choosing these words and tenses, the poet depicts the process of the generation of the fire.

8.9. To summarize, then, grammatically, the pdrvata is the subject of 8a and 8b. The nature and actions of this pdrvata, however, transform the image of the mountain in the mind of the listener. The descriptions of it as "unlapsing," "lowing with its mothers," and "bellowing" all reveal it as a "mountain of fire," as Agni.

8.10. Further, this identification of the pdrvata as Agni casts vss. 7 and 8a into quite different relief. For example, ni sad in 8a appears in another passage, VI 30.3, in which it describes the mountains when they were settled by Indra. But ni sad, besides meaning "settle down," is a technical term meaning "install" something or someone in its proper ritual place, and the poets quite often use it to describe the installation of Agni as the fire and presiding priest of the sacrifice. Among numerous examples are IV 6.1 lc h6tdram agn[m mdnuso ni seduh "They installed Agni as the hotar for man"; X 21.7ab tvdm ya]a~sv rtvt~am, cdrum agne ni .sedire "They installed you, Agni, as their dear ceremoniant at their worship ceremonies"; and so forth. II 11.8a, therefore, could have a double significance: not only "the mountain has been set down," but also "the mountain [= Agni] has been installed."

8.11. The interpretation of the pdrvata as Agni also suggests a different

STYLE AND PURPOSE IN R. GVEDA 247

reading for 7d: "Even the mountain, which was about to run, became quiet."

If the mountain is not only one of the ancient mountains controlled by Indra, but also the fire of the sacrifice, then this line could also refer to the kindling and taming of the fire by the priests at the ritual. Like a horse, the fire too must be brought under control before it can perform its proper function in the worship; cf. III 27.3ab dgne gak~na te vaydm., ydmam, devdsya vdjina.h "O Agni, may we be able to control you, the divine racer" and II 5.1.

8.12. Even 7c, "the rich ground was spread out," takes on a second meaning. Medial viprath describes not only the flattening and spreading of the earth (as in

X 82.1 and 149.2), but also the laying of the barhis (cf. X 70.4 and 110.4). This line too may thus make oblique reference to the preparation of the worship as well as explicit reference to the deeds of Indra.

8.13. Observe also that in 7cd, the poet has carefully avoided saying specifically that Indra spread out the land or tamed the mountain. The actual agent is left unexpressed. And this is precisely what we would expect, for there are actually two agents and two parallel activities described in these lines. Explicitly, they tell of Indra, who makes the world habitable. Implicitly, they describe the priests, who prepare the worship, which strengthens Indra and the other gods.

8.14. This interpretation also explains the structure of vs. 7. On first reading, 7ab and cd appear unrelated: the first half-verse speaks of the present worship, the second, of the creation. But in fact, lines cd refer not only to the origin of the world, but also to the sacrifice, as the continuation in vs. 8 makes clear. It is through vs. 8 that the listener perceives the coherence of vs. 7.

8.15. Through these elaborate constructions, therefore, the poet depicts the actions of the god and the priests as parallel and thereby mutually dependent. Because of their interdependence, if either the gods or men perform their proper role, then the response of the other is assumed. The poet imitates and affirms this interdependence by creating poetic lines which intend both action and response. The actions of the myth are the prototype of the god's present action. Thus, an evocation of Indra's former acts which gave men the possibility of life is an invocation to him to sustain that life.

8.16. The second half of vs. 8 is not nearly so complex as the first lines. The only problem is to determine the subject of 8c. S~yao. a suggests either the Maruts or the singers. Both Geldner and Renou prefer the former. My preference for the latter is based on 8d. This line is difficult because of the term dhamdni. The word is attested only here in the RV, and most translators have rendered it by deriving it from the root dham "blow." Thus, Grassmann (Wtb.: 658) glosses it by "das Pfeifen, Blasen," and Geldner translates it by "Geblase." But Lfiders (Phil. lnd.: 758) has pointed out that elsewhere in Vedic literature dhamdni means "vein" and must do so also here.


8.17. The object most likely to be described as a vein and as flattened is

the soma plant. Perhaps the fibers of the soma plant, which give forth the juice,

reminded the poet of the veins of animals, from which blood pours out. The

comparison might have been suggested by the color of the soma shoot, which

is "ruddy" (aruna IX 11.4, 45.3, 78.4; aru.sd IX 25.5, etc.) and "red" (g6n.a IX

97.13). 2~ If dhamdni does refer to the soma plant, then the priests must be the

subject of niprath and so of the preceding phrase. 21

9. indro mahdm sindhum d~dydnam, mdydv:nam, vrtrdm asphuran n:h drejetdm, rddasf bhiydnd, kdnikradato vfs.n, o asya vdjrdt

"Indra jerked away the guileful V.rtra, who was lying upon the great stream. The two worlds trembled in fear before the mace of him, the bellowing bull."

9.1. The poet returns to the theme of the battle with Vrtra, last explicitly

mentioned in vs. 5. There it provided the mythical paradigm for the poet's request

in vs. 4, just as it will do in the verses following this one.

10. 6roravfd v./.sn, o asya vdlr6, 'm~nusam ydn rn~nus.o ni]~rvdt n[ m~y[no ddnavdsya mgya, dpd'dayat papivan sut~sya

"The mace of him, the bull, roared when (Indra), the ally of man, was about to consume (Vrtra), the enemy of man. Having drunk of the pressed (soma), he brought low the guiles of the guileful son of D~nu."

10.1. mdnusah.: This word refers to the descendants of Manu, the progenitor

of the ,~ryas and the first sacrificer. 22 The poet reminds Indra that he is the ally

of the people of Manu, like the sacrificer himself, who now offers him soma.

11. pfbd-pibdd indra iftra sdmam, mdndantu tvd mandfnah, sutdsah p.rndntas te kuks. i vardhayantv, ittha sutdh, paurd fndram dva

"Drink, drink the soma, Indra, o hero. Let the exhilarating pressings exhilarate you. Let them, swelling your two bellies, strengthen you. When properly pressed among the Paura, (the soma) has (always) helped Indra."

11.1. The poet returns to the present. He calls on the god to drink, to fill

his bellies, and to become strong. 23

11.2. The only difficulty here is the word paurd. It can be read either as

paurdh. (so Pp. and S~yana, followed by Geldner, Renou, and Grassmann, Wtb.: 863), or as paurk. It could be derived from pf "fill, swell," purd, pan "Pt~ru," or puN. If understood as paur6h., it could refer to soma, as that which swells

the stomachs of Indra (Geldner, Grassmann), causes Indra to perform many deeds

(Renou), swells the water in the bucket (S~yana), or belongs to Ptiru (Ludwig, Der Rigveda II: 53). Or, if taken as paur~, it might mean either "in der Vergangenheit"

or "bei Paura" - two other suggestions of Geldner.


11.3. My translation follows the last possibility. Elsewhere, paur[l is a proper

noun in VIII 3.21 and 54(Vdl. 6).1. Ifpaurd is locative in II 11.11, the intention of

11 d is to stress that the present worship, like the past ceremonies of the Pauras,

should help Indra.

12. tvO indrapy abhftma vlprd, dhfyam vanema rtaya sdpantah. avasy6vo dhfmahi pr{t~astim, sady~s te rdyb ddvdne sydma

"We inspired (poets) have abided by you, Indra. Serving according to the truth, we would gain insight. Winning help (from you), we would receive renown. Right now, we would be those to be given of your wealth."

12.1 Again the poet describes the services he has performed for Indra,

which ought to win him the god's favor. He has "abided by him," that is, by

his commandment. 24 Since he offers proper worship, he deserves an insight, which,

when it is recited in a hymn, will move Indra to help him.

13. sydma tO ta 2s indra yO ta ati, avasydva dr]am, vardh6yantah. ~usmfntamam. yam cdkt~ndma devd, -smO rayim rdsi virt~vantarn

"We would be those, Indra, who (are accompanied) by your help, (who), seeking your help, increase your strength. Grant us wealth (which) consists of heroic sons and is the first to bring power, (that wealth) in which we take pleasure, o god."

13.1. y k ta ati: The ellipsis is based on lines such as I 136.6fg jy6g/ivantah.

prajciyd sacemahi, s6masyot{ sacemahi "While living for a long time, we would be

accompanied by offspring; we would be accompanied by the help of soma." For

further examples, see on vs. 19.

14. rasi ks.6yam r~si mitrdm asmd, rasi ~drdha indra marutam nah. sa]bsaso yO ca mandasdnah. , prd vdydvah, pdnty dgran~tim

"Grant us a dwelling. Grant us peace. Grant us a Marut-like force, o Indra, along with (those) who delight (in these offerings). The winds drink the first offering."

14.1. The verse begins with another plea for help but takes an interesting turn

because it is addressed not only to Indra, but to other divinities as well. Geldner

rightly identifies these as the winds, mentioned in line d. I n d r a . . . y k ca is this

poet's elliptical elaboration of the expression vdyav fndrag ca. Oldenberg suggests

that the poet speaks o f the winds instead of the wind because of the reference to

the Maruts in line b, but I believe the relation between the winds and the Maruts

is even closer. In 3d, the poet describes the Maruts as running to the wind and as

carrying the monsoons. Here the Maruts become the winds and are addressed as the winds. The poet 's allusions to the Maruts show again his two central concerns:

his desire for the waters, which the Maruts bring (cf. vss. 2 - 3 ) , and his search for

help in winning power and wealth, which a mighty force like the Maruts can provide (cf. vss. 4, 12-14) .


15. vydntv in nfi yO.su mandasdn{ls, ~.pdt s6mam pdhi drahydd indra asman sfi pr. tsv d tarutra, -vardhayo dyam b.rhddbhir arkafh.

"Now let those [Maruts], among whom (you) become exhilarated, attend. Drink the soma to your satisfaction and for your strength, o Indra. (Help) us in battles, o triumphant one. You increased heaven through lofty hymns."

15.1. Ellipsis makes this verse, and especially lines ab, very difficult.

Fortunately, the poet himself provides help in the interpretation of 15ab, for 17ab ugrd.sv in nft gara mandasdnds, trfkadruke.su pdhi s6mam indra is almost a

doublet.

15.2. Lines 15ab and 17ab present four problems. In 15ab, neither the

subject of vydntu nor the referent ofy~su is immediately clear, and in 17ab, the

construction and referent of ugrd.su and the meaning of trikadrukesu are difficult.

15.3. According to Geldner, the subject of vydntu could be the Maruts, the

winds, or the soma juices. If the winds are the Maruts in vs. 14, then the choice is between just the winds/Maruts and the soma. Geldner, followed by Renou,

finally preferred the soma. However, if 15ab continues vs. 14, the most natural

choice is the winds/Maruts. That the subject of vydntu is plural also makes the

interpretation of Geldner and Renou more difficult. The RV does speak of the sdmdsah, as well as the s6mah., but the singular s6mam appears in 15b. It is unlikely

that the poet would elliptically refer to soma in the plural only to follow with a

specific reference to it in the singular. But more importantly, soma and the other offerings of the worship are often objects of the verb vT but not subjects. When

they use v~ in the imperative, the poets are normally asking the gods to turn

thek attention to the worship. Compare III 28.3ab dgne v~hipurol.agam, dhutam tir6ahnyam "O Agni, attend to the sacrificial cake which is offered, which has

stood for a day" (similarly III 41.3c); V 14.5c v~tu me s~rndvad dhdvam "Let him

attend - he will hear it - to my summons"; III 53.1c v~tdm havydny adhvar~su devd "Attend to my oblations at the ceremonies, o you two gods" (similarly VI 60.15c; VII 68.1c); X 61.4c vTtdm meyajadm dgatam me dnnam "Attend my

worship. Come to my food(-offering)"; and especially VII 57.6, in which the Maruts are invoked: 6ab utd stutdso margtto vyantu, vigvebhir namabhir ndro havfmsi "And when they are praised, let the noble Maruts along with all their names [= every of the them] attend to our oblations." This well-established pattern, therefore, suggests that the winds/Maruts are the subject of vydntu in

II 11.15. 15.4. To what, then, doesy~.su refer? Again, there are two possibilities: the

Maruts or the implied object of vydntu, which would presumably be the soma juices. Geldner and Renou hold that y~su refers to the soma drink, and their opinion is well founded, since mand often governs the locative of s6ma (cf. Grassmann, Wtb.: 1000). But the locative with mand can also express those in


the company of whom someone rejoices. This construction occurs in various parts

of the RV: cf. X 40.14ab kvd svid adyd katamdsv aYvfnd, viks(~ dasrd mddayete gubhds pdt~ "Where today, among what communities, do the wondrous Agvins, the lords of beauty, find exhilaration?" II 41.17c gundhotresu matsva "Find exhilaration among the Sunahotras"; with the postposition gacd, I 51.11 ab mdndi.s.ta ydd ugdne kdvy~ sdcdh, fndro vatiloJ vadkutdradhi ti.st.hati "When Indra became exhilarated with Ugana Khvya, he, the more swift, mounts the two swift horses"; and VIII 12.16c in which the Maruts are called those among whom Indra takes delight: ydd vd marfttsu mdndase sdm t'ndubhih "Or when you [Indra] among the Maruts become exhilarated by the (soma) drops." Thus y~.su mandasdndh could mean "(the soma juices), in which (you) become exhilarated," or "(the Maruts), among whom (you) become exhilarated."

15.5. Of the two alternatives, the second is more likely. The first again supposes that the poet elliptically refers to soma in the plural and then explicitly in the singular. Also the sense of the first alternative is not particularly good. Why should the poet characterize the soma as that which Indra enjoys when he is summoning the Maruts? We would expect him to point up the Maruts', not Indra's, delight in the soma. Finally, the parallel lines, 17ab, support the second alternative. But to demonstrate this requires a detailed examination of these lines.

15.6. The similarity in structure between 15ab and 17ab is obvious and intentional, and therefore, their constructions are probably also similar. If so, then the locative ugr~.su in 17a is not to be construed directly with mandasdndh; rather, the relative pronoun yO.su, which occurs in 15a, has been suppressed in 17a. That is to say, 17a is an abbreviation for ugr~su... (y~su) mandasdndh "the mighty (ones) among whom [or "in which "] (you) become exhilarated." But then, to whom or what does ugr~su refer, and what is the relation of this adjective to trikadrukesu in 17b? Geldner, again followed by Renou, separates the two locatives and supplies the soma as the referent of ugrOs.u. This separation of ugrOs.u... trt'kadrukesu is doubtful. Ugrd is not a distinctive description of particular gods or powers and therefore unlikely to appear in ellipsis. Whether ugrd can modify trikadruka depends on the interpretation of this latter word, and that presents a formidable problem.

15.7. The meaning of trfkadruka and its relationship, if any, to the equally mysterious term kadr~ (IX in VIII 45.26) have been persistent problems for Vedic philology. The facts are these: the word is attested seven times in the RV (I 32.3; II 11.17, 15.1,22.1 ; VIII 13.18, 92.21; X 14.16), six times in the locative plural and once in the instrumental plural (X 14.16). Grassmann (Wtb.: 557) holds that trt'kadrukd.h refers to "drei Kadrugef~sse" or the "Zusammenstellung derselben zu einer Darbringung." Other scholars have offered variations of this basic idea. Although he translates trikadrukesu in I1 11.17 as "dans les Trikadruka," Renou


elsewhere renders it as "dans les coupes ~ triple bois," 26 implying, thereby, a connection with drfi "wood." Geldner (note on 1 32.3b) suggests several different alternatives. First, since trikadruka is a term for the first three days of the Abhiplava ceremony in later ritual literature, it might be a name for a particular soma offering already in the RV. Or it might be a place name. Or, because of its apparent prefix tri- "three," it might have some connection with the three seas of soma which Indra drank before his battle with Vrtra. 27

15.8. Because of the limited number of contexts in which the word appears, it is extremely difficult to choose among these or other alternatives. The etymological connections with kadr~ and.kddru, posited by Grassmann, or with drip, supposed by Renou, rest on formal similarity. There is no way to confirm them, and, especially if trfkadruka is a proper name, even a correct etymology might be misleading.

15.9. In my view, trfkadruka is most likely a designation of the Maruts. Several facts speak for this hypothesis. First, the trfkadrukdh, normally appear with Indra and often in connection with his battle against V.rtra. This may reflect the usual role of the Maruts as the troops and companions of Indra (cf. VIII 7"6.2, 3; X 113.3). Second, trikadruka occurs normally in a ritual context, one in which Indra is described as drinking the soma. This accords with the Maruts' role as priests, among whom Indra comes for nourishment before performing his heroic deeds (cf. Macdonell VM: 80f.) or, alternatively, with those passages in which Indra comes to the sacrifice along with the Maruts (cf. III 32.3; V 57.1 ; VI 40.5; VIII 12.16, 13.28). Thus, in II 11.17, Indra is summoned to drink the soma trfkadruke.su, "in the company of the

Trikadrukas [the Maruts] ." In 1 32.3; II 15.1,22.1, the soma-drinking of Indra "among the Trikadrukas" is in preparation for his battle with Vrtra. Since I 32.12 explicitly says that the battle was carried on by Indra alone, the Trikadrukas are not sharers of the soma but priests offering it. The Trikadrukas have the same function in VIII 13.18ab (= 92.21 ab) trikadruke.su c~tanam, devaso ya/~dm atnata "The gods, in the company of the Trikadrukas, extended a noteworthy sacrifice." Here the rest of the gods join with the Maruts in offering worship to Indra. Finally, this interpretation of trikadruka is compatible with the single instance in which the word occurs in a form other than locative plural. It occurs in X 14, a funeral hymn, vs. 16a trikadrukebhih patati "(Yama?) flies with the Trikadrukas." Here the god - or possibly the soul of the deceased - flies aloft with the Maruts. If "Trikadruka" refers to the Maruts especially in their role as divine priests, then this verse recalls the hymn's earlier invocations to Yama along with the Afigirases (vss. 3, 4, 5, 6), Navagvas (vs. 6), and Vairtlpas (vs. 5), all of whom were probably ancient sacrificers. 2s

15.10. Now then, if the trikadrukd.h are the Maruts, then in II 11.17, ugr~su can modify trikadrukesu. With the assumed ellipsis ofyksu discussed above, we can translate 17ab as "Now, o hero, in the company of the mighty Trikadrukas (among whom you) become exhilarated, drink the soma, o Indra." If the Maruts are those

STYLE AND PURPOSE IN R GVEDA 253

among whom Indra rejoices in this verse, then it is probably they among whom he

rejoices in 15a. This supports the contention that ydsu mandasdndh, in 15a is to be construed with the subject of vydntu.

15.11. The second half of vs. 15 poses far fewer problems than the first half.

The only difficulty in line c is to decide what verb is understood. Geldner supplies

vardhaya after line d. Renou translates "(Viens) donc ~ nous," and Grassmann

(Rig- Veda I: 18), " . . . h i l f uns sch6n." All render the sense of the line, but I

prefer Grassmann's solution. Compare, for example, VI 15.15c dvd no maghavan

vajasdtau "Help us, Maghavan, in the winning of the prize of victory," (so also VI

48.19, 61.6; VIII 92.9). Help in battles (prts(O is especially sought: 1 27.7ab ydm

agne p.rtsft mdrtyam, dvd .h . . . "Which mortal, Agni, you will help in ba t t l e s . . . "

and VIII 68.9a, c tvOtdsah. . . . . ]dyema prtsu vajrivah. "Helped by you, we would conquer in battles, o bearer of the mace." 29

15.12. As a whole, therefore this verse follows quite naturally from the

previous ones. The poet mentions the Maruts in vs. 14 and invites them to the

sacrifice. Here he addresses both Indra and the Maruts and tells them to enjoy

the offerings and become strong. Then they can help the poet and his people in

their battles. The last line emphasizes how powerful this hymn and the offerings

will make them by reminding Indra that it was through the hymns and other offerings that he broadened the heavens.

16. brh~nta in n(t yb re tarutro, -kthkbhir v~ sumnfm hv~vds~n s~. .ndnfT-so barh[.h pastyavat, tv6td id indra vafam agman

"Now lofty indeed (are those) who will try to win your favor, o you who overcomes (everything). either by hymns (or by) strewing the barhis as a place (for you). Helped by you, Indra, they have come to the prize."

16.1 The poet states that both the priests who sing the praises of Indra, as well as the adhvaryu priests who perform the ritual become "lofty" through

their service to the god. The sense of brhdnt both here and in the preceding verse is "exalted."

17. ugrk.sv [n n(t ~t~ra mandasdnds, trikadrukesu pdhi sOmam indra prad6dhuvac chmddru.su prf.~n6, ydhi hdrtbhydm sutdsya pTtim

"Now, o hero, in the company of the mighty Trikadrukas [= the Maruts] (among whom you) become exhilarated, drink the soma, o Indra. Being pleased, (you are) shaking out (the soma drops) in your beard. Drive to the drinking of the pressed (soma) with your two steeds."

17.1. For lines ab, see the commen' on 15ab, w w 15.6-10. Geldner is surely correct in construing 17c with ab: Indra can only shake the soma from his beard while he is drinking and not while driving to the worship.

18. dhi.svd ~va.h gara y~na vrtrt~m ava-bhinad danum aurnavdbhtim dtpdv.r.nor ]y6tir drydya, ni savyatdt.h sddi dtisyur indra


"Assume (that) strength, o hero, by which you cut away V.rtra, the son of D~nu, (that) son of a spider. You uncovered the light for the ,~rya, (but) the barbarian has been set'down to the left."

18.1. Once again the poet returns to the myth of the slaying of Vrtra. As

in vs. 4, this victory is linked to Indra's conquest of all the dasyus, for Vrtra is

the paradigm of the barbarian warrior, just as Indra is that of the ]u-ya warrior.

savyatdh.: The left side is the position of weakness, cf. SB 1 2.4.6.

19. s~nema y~ ta atibhis tdranto, vfgvd sp.~dha aryen, a ddsyffn asmdbhyam t~t tvds..tr~m, vi~v~rapam, itrandhayah, sdkhy~sya trita-ya

"We, who (would be accompanied) by your help, (who would be) conquering, we (allied) with (you), the ~rya, would gain victory over all rivals, all barbarians. (Give) that (strength) to us, (through which) you weakened Vi~varfipa, the son of Tvastar, for Trita, (a member) of (your) alliance."

19.1. Here the poet refers to a second myth, the story of Trita's victory over

Vigvartipa, in order to urge the god to give now the kind of help he once gave to

Trita. 19.2. tvdst.rdm, vigvdrapam: The poet has drawn upon several related mythic

themes, which were once separate. First, the person of Trita combines two ancient heroes of the Indo-Iranian tradition. In Avestan, these two are named Orita and

Ora6taona. Like Orita in Yasna IX 10, Trita is a preparer of soma (cf. vs. 20 and IX 32.2, 34.4, 38.2, 102.2). But Trita is a warrior and therefore corresponds also

to Ora6taona, who slew the serpent A~i Dah~ka (cf. Y IX 7f.; Yt XIV 40; XIX 92).

The relationship between the legends of Indra and Trita/Ora~taona is not clear;

possibly they are parallel expressions of the same Indo-Iranian legend of a hero who

slays a monster serpent. In any case, the RV intertwines the two heroes and their

respective myths. In X 8.8, for example, Trita is said to have killed Vigvartipa at

the urging of Indra, while in the next verse, Indra himself is described as having

performed the deed. In X 48.2, Indra defeats the serpent Vigvart~pa and releases

the cows to Trita. Conversely, in I 187.1, Trita is said to have destroyed the serpent

V.rtra. a~ 19.3. Importantly, the two roles of Trita as sacrificer and as hero are not

separated. According to X 8.8, Trita slew Vigvartipa, but in the verse preceding, he prepared himself for battle through the resources of a priest: X 8.7 asyd tritdh. krdtund. . , ichdn d h f t i m . . , dyudhdni veti "Through the will of that one [Indra (?)] ,31 Trita, seeking insight, pursues the weapons (he needs)." In another hymn,

he even killed the monster through the power of his priestly speech: X 99.6cd asyd trit6 nv 6fas~ v.rdhdn6, vipa vardhdm dyoagrayd han "Now growing strong through the strength of that one [Indra], Trita slew the boar with his metal-tipped hymn." In II 11, there is a similar juxtaposition of these two aspects of Trita's character. In vs. 19, Indra helps Trita overcome Vi~vartapa, but in vs. 20, Indra becomes powerful through the soma offered by Trita.


19.4. Vigvartipa, the monstrous opponent of Trita and Indra, is called the son

of Tvastar both in II 11 and in X 8.8. The latter verse describes him as "three-headed" (triiir.sdn) and "seven reined" (sap tdra~min). According to Schmidt (1968:134), the "seven reins" could be the seven streams which he, like Vrtra, keeps imprisoned.

Elsewhere Vigvartipa takes the form of a boar (X 99.6) and, if Schmidt (loc. cit.) is correct, of a wolf (I 105.11, 18). Thus he fulfills the destiny of his name, viivdrapa, "he who possesses all forms." Neither the name of the monster nor his ability to

appear in different forms finds an Iranian equivalent, but the descriptions of him

as tricephalic and serpentine both accord with those of | opponent, Affi

Dahfika, who is "three-fanged" (Orizafan,-zafah) (Yt V 29; XV 19; XIX 47, 49) and "three-headed" (Orikamar~6a) (Y IX 8).

19.5, The choice of this name Vi~vart~pa can be explained by a process of

mythological fission. According to a legend mentioned several times in the RV, Tvas.tar is not only the "fashioner" of Indra's mace, but also his father, whom Indra

slew to obtain the soma (cf. Macdonell VM: 57; Bergaigne Rel. red. III: 58ff.; Pischel VS I: 44). In that he is the "fashioner," Tva.s.tar bears the epithet vigvdr@a (cf. I 13.10; III 55.19; X 10.5), which in this context must mean "he who creates

all forms." Compare I 188.9ab tvd.st.d rapa.ni hi prabh@, pag{m vfgvgn samdna/d "Tvas.tar, who is master over (all) forms, has prepared all the animals (for the

sacrifice)." In II 11, this epithet has become hypostatized and transferred from

the victim of Indra to that of Trita. The link between Tvast.ar and vigv&~pa was maintained by the transformation of the serpent Vigvartipa into the son of Tvast.ar.

I9.6. yk ta fttibhih: Cf. vs. 13 and I 136.6; II 8.6; VII 51.1; VIII 19.28.

19.7. asmdbhyam, tdt: Geldner and Renou take asmdbhyam as coordinate with tritaya and interpret the verse to mean that when Indra subjugated Vigvartipa, he did

it not only for Trita but also "for us." But in this hymn, Indra's ancient deeds are

paradigmatic, and we would therefore expect a plea that Indra act to help us as he

once helped Trita. A better solution is to understand asmdbhyam, tdt as an ellipsis.

Compare the following verse from the same cycle of Indra hymns: II 13.13abc =

14.12abc asmdbhyam, tdd vaso dgnaya radhah. , sdm arthayasva bah~ te vasavy&m, indra ydc citrdm gravasya dnu dy[~n "Decide to give us that support - (for) great is your store of goods - which is bright, o Indra, o Vasu, (that support through

which) you will win fame day after day." VI 46.8 is another important parallel, for in this verse, as in II 11.19, the poet calls on Indra for help in battle: 8cd

asmdbhyam, tdd ririhi sdm nrsdhye, 'mitrgn prtsfi turvd.ne "Give that (strength)

to us in the warriors' struggle in order (for us) to overcome our enemies in battles," (cf. also III 36.9; V 53.13). On the basis of these verses, we can supply a verb meaning "give" in II 11.19. The pronoun tdd is the object of the understood verb and refers to the capacity or power of Indra through which he conquered Vigvartipa.


20. asy6 suvdn~sya mandinas trit{tsya, ny {trbudam vdv.rdhdn6 astah. dvartayat sftryo n{l eakr{lm, bhin~d val{tm indro :t~girasvdn

"(Drinking) of this exhilarating pressing of Trita, he, having grown strong, laid low Atbuda. He rolled (Namuci's head) like the sun its wheel With the Afigirases, Indra split the Vala(-cave)."

20.1. The verse alludes to three instances in which Indra overcame his enemies:

his victories over Arbuda and Namuci and his destruction of Vala. Again, they serve

to remind Indra of his past deeds and the kind of help which his worshippers hope to have. Note the reference to Trita as a sacrificer in line a. Just as the oblations of

Trita strengthened him (20b) and just as he came to the aid of Trita (19cd), so

should Indra take strength from this present sacrifice and give aid to his current worshippers.

20.2. In lines ab, Oldenberg, Geldner, and Renou take the genitive suvdndsya as dependent on vdvrdhdndh.. However, there is no clear instance of such a construction in the RV. Oldenberg cites V 20.2 y~ agne nkrdyanti te, vrddhd ugrdsya gdvasah. , dpa dv~so dpa hydro, 'nydvratasya sagcire. But the sandhi form vrddhd could represent v.rddhdv (cf. Wackernagel Altind. Gr. I w 274, p. 326) and be interpreted as a locative absolute, in which agna~ has been omitted (cf. Delbrfick Ai. Syntax: 387t".). I translate

V 20.2 as: "(They) who do not arouse your (hostility), o Agni, (that hostility) of

your mighty strength, when you are grown strong, they avoid the hostility and the crookedness of him who obeys the commandment of another."

20.3. If suvdndsya is not construed with vdvrdhdndh., there must again be an

ellipsis. The understood verb must be pd "drink," which commonly governs the

genitive.

21. nfm{tm sate pr:tti v{lram ]aritr~, duh ~y~d indra ddtks, in.d rnagh6n giks.d sto~.'bhyo mati dhag bh6go no, b.rh:td vadema vid6the suv[rdh

"Now should your generous Dak.sin. h give milk to the singer in response to his wish, o Indra. Exert yourself on behalf of your praisers. Let not fortune pass us by. Seeking good heroic sons, we would speak loftily in the ceremony."

21.1. Now that the hymn is sung, the poet asks Indra to pour forth his bounty

to him. The dtiksi.nd is the cow given to the priests by the sponsor of the rite. Here Indra also has a cow from which he will milk out riches for his worshippers. The image may, however, have further significance. Elsewhere in the RV, the feminine form of maghdvan, magh6nf, always describes U.sas, Dawn, and in VI 64.1, Dawn is called dftk.sin~ maghOn~: ld dbhftd u vdsvT dtik.sina magh6n~ "Now has the good, generous Daksil~. ~ come to be." 32 Perhaps Dawn herself is the cow of Indra in II 11.21.

22.1. The structure and style of this hymn reflect the poet's integration of the

myths of Indra and the ritual within his hymn. He employs a variety of devices in accomplishing this. First, the movement back and forth between myth and ritual, fashions the poem itself into an expression of the unity of the two (w Second,


word and phrase repetition makes present action a mirror image of mythic action (w w 22.3-7). Third, complex ellipses intend both myth and ritual simultaneously and thereby identify them (w

22.2. The first eleven verses show most clearly the interweaving of myth and ritual, for there the poet alternates descriptions of the exploits of Indra, especially the slaying of V.rtra, and references to the worship. In this way, the poet represents the present worship as a recapitulation of the circumstances and events of the mythic exploit and thus as a recreation of that exploit. For example, in vs. 1, the poet summons Indra to the worship to become strong, and in vs. 2, he immediately

recalls how in ancient times, Indra also became strong and by that strength destroyed V.rtra. Again in vs. 3, the poet describes the hymns now sung as reflections of the ancient, "Rudrian" songs, which empowered Indra. Since they are like these songs,

the present hymns will also make Indra into a mighty hero. Similarly, in vss. 4 -6 , the hymns and the offerings bring Indra's former victory into the present. In vs. 4, the poet again tells how the worship renews Indra and makes him a mighty warrior. The priests increase his power and arm him with his vajra in order that he may now overwhelm the ddsa tribes. Immediately, in vs. 5, the poet turns to the myth and describes Indra's victory over V.rtra, who is the paradigm of all ddsas (cf. vs. 18). And finally in vs. 6, he unites these former and future victories of Indra in his praises: "Now I shall praise your ancient, great (deeds), Indra, and we shall praise your present ones." Thus, the poet's ritual recitation of Indra's former victory is not a recollection but a recreation of his triumph. Previously the barbarian V.rtra, now the barbarian communities fall before Indra.

22.3. The unity of past and present and the recreation of Indra's deeds in the hymn are also reflected on the verbal level. Again, especially in the first half of the hymn, the poet links his verses by repeating words from one in the next. Typically, these repititions refer to the present then the past, the ritual then the myth, and

thus function to superimpose myth and ritual, past and present, upon one another. 22.4. In vs. 1, for example, the poet speaks of the nourishments (~rjah.), which

now strengthen [vardhdyantO Indra. The root vrdh connects vs. 1 with vs. 2, in which the poet tells how Indra, when previously strengthened (vdv.rdhdndh.) by the hymns (ukthaih.), was victorious over V.rtra. Vs. 3 then begins with a reference to the hymns (ukthO.su), though here they are the present hymns being offered to Indra, not the ancient hymns of vs. 2. Thus, in vss. 1-2, vrdh describes the present then the past, and in vss. 2 -3 , ukthd describes the past then the present. Similarly, the continuity between vss. 3 and 4 is maintained through the word gubhrd, which ends vs. 3 and begins vs. 4. This repetition suggests that the resplendent Maruts or soma and the offerings or waters, to which they are compared (vs. 3), reflect the resplendence of the power and person of Indra (vs. 4). If these are present, then Indra himself must also be present.


22.5. In the commentary on vss. 7 -8 , I explained how pdrvata not only links the two verses, but also how the descriptions of the pdrvata in vs. 8 reenvision the pdrvata in vs. 7. First the pdrvata is the mountain settled by Indra. Then, in vs. 8, it is revealed as the fire before which the rites are now being performed. Finally, in the mind of the hearer, the pdrvata of vs. 7 retrospectively appears as both the tamed mountain and the ritual fire. In this way, the ritual becomes the mirror of the taming of the mountain by Indra and thus of his power to order the world.

22.6. Similarly, in 15d, the poet recalls that Indra increased (dvardhayah.) the heaven through lofty (brhddbhih.) hymns. Forms of v.rdh occur throughout the hymn (cf. vss. 1, 2, 42 , 11, 13, and 20), but in these other instances, it is Indra who is increased or made strong by ritual. In 15, it is the heaven which is increased. The listener could not forget the occurrences of vrdh elsewhere in the hymn and thus dvardhayah, in 15 associates Indra's act of increasing the world with the strengthening of Indra in the ritual. Also in this verse, reference to the "lofty" hymns forms a link with vs. 16, in which the singers of those hymns become lofty (brhdntah.) because they win the help of Indra. Here again, the word encompasses the ritual act and the anticipated effect.

22.7. At a greater distance, n i . . . sddi in 8a is repeated by the same form in the same position in 18d. Recall that nipitrvatah, sddi in 8a means both "the [moving] mountain has been set down [by Indra]" and "the mountain [Agni] has been installed [by the priests] ." The ni savyatdh, sddi ddsyuh, of 18d complements both readings. Indra's heroic feats imitate the ritual installation of the fire. Just as the priests put in place the fire, so Indra puts the mountain in its place and the barbarian in his. The place of the barbarian, however, contrasts to that of the fire, for it is inauspicious, the place of weakness. The similarity of expression in vss. 8 and 18 is surely no accident, since the use of ni sad to describe the defeat of Vrtra is unprecedented. The poet purposely chose the expression because of its

strong ritual associations. 22.8. But the poet's most complex literary device is his use of ambiguous

reference in vs. 3 and vss. 7 -8 . The purpose of the ambiguity is to bind the action of the god to the acts of the ritual by their simultaneous expression in the hymn. In that way, the performance of the rite brings into being the power or activity of the god. Thus, vs. 3c tftbhykd e tdh . . . (prd sisrate) describes the waters which run to Indra at the destruction of V.rtra and the soma (or the hymns), which runs to Indra now in the ritual. In 3d prd vdydve sisrate nd gubhr~.h, the "resplendent ones" are either the Maruts as they bring the rain or the soma as it rushes to the gods. Likewise, as described in w 8.10, vss. 7 - 8 implicitly equate the installation of the fire and the ordering of the world. In this way, the multiple interpretations suggest the temporal recapitulation of the mythic paradigm.


22.9. Thus, the poet's intention is fulfilled not only through the explicit

content of the hymn, but also in his method of expression. His purpose is to empower Indra and inspire the god to prosper and defend his worshippers. His means are the ritual, for his offerings of praise and nourishment revitalize Indra and make him once more the mighty hero who slew V.rtra, who released the waters, and who made the world habitable. The words and figures of his hymn mirror his purpose, for they portray the acts of the god as reflections of the acts of the priests. They show that the ritual is effective because it recreates the divine deeds.

22.10. But the poet's literary devices and verbal repetitions are even more fundamental to his purpose than I have thus far suggested. His careful attention to them is understandable only by considering the full significance of the R. gvedic hymn. The hymns are petitions to the gods, praises of their powers, and expressions of poetic insight, but above all, they are revelations of the truth. 33 In their words,

the mysteries of the divine and natural worlds are made intelligible, and because they possess such truth, they are instruments of power. The best expression of that power is the myth of the opening of Vala. According to that myth, it was by understanding the secret name of the cows in the Vala-cave and by chanting this mystery in their hymns that Indra and the Afigirases opened the cave and released the cows. ~ That secret name was "dawn," and thus by revealing that name, the hymns brought forth the dawn. The hymns reveal the secret and bring that which was hidden in the cave out into the world. That is to say, the hymns disclose the truth and thereby they make that truth a reality.

22.1. In RV II 11, the poet expresses many truths about Indra and his powers. But he knows another, les~ obvious truth: the truth that ritual and myth are congruent to one another. He expresses that truth by reconstructing it on the verbal level within his hymn. He makes the same words refer to myth and ritual, and hence unite myth and ritual in themselves. Because he expresses it in his hymn, the truth of their congruence becomes a reality. United in his words, the myth and the rite are united in actuality. It is for this reason that the ritual becomes effective in calling forth the powers of the god expressed in the myth. In the interpretation within the hymn itself, the ritual reiterates the myths of Indra and so recreates his heroic deeds. Thus, the literary techniques discussed in this paper contribute directly to the power and effectiveness of the ritual. 3s

University o f Missouri-Columbia

REFERENCES

Benveniste, }~mile and Renou, Louis: 1934, V.rtra et V.r| Etude de mythologie indo- iranienne, (Cahiers de la Soei6t6 Asiatique III). Paris: Imprimerie nationale.


Bergaigne, Abel: 1883, La religion v~dique, Tome III (Biblioth~que de l'f~cole des Hautes Etudes LIV). Paris: Vieweg.

Delbriick, Bertold: 1888 (rpt. 1968), Altindisehe Syntax, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellsehaft.

Devasthali, G. V.: 1965, 'Slesa as a Means of Economy in the Bh~radv~ja Man..dala', Journal of the University o f Poona XXIII, pp. 39-44.

Geldner, Karl: 1951, Der Rig.Veda aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche iibersetzt, 3 vols. (Harvard Oriental Series XXXIII-XXXV). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gonda, Jan: 1957, 'The use of the particle ca', Vak V, pp. 1-73. Gonda, Jan: 1960, Ellipsis, Brachylogy and Other Forms o f Brevity in Speech in the R. gveda,

(V.N.A,W., Afd. Letterk., N. R. Deel LXVII, No. 4). Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitg. Mij.

Grassmann, Hermann: 1872 (rpf. 1964), lr zum Rig-Veda 4, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Grassmann, Hermann: 1876, Rig-Veda, 2 vols. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus. L6vi, Sylvain: 1898, La doctrine du sacrifice clans les Brdhmanas, Paris: E. Leroux. Liiders, Heinrich: 1940, Philologica Indica, GiSttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Liiders, Heinrich: 1951, 1959, Varuna, L. Alsdorf (ed.), Band I: Varuna und die Wasser. Band

II: Varuna und das Rta. G6ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Ludwig, Alfred: 1876-88, Der Rigveda. Einleitung, ~Jbersetzung, Commentar, 6 vols. Prag:

F. Tempsky. Macdonell, A. A.: 1897, The Vedic Mythology, (Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und

Altertumskunde III/la). Strassburg: K. J. Trtibner. Mayrhofer, Manfred: 1956ff, Kurzgefasstes etymologisches W6rterbuch des Altindischen,

3 vols. Heidelberg: Carl Winter. Narten, Johanna: 1969, 'Ai s.r in synchronischer und diachronischer Sicht', MSS XXVI, pp.

77-103. Oldenberg, Hermann: 1896, 'Vedische Untersuchungen', 2: ~n~ra, sftn.~td. ZDMG L, pp.

433-443 (= KS I, pp. 11-21). Oldenberg, Hermann: 1909, 1912, R. gveda. Textkritische und exegetisehe Noten, 2 vols. Berlin:

Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. Oldenberg, Hermann: 1917, Die Religion des Veda 2, Stuttgart-Berlin: Cotta. Pischel, Richard and Geldner, Karl: 1889, Vedische Studien. Band I. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Renou, Louis: 1969, Etudes v~diques etpan, in~ennes, Tome XVII (Publications de l'Institut

de Civilisation indienne, fasc. 30). Paris: E. de Boccard. Schmidt, Harms-Peter: 1968, B.rhaspati und Indra. Untersuchungen zur vedischen Mythologie

und Kulturgeschichte, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Thieme, Paul: 1954, 'Die Wurzel vat', inAsiatica. Festschrift Friedrich Weller, Leipzig:

Harrassowitz, p. 656-666 (= KS I, pp. 139-149). Thieme, Paul: 1961, 'Idg. *sal- "Salz" im Sanskrit?', ZDMG CXI, pp. 94-117 (= KS I, p.

170-193). Thieme, Paul: 1964, Gedichte aus dem Rig-Veda, Stuttgart: Reclam. Wackernagel, Jakob and Debrunner, A.: 1896ff, Altindische Grammatik, Band I: Lautlehre,

Band II, 2: Die Nominalsuffixe, Gtittingen: Vandenlioeck & Ruprecht.

NOTES

1 The translations and interpretations of Geldner R VL r I: 287ff. and Renou EVP XVII: 54ff., together with Oldenberg's comments in his Noten I: 193ff., provide the principal points of departure for my analysis of this hymn. 2 Cf. Gonda 1960: 44f. 3 Cf. also VIII 92.12a, c, vay[tm u tvd . . . . ukth~.su ra.naydmasi "Now we make you delight in (our) hymns."


4 See also Gonda 1957: 65. s Thieme 1961: 113. Cf. Renou, who simply supplies "soma" in his translation. 6 Further examples are cited in Narten 1969: 75f. 7 The R. gvedic poets closely associate ukth:t, st6ma, and gt'r, as in III 41.4, in which Indra, addressed as girva.nah, is asked to delight in the st6mas and ukthhs. 8 Cf. Renou, Geldner's note ad loc., and Grassmann Wtb.: 272. 9 Cf. Narten 1969: 79. 10 Cf. Thieme 1954: 665. 11 This interpretation is supported also by vs. 14 of II 11, which ends: "The winds drink the first offering." Vs. 14 also suggests a connection between the two interpretations of the simile in vs. 3, for the winds in 14 are probably the Maruts. When his hearers think of V~yu in vs. 3, therefore, the poet probably wants them also to recall a water-bearing form of the wind, the Maruts, who precede the rain the way V~yu precedes the other gods in the worship. 12 The use of such ambiguous ellipsis is in no way characteristic of this hymn or the Grtsamada poets alone. A closely parallel example occurs in the Bh~radv~ja hymns: cf. VI 37.2ab pr6 dr6ne h:trayah, k~rm~gman, pundnasa .~jyanto abhf4van "In the wooden bucket, the tawny (soma juices) have gone forth to the rite. As they purify themselves, they became those hastening straight on." The word drbn. a at the beginning of the line a signals that the primary reference of hhrayah, is the soma. The word hdri is, of course, a characteristic description of the horses of Indra; in fact it is a more characteristic description of them than of the soma. A possible double reference of h{gri to the horses of Indra as well as to soma is suggested by the verb phrase pr~ . . , k[trmdgman. It could describe either the soma juices as they go forth to the ritual or Indra's horses as they bring the god to the rite.

This double reference of h~ri is underlined by line b. The word pundn~sah, once again establishes the soma juices as the primary referent, but the participle fl"yantah, is a natural description of Indra's horses. It occurs as just that in the very next verse: 3a abhf w flyanto vaheyuh. The poet underlines the point yet again when he says that the soma juices, as they pass through the filter, became (abhftvan), those "hastening straight on." Even more strongly, if less subtly, this poet also turns the action of the rite into the attainment of its purpose. The purification of the soma is transformed into the arrival of Indra at the sacrifice. On this verse, cf. Devasthali 1965: 40. 13 For this emendation, see Oldenberg and for the meaning of sdman~, Wackernagel Altind. Gr. II, 2 w p. 136. 14 .Cf. the references in Geldner's note on this verse. ls Cf. Macdonell VM: 62. 16 Cf. vss. 3, 4, 6, 15, 16, 17, and 21, in each of which nti (vs. 21, nfmdm) introduces a reference to the ritual being performed. 17 But in IX 21.7, it is used of a horse. The sound of a vfs.an is never described by vdY, but once (in IX 95.4), Soma is called a "lowing uks~n." 18 .Cf. IX 93.2, in which the poet describes Soma as a noisy calf. 19 Similarly, in one other passage, Agni is not directly called a "lowing calf," but the metaphor is clearly implicit. This verse is VIII 43.17 utd tvdgne m~ma stftto, vdgrdya pratih:tryate, gos. t.h{lm. gava ivd~ata, which Geldner translates, "Und zu dir, Agni, sind meine Loblieder wie die Kiihe zum br/illenden, erwartenden (Kalbe) in den Stall gekommen." The phrasing of this verse is somewhat peculiar. The expression vdgraya pratihdryate is a zeugma, apparently to be construed with both the main clause and the comparison. Geldner comments that the dative vdgraya over against the accusative tvd indicates that the former cannot refer directly to Agni and that it belongs in the comparison. Note, however, that there is just as much a contrast between the singular vd~rdya and the plural gdva.h "cows." That the poet refers to just one calf shows that he is is thinking of Agni as that calf. If we take vd~raya with the main clause as well as with the comparison, then the dative must in both cases be explained as a dativus commodi: not only do the praises go to Agni, but they go to him for his sake. To make clearer the intentions

262 JOEL P. B R E R E T O N

of the poet, therefore, I would translate VIII 43.17 as follows: "And my praises have come to you for (you), the lowing (calf), expecting (them), as cows (come to) their stall for the lowing (calf) expecting (its milk from them)." 20 Note also that in the later Veda, soma is seen as a victim who is killed by pounding, although his death is actually his release as the soma juice, eL SB III 9.4.17 and L~vi 1898:170. 21 The phrase dftr~ pdr~ "to the furthest distance" poses a problem for this interpretation. It perhaps means that the voices of the priests - or the voice, since they chant together - will reach Indra wherever he may be. Cf. VIII 45.17. 22 Cf. Oldenberg RdV: 151 n.1. 23 Indra is a bull (cf. vs. 9) and, as such, has the two bellies of a ruminate. 24 Cf. I 24.15cd dthd vayt~m dditya vrat~ t~va, .ndgasah.... sydma "So then, we would be blameless under your commandment, o Aditya." 2s Omit re. The word occurs after t~ because of the following y~ re. 26 Similarly, Thieme (1964: 26) translated trfkadruke.su in 1 32.3 as "in Kufen aus drelfachem Holz." 27 Even a combination of these theories is possible. Thus Mayrhofer (KEW I: 533) tentatively defined trikadrukah as the "Name einer bestimmten Soma-Feier, wohl ursp. 'Die drei Somagef~isse' od. ~/hnl." 28 If trikadruka is an epithet of the Maruts, the etymological analyses offered up to now cannot be correct. Perhaps trfkadruka is from *trikakudra by metathesis, motivated by dissimilation. The latter word is a compound of tri- and *kakuclra, a hypothetical secondary derivative of kal~d "peak" (itself from kak~bh, el. Liiders 1951: 85). This compound then would mean "having three peaks." As such, it would be equivalent to the hapax trikakdtbh, which describes Indra in I 121.4cd ydtd dha prasdtrge trikakdtm nivdrtad, 6pa drfiho manu.sasya ddtro yah.. Schmidt (1968: 147) translates the verse: "Als er, der Dreispitz, bei der Vorw~rtsbewegung (der Rosse) herwendete, deckte er die Tore, die Betriiger des Menschen aufl" He further comments that Indra is "Dreispitz" because he is the "Spitze seiner beiden harL" The Maruts, who are also charioteers, might have had a similar epithet. It is also possible that trikak~tbh and trikadruka refer to the two horns and penis of a bull and thus to the "bullishness" of Indra and the Maruts. Elsewhere the Maruts are called bulls (cf. I 64.2; VIII 20;12, 19, 20), and importantly, in view of the ritual context in which trfkadruka often appears, they sing their hymns with the voice of bulls (ef. 1 173.2). If this interpretation is correct, then I 121.4cd might better be translated: "When the three- peaked (bull) was going to bring back (the cows) in a charge, he opened the doors, the deceits against men." This approximates Geldner's translation. 29 In support of Geldner, however, see V 9.7d = 16.5d = 17.5d. 3o Further, cf. Benveniste & Renou 1934:106 n.1. 31 The antecedent of asyd is unclear. Cf. Schmidt 1968: 133. 32 See also Oldenberg 1896: 438f. on X 107.1. 33 Cf. Ltiders 1959, which discusses the power of truth and the R. gvedic hymn as an expression of the truth at length. 34 This interpretation of the Vala myth follows Schmidt 1968. as I want to thank Dr. Stephanie Jamison, Dr. Kenneth Langer, Dr. V. V. Bhide, and the participants in the CASS conference on Vedic interpretation for their comments. I am especially grateful also to Dr. Stanley Insler of Yale University, who offered many specific and valuable suggestions.

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