SOAPS AND DETERGE;-..;Ts: FRIEND OR FOE?

hy

Lee C. Fox

A SENIOR THESIS

m

GENERAL STl ~ DIES

Submitted to the General Studie-. Council in the College of Arts and Sciences

at Texas Tech University in Partial fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

BACHELOR OF GENERAL STL:DIES

Approved

Dr. Robert Wemsman Department of Mass Communications Co:Chairper~on of Thesis Committee

'ij/ / L Dr. Jeffrey A. Lee Departm nt of Economics and Geography

Co-Chairperson of The is Committee

Accepted

Dr. Michael Schoenecke Director of General Studie

MAY 2001

I ^ ^1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ^C>0 <

nt

I owe a sincere thanks to Linda Greggston for her personal support

and her encouragement to continue my efforts toward my degree. I also

wish to express my deepest gratitude to Drs. Robert Wernsman, Jelfro) Lee.

and Michael Schoenecke for taking time to read and critique my work, as

well as my sister Monica Haggard. I could not be in my unique position

without the confidence my family has expressed in my abilities. 1 cannot

exclude the loving support of my wife Marcie. Thank you all, and to all of

you I give my love!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

CHAPTER

L INTRODUCTION 1

II. HISTORY OF SOAPS 4

III. THE CHEMISTRY AND MANUFACTURING OF SOAPS 7

Chemistry 7

Manufacturing 9

IV. MEDICAL AND SOCIETAL EFFECTS OF SOAP 1 1

V. THE REVOLUTION OF SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS 15

Manufacturing 1 <S

VI. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 21

VII. THE FUTURE OF SOAPS AND DETERGENTS 28

VIII. CONCLUSION 30

BIBLIOGRAPHY 31

I I I

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Soap and detergent are words used so readily today and are often

found in products so commonly used that one often o\ erlooks the actual

meaning, make-up, and impact of these substances. In an average day, for

instance, a consumer will make use of numerous soaps and detergents -

from hand soap and shampoo to liquid dishwashing detergent and powdered

laundry detergent. These products are a function of the wa\ we live toda\,

and few homes are found without a supply of soaps and detergents.

In addition, the distinction between soaps and detergents is a difficult

one for many consumers to make. Webster's New World Dictionary defines

soap as a natural product of fatty acids whereas the definition of detergent is

"a cleansing substance that is like soap but is made synthetically and not

from fats and lye." In other words, traditional soaps are generall) thought of

as natural; however, detergents are considered synthetic chemical

compounds. One often interchanges the terms soap and detergent with little

thought for the different make-up of each. For instance, many consumers

misuse the term "dishwashing soap" when referring to liquid detergent. The

true meaning of the products we consume, however, is not the only aspect of

these substances that eludes us.

The impact of soap and detergent compounds on an indi\ idual and on

the environment as a whole is a factor too infrequently considered b) many

consumers of these products. The introduction of soaps and detergents for

hygienic use created a positive impact on society in many ways; however,

the environmental impact has not always been positive. The introduction o\'

soaps and, later, synthetic detergents posed very interesting positive

attributes as a whole to the entire world. Hygiene was improved thus

improving the overall health of individuals and decreasing infectious disease

and the spread of disease. Over time, however, the production of soaps and

detergents has become more complex due to the industrialization of society

and advances in chemistry and available chemical compounds. The

chemical compounds now found in detergents have proven as harmful from

a health and environmental standpoint as they are beneficial to the

manufacturing process. Often, when new products are revealed, only the

advantages of these products are examined while the harmful repercussions

are ignored. This is evident when examining the soap and detergent

industries prior to the mid-1900"s.

The current state of our earth's environment is in need of restoration,

and environmentalists agree that the need for restoration is only prevalent

when some certain scale of harm has occurred. Modem environments suffer

the .shortcomings of societies before them, and when societies fail to

consider the consequences of inventions and synthetic elements that the)

introduce into the environment, future generations tace the burden of those

elements' degradation of the environment. For example, current generations

deal with the problem of water pollution. This phrase is a mere title for

hundreds of complications associated with environmental degradation, and

the chemistry of detergents supplements this condition. This thesis will

examine the positive and negative aspects of soaps and detergents, the

history of both, the uses of both soaps and detergents, as well as their

chemistry, including the current role of soaps and detergents in society and

the future of their existence and production. Because some harm has been

presented by the introduction of soaps and synthetic detergents, 1 will show

the necessity for creating a balance between the environment and soaps and

that modem environmental awareness is essential in achieving the

relationship between these two entities.

CHAPTER II

The History of Soaps

Many recall a time when soap was a product created in the kitchen of

a homemaker for household and hygienic use and think of its origins as

simple and somewhat common. With the widespread use of soaps today, the

variety of soap products available to the consumer and the seeming necessity

of utilizing soaps, one might have difficulty imagining a time when soaps

were not a part of the culture. The use of soaps was well documented in pre-

industrial Europe due to their decrease in the spread of disease and

subsequent impact on the increase in population. Soaps were, however,

introduced prior to this time. Although soaps were not evident in man) oi

the earliest civilizations, many advanced ancient cultures apparentl) utilized

them. However, tracing the actual inception of soaps is difficult, since the

earliest prototypes found in ancient times varied in structure and

composition from the .soap distributed within more advanced industrialized

societies.

Nevertheless, ancient peoples are now believed to have employed the

use of various types of soap. These soaps appear to resemble those used

today for hygienic purposes that are referred to as shampoos and bath soaps.

For instance, "as early as the 1 '̂ century AD a soap of tallow and wood ashes

[was] used by Germanic tribes to brighten their hair" (^History of Soap,"

1843). In addition, "a soap factory was excavated at Pompeii along with

bars of scented soap" (1843). These first varieties of soaps were known to

have been created from waste fats and lye which were obtained h) leaching

wood ashes (1843) or from "boiling goafs tallow and caustici/ed wood

ashes" ("Development of Soap Products," 858). In other words, the earliest

soaps were of a simple variety of natural products. This type of soap was

still being used in the United States until the late 17'̂ century. Although

other countries had employed soapmaking as an industry, soapmaking in

America was only a household hobby with few industrial de\ elopments until

after about 1800. Although little advancement in soapmaking had occurred

in the United States at the time, Europeans are believed to have begun

developing soapmaking as a trade. In the 13'̂ century the industry was

introduced from Italy and Germany into France, and in the 14'̂ century into

England. The use of soap was not considered common, however, and w as

utilized in these centuries primarily by those in the upper classes.

Later, scientific studies furthered the production of soap, and thus its

use became more widespread. Two scientists well known for the

advancement of soap production are Nicolas LeBlanc — known for

developing the commercial process of preparation of soda ash from salt, and

responsible for the first soap factor) - and French chemist Michel Eugene

Chevreul. The LeBlanc process of soapmaking. developed in the 17()()'s.

allowed the manufacture of soda from brine. Also. Chevreul's research of

the constitution of oils and fats and his discovery of oleic and stearic acids

stimulated the manufacturing of soap ("Histor) of Soap." 1843). Thus, in

the early 19' century soapmaking was revolutionized. The use of soap in

Pre-Industrial Europe eventually was thought to decrease infectious disease

and increase life expectancy. Today, hygienic purposes are still the primar)

factor for the use of soaps. Unfortunately, the continued w idespread use and

waste of soap and its byproducts have created negative factors in addition to

those that were initially primarily positive.

CHAPTER III

The Chemistry and Manufacturing of Soap

Chemistry

Although the history of soaps proves their simple origin, the

composition of soaps today has become much more complex. No longer do

most soaps originate in the kitchen nor do they remain constmcted from all-

natural products as their actual definition suggests. Rather, soap has a

somewhat complicated chemical constmction.

The formation of soap is the result of a reaction between caustic alkali

and fat. Numerous types of soaps currently exist, and each varies in

composition. Soap varieties today extend from pure milk soaps, which

contain no additives, to heavy-duty, all-purpose soaps. Heavy-duty soaps

have alkaline substances added to intensify the cleansing power.

Soaps were historically considered environmentally harmless

substances due to their simple make-up of fat and tallow. Today, their more

complex chemical make-up originates in their production. The change in

soaps and detergents' composition from organic to synthetic is the factor that

has caused them to be more harmful to the environment. Two main

processes now exist in the chemistry of modern soapmaking. Saponification

of fats and oils is a widely used soapmaking process. Saponification

involves heating fats and oils and reacting them with a liquid alkali to

produce soap and water (referred to as neat soap) plus glycerin. The other

major soapmaking process is hydrolysis, which is the means by which soaps

are made in the soap kettle. This process was originally used to mass-

produce soap.

Hydrolysis involves the neutralization of fatty acids with an alkali.

Fats and oils are split, or hydrolyzed, to extract fatty acids and glycerin. The

fatty acids are then purified and combined with an alkali to produce soap and

water (neat soap). When manufacturers produce soap, caustic soda and

steam speed the hydrolysis, resulting each time in the production of tatty

acids and glycerin. Yet, using the soap kettle "the fatty acids do not remain

as such, but combine immediately with the caustic soda present to form

soaps" (Fishbein 4). The chemical property of soap

. . . when dissolved in water lowerjs] the surface tension, fomis

colloidal solutions and gels, causes water to w et surfaces more rapidly, suds or lathers, gives the solution a 'soapy' or slippery feeling, has the ability to emulsify and disperse oils and dirt in the solution and thus is able to cleanse. (Fishbein 5-6)

Although commercial soap products all contain this essential soap and water

system, the properties, form, and appearance of each separate product

depend in great degree upon the proportion of soap to water present in the

solution.

Manufacturing

The manufacturing of any product includes a variety of functions in

addition to the activities required to actually make the product. In the

soapmaking industry actual constmction of a variety of soap products, as

well as their processing and packaging, each plays a role in manufacturing.

In soap manufacturing, the size and complexity of operations varies from

small plants with very few employees to much larger plants emplo) ing

several hundred workers. The size of the manufacturing plant along with the

type of product being made play roles in the method of production used.

Bar soaps are typically made by one of two general methods. The

batch kettle method is a traditional method of soapmaking. The kettle

method was the first form of "large-scale manufacturing operations. . .

[which allowed] the industry . . . to process individual kettles of soap

containing 100,000 to 1,000,000 pounds per charge" ("Development of Soap

Products," 859). Modem methods of soapmaking, however, are called

continuous processes and are often preferred to the kettle method because of

their speed and efficiency. Both processes create soap in liquid form,

initially called neat soap, then add glycerin. Ultimately, the mixture is

evaporated and refined. This process is known as saponification. The next

step in the manufacturing process is neutralization or drying and invoh es the

conversion of neat soap to dry soap pellets through a process called \acuum

spray drying. Finally, the dry soap pellets pass through a bar soap finishing

line where an amalgamator blends the pellets w ith fragrance, colors, and all

other ingredients. The mixture is then blended, cut into bar-sized pieces, and

stamped into its final shape. The finished bars of soap are packaged by

either being wrapped for individual sale or boxed in multipacks.

10

CHAPTER 1\

The Medical and Societal Effects of Soap

The overall societal benefits of soap that have contributed to fields oi

medicine and practices of hygiene are numerous, from hair and scalp care

to increased life expectancy, the introduction of soaps into society has

unquesfionably enhanced the quality of life on earth. There is significant

confirmation that soap has a great ability to destroy germs on the skin and

has a value for the prevention of and removal of infection (Fishbein 140-

142). Writing about the abilities of soap Fishbein notes "soap will remove

visible and invisible dirt" (142). One great necessity lor the use of soap is

that invisible dirt can contain harmful bacteria. Fishbein determines that

"the chief value of the soap in such cleanliness is therefore in its ability to

dissolve and remove material rather than to destroy living organisms" (172).

Reducing the mortality rate is attributed to hygiene and soaps. The

population of Europe doubled in the span of 1750 to 1850. and Paul Ehrlich

proclaimed, in Ecoscience, "the most important cause of lowered death rates

in pre-industrial Europe seems to have been a decline in mortalit) from

infecfious diseases" (133). When discussing reduced mortality from

infectious disease one cannot avoid the fact that hygiene pla) s a significant

role. In support of the idea soap and hygiene affect mortality associated

I I

with infecfious disease, Ehrlich further states, " . . . the adoption of habits of

personal hygiene following the popular introducfion of soap . . . had [much]

to do with the reduction of infectious diseases" (133). The chart below, as

cited from Populafion Studies by P.E. Razzell, illustrates the dramatic

impact that the widespread use of soap had on the European population in

the early 1800's.

35

:'5

(r i'O

CO

I

10

Sweden Hungary

»r~-—- Ireland

Widespread use ol soap

Modern medicine sullonamides

o L i I I I I L l?Dl lil 71 81 9 1 - 180) n 2 1 - '31- 4 1 - 51 6)

DECADE

•| 81 9 1 - 1901- 11 21 - 31 Jl

In today's economy, numerous studies report that the American

consumer can use up to forty pounds of soap per year, and Morris Fishbein

states, "a shortage in the supply of soap is important in relation to health of

the community" (176). In other words, whereas the use of soap is

instrumental in the growth of population, the lack of soap in situations such

as wartime has historically caused an adverse effect on society. Fishbein

notes also "in the prevention of respiratory diseases, such as the common

cold, influenza, pneumonia, and in dysenterv which was especially a war

hazard, the factor of cleanliness cannot be too greatly emphasized" (177).

Throughout history, soap has proven to be a unique substance with cleansing

power and. in tum, a contributor to health as well as a sense of well-being.

Moreover, the medical benefits of soap have long been recognized h)

professionals in the field of medicine, where surgeons are required to

"scrub" prior to performing any operations, to prevent transferring an)

germs to patients.

Soap not only provides physical proof of infection prevention, but

offers physiological bounty as well. In regard to soap benefiting a sense oi

well being, Morris Fishbein writes, "soap . . . while physiochemical in

nature, is also of physiological importance" (53). Fishbein also observes.

"the use of water alone does not suffice to produce the same feeling of

health and cleanliness as that achieved by the classic use of soap and w atef'

(50).

Soap is used in other aspects of medicine and hygiene in addition to

its generally accepted nature. For instance, the soapsuds enema and soap

suppositories are still very reliable forms of medicinal soap use. The

chemical compound of soap closely relates it to traditional glycerin, and

13

therefore most mild forms of household soap can be fashioned into a useful

sfimulant.

The premises for describing soaps as a benefit to the standard of liv ing

in relation to medical use and personal hygiene are solid. Sociei) is

indisputably profiting from the benefits of soap. This is significantly due to

the capacity of soap to remove great numbers of dirt and microorganisms

from areas of the human body: from the surface and folds of the skin, to

body hair, and scalp, and even beneath fingernails. Further, with the

addition of its direct anUseptic action, soap use is a very real and valuable

medical and sanitary practice.

14

CHAPTER V

The Revolution of Synthetic Detergents

Synthetic detergent is a term used to differentiate a group of cleansing

agents, which are chemically synthesized, from traditional soaps. Webster

defines detergent as "a cleansing substance that is like soap but is made

synthefically and not from fats and lye" (206). Technically, soap is a

detergent, because soap has "detergent power" ("Development of Soap

Products," 860). However, as mentioned, detergents are only "like soaps."

yet differ in that they are made synthetically. Detergent power is described

in Encyclopedia Britannica as a "washing power, attributed to the alkalinity

produced by hydrolysis of the soap," and further describes detergent action

as an "intricate phenomenon" ("Development of Soap Products," 860). It

was not until 1932 that the chemical industry began creating detergents

suitable for use as a household product, without breaking down or

"decomposing with hard water, or even in the presence of an acid"

("Detergents."273). The introduction of synthetic detergents into

commercial use was based on their ability to achiev e cleaning results soap

could not accomplish. Household use was the major appeal of detergents.

In the past, soaps made simple tasks very difficult. Procter & Gamble^^'

published a statement in support of this fact by noting that "before 1946 . . .

15

household cleaning tasks like laundry were handled bv soap fiakes and

[detergents] cleaned clothes better, without any of the problems associated

with soap" ("History of Tide'^'." Tide Archives). Further stated in

"Development of Soap Products" is that "by 1957 the synthetic detergents

made up more than 707r of the tonnage oi soaplike products sold as washing

agents in the United States" ("Development of Soap Products," 860).

Moreover, it is evident that the production of detergent became a very

successful industry, which revolutionized household cleaning materials as

well as cleaning processes.

Essenfially two classes of synthetic detergents exist today. Phosphate

detergents are one distinct class of synthetic detergents, which The Kiplinger

Service defines as:

a biodegradable chemical formulation that includes a synthetic surface-active agent plus a substance called a builder (phosphate). Phosphate increases the cleansing action of the formulation, softens water by counteracfing such objectionable minerals as iron, magnesium, and calcium, suspends soil, and keeps soil from re-depositing itself. . . Phosphates also emulsify oily and greasy soils and reduce germs . . . (37).

Non-phosphate detergents are described as, "a biodegradable

detergent in which phosphate builders have been completely replaced b)

other substances (in most cases, silicates and/or carbonates)" (37).

Detergents are also more specifically classified as anionic, non-ionic.

16

cafionic, and amphoteric. The majorities of synthetic detergents now

available are anionic and resemble soaps in makeup. The non-ionic

detergents comprise less than one-fourth of all detergent products. Although

these detergents account for less than 57r of all detergents sold, about 20^

of those are marketed for industrial uses. Cationic detergents are most used

as fabric softeners and are based on stearic acids. Finally, the amphoteric is

both cationic and anionic and is most used as wash-cycle sofieners.

Synthetic detergents are numerous in type and make-up and "the production

of any single synthetic detergent involves its own specialized chemisir)"

("Development of Soap Products," 860). The growth of detergent

production was made possible by the chemical industry. The amazing results

that detergents gained revolufionized the industry of soaps and detergents.

A chief analyst at Procter & Gamble"^' stated, "when modern detergents

triumphed over soap [products], they replaced a cleaning agent that had been

used at least since the ancient Roman Empire" ("History of Tide'"^'").

Cooperatively, with the increased production of synthetic fillers,

acids, oils, alkalies, and vast other inorganic compounds, the processing and

chemical industries boosted the inception of these new "detergents." By

increasing the apparent effectiveness of detergents, the soap and detergent

manufacturers were able to powerfully wedge their product into seKiety.

17

Prior to World War II. the chemical industry had many end users with the

detergent industry being just one of them. Other end users were the

producers of dmgs. explosives, and colored dyes. The production of so-

called "soaps and detergents" changed dramatically when the detergent and

chemical industries' lines began to blur. As the detergent processing

industry continued to accelerate, a future for synthetic detergents evolved.

"Detergent" simply states "the distinction between the processing group . . .

and the chemical industry which manufactures chemicals as end products

appears to be disappearing as the chemical industry continues to expand its

boundaries in all directions (861)." In actuality, without the chemical

products that combine producing synthetic detergents, the use of natural

soaps would remain prevalent today.

Manufacturing

The process of manufacturing varies among the powdered and liquid

detergent variefies. Powdered detergents are produced by one of three

processes: spray drying, agglomeration, or dry mixing. In spray drying, both

dry and liquid ingredients are combined to create a thick substance, which is

heated and sprayed into small droplets. These droplets are dried into

granules; materials that are not capable of being heated to extreme

temperatures are then added. Once these synthetic ingredients, such as

18

as bleach, enzymes and fragrance, are added the powder is collected for

packaging as detergent. In the agglomeration process, rolling the mixture >o

that the friction itself rather than a spraying process, causes the materials to

adhere to one another combines the liquid and dry ingredients (SDA 3). The

dry mixing process differs from the other processes in that, as its name

suggests, this process involves the combining of mostly di) materials w ith

very little liquid being added to the product. Conversely, liquid detergents

undergo a blending process during which dry and liquid ingredients are

blended using large mixing mechanisms. These powerful mixers allow for

the stabilizing agents as well as the primary ingredients to be blended into a

consistent, uniform gel that is then packaged and distributed (SD.A 4).

Powdered and liquid detergent products' ingredients v ar) among the

two general categories of light- and heavy-duty and each requires careful

packaging. The packaging method for detergents, including household

cleaners, consists of bottles, bags, or cans - and even of boxes, which are

most commonly used for powders. The method of packaging detergents is

not the only primary consideration made prior to distribution. Labeling of

ingredients, usage, and warnings must be evident as well. In the past, when

primarily natural soaps were manufactured and made available to the

consumer, packaging did not require as much attention as it does toda).

19

However, with the heightened use of synthetics and the obvious traces ol

these chemicals in our natural water sources, further steps are necessary in

the labeling, packaging, and disposal of both powdered and liquid

detergents.

CHAPTER VI

Environmental Effects Of Synthefic Detergents

Previously the major difference in soaps and detergents described was

the synthetic chemicals or fillers in detergents that distinguish the two.

Unfortunately it is some of these chemicals that have had negative

influences on the environment, which presently distinguish them from

classic handmade or natural soaps. Many unpredictable disturbances w ere

created after the rapid booms of the detergent industry.

The effectiveness by which detergents performed the tasks, for which

they were created, established their role in society. As noted, the societal

effects of the introduction of natural soaps were overwhelmingly positive.

In modern times, however, with countless varieties of synthetic soaps and

detergents available to the consumer, the issue at hand is not the need for

sanitation and public access to cleansing products. Moreover, the traditional

dictionary terms previously known for differentiating the temis "soaps" and

"detergents" scarcely apply today. Rather, the issue facing consumers is the

fact that numerous soap and detergent products are each synthetic. In

addition, it is necessary to consider the effect of these modem chemical

ingredients and their effect on both human health and the environment.

21

The environmental pollution problems caused by s)nlhetic soaps and

detergents vary. Some detergent compounds leach into groundwater and

also become a nuisance to river and freshwater ecosystems. This damage is

evident to the naked eye in that the disposed s) nthetic remains of .soaps and

detergents often create impermeable foam visible in our nations lakes and

waterways. Jean Prat, author of The Pollution of Water bv Detements.

writes about the steady rise in the consumption of detergents, and increased

sales of new forms of detergents, "causing pollution related to the collection

of foam in and near waterways flowing through densel) populated areas"

(11). Prat also writes that the foam present in bodies of w aler is due to the

synthetic agents from detergents combined with the properties of the w ater

itself (15). Foam presents obvious problems to water systems. The

collection of certain agents of detergents and soaps within water systems

eventually can exterminate life. The great amounts of suds can block light

from entering and harm plant and animal life that inhabits lakes or rivers.

Furthermore, increased pollution does not necessarily cause increased foam

in the water, but may even diminish visible foam. This obseivation poses a

further concern where cleanup and the visibility of its progress is considered.

Foam is only one of the problems created by the pollution of soaps

and detergents. The chemical nitrilotriaetic acid, or NTA, has caused a

notable inconvenience to society as well. W hen disposed in surface waters

and salt waters. NTA has the capacit) to alter the pH lev els as well as the

amount of metals and irons in the water. This alteration significantly

threatens plant life and existing aquatic species. By changing the pH level in

the water a shock occurs in animal life, and the increase or decrease of

alkalinity inhibits the growth of plant life and kills others, threatening to lose

certain species of life. Another concern of nitrilotriacetic acid is its negative

effect on sewage systems which is based on "A regularly expressed concern

about complexing agents like NTA . . . and the suspicion that they might

impair the elimination of heavy metals from the (raw) waste water h)

adsorption on sewage sludge" (Schwuger 279). The increase or ev en

inability to reduce the amounts of heavy metals impacts not only aquatic life,

but human life as well, when drinking waters are exposed. Because of its

potential harm, especially to salt waters and marine life, diligent, constant

monitoring of NTA levels must be maintained. Milan Johann Schwuger.

author of Detergents in the Environment, cites numerous studies of NTA

levels and their harm on the waters of several nations. He concludes that the

amounts of NTA have not extensively harmed global waterways, but that

these levels require constant scientific study and monitoring.

Among the negative repercussions of detergents are those of

2^

phosphates, which are contained w ithin their chemical makeup. As noted,

phosphates are added to detergents because of their abilit) to increase

cleansing acUon, however, their non-biodegradability poses a serious

environmental concem. Non-biodegradable phosphates that make their way

into lakes and other waterways have been found to cause eutrophicalion.

Eutrophication as defined by the Webster Dictionary is the process by which

a body of water becomes, either naturally or by pollution, rich in dissolved

nutrients. "Pollution driven eutrophication was not recognized as a serious

threat to many larger lakes in Europe and North America until the I950's

and 1960's" (Nixon 2). During this time, however, the public's concern

caused many of the first steps to be taken in defense of the environmental

problems of chemical detergents.

The phosphates contained in detergents were being discharged into

sewer systems and eventually into lakes and streams causing an "excessive

growth of algae, leading to a decrease in the oxygen supply and eventual

death of the body of water" ("Detergent," 281). Unlike the air in the

atmosphere, which is full of oxygen and constantly replenishes itself water

circulates far less readily and holds only five to ten grams of oxygen per

cubic meter at most (Nixon 2). Aquatic animals rely on this small amount of

oxygen and even "a small decrease in the oxygen content of their

surroundings can be deadly to them" (Nixon 2).

Two of the many water systems known to be greatl) affected b)

eutrophicafion are Lake Erie and the Gulf of Mexico. By the late I970's

Lake Erie was said to be "dying." This lake had little oxygen below the

water surface and "animals that [could] not escape to better aerated zones

suffocate[d]" and littered the shores "as bacteria [took] over the otherwise

barren bottom waters" (Nixon 3). The Gulf of Mexico is another disturbing

example of the pollution due to eutrophication. In this body of water

"oxygen deprivation cuts a lethal swath through some 18,000 square

kilometers (7.000 square miles) of the deep waters of the Gulf of .Mexico

every summer creating a barren region called the "dead zone" (Nixon 4).

With the heightened awareness of water pollution due to the

chemicals found in detergents and other household wastes, many

preventative actions were put into place. By the 1960's water treatment

plants had begun to attempt to remove phosphates, yet they were largely

unsuccessful (Nixon 2). Additionally, the 1970's brought many changes in

environmental measures. For example. Milan Schwuger writes that in the

early 1970's the Federal Water Pollution Control Act allotted over 20 billion

dollars for cleaning up the nations waters (Schwuger 717). and in 1979 The

Eutrophication Prevenfion Ordinance was legislated. Many U.S. localities

also passed laws prohibifing phosphate-based detergent (Schwuger 712).

Non-phosphate products were soon introduced. )el unfortunatel) the harm

that had been done was often v iewed as irreversible.

Today, our water systems are still far from free of pollutants due to

chemicals found in detergents and other products. "Aquifers continue to be

contaminated by a variety of sources " (Harte 59). and many scientists

believe that even though we are "seeing improvements in some of the worst

polluted waters in the United States. . . [we are] poised to repeat what

industrial countries experienced over the last 100 years [and] . . part of the

problem will come directly as a result of population growth" (Nixon 6).

This population growth creates subsequent increases in chemical waste and

groundwater pollution. If the necessary advancements were made in the

monitoring of chemical additives such as NTA, phosphates, and the disposal

of synthetic detergents, the vast amount of money spent on these studies

could possibly be saved. Further, a greater balance between the env ironment

and synthetic detergents would be met. Pollution remains, howev er, difficult

to detect and correct- a reminder of the importance of prevention. As stated

by Vice-President Al Gore, " . . . lakes and rivers sustain us; the) flow

through the veins of the Earth and into our own"(Gore 114). Foresight and

recognition of dismption is important to lessening the damage in the future.

26

Gore writes, "we must take care not to poison and waste them (lakes and

rivers) without thought for the future" (Gore 114).

27

CHAPTER Vll

The Future of Soaps and Detergents

History reveals the numerous positive attributes of soaps and

detergents. Consumers' consumption of these products and their booming

markets illustrate today's demand for soaps and detergents. One question

remaining is that of the future. What does the 21" century expect oi these

products? The educated consumer will not deny the hygienic necessity of

cleansing agents or the medical benefits they pose in fighting diseases. > el.

the educated consumer of the 21" century has access to more information

than humans of past centuries that experienced the inception of soaps. The

modern consumer, therefore, will access the information that causes

questions. Questions about the health safety of the chemicals in today's

soaps will be only one area of consumer analysis.

For instance, many inquiries are being made about the tmth behind

antibacterial agents in hand soaps. Media professionals are investigating the

pros and cons of these ingredients, and this trend in soap products will not

succeed without the consumer's true acceptance. Many believe this trend

toward antibacterial hand soaps does not provide a benefit, but a health

concem. Repeated long-term use of chemically manufactured soaps has

further been suggested to cause drying and cracking of the skin. This

28

weakens the skin surface and may encourage infection. .Moreover, it has

been suggested that antibacterial or chemical compounds in soaps ma) not

only kill germs, but also the protecUve layers of skin that shelter humans

from some types of infection. William McGucken writes about the

additional concem being placed on the evolving resistance of humans to

antibiotics due to their excessive consumption through antibacterial soaps

and detergents. From the cultural necessity of a natural product which aided

the cleansing of the hair and body to the still unanswered questions and

concems about the synthetics found in today's soap products, society has

come a great distance relative to soaps and detergents. More is expected of

society.

The consumer purchases impact soap and detergent industries, as well

as the environment. The industry will continue to be held to stringent

standards in manufacturing — from disposal of materials and environmental

responsibility, to packaging and labeling requirements as demanded b) the

educated consumer and the government. Govemment officials and

regulatory actions will force consumers and manufacturers, of soaps and

detergents, to face the inevitability of working together to ensure the future

of the environment and the impact of the chemicals to which we expose our

natural resources.

29

CHAPTER VllI

Conclusion

Our society tends to introduce materials to consumers through

markefing and advertising; manufacturers promise improved qualit) of life

or promise posifive results. Thus has been the case in the introduction,

revolution, and increased production of soaps and detergents. Realistically,

the introduction of most materials is done with little forethought of outcome

or long-term impacts; the focus is typically placed on capital gain.

The positive expectations of potential benefits created by the soap and

detergent industry overwhelmed the public and the detrimental impacts were

too long overlooked. Ignoring these detriments created a need for

restorauon. Although society reaps considerable benefits from soaps and

detergents and their industries, they impact many aspects of the

environment. Environmental cleanup is much more difficult and cosil) than

prevenfion of poUufion, and continued steps must be taken in finding a

balance between the necessity of certain levels of chemicals in soaps and

detergents and the necessity for their absence in our Earth's natural

resources.

.̂ 0

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Ehrlich, Paul. Ecoscience: Population, Resources, and Environment. \\ .H. Freeman and Co.. 1977.

Fishbein, Morris. The Medical Uses of Soap. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincotl. Co., 1946.

Gore, Albert. Earth in Balance: Ecology and The Human Spirit. New \'ork: Houghton Mifflin, Co., 1992.

Harte, John. Toxics A to Z. Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1991.

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"Soaps. Detergents and Why Nobody Can Say What's Best " Changing Times, The Kiplinger Service lor Families. June. 1972.

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