T3

Cop. 2,

Copyright 1990 Suk-Hou Kang

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this dissertation would have not been possible without

the support, assistance, patience, and kindness of many people. Foremost among

these is Dr. Robert E. Wilkes, the dissertation committee chairman. Special thanks

is expressed to him for the guidance, insight, encouragement, and friendship given

to me throughout the doctoral program and at the time this dissertation was in

process.

Special thanks is also extended to my other committee members. Dr. Larry

M. Austin, Dr. John D. Blair, Dr. James B. Wilcox, and Dr. Van Wood, for the

valuable suggestions and comments they brought to the various drafts of this

study. Gratitude is also extended to other faculty and staff members of Texas

Tech University. It was a benefit and pleasure to have taken their classes. I wish

to thank fellow doctoral students for their help and stimulating interactions.

Gratitude is expressed to Dr. John R. Darling, provost of Mississippi State

University for his encouragement and kindness.

My deep appreciation must be expressed to my school, the Hanyang

University, in Seoul, Korea for its support and to my fellow faculty members for

their help, continued encouragement, and many helpful discussions throughout

this study. Appreciation must also be extended to Dr. Duk-Chel Oh and his

students of Jeju National University in Korea for assisting or collecting the data.

9 I owe a special debt to my wife, Jun-Hee, and my children, Dan and

A Hannah, for being so patient, understanding, and encouraging and for their

sacrifice throughout my doctoral work. Last thanks go to my parents for their

patience and support.

Funding in part for this study was provided by the Educational Department

of the Republic of Korea.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES x

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION 1

General Problems of Previous Research 1

Scope of the Study 5 Objectives of the Study 6 Preview of the Dissertation 7

II. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT 9

Recent Developments in Family Decision Making 9 Family 11

The Korean Family 12 Importance of Gender-Role Orientation

and the Theory of Resources 15 The Theory of Gender-Role Orientation 18 The Theory of Resources 23 Hypothesis Development 28

Family Life Cycle 29 Subdecisions 31 The Family and Influence 33 Gender-Role Orientation and Household Influence 36 Gender-Role Orientation and Household Influence

in Mother-Child Dyads 39 The Theory of Resources and Household Influence 42 The Theory of Resources and Household Influence

in Mother-Child Dyads 46 Research Hypotheses 49

III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 54

Product Categories 54 Subdecisions 56

Operational Definition and Measurement of the Dependent Variable 57 Perceived Relative Influence 57

IV

operational Definition and Measurement of the Independent Variables 60 Family Members 60 Gender-Role Orientation 62 Resource Variables 65

Sampling Procedure 67 Sampling 67

Statistical Procedures 69 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample 72 Measurement of the Scale 73

IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 86

Equal Influence between Family Members in Decision Making 86

The Relationship of Perceived Influence to Gender-Role Orientation and Resource Variables 95 Gender-Role Orientation and the Groom's and

Bride's Perceived Self Influence 95 Groom's perception 95 Bride's perception 99 Interpretation of the findings 100

Gender-Role Orientation and the Goom's and Bride's Perception of Parents' Influences 102 Groom's perception 102 Bride's perception 103

Resource Variables and Perceived Influence 103 Groom's education 104 Bride's education 105 Mother's education 106

The Summary of Findings 107 Equality in the Perceived Influence of

Family Members 107 Gender-Role Orientation and Perceived

Influence 109 Resource Variables and Perceived Influence 112

V. CONCLUSIONS, CONTRIBUTIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 139

Conclusions 139 Contributions 142

Theoretical Contributions of the Study 142 Managerial Contributions of the Study 144

Limitations 1 5

Suggestions for Future Research 146

REFERENCES 148

APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE 164

VI

UST OF TABLES

3.1: The Summary of the Scanzoni Sex Role Scale 78

3.2: Demographic Characteristics of the Sample 79

3.3: Factor Solutions of the Scanzoni Sex Role Scale 82

3.4: Means of the Scanzoni Sex Role Scales 84

3.5: Frequencies of the Scanzoni Sex Role Scales 85

4.1: The MANOVA Results for Household Influence in

Family Decision Making 114

4.2: The Influence Structure of Prospective Couples 116

4.3: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Television Sets 120

4.4: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Refrigerators 122

4.5: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Furniture 124

4.6: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Houses 126

4.7: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Wedding Suits 128

4.8: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Hanbok 130

4.9: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Honeymoon Accommodations 132

VII

4.10: The Correlation Coefficients between the Resource Variables and the Scanzoni Sex Role Scales 134

4.11: The Summary of Findings 135

VIII

UST OF FIGURES

2.1: A Model of Gender-Role Orientation and Resources in Family Purchase Decision Making 51

2.2: The Relationship between Parent's and Spouse's Influence 52

IX

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

General Problems of Previous Research

Grashof and Dixon (1980, p. 486) note that, "One of the recurring themes

in considering future progress in consumer behavior is the overemphasis on

the individual as the unit of analysis." Sheth (1979) reached a similar

conclusion that consumer research must focus on household and

organizational buyer behavior. Studies on individual information processing, for

example, have dominated the literature (Wilkie, 1986), and while investigations

of the individual have made a significant contribution to the body of knowledge

in consumer research, these findings can be used only if the consumer's

buying and consuming behavior is "unilaterally that of an individual"

(Baran,1980). This focus on the individual is unfortunate if it misleads any

researcher to ignore the importance of the family in purchasing decisions.

Converse, Huegy, and Mitchell (1958) viewed the family as the most important

business unit. The reason for this is that the purchase and consumption of

most, if not all, major consumer products involves an interaction among family

members. Wilkes (1971) also pointed out the importance of the family in family

purchase decision making (FPDM) for two reasons: (1) the family determines

individual's motives, attitudes, and behavior, and (2) the family is the decision

unit for many products. Davis (1976) added another: the family is a critical

consumption unit.

Despite this reality, investigations in family purchase decision making

(FPDM) have been paid relatively little attention in the literature (Moore-Shay

and Wilkie 1988; Burns and Granbois 1980; Barar) 1980). Burns and

Granbois (1980) counted only 38 studies in the ACR Proceedings, the Journal

of Marketina Research, the Journal of Consumer Research. AMA Proceedings,

and the Journal of Marketing (1969 on) in the period between 1970 and 1978.

The most important reason for this lack of research is that the family is neither

easily accessible nor observable by marketing researchers (Moore-Shay and

Wilkie 1988). However, research on family decision making recently has

received growing attention. Since 1978, more than 50 papers have been

published in the sources named above.

The progress made to date does not mean that there is no room for

further research. In a review article, Roberts (1984) points out several

shortcomings of previous studies: (1) the empirical research lacks conceptual

advances; (2) there is no model of the family decision-making process that is

widely accepted; and (3) there are no scales for measuring important variables

that are acceptable to most researchers. Moore-Shay and Wilkie (1988)

reached a similar conclusion regarding measurement difficulties.

Although the number of studies on family decision making is growing,

few have been done outside the United States (Cabrejos Doig 1981; O'Guinn,

Faber, and Imperia 1986; Douglas 1979). Countries outside of the United

States that have been studied are: England (Hempel 1974), Venezuela (Green

and Cunningham 1980), Holland (Green, Verhage, and Cunningham 1981),

Colombia (Cabrejos Doig 1981), France (Douglas 1979), Canada (Douglas

1979), Belgium (Davis and Rigaux 1974; Douglas 1979). Non-U.S. countries

where FPDM have been studied are all either European or Latin American. No

study on family decision making in Asia is reported in the literature, although

Asia is obviously important to academicians and multinational companies.

It is speculated that the role of family members in purchase decision

making in Asian countries is changing due to economic development,

industrialization, and increasing contacts with Western countries. In other

words, not only is these globalization of product and promotion strategies as

Levitt (1983) suggested, but also globalization of social values and consumer

buying behaviors is taking place in traditional Asian countries such as Korea,

Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, and China. Globalization in China

will, for example, have a great effect on academicians as well as multinational

companies, providing enormous opportunities.

Most studies in the marketing literature have concentrated on large

durable goods and housing decisions (Baran 1980; Burns and Granbois 1980).

The product categories that have been investigated most often are automobiles,

major household appliances, and houses. In South Korea, it is believed that

most of these products are sold as new families are formed at the time of

marriage. Usually, the bride's parents purchase the major appliances for their

daughters while the bridegroom's parents buy or rent houses for their sons.

These customs may indicate that the first step in investigating family decision

making for these durable goods is to examine household buying behavior

surrounding these products at the time of the wedding.

Korean society is historrcally patriarchal regarding family social decisions,

meaning that husbands or males dominate the decision process. The status of

women in Korean families Is traditionally very low. It is thought an ideal

husband-wife relationship is one in which the husband commands his wife and

the wife obeys her husband, since the wife is treated as subordinate to her

husband in Confucian thought (A Handbook of Korea 1983; Osgood 1951; Kim

and Chee 1969). Recent economic development in South Korea, however,

portends a changing environment. Thus, while Confijcian thought has

traditionally had a great impact on the Korean family, the influence of Western

culture-particularly during the last two decades-is thought to be significant on

the role structure of the Korean family. No studies have investigated family

decision making within the context of these changes.

Consumer researchers have reconceptualized family roles in terms of sex

roles (Quails 1982; Scanzoni 1975). Quails (1988) has noted that the findings

of sex-role studies provide the dynamic explanation of the family decision­

making process. Until recently, however, researchers in consumer behavior

have paid little attention to sex roles of the family in family purchasing decision

making.

Scope of the Study

There have been major shifts in sex-role structure of the Korean family

since World War II. These changes suggest the appropriateness of a study

Investigating the roles of nuclear family members and societal norms in family

decision making in Korea.

The unit of analysis in this study is the "newly forming family." This study

focuses on single adults who are betrothed. The perceived relative influence of

prospective brides and grooms is examined. Although the relative influence of

both brides' and grooms' parents perceived by the brides and grooms was

included in this investigation, data were collected only from the brides and

grooms.

This study is unique since it focuses solely on the time immediately prior

to marriage. The pre-marital stage is treated as fixed for analysis.

Hypotheses developed from three theories were examined in this study.

They were: hypotheses based on the equal sharing of family members in

FPDM; hypotheses developed from the basis of gender-role orientation; and

hypotheses advanced based on the theory of resources. The independent

variables for the equal sharing hypothesis are the roles of various family

members, and the dependent variables measure the perceived relative influence

of the family members. The effects of the family members on the household

influence in family decision making for the purchase of the products for the

wedding Is considered to be moderated by both sex-role orientation of the

family members and the resources that the members have. Family members'

resources are measured in this study by the educational levels of the family

members merely because the majority of Korean respondents did not provide

information about female members' income and occupations.

The purchase situation in the analysis consists of purchases in four

product categories made for the newlyweds by either the bride's or groom's

family. Family members would interact and make a final decision on these

products. This interaction forms the basis for determining dominance of a

family member in decision making. This study concentrates on this dominance

of a family member. The product categories selected for this study were: (1)

clothing for the wedding ceremony; (2) housing; (3) major consumer durable

goods; and (4) honeymoon accommodations.

The study examined the perceived relative influence of the family

members in four major subdecisions across the consumer decision process:

(1) when to buy. (2) where to buy. (3) how much to pay, and (4) what brand or

style to buy. For this study, these subdecisions are treated as fixed.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this exploratory study are three-fold. The first objective

is to gain some insight into the relative influence of family members on

household purchasing decision making across stages in the buying

subdecisions of major products for new household formation in the Republic of

Korea (South Korea).

The second objective of the study is to investigate how variables act in

concert with one another to affect family purchase decisions, testing both the

resources hypotheses and gender-role orientation hypotheses.

The last objective of the study is to explore the perceived relative

influence of the prospective bride and groom in family purchase decision­

making, focusing on the relative influence of family members at the stage of

pre-marriage.

Preview of the Dissertation

This study primarily focuses on family purchasing decision making in

new family formation. The study should be considered exploratory in nature,

although hypotheses were developed on the basis of the literature review, and

then tested. Conclusions made from the study could be used as guidelines for

future research.

The dissertation consists of five chapters. The general problems of the

previous studies, scope of the study, and the objectives are presented in

Chapter I. The literature review is included in Chapter II; knowledge from these

previous studies is used to aid in the development of hypotheses and also

presented in Chapter II. Additionally, attention is given to the structure of the

Korean family and to the dominant decision maker of the Korean family.

Chapter III provides a description of the research methodology employed in

8

conducting the field study and the statistical methods to analyze the data

collected. Chapter IV presents the results and Interpretation obtained from

testing the research hypotheses on the empirical data. Finally, conclusions,

contributions, limitations, and suggestions for future research are covered in

Chapter V.

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT

This chapter reviews the relevant literature related to family purchase

decisions. Recent developments in family decision making studies are

discussed first and hypotheses are developed based on the literature review.

Recent Developments in Family Decision Making

Studies on family decision making have basically focused on three

issues: (1) who makes or influences the decision; (2) outcomes of the decision;

and (3) factors that determine who makes or influences the decision (Quails

1987). The first and second issues relate to identifying the roles and relative

influences of various family members. The majority of studies have found that

there is a relationship between relative influence and the product investigated,

the stages of the consumer decision process, and the subdecision under

consideration.

The types of roles played in a family decision process can be classified

into two categories: (1) participating roles, which are the extent that a family

member initiates the decision, seeks information, and actually purchases a

product; and (2) sex role, in which family members view the husband or wife as

either traditional or modern in household responsibilities. According to Moore-

Shay and Wilkie (1988 p. 455), "the 'traditional view' reflects sharply

10

dichotomous roles for males and females and 'modern' views reflect a greater

sharing of roles between sexes." Schanlnger, Buss, and Grover (1982), for

example, found that the patterns of financial management were different

depending on the beliefs that each spouse held on the importance of the wife's

career and household responsibilities.

However, investigations in this area suffer from focusing largely on the

outcomes of the decision rather than focusing on how families make decisions

(Davis 1976; Kaufman 1986; Nelson 1988). Davis (1976, p. 257), in his review,

concluded that "Much of the work to date has taken an overly restrictive view of

family member roles. Most of the emphasis has been on who shops and

decides within specific product categories." However, this study examines

decision making behaviors of the newly forming families to explain the

phenomenon of their decision-making behavior.

The third issue relates to building a model that attempts to explain the

relationships between the factors that determine which family members make or

influence the decision. This area has recently received increased attention.

Some of these studies attempt to find the relationship between influence

strategies and conflict resolution. These studies also include other factors such

as power, power sources, authority, emotion, dominance, bargaining, etc.

(Gupta, Hagerty, and Myers 1983; Krishnamurthi 1981; Kriewall 1980; Quails

1981; Quails 1988). Other research focuses upon the relationship between

11

gender roles and other factors (Quails 1987; Buss and Schanlnger 1983;

Kaufman 1986; Roberts 1984).

Quails (1987), for example, found a relatively strong relationship between

sex role and household influence, preference agreement, method of conflict

resolution, and decision outcome. However, these findings could not be

generalized due to the small size and composition of the sample drawn from

the specific geographic area. In addition, most studies have focused on

investigating bivariate relationships involving role structure of the FPDM. Few

studies have suggested a model or developed a theoretical foundation.

Family

It is ironic that few researchers in consumer behavior have defined the

term "family," although they put stress on the family as the most important

consuming unit in society. Winch (1971) defined the family as "a set of

persons, related to each other by blood, marriage, or adoption, and constituting

a social system whose structure is specified by family positions and whose

basic societal function is replacement." Although there is a wide variety of

family structures in the world, two structures dominate: the nuclear family and

the extended family. The nuclear family is defined as an immediate group of

any two or more persons related to one another by blood, marriage, or

adoption who share a common residence. The nuclear family consists of

father, mother, and their children. The extended family (or the joint family) is

rarely defined in the literature. The extended family refers to a related group

12

that Includes other nuclear families and relatives such as grandparents, aunts,

uncles, and cousins. In Korea, the extended family prevailed until World War II.

Today, the extended family coexists with the nuclear family, but is outnumbered.

The Korean Family

There are two competing theories in the power structure of the Korean

family: the theory of the wife's subordinate role to the husband and the theory

of the wife's autonomy. The theory of the wife's subordinate role explaining the

power status of the Korean wife is discussed first and the autonomy theory

follows.

Korean culture is permeated with Confucian influence and the family

structure is particularly the product of Confucian influence. The extended family

in Korea is based on the Corrfucian view, in which the family is not only basic to

the life of every Korean but also has the central role in society (MacDonald

1988). Traditional relations among the members of a family are not based on

the concept of equality but are strictly hierarchical. The superiority of the male,

which places father and sons at the center of a family, forms one of the basic

supports of Korean family life. Confucian thought emphasizes five social

relationships. Three of these deal with family and are relevant to this study:

intimacy between father and son, distinction between husband and wife, and

order between elder and younger brother (or between senior and junior).

Accordingly, hierarchical order between unequal pairs is presented in most

social relationships. The senior should be responsible for wise and benevolent

13

direction of behavior, and for the welfare of those in his charge, whereas the

junior's duty is respect and obedience.

Filial piety and fraternal solidarity become cardinal virtues in the

Confucian ethic. The father's authority is not only the highest but also absolute;

consequently, filial piety is the one great moral principle in Korean society.

Traditionally the wife is treated as subordinate to her husband, and usually has

nothing but duty towards her husband, meaning that she should obey and

serve her husband at her best. Conjugal fidelity is obligatory only for the

woman. In the traditional family, the father as the family head has the most

power to control the family property, to supervise the activities and behaviors of

the family members, and to represent the family to the outside world. The

father is also responsible for his family nrrembers' misbehavior to the outside

world. On the other hand, the mother as the housekeeper has little to do with

power in the patriarchal family. However, mother-focused dyads are the

fundamental element of the social structure in the patriarchal family (Wolf 1972).

In addition to the father's or husband's superiority, all male members in the

traditional family are often considered to be superior to female members (Lee

1982). In other words, the father and sons are given the central position in the

power structure of the family while the mother and daughters are kept at its

periphery. There is a good example that illustrates the subordinate status of

female members to male in the family: females were not given first names until

14

about 1915 (Park 1989). Girls were given nicknames such as "Flat-face" but the

nicknames were not used after marriage (Osgood 1951).

Autonomy theory indicates that the wife has fairly definite control over

decisions concerning food, clothing, and her babies and young children. In

Korea, the husband is viewed as the "outside master" whereas the wife is

considered the "inside master" (Osgood 1951). This outside-inside distinction

Indicates that household tasks or influences in family decision making are

divided into male and female. Outside master refers to the husband's role as

primary provider, whereas the "inside master" refers to the housekeeper who

has some discretion in the purchase of many products. Lee (1982) observed

that many Korean wives keep large amounts of money to spend for food,

clothing, and kitchen tools for the family without consulting their husbands,

although the family still remains patriarchal. In the view of the autonomy school,

a wife in a family achieves higher status and gains more power as she goes

through the stages of a daughter-in-law, a housewife, and a mother-in-law. At

the first stage, her position in the family is lowest among the family members-

similar to a slave. She earns higher status and establishes a strong and stable

position as she bears a son. She become a truly inside master as she

becomes a mother-in-law. In some instances, she might be the only authority

in the family during the last stage of her life, even though her husband is still

alive. As such, the notion of outside and inside master is similar to Myers and

Reynolds'(1961) view of internal versus external role structure of the family.

15

The family consists of two structures, depending on the relationships

between the family members: the father-son relationship as an authority

structure that is sanctioned by society and the mother-centered relationship as

an affection structure (Lee 1982). The former can be called an explicit structure

and the latter an implicit one for the reason that the family head has the

decision-making authority, while the wife's role is to execute this authority.

Korean families are experiencing significant changes in power structure,

values, norms, and roles related to marriage and family. The customs and

economic values extolling the importance of filial and fraternal solidarity, which

motivated people to establish extended or joint families, are losing their

relevance In the transitional phase of Korean society. The trend is towards the

formation of nuclear households in which the conjugal pair is emerging as a

critical unit. Such a trend suggests a weakening of the values and norms that

supported the patriarchal family and a strengthening of the values and norms of

equality between the sexes and between parents and their children.

Importance of Gender-Role Orientation and the Theory of Resources

Korea has undergone dramatic political, social, and economic changes

for the last two decades. Politically, Korea is in transition from dictatorship to

democracy. Socially, notable changes include the change in family structure

from joint family (or extended family) to nuclear family, in the movement for

women's equal rights, and in women's labor-market participation.

16

Economically, the country is rapidly industrializing. These massive changes

have been brought about by science and technology, education, urbanization,

mass-communication, and Western influence. The country has made significant

strides towards modernization and industrialization.

These changes can have a significant impact on attitudes and behavioral

orientation of family members. For example, Goode (1970) identified two

distinct but related ideologies that appear to emerge with industrialization: an

ideology of independence from the extended family and one of equality

between sexes. In other words, gender-roles in the family are changing due to

modernization. As such, family behaviorists as well as marketers have recently

confirmed that gender roles are important to an explanation of the changing

attitudes and role behaviors of today's family members (e.g., Scanzoni 1975;

Scanzoni and Fox 1980; Quails 1987). Quails (1987, pp. 265-266) provides a

simple and explicit description of a sex role paradigm;

.... sex role preferences are indicative of culturally determined atti­tudes (traditionalism/modernity) toward the role of wife/husband and mother/father in the household. Sex role preference reflects the so­cietal standards by which family members determine the rewards and costs associated with their behavioral actions.

This description implies that sex roles may be an important factors affecting the

process of family purchase decision making (FPDM).

Both modernization and industrialization have provided tremendous

opportunities for education, employment, and higher income. For example,

Korean norms prohibited women from attending school until about one century

17

ago. Today, a quarter of the one million college students in Korea are women.

As for employment, white-collar jobs virtually did not exist except for

government officials until about one century ago. Korean per capita income

has increased from about $400 at beginning of the 1960s to about $5,000

presently. Consequently, most Koreans today enjoy a much better education,

occupational status, and income. The question then is how these changes in

socio-economics, better known as the theory of resources, are related to the

influence structure of the FPDM. Family behaviorists and researchers in

marketing have attempted to answer this question. They investigated the

relationship between household influence structure and the theory of

resources. However, the findings are inconsistent. For example, Spiro (1983)

found a positive relationship whereas Safilios-Rothschild (1969) did not. This

inconsistency indicates the need for additional study of the theory of resources.

Research has produced evidence that sex-role preferences are closely

related to socio-economic variables. For example, higher levels of educational

attainment are associated with greater equalitarianism. In turn, more

equalitarian persons tend to embrace joint decision-making.

In summary, the theory of resources is employed in the present study for

three reasons: (1) its wide use in FPDM; (2) the inconsistent findings among

studies; and (3) close relation to sex roles.

18

The Theory of Gender-Role Orientation

In the context of family sociology, there have been three approaches that

attempt to conceptualize gender-role orientation (GRO). The first approach

known as "sexual gender" appears at the macro level. Both "gender

differentiation" (Holter 1970) and "sex stratification" (Nielsen 1978) have been

used to describe GRO. In this approach, it is an individuars make-up that

determines the attitudes and behavior of family members in their society (Quails

1987). In this light, Scanzoni (1975, p. 20) defined gender-role as "differences

among persons and groups that are the result of gender, i.e., differences based

on ascribed characteristics."

In family decision making (FDM), Kenkel (1961) similarly conceptualized

the husband's role as instrumental and the wife's role as expressive. The

instrumental husband tends to control product decisions related to functional

attributes, while the expressive wife concerns herself with family affection,

pleasure, and lowering levels of tension. These classifications are based on the

notion that the man's role is to complete the basic task of the family, and the

woman's role is to be involved in the socio-emotional aspects of behavior. In

marketing, Davis(1970) supported this view in which husbands had more

influence over subdecisions such as when to buy, whereas wives had more

influence over style and color.

A second approach has considered gender-roles as the division of labor

by sex. According to Scanzoni and Fox (1980, p. 744), "it is the attachment of

19

gender to particular social positions that gives rise to the layering effect that

exists In virtually all known societies." As such, this approach suggests that "the

performance of household roles is the process by which gender-role attitudes

are learned" (Quails 1987, p. 266). Similarly, Myers and Reynolds (1961)

viewed family role structure as internal versus external, i.e., the husband tends

to have control over decisions external to maintaining the family, while the wife

has more influence on the internal decisions.

The division-of-labor approach was applied to the investigation of the

relation of the wife's employment status to purchases of time-saving durables.

Schanlnger and Allen (1981, p. 146) found that "wife's employment was never

significant in the purchase or expenditure decisions for time-saving durables."

They also found that wives in lower-status occupations were more likely to use

convenience foods for their families than wives in higher-status occupations.

The last approach, closer to the conceptualization of this study, is what

Holter (1970) called "gender norms" and later Nielsen (1978) called "sex-role

norms." Sociologists have labeled this subjectively shared orientation variously

as "sex-role adoption," "sex role identity," "sex-role attitudes," "sex-role

ideologies," "sex-role orientation," and "sex-role preferences." In this view, an

individual's sex role attitude takes a key role in determining the person's

behavior. Following Holter (1970) and Blalock and Wilken (1979), Scanzoni and

Fox (1980) described "these subjectively shared orientations" as "preferences"

and treated them as variable (not constant). Scanzoni and Fox (1980, p. 744)

20

explained that "the strength with which actors prefer the sets of rewards and

costs that flow from current patterns of gender stratification and division of

labor."

Family behaviorists have provided evidence of gradual shifts in gender-

role preferences throughout the 1970s. Sexton (1979) observed that men tend

to become more traditional than women although gender preferences are

gradually becoming less traditional. Sidel (1978) reported that less educated

individuals were more traditional than the better educated.

The opposite of traditional attitudes is called "modern" (Holter 1970).

According to Scanzoni and Fox (1980, p. 745), "modern" refers to "strong

preferences for equalitarianism between the sexes, in terms of both household

and external behaviors." This perspective represents an equality-inequality

continuum (Bayor 1975). Here non-traditionalism is defined as "accepting

women along with men in the work sphere, whereas traditionalism places

women in the home" (Tomeh 1978, p. 341).

Another concept of the sex-role attitude continuum that has recently

gained wide acceptance emphasizes a "traditional-modern" continuum

(Osmond and Martin 1975). Here Tomeh (1978, p. 342) defined "traditional sex

roles" as "those which are based on a dichotomous conception of male roles

versus female roles" and "nontraditional" as "characterized by flexibility and role

sharing between the sexes."

21

Researchers in marketing prefer to call "sex role preferences" as "men's

and women's normative attitudes" (Rosen and Granbois 1983: Quails 1987).

Rosen and Granbois (1983, p. 245) described the normative attitudes as "what

people consider appropriate male and female behaviors."

Quails (1987, p. 266) went further, linking sex role preferences to human

behavior: "an individual's sex role attitude plays a primary role in shaping

his/her behavior. Thus, if the individuals who make up the household believed

that men are superior and women inferior, the behavior of the household as

unit should reflect that of a traditional married couple." Buss and Schaninger

(1983) defined sex-role norms as "those values and norms (both instrumental

and terminal) which are related to the duties and responsibilities of each sex."

Different sex role attitudes tend to differentiate task allocations, purchasing

responsibilities, and marital outcomes. Researchers used the

traditional/modern classification of sex-roles to relate family purchase influence.

Green and Cunningham (1975) investigated the impact of feminine role

perceptions on family purchase decisions using Arnott's (1972) Autonomy

Inventory. They found that feminine role perceptions to be more diverse in

higher income and younger families. Scanzoni (1977) has suggested that most

decisions will move from single-spouse domination toward more joint decision

making for modern sex-role couples. Filiatrault and Ritchie (1980) suggested

that modern attitudes are more likely to be found among subjects who are

younger, more highly educated, and higher in social status.

22

Using the Osmond-Martin Sex-Role Attitude Scale, Quails (1982) found

that: (1) traditional husbands rated the decision of how much to save each

period as strongly husband-dominant; (2) modern husbands thought the

pattern should be slightly husband-dominant; and (3) both traditional and

modern wives felt that the pattern should be one of joint influence. Schaninger,

Buss, and Grover (1982) used the Scanzoni (1975) sex-role scale and found

that in family financial management, modern sex-role couples exhibited less

husband influence and more joint influence than did more traditional couples.

Rosen and Granbois (1983) investigated variables that determine the role

of husband and wife in family financial management. Using the Osmond-Martin

Sex-Role Attitude Scale (Osmond and Martin 1975) to measure sex-role

attitude, it was found that sex-role attitude and educational level were the most

critical factors in determining the role structure of implementation tasks.

In analyzing household purchases of cable television service, Paugh

(1986) utilized the Levinson and Huffman (1954) scale to test for "contemporary"

versus traditional family ideology. He reported that the majority of family

members tend to be involved in purchase decision making when the

respondent is more inclined toward a "contemporary" family ideology, however

mean differences between the contemporary group and the traditional group

were not statistically significant.

Quails (1987) examined the impact of sex role on the outcome of a family

home purchase decision using all threo types of sex-role measures: (1) the

23

Bem Sex Role Inventory; (2) the Osmond and Martin Sex Role Attitude Scale;

and (3) the Scanzoni Sex Role Scale (SSRS). By using the SSRS only, he

found a relatively strong relationship between sex role orientation and the

degree of household influence and preference agreement. Quails also

recommended that the Scanzoni Sex Role Scale be used for future research

since it is a better measure and predictor of household influence than the other

two scales. In summary, empirical research has shown ample evidence that

gender-role orientation is related to household influence structure in FPDM.

The Theory of Resources

One of most frequently tested hypotheses in FPDM is the theory of

resources. The theory of resources was first advanced by Blood and Wolfe

(1960). Blood and Wolfe (p. 11) contended that "the power to make decisions

stems primarily from the resources which the individual can provide to meet the

needs of his marriage partner and to upgrade his decision-making skills." In

other words, this theory suggests that the greater one's resources, the greater

one's power or the influence in decision making (Dahl 1968, p. 409). The

resources consist of education, income, occupational status, decision-making

ability, competence, personal attractiveness, the performance of each partner in

the various roles of homemaker, companion, sex partner, and so on. For

example, the greater the relative amount of income that the wife contributes to

the household, the greater her decision-making power might be. In other

24

words, If the wife possesses resources such as a college education or high

occupational status, the husband's "right to govern" is likely to be lessened.

Safilios-Rothschild (1969) indicated that the theory of resources was not

supported. However, she found that wives with college-educated husbands

had almost equal frequencies of equalitarian, husband-dominated, or wife-

dominated decisions, and it was also true when wives had more education than

their husbands. The wife's working status did not influence decision making.

The theory of resources has also failed to find support in less developed

countries such as Greece (Safilios-Rothschild 1967), Yugoslavia (Buric and

Zecevic 1967) and Colombia (Cabrejos Doig 1981). The findings showed a

significant negative correlation between the husband's occupation and

education and the extent of his decision-making power.

In comparing marital decision-making power in France, Greece,

Yugoslavia, and the United States, Rodman (1967) suggested 'the theory of

resources in cultural context," taking into consideration the prevailing cultural

ideologies about power distribution. For example, the strength of cultural

norms such as patriarchy constrain the influence resources brought to the

relationship by marital partners. Japan provides a good example of this, where

industrialization has taken place (and traditional norms remain), education and

income were found to be resources while occupational status was not

(Rodman, 1967). In marketing, Paugh (1986) reported that relative

25

occupational status of spouses tends to be the most useful resource variable

among education, income, and employment status.

Rodman (1970; 1972) more explicitly advanced this theoretical

amendment to the theory of resources by systematically reviewing cross-cultural

decision-making power. This amended theory has come to be known as

normative-resources theory. Normative-resources theory states that 'the

balance of marital power is influenced by the interaction of (1) comparative

resources of husband and wife and (2) the cultural and subcultural expectations

above the distribution of marital power" (Rodman 1972, p.60). However, Burr,

Ahem, and Knowles (1977) found that their data did not support normative-

resources theory. Specifically, their data did not support Rodman's speculation

that "resources are more strongly related to power when norms about authority

are more egalitarian than patriarchal. In fact, the trends were in the opposite

direction" (Burr Ahern, and knowles 1977, p. 505).

After reviewing studies in family power published in a period between

1970 and 1979, McDonald (1980, p. 849) concluded that Blood and Wolfe's

(1960) theory "has received empirical support in spite of its earlier neglect by

resources theory researchers." Particularly, the increased educational levels

and occupational attainment of women for the past several decades have

caused considerable movement in the perceptions of men and women toward

equalitarian views in FPDM (Kim and Lee 1989; Ericksen, Yancy, and Ericksen

1979; Roper and Labeff 1977). This conclusion implies that, in nature, the two

26

competing theories are not separate, but one in the sense that resources

theory is a core theory while normative resources is an applicant theory. The

controversial findings might be because researchers treated the two theories as

separate. For better results, the two theories should be treated as similar but in

different levels of hierarchy. Studies that did not support the theory of

resources are presented first and supporting studies follow.

In family studies, some researchers in the 1960s were skeptical about the

theory of resources (Kandel and Lesser 1966; Safilios-Rothschild 1967, 1969;

Buric and Zecevic 1967; Feldman 1967; Michel 1967; Rodman 1967). Blood

and Wolfe's (1960) study did not consistently support the notion that the

greater the husband's resources, the greater his influence in FDM because

blue-collar workers had relatively more influence than did skilled and white-

collar workers. Safilios-Rothschild (1969), in a replication of Blood and Wolfe

(1960), found that a different combination of decisions did not support the

theory of resources.

Kandel and Lesser's (1972) study of urban Danish and American families

attempted to test the theory of resources. Their findings were inconclusive; the

relationship between the occupation of the husband and husband's power was

curvilinear, whereas the relationships between both wife's education and

employment and marital power were positive. The interpretation of the authors

was that the wife's contacts outside the family increased the wife's power within

27

the home because she had a chance to improve decision-making skills (a

resource) outside the family. In a marketing context. Ferber and Lee (1974)

reported that differences in education or wife's employment status had no

influence on which spouse was the "family financial officer."

However, Conklin's (1979; 1988) studies in India support the theory of

resources. Indian wives' resources, such as their working status and

education, were positively related to their exerted power. Conklin (1988)

concluded that Indian wives wielded more power when they had more

resources; for example, when women had more education, they had more

power.

In the context of marketing, the theory of resources has had more

empirical support in various research settings. Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell

(1973, p. 155) implied that the theory of resources is widely accepted, calling it

'this widely-held theory." Churchill and Hansen (1974, p. 68) examined the

contribution hypothesis that 'the more nearly equal the contribution of

resources such as income, education, and social participation by husbands and

wives, the more likely both will be involved in purchase decisions." They found

support only when the study was constrained to particular products; income

was positively related to joint involvement in purchase decisions of washing

machines. Rigaux-Bricmont (1978) investigated the relationship in a small

sample of Belgian families between the husband's contribution to the family

28

income and his influence in the problem recognition. When the husband's

contribution was high, he had greater influence in the recognition of problems.

SpIro (1983) examined the hypothesis that both the wife's employment

status and her contribution to the family income are the significant determinants

of the use of an influence strategy mix. Spiro's (1983) study supported the

contention that the wife tends to exert more influence when gender contribution

is greater.

Hypothesis Development

Figure 2.1 (p. 52) presents a simple association between the constructs

in a given stage of the family life cycle (e.g., the stage of premarriage) as well

as in given subdecisions (e.g., what to buy, when to buy, how much to spend,

etc.). The model simply illustrates the integration of seemingly important

variables in FPDM that are conceptually related in part to the household

decision processes.

The model shows that the roles of family members (for this study,

parents and their children who are committed to marry) are directly related to

household influence in FPDM. The model also suggests that the relationships

between the family members and their influence are moderated by both their

gender-role attitudes and the resources that each member possesses. In a

patriarchal society it is anticipated that the husband's influence is greater than

the wife's if both GRO and the resources are not presented as moderating

variables. However, the husband's influence may decrease when modern in

29

GRO, or when the wife has high resources. Wives may have equal influence

with their husbands because of moderating effects of GRO and the resources.

In the next section, each of the hypothesized relationships is discussed and

developed.

Family Life Cycle

Research indicates that household influence structure is related to the

family life cycle (Rigaux-Bricmont 1978; Rosen and Granbois 1983; Komarovsky

1961; Granbois 1963; Hill 1970; Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell 1973; Cabrejos

Doig 1981). However, these studies ignored the premarital stage of the family

life cycle. This is not surprising because most family sociologists have not

categorized the bachelor stage (e.g., Sorokin, Zimmerman, and Galpin 1931;

Kirkpatrick, Cowels, and Tough 1934; Loomis 1936; Bigelow 1942; Glick 1947;

Duvall and Hill 1948; Rodgers 1962; Duvall 1971). As Murphy and Staples

(1979) pointed out, '"young single' is not technically a family stage." However,

"young singles" are important consumers (Wattenberg 1974). Because of this,

a few family sociologists have included the young single stage in the family life

cycle (Wells and Gubar 1966; Churchill, Jr. and Hansen 1974; Murphy and

Staples 1979; Spiro 1983).

Although there are a few researchers who categorize the young single

stage, they fail to recognize the importance of the pre-marital stage. The pre­

marital stage can be deflned as a stage in the family life cycle at which young

singles are committed to marriage for the first time. Technically the period

30

begins with a point of time when a single is just committed to marriage for the

first time and ends when the wedding ceremony starts. The period is usually

relatively short, but it has important marketing implications. In this study, the

family life cycle is in effect fixed at the premarital stage (e.g., Churchill, Jr. and

Hansen 1974).

Wattenberg (1974, p. 51) noted that "It is, of course, no secret that when

a young man and young woman decide to get married they trigger a vast chain

of intense economic activity unmatched in the human life cycle. ... It is a

passionate, emotional, intensely personal decision-probably the most important

decision either of the parties will ever make." Wattenberg (1974) continued to

illustrate the important products purchased for the wedding by the prospective

couples, their parents, and their friends. Important products often purchased

prior to the wedding include a house, color television set, washing machine,

curtains, etc.

Wattenberg (1974, p. 52) also pointed out the characteristics of the

young buyers: "... sales made directly to young people may well be an easier

sale, because there is only selling, not switching, involved." Wattenberg (1974,

p. 51) described the formation of a family as "an astonishing spurt of economic

activity." Wattenberg (1974) illustrated that the large proportion of products are

purchased within the brief six-month period (three months before and three

months after marriage). For example, 58 percent of all sterling flatware is

31

bought by new family formers who are only 2.5 percent of all households (see

Wattenberg 1974, p. 52 for other products).

The intense economic activity by the new family formers occurs not only

in the United States but also in Korea and with even more intensity. It is a

Korean custom that all household products ranging from houses to bath mats

are bought for the newly wedded couple by the couple, their parents, friends,

or relatives prior to the wedding.

In addition to the economic implications, the premarital stage has

important decision making implications. Kenkel (1961) found that joint

involvement in decision making decreases with the presence of children.

He also reported that couple's joint involvement decreases over the family life

cycle. Similarly, when focusing on the decision-making processes of young

singles at the premarital stage, it is expected that their parents' influence on

them gradually decreases over the family life cycle, whereas their spousal

influence increases, as shown in Figure 2.2 (p. 53). When a child decides to

marry, interaction among the parent and the child is often very high and intense

and parent's influence is also very high, but it then declines over time.

Although the pre-marital stage is important to marketing practitioners as well as

academicians, the stage has been largely ignored by both groups.

Subdecisions

Almost every study in family decision making includes product sub-

decisions within each product under investigation (Burns and Granbois 1980)

32

such as "who decided" or "who was involved" (Blood and Wolfe 1960; Buric and

Zecevic 1967). The problem with these global measures is that the influential

agent may be a different family member than the one "who actually decided"

(Jenkins, 1981). Davis (1971) and Wilkes (1975) also noted that global

measures are not as valid as product specific measures. Further, Davis (1976)

commented that respondents find It easier to recall decisions about specific

choices. Likewise, Olson and Rabunsky (1972) pointed out that individuals can

more accurately recall what decisions were made than who actually made them.

The most commonly used product specific subdecisions are: when, where,

how much, what style, and what brand (Burns and Granbois 1980). Taking

these into consideration, product specific purchasing decisions are used in this

study.

The specific purchasing subdecisions withih each product under

investigation vary across family members. Davis and Rigaux (1974), for

example, found that the specific subdecisions for an automobile purchase tend

to be made jointly between husbands and wives. Baran (1981) reported that

patterns of husband-wife influence across subdecisions were relatively high

across all the subdecisions under investigation. Family role structure also

varied across specific subdecisions within each type of service decision

(Szybillo and Sosanie 1978).

Davis (1970; 1976) classified product decisions within each product

category into two groups based on cluster analysis of relative influence

33

required: (1) product selection decisions (what model, make, and color to buy)

and (2) allocation decisions (how much to spend and when to buy). Davis

(1970) found that within each product category, relative influence in allocation

decisions is related to the product subdecisions.

The selection and allocation decisions used in this study are adopted

from Davis (1970), Szybillo and Sosanie (1977), and Baran (1981). In the

model, subdecisions are treated as given (e.g., Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980).

Subdecisions within each product category are investigated, as presented in

the Appendix.

The Family and Influence

Research suggests that household incongruence is In part determined

by the power structure of the family (Safilios-Rothschild 1970; McDonald 1980).

A family member who has power can exert influence in FPDM. Safllios-

Rothschild (1970, p. 540) defined influence as 'the degree to which formal or

informal, overt or covert pressure exerted by the one spouse upon the other (or

by one family member upon another)." For this study, household influence is

defined as the degree to which family members or prospective family members

(e.g., prospective bride and groom) attempt to dominate household decisions-

a slight modification of Quails' (1987).

In the proposed model, the nature of household influence is determined

directly by the family members. In the traditional Korean family, the father-son

relationship is considered as a power structure. The father is traditionally viewed

34

as having the most power In FPDM, with sons next in influence. The male

members of the family have power that is sanctioned by society. However,

Korean society is rapidly changing towards equalitarian decision making

between the sexes.

Yim (1968, p. 41) noted:"... that the traditional family structure has been

shattered by the revolt of women awakened by the influx of Western values,

that the authority of the family head has been weakened, that family is being

pushed in the direction of inner democratization and equalitarianism by

westernizing influences." Korea has made dramatic progress in improving

women's status since Yim (1968) reported these changes. For example, single

women bank tellers are not forced to resign any more as soon as they get

married, as was true until a few years ago. Also, the trends from the extended

family towards the nuclear family have facilitated an upgrading of the wife's

status in the household, since she does not need to worry about what in-laws

say, which was true in the extended family and was a barrier to the equalitarian

movement for wives. In this light, it is expected that the wife demands equal

influence in FPDM with her husband. The foregoing discussion suggests the

following hypotheses for couple respondents.

HI a: The prospective groom's perceived influence of self and

his bride are equal for a given subdecision in the choice

process of family decision making.

35

Hib: The prospective bride's perceived influence of self and

her groom are equal for a given subdecision in the choice

process of family decision making.

As noted earlier, hierarchical order between unequal pairs is emphasized

not only In most Korean social relationships but also in the relationships

between family members. This means that youngsters and children were in

most cases Ignored in the family decision making process until they were

married.

Today, this traditional norm Is changing. In contemporary Korean

society, equalitarian movement is taking place between the husband and the

wife as well as between parents and their children for several reasons. First,

most adult children have a higher level of education than their parents do. This,

in turn, provides children with referent power, in French and Raven (1959)

terms. Second, the movement of Inner democratization and equalitarianism in

Korean society forces parents to share power with their children. Finally,

children may have more product information than do their parents, thus

providing some advantage to children when the parents seek their opinion

(McNeal, 1969). This seeking may lead the parents to reduce their influence

over their children consciously or unconsciously. The preceding discussion

suggests the following hypothesis for family respondents:

36

Hie: The groom's perceived influence of self, his bride, and

his parents are equal for a given subdecision in the

choice process of family purchase decision making.

H id : The bride's perceived influence of self, her groom, and

her parents are equal for a given subdecision in the

choice process of family purchase decision making.

Gender-Role Orientation and Household Influence

Gender relationships are important to understanding the dynamic

decision making process (Scanzoni and Fox 1980). Household role structure

determines the level of influence of the family members, at least in part (Davis

and Rigaux 1974). The issue is how we posit the connection between gender

roles and household behaviors (Influence). To resolve this, Blalock and Wilken

(1979, p. 30) have suggested that household behavior "is oriented to its

anticipated preferred consequences." However, when a man and a woman

form a relationship and become interdependent, one member's preferences

cannot be actually achieved without simultaneously taking the other's into

account. This 'taking account" can be achieved through joint decision-making

processes, which include exchange, equity, power, and conflict and negotiation

(Blalock and Wilken 1979; Scanzoni and Fox 1980). In fact, power is

interchangeably used with influence in the literature (Safllios-Rothschild 1970;

Mcdonald 1980). The perception of influence held by family members provides

the key to understanding household decision behavior (Quails 1987).

37

In the proposed model, gender-role orientation (GRO) is thought to

moderate the relationships between the family members and household

influence In FPDM as discussed earlier. Blood and Wolfe (1960) suggested that

the influence exerted by family members upon decision making is directly

related to society's cultural norms and role expectations. This suggestion

implies that a family member with traditional GRO may conform his/her behavior

In FDM with the traditional norms in the society to which he/she belongs,

whereas men with modern GRO are more likely to ignore the traditional values,

norms, and gender-role attitudes, but comply with new ones brought about by

industrialization.

Empirical research has shown that there are differences in family

decision behavior between the traditional and the modern family members

(Cunningham and Green 1974; Davis and Riguax 1974; Green and

Cunningham 1975). Schaninger, Buss, and Grover (1982) also reported that

for the products under the wife's domain, gender-role modern couples showed

less wife influence and more joint or husband influence, but the opposite shift

occurred on the products traditionally controlled by the husband. They

concluded that in general, gender-role modern couples showed more wife or

joint influence, and gender-role attitudes of the wife had stronger effects than

the husband's gender-role attitudes. Quails (1987) found a significant

relationship between GRO and the degree of the perceived influence by the

wife or the husband.

38

As noted earlier, the Korean family has been traditionally characterized

as a patriarchy (Lowell 1885; Dallet 1954; Yim 1969; Bishop and Hiller 1970).

Such a structure is not unique to the Korean family. Other patriarchal countries

reported in the literature are Gabon, Venezuela (Green et al. 1983), Colombia

(Cabrejos Doig 1981). Japan. China (Lee 1975), Greece (Safllios-Rothschild

1969), and Yugoslavia (Rodman 1972), as are Mexican-American families

(Jenkins 1981; Johnes 1948; Penelosa 1968; Aguila 1972; Bernard 1966).

In the patriarchal family structure, the father (or husband) has the most

power and influence over other family members in FDM. Hierarchical order

between parents and their children is also presented in the family member

relationships. As Tomeh (1978) pointed out, a family member with traditional

GRO may not want to see this patriarchal family changed. As such, the father

(or husband, male parent) is perceived to dominate FPDM. This discussion

suggests the following hypotheses:

H2a: The more traditional the gender-role attitudes of the

prospective groom, the greater his perceived influence

of self for a given subdecision in FPDM.

H2b: The more traditional the gender-role attitudes of the

prospective bride, the greater her perceived influence

of her groom for a given subdecision in FPDM.

However, patriarchal tradition in Korea is declining due to industhalization

and modernization. The trend towards nuclear households accelerates

39

changes In household power structure. As Goode (1970) identified,

industrialization promotes equalitarianism between the sexes. Research has

shown that "gender-role modern" is positively related to equalitarian role sharing

between the sexes and between parent and their children (Rosen and Granbois

1983; Schaninger, Buss, and Grover 1982: Quails 1987). This discussion

suggests the following hypotheses:

H2c: The more modern the gender-role attitudes of the pro­

spective groom, the greater his perceived influence of

his bride for a given subdecision in FPDM.

H2d: The more modern the gender-role attitudes of the pro­

spective bride, the greater her perceived influence of

self for a given subdecision in FPDM.

Gender-Role Orientation and

Household Influence in Mother-Child Dyads

A problem of conceptualizing the relationships of gender-role orientation

to household influence structure (particularly between parents and their

children) in FPDM comes from a paucity of relevant research. Safilios-

Rothschild (1970, p. 59) raised an important question almost two decades ago:

"... is it necessary for the family members to hold such an equalitarian ideology

that permits them to relegate power to children, before children can have any

type of power regardless of the resources they control?" No clear answer has

yet emerged.

40

Jenkins (1979) Investigated the relationships between gender-role

attitudes towards marital roles and children's perceived influence. He reported

that 'the more contemporary the attitudes toward marital roles held by a

spouse, the more influence is allocated to children" (p. 417). In a similar study,

Roberts, Wortzel. and Berkeley (1981) examined the relation of liberal versus

conservative orientation to children's influence perceived by their mothers.

Findings indicated that children exert more influence when their mothers have a

liberal orientation, and less influence when their mothers are conservative.

These findings provide evidence that gender role orientation holds not

only in husband-wife dyads but also in parent-child dyads. The tenet of

gender-role orientation in household decision making Is that a family member

with a liberal orientation tends to make a joint decision, whereas a family

member with a traditional orientation tends to follow whatever tradition says in

FPDM.

Family behaviorists believe that children tend to become like their

parents; in particular, girls become like their mothers (Boyd 1989). This is

explained by psychoanalytic theorists or social learning theorists.

Psychoanalytic theorists stress a girl's unconscious internalization of maternal

values and behaviors, as well as the meaning of these values and behaviors

(Boyd 1989). Social learning theorists reject the idea of unconscious

identification, and advocate principles of modeling (Frieze et al. 1978; Weitzman

1984; Boyd 1989). Social learning theorists argue that daughters learn to

41

mother, and to be like their mothers, by being consistently and positively

reinforced when they imitate their mother's behaviors (Weitzman, 1984). What

both social learning theorists and psychoanalytic theorists suggest is that

children of mothers with a gender-role traditional orientation were more likely to

be gender-role traditional, and children of mothers with a gender-role modern

orientation are more likely to become gender-role modern.

In Korea, hierarchical order between parents and their children is

emphasized in family relationships. Children have been taught that they must

respect and obey their parents. Also, filial piety is a cardinal virtue in the

traditional Korean ethic. It is a tradition that children are treated as subordinate

to their parents. Therefore, children who respect the traditional values are more

likely to agree with whatever their parents decide.

In summary, research has found that GRO is associated with the

influence structure of the family. Children become like their parents as

explained by social learning theorists. Traditional Korean norms force children

to obey their parents. This discussion suggests the following hypotheses:

H3a: The more traditional the gender-role attitudes of the

prospective groom, the greater his perceived influence

of his parents for a given subdecision in FPDM.

H3b: The more modern the gender-role attitudes of the pro­

spective bride, the less her perceived influence of her

parents for a given subdecision in FPDM.

42

The Theon/ of Resources and Household Influence

Research in family studies suggests that resources (e.g., education,

income, and employment status) are related to the power structure of the family

(Blood and Wolfe 1960; Smith 1977; McDonald 1979). Scanzoni (1970, pp.

147-148) provides an explicit rationale for this theory:

The more the husband fulfills his economic duties ..., and thus the more the wife defines her status rights ... [as] being met, the more she will allow her husband to define the norms for... decision-making ... she ... gives him power to shape this dimension of the conjugal unit, In exchange for the economic rewards and status benefits he provides for her vis-a-vis the larger community. She is more moti­vated to "go along" with him, to "give in" to him, to let him "have his way" to the extent that he provides maximum economic rewards.

Resources might be regarded as a source of power to the degree that

they reflect interpersonal skill, expertise, and competence -brought into the

family from the outside (Kandel and Lesser 1972). Power is. in turn, directly

related to influence. Dahl (1968), in fact, did not make a distinction between

power and influence by suggesting that the greater one's resources, the

greater the power or the influence in decision making. Other family behaviorists

have used influence interchangeably without distinction from the term power

(Blood and Wolfe 1960; Safilios-Rothschild 1970).

In this Hght. power is defined as the ability to influence or control another

person's behavior (Misher and Waxier 1968). Safilios-Rothschild (1970)

suggested that the power of family members can be measured through the

outcome of decision making. As such, "perceived influence" in decision making

43

can be considered as "power expressed" overtly or covertly by a family member

over the other member.

As discussed earlier, the theory of resources has generally been

supported in the United States. West Germany, Belgium, Finland, Denmark, and

France (Rodman 1972). However, Rodman (1972) was skeptical about applying

this theory to the less developed countries. Contrary to his expectation, he

found that the employment status, level of education and income of the

husband are negatively related to the husband's authority in the FDM.

In order to improve the generalization of the theory of resources,

Rodman (1972) presented three factors that may make the theory of resources

more useful in understanding family decision making: (1) transition towards an

equalitarian marital ethic; (2) a high degree of flexibility about the distribution of

marital power; and (3) the importance of education, occupation, and income in

defining a person's status in the society. Unlike in Greece and Yugoslavia

where Rodman (1972) did not find support, these three trends are taking place

in Korea.

Koreans have long appreciated the value of ahnbinlakdo (being content

amid poverty and taking delight in the Taoist way). However, this traditional

value is changing because of rapid industrialization and the influence of

capitalism. Many Koreans work hard to earn better incomes because income

has rapidly become more important than before. Today, people with high

incomes usually have more respect, power, or influence in society. It is

44

expected to be true that the more income a family member has, the more

influence s/he can have in FDM.

Unlike income, education and occupation (such as high government

officials) have long been regarded as important elements in defining a person's

social and domestic status. Thus, white-collar workers may have more privilege

than blue-collar workers. As such, occupation is believed to determine

household influence structure in decision making.

Korea at present is in the transition stage towards equalitarianism

between sexes in decision making. The transition has been accelerated by the

influence of Christianity, which introduced the idea of equality between sexes to

this historically male-dominated country about three-hundred years ago.

Today, about one third of the population is either Roman Catholic or Protestant

Christian. MacDonald (1980) observed that Christianity has made important

contributions to the modernization of Korean families.

As explained earlier. Korea has been a patriarchal society where marital

power was solely distributed among father and son. However, patriarchy is

fading in the present Korean society, again because of the influence of Western

culture. The pattern of equality between the sexes is increasing in household

influence structure. This is evidence that Korean consumers are converging

toward world commonality in decision making and buying behavior.

Rodman (1967) found that education in Japan is considered as a

resource in the theory of resources although occupational status is not. In

45

Tokyo, husbands with low occupational status were found to exert more power

in decision making than high status husbands. Based on this finding and

others noted earlier. Rodman (1967) concluded that the theory of resources is

not supported in Japan. However, there is a high correlation between

educational levels and employment status (Allen. Debevec. and Chan 1984).

Rodman failed to account for this correlation in Japan. It is believed that those

Japanese who have low occupational status may also have a low level of

education. Consequently. Japanese with low education can hardly have high

occupational status and thus they are traditionally bounded. Likely, they did

not have as much opportunity to learn equalitarianism between the sexes from

school education as those husbands with high occupational status. In addition,

comparing the structure of the families in the three countries (Korea, Japan,

and China), Lee (1982) reported that Japan is more patriarchal than Korea.

Moreover, the Christian population in Korea is about one third of its total

population, whereas in Japan it is less than five percent. In this light, the idea

of equality between the sexes in Japan might have less influence from Western

culture than In Korea. Consequently, traditional Japanese husbands with low

occupational status should have more influence in FDM than modern Japanese

husbands.

The foregoing discussion leads us to expect that the theory of resources

will hold in Korea. In applying the theory of resources to Korea, wives'

resources are emphasized for two reasons. First, previous research found that

46

the Individual resources of the wife have more impact on marital power than

those of the husband (Fox 1973). Second, Hill's (1970) "mating-gradient

tendency" leads to the inference that to test the resource hypothesis, wives'

resources are more important than husband's resources. "Mating-gradient

tendency" suggests that men tend to marry younger, less educated (and less

intelligent) women (Hill and Becker, 1955). The tendency is also true in Korea.

In summary, the theory of resources advanced by Blood and Wolfe

(1960) has widely been supported in FDM and in many cultural contexts. In

general, the wife's resources tend to have more influence on FDM than the

husband's. The preceding discussion suggests the following hypothesis:

H4a: The greater the resources (e.g.. education) the prospec­

tive bride has. the greater her perceived influence of

self for a given subdecision in FPDM.

The Theory of Resources and

Household Influence in Mother-Child Dyads

Most studies in family decision making since the 1960s attempt to

explain the dynamics of conjugal influence but do not take into consideration

the possible influence of parents on their adult child's decision-making process.

Walters and Walters (1980, p. 807) reported that "almost without exception, in

the 1960s, the direction of influence was considered to be fi'om parent to child."

However, research in the 1960s raises several issues (Walters and Walters

1980): (1) the theories presented in the majority of studies were not based on

47

empirical investigations; (2) the theories failed to reflect the complexity of factors

that have impact on the parent-child relationship; (3) few studies included direct

observations; (4) there was little agreement between the responses of parents

and of children; and (5) reliability and validity of the instruments were

questionable.

In the literature of the 1970s, the direction of influence was changed and

was fi-om child to parent. Safilios-Rothschild (1970, p. 549) raised critical

questions:

How could the "resources theory" explain the dynamics involved in such family-wide interactions? Whenever teenagers have a higher educational achievement than their parents, does this mean that they can have more say than their parents in the familial decision making? Or do teenagers who work part-time have more decision making say at least in some decisions than those who do not work? And when a teenager (or a young child) becomes a breadwinner along with his father, or the main bread-winner (while his father is unemployed), as is the case in lower-class families particularly in developing countries, is he also vested with a large part of the de­cision-making power?

Similar questions were raised by McDonald (1980). Jenkins (1979)

investigated the relationships between parental perception and many variables

such as the ages of children, the stages of the family life cycle, education level,

income, parent's traditional or contemporary attitudes toward marital roles, etc.,

in family vacation decisions. He found that education and children's age were

related to the perceived influence of children. Many other studies supported

Jenkins' (1979) finding that children's ages are related to their influence in

purchase decision making (McNeal's 1969; Ward and Wackman 1973; Mehrotra

48

and Torges 1977; Jenkins 1979; Moschis and Moore 1979; Swinyard and Sim

1987). Moschis and Moore (1979) rationalized this finding that with increasing

age, the child's competence as a consumer increases. Mehrotra and Torges

(1977) found consistent results with McNeal's (1969) suggestion that parents

are more likely to seek out the opinions of older children on planned

purchases.

Children are more influential in decisions for "child centered products"

than for other products (Jenkins 1979; Swinyard and Sim 1987). The degree of

children's influence depends upon their contribution to the family income

(Sander, Salmi, and Tozier 1973), product categories and decisional stages

(Moschis 1987; Foxman and Tonsuhaj 1988). However. Filiatrault and Ritchie

(1980) found that children exerted relatively little influence on all the 17

subdecisions on the family vacation and hotel/motel accommodations.

In summary, children play a significant role in FPDM. Their ages are

positively associated with their influence. However their influence varies by

product categories and the stages of the decision-making process. In relation

to the theory of resources, only the father's education level is related to

children's influence. However, these studies have little bearing on this study for

two reasons: (1) the previous research investigated the influence of 'true"

children in FPDM whose ages are mostly below 19, whereas this study focuses

on single youngsters whose ages are mostly above 19; and (2) this study does

not consider children's influence over their parents in FPDM, but focuses on

49

parents' influence over their mature children. However, findings from these

previous studies have some implications on this work. First, the findings imply

that parents' influence decreases as their children grow up. Second, parents

with a high level of education display a tendency towards equal influence with

their children.

In Korea, it is mothers who take care of most matters related to their

children's weddings (Lee 1982). Mothers actively participate in mate selection

for their children. They also purchase the products that are needed in their

children's married life. Most gifts for prospective in-laws are bought by

mothers. These Korean customs imply that mothers are expected to dominate

most decisions to be made for weddings.

Korean mothers' important roles as portrayed in the foregoing

discussions lead us to believe that mothers' resources are expected to have the

most significant impact among the family members on purchase decision

making for a wedding. Thus, the following hypothesis is suggested:

H4b: The greater the resources (e.g., education) the bride's

mother has, the greater the bride's perceived influence

of her mother for a given subdecision in FPDM.

Research Hypotheses

This study attempts to investigate the effects of family members and

moderating variables (GRO and the resources) on household influence in

FPDM. The first two hypotheses (H1a and Hib) are concerned with

50

investigating the household influence structure of the family without presence of

the moderating variables and the remaining hypotheses are concerned with

examining the effects of the moderating variables on household influence

structure. The hypotheses are presented below:

HI a: The prospective groom's perceived influence of self and his

bride are equal for a given subdecision in the choice process

of family decision making.

HI b: The prospective bride's perceived influence of self and her

groom are equal for a given subdecision in the choice process

of family decision making.

Hie: The groom's perceived influence of self, his bride, and his

parents are equal for a given subdecision in the choice process

of family purchase decision making.

H1d: The bride's perceived influence of self, her groom, and her

parents are equal for a given subdecision in the choice process

of family purchase decision making.

H2a: The more traditional the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

groom, the greater his perceived influence of self for a given

subdecision in FPDM.

H2b: The more traditional the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

bride, the greater her perceived influence of her groom for a

given subdecision in FPDM.

51

H2e: The more modern the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

groom, the greater his perceived influence of his bride for a

given subdecision in FPDM.

H2d: The more modern the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

bride, the greater her perceived influence of self for a given

subdecision in FPDM.

H3a: The more traditional the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

groom, the greater his perceived influence of his parents for a

given subdecision in FPDM.

H3b: The more modern the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

bride, the less her perceived influence of her parents for a

given subdecision in FPDM.

H4a: The greater the resources (e. g. education) the prospective

bride has, the greater her perceived influence of self for a

given subdecision in FPDM.

H4b: The greater the resources (e.g., education) the bride's mother

has, the greater the bride's perceived influence of her mother

for a given subdecision in FPDM.

52

Bride's Parent

1 Bride

Family

< ^

Groom's Parent

1 Groom

Gender Role Orientation

V

/ IV '

The Theory of Resources

Influence

Figure 2.1: A Model of Gender-Role Orientation and Resources in Family Purchase Decision Making

53

Parent's influence

Spouse's Influence

Time

Parent's Influence Spouse's Influence

Figure 2.2: Relationship between Parent's and Spouse's Influence

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter first provides the product categories selected for

investigation, and then discusses the research and analytical procedures

employed in this study. The operational definitions and measurement

procedures of the variables are specifically explained. The remaining sections

of this chapter present the sampling procedure and survey instruments.

Product Categories

Eleven types of products were included in this research: wedding suits

for the bride and groom, hanbok (traditional outfits) for each spouse, house,

television set, video tape recorder, refrigerator, washer, gas range, microwave

oven, furniture, and honeymoon accommodations. Among these products, four

were not purchased by sufficiently large number of respondents to allow

analysis. Consequently, video tape recorder, washer, gas range, and

microwave oven were dropped from the final analysis. It is speculated that

most new couples will purchase these products sometime after their wedding

ceremony.

It is tradition in Korea that the bride's family provide the groom's

wedding suit, major household appliances, furniture, and kitchen appliances for

a new household. In turn, the groom's family buys the hanbok and a house for

54

55

the bride. A rich bride's family may offer a house, although it is unusual. Most

expenses of the honeymoon accommodations are paid by the groom's family

while the detailed decisions about a honeymoon such as the place to go and

when to go are determined by the groom and the bride.

The wedding suits for both the bride and the groom were selected for

the study in order to examine interaction between the bride and groom.

Houses, major appliances, and furniture are chosen for two reasons: (1) to

examine family members' influence on purchasing these product categories for

the newly forming family; and. (2) for the purpose of comparison, since many

studies have investigated family members' influences on the purchasing

decision of these products. The reason for including honeymoon

accommodations in the study is to investigate the influence of the newly forming

family on the choice of a hotel and honeymoon location.

There are two additional reasons for the selection of major consumer

durable goods. They reflect moderate or high levels of individual involvement

and generally syncratic decision roles (Davis and Rigaux 1974). The speciflc

decision areas include issues such as when to buy the product, where to buy,

how much to spend, what style and color to choose, which brand and model to

choose, etc.. although they vary according to the particular product category.

Second, these items represent a wide range of attributes (e.g.. price, durability,

and perceived risk) and enhance comparability with previous research (Blood

56

and Wolfe 1960; Green and Cunningham 1975; Safilios-Rothschild 1976;

O'Guinn, Faber. and Imperia 1986).

Subdecisions

Subdecisions for all products that were Investigated in this study are

basically the same. The four most commonly occurring subdecisions included

in this study were: what brand to choose; which store to choose; when to buy;

and how much to pay. However, because of the nature of a product or Korean

tradition, some changes in the selection of subdecisions to be investigated had

to be made. For example, how much to pay in decisions regarding wedding

suits and hanbok's were not included in the questionnaire as shown in t h e

Appendix . Instead, which color to choose was presented since the bride's

family will most likely decide how much to spend since traditionally they pay for

it. Again, this study is not to designed to examine the influence structure

between families. In order to avoid inconsistency and complexity, an effort was

made to exclude the perceived influence of the prospective "in-law" family

members.

The subdecisions relating to the honeymoon were different from the

subdecisions of other products. These changes were inevitable because the

honeymoon is not a tangible product and comparison of the findings of this

study to those of reviewed family vacation studies can be made.

57

Operational Definition and Measurement of the Dependent Variable

Perceived Relative Influence

The perceived relative influence of the bride and the groom is chosen as

the dependent variable In this study. Very few researchers have deflned

perceived influence in the literature. Jenkins (1980. p.207) defined it as the

"impact a particular person has on a decision." Similarly, Park and Iyer (1981,

p. 146) defined the perceived influence as 'the perception of the degree of

impact each party felt that he/she had on the other person with respect to a

decision." These two deflnitions are too broad to be used in marketing. For

this study, Park and Iyer's (1981) definition is modified for a marketing

environment. Perceived influence is deflned as the perception of the degree of

impact a particular family member feels he/she had on the other family

members with respect to a purchasing decision.

The majority of studies have used a scale that measures the relative

influence of husband versus wife (Davis 1976). There are two reasons for the

use of this scale: (1) this approach has been widely used; and (2) it permits

comparisons across studies. Bernhardt (1974) argues that such scales assume

an equal amount of influence associated with each decision, which is then

partitioned between husband and wife. This may not be the case; i.e., a wife

may feel that she exerted substantial influence in some decisions and little

influence in others-quite independent of the part played by their husbands.

58

Researchers in family decision making do not agree on response formats

that measure relative influence. Commonly used formats are three-point Likert

or five-point Likert scales. Davis (1976) reported that the most common

measure of husband and wife influence is the five-point Likert scale ranging

from "husband decided" to "wife decided." Burns and Granbois (1980) reported

that both the five-point and the three-point scale (e.g.. "mostly husband." "joint."

"mostly wife") are used in one-third of the studies. However. Burns (1977) has

noted four criticisms of this procedure. First, "it is somewhat defeasible when

spouses have indicated intensity of influence" (p. 50). The second criticism

involves the results of the analysis. A dominance score, because it is an

average, may obscure the difference between husband and wife responses

(Munsinger, Weber, and Hansen 1975; Burns 1977). For example, if a husband

indicates "husband" (=1) and his wife indicates "wife" (=3) the couple's average

is a joint decision (=2). Thirdly, these approaches fail to be sensitive to small

but significant changes in a family's influence structure. Finally, these measures

cannot handle situations in which a third component (e.g., children) is

introduced (Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980). The last reason is very important to

this study since the study investigates the relative influence between parents

and their children.

Recent studies are increasingly using the constant sum scale in

measuring relative influence of family members (Quails 1987; Burns and Hopper

1986; Burns and deVere 1981; Quails 1981; Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980; Burns

59

and Granbois 1980; Jenkins 1979; Jenkins 1978). In this approach,

respondents are often asked to allocate a total of 100 points to each member

of the family decision-making unit in proportion to their perceived importance in

determining the outcome of the particular subdecision.

The constant sum scale has certain advantages. First, the use of a

constant sum scale allows the respondents a wide range for allocating influence

(Jenkins 1978). Second, it permits a family member to indicate his/her level of

perceived influence in a particular decision, while simultaneously indicating a

perception of other family members' influences (Quails, 1987). Third, the 100-

percentage point scale has been found to be easily understood by respondents

(Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980). Fourth, this approach manifests greater reliability

and validity (Jenkins 1978; Burns and deVere 1981; Burns and Hopper 1986).

Finally, the 100-percentage points allows for the measurement of the relative

influence of more than two family members. When measuring the relative

influence of the husband and wife dyad. Szybillo. Sosanie, and Tenenbein

(1979) have shown the equivalence of a constant sum scale to 5-point scales.

Davis (1971) and Wilkes (1975) investigated the validity of using product

subdecisions rather than global reports. Davis (1971) obtained convergent

validity of .66 and .61 for seven automobile and seven furniture subdecisions

through a multitrait-multimethod approach. Wilkes (1975) reported correlation

coefficients between .59 and .79 for specific stages in the decision-making

process.

60

For this study, relative purchase influence on a given subdecision of a

product that was purchased for a wedding was operationalized as a

specification out of 100 percentage points as to the amount of influence the

family members would have for each of given subdecisions for the selected

product categories. A respondent was asked to allocate a total of 100

percentage points to each decision-making unit of both the bride's and

groom's families in proportion to their perceived importance in determining the

outcome of the particular subdecision. As shown in Part II of the Appendix,

each spouse was specifically asked to write the appropriate numbers in

parentheses, which indicated his or her perceptions of other family member's

influence for each subdecision area of a product selected. For this study, the

percentage points were used in the analysis.

Operational Definition and Measurement of the Independent Variables

Family Members

For this study, a family consists of the father, mother, and a single adult

child who is committed to marry, that is, forming a new family. A child is in fact

either a prospective bride or bridegroom.

Data were collected from only brides and grooms although the perceived

relative influence of parents was included in the analysis. This study was not

intended to investigate the perceived relative influence of parents, but of

children (e.g., brides and grooms). It is not uncommon to interview only

61

important family members (husband and wife) when a third party (a parent or

child) is involved in the analysis. In most studies in the past, children are

excluded from interviewing, although their influence as perceived by their

parents is analyzed (e.g., Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980; Mehrotra and Torges

1976; Jenkins 1979; Szybillo and Sosanie 1977; Swinyard and Sim 1987;

Nelson 1979). The reason is that measures of Influence are very complicated if

more than two people are involved, as Davis (1976) pointed out. The second

reason is that the third parties tend to exaggerate their influence. Foxman and

Tansuhaj (1988. p.452) concluded that "Children consistently rate their decision

influence as greater relative to parents than do mothers, and more children

perceive purchase decisions to be made jointly than do their mothers." It was

expected that similar exaggeration by parents would take place if they were

interviewed. For these reasons, parents were not interviewed for this study.

David (1976) recommended interviewing both spouses if a study intends

to use a measure of influence in subsequent analyses, particularly for

prediction. Schaninger. Buss, and Grover (1982) also recommended that data

be collected from both spouses (brides and grooms).

Little Incongruence regarding decision influence has been shown when

comparing the responses of both spouses on an aggregate basis (Davis 1970;

Granbois and Willett 1970; Wilkening and Morrison 1963; Jenkins 1978;

Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980). However, when comparisons are made within

families, incongruence about the influence of one spouse relative to the other

62

for any given decision is significantly high (Davis 1970; Davis and Rigaux 1974;

Burns and Hopper 1986). In addition, it was necessary for this study to have

the responses of both spouses since the scope of this analysis intends to

include the perceived influence of their parents (each spouse has his/her

parents).

Gender-Role Orientation

The measure of sex role orientation employed in this study is Scanzoni's

(1975) Sex Role Orientation Scale (SSRS). The scale is based on five

underlying factors (Scanzoni 1975; Quails 1987): traditional wife's role (TW

dimension); a wife self-actualization (SA) dimension; a traditional husband's role

(TH) dimension; an institutional equality (IE) dimension; and problematic

husband alterations (PHA).

Gender-role orientation has been defined typically as the perceptions

and/or normative prescriptions of appropriate behavior for men and women

(Quails 1987). For this study, the conceptual definition of sex role orientation is

adopted from Quails' (1987, p. 270) definition as 'the attitudes, values, opinions,

behavioral standards, and cultural norms that define the appropriate behavior

for men and women in their society."

The SSRS consists of 21 items. For the purpose of this study, some

items were reverse scored so that attitudes of both husband and wives were

collected on the same dimensions. The 21 items of SSRS were asked of all

respondents. A five-point Likert scale (5-strongly agree, 4-agree. 3-mixed

63

feelings about, 2-disagree, and 1-strongly disagree) was used for the response

categories. The TW dimension consists of eight items, so the highest possible

score is 40. According to Scanzoni (1975), a high score indicates a "modern"

emphasis on which there is reduced commitment to the notion of the

subordination of wife interests. A lower score, on the other hand, indicates a

'traditional emphasis or greater commitment to superordination of husband and

child interests." Degree of commitment to or acceptance of the subordination

of wife interest is a continuum ranging fi'om traditional (greater acceptance) to

modern (greater rejection).

For clarification of the classification rule for respondents, a summary of

the SSRS Is shown in Table 3.1 (p. 78). The table presents the five dimensions

of the SSRS. the number of items for each dimension, the average scores for

each dimension and classifications of respondents.

Considerable evidence exists as to the reliability and validity of the SSRS.

Tomeh (1978) used Scanzoni's (1975) SRS. relating simple-sum scores

constructed on the basis of Scanzoni's factors for women and men. Tomeh

(1978) reported that the reliability of the SSRS is .85 by correlating each item to

the total score of a given scale (Pearson's r). Schaninger. Buss, and Grover

(1982) used the considerably modified SSRS for their investigation of the

relationships between GRO and family finance handling as well as decision

making. They reported that factor analyses revealed four common factors

equivalent to those found by other researchers, and Cronbach's alpha of

64

simple scores chosen to represent the four common factors ranged from .63 to

.87. Indicating acceptability. Brown. Perry and Harburg (1977) employed

principal components analysis and extracted three factors from 18 Likert items.

of which many items were similar to the SSRS.

There are many scales in the psychological and sociological literature

that measure sex role orientation. However, after reviewing the scales

developed before the middle of 1970s. Brogan and Kutner (1976) 'the lack of

an up-to-date scale" (p. 31) because the traditional notions of gender

appropriate behaviors and interests may change and thus the scales may no

longer be relevant. For this study, a sex role scale that has been used in the

marketing literature may be relevant.

The literature in marketing has used several different scales to measure

GRO, each of which has advantages and disadvantages. The Bem Sex Role

Inventory (Bem 1974; 1977; Gentry and Doering 1977; Davis and Rigaux 1974;

Bonfield 1978; Martin and Roberts 1983; Quails 1987) has been disappointing

(Roberts, 1984). Arnott's Autonomy Index (Arnott 1972) also has been

employed in several studies (Green and Cunningham 1975; Jenkins 1979;

Venkatesh 1980). The shortcoming of Arnott's scale is that it is inappropriate to

administer to men because the scale was designed to measure women's

interests rather men's. The Sex Role Attitude Scale developed by Osmond and

Martin (1975) has been used less frequently in the marketing literature (Rosen

and Granbois 1983; Quails 1S82; 1987), but with good results (Roberts 1984).

65

Quails (1987) compared the reliability and validity of three scales. (1)

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), (2) Osmond and Martin Sex Role Attitude Scale

(OMSRA); and (3) Scanzoni Sex Role Scale (SSRS). The coefficient alphas

obtained are similar (BSRI=0.86, SSRS=0.88, and OSMRA=0.76). After

examining convergent, discriminant, construct, concurrent, and nomological

validity for each of the three scales. Quails (1987. p. 275) concluded that 'the

SSRS Is a better predictive measure of household influence than the BSRI and

OSMRA." Scanzoni (1975) also reported that the SSRS established face

validity. Thus, the SSRS was employed in this study. When the SSRS was

administered to the respondents, each factor was examined separately for

better results as recommended by research (Schaninger. Buss, and Grover

1982).

The SSRS as a survey instrument was prepared in English, translated

into Korean by three college faculty members, and then back into English by a

different translator. Osgood. May and Miron (1975) suggested the use of back

translation for checking translation equivalence. The questionnaire was pre­

tested in Korean on a group of thirty college students for clarity and

understanding. Any unforeseen difficulties with dialects and double meanings

were corrected.

Resource Variables

The literature review reveals that the greater the husband's resources,

the greater his influence in the decision-making process (Safilios-Rothschild

66

1969). On the other hand, if the wife controls resources such as a college

education or high occupational status, the husband's right to control is likely to

be reduced (Scanzoni 1970; Davis 1976). The impact of the level of education

(a resource variable) as a moderating variable on the perceived relative

influence was investigated in this study. The levels of education of the bride.

the bridegroom, and each spouse's mother was included in regression models

as independent variables.

It is expected that the more educated a person is. the more likely he/she

will be sex-role modern. This assumption is based on a review of the past

literature and school education in Korean. For example. Mason and Bumpass

(1975) reported that the level of a woman's education had an influence on

attitudes toward equality and increased that individual's gender-role modernity

orientation.

It seems that the ethical content of lower education in Korea have

reinforced traditional gender-roles. Chung (1986) pointed out that school

textbooks below the college level tend to show the traditional gender-roles for

both girls and boys, that is, men as breadwinners and women as

housekeepers. The traditional gender-roles can frequently be found in the

illustrations in textbooks. Consequently, the educational system (except

colleges) unconsciously and consciously reinforces the traditional gender-role

attitudes to boys and girls, although this discriminatory bias remarkably

disappears in higher levels of education. As a result, those who have

67

completed only lower levels of education are more likely to be gender-role

traditional, whereas those who had higher levels of education are expected to

be "gender-role modern." As noted earlier, brides' and bridegrooms' level of

education as well as mother's were included in series of regression analyses.

Sampling Procedure

Sampling

The target populatbn was newly married couples who were on their

honeymoon. The target population was limited to the middle or upper class,

for several reasons. First, they form the largest population segment in Korea.

Second. Wind (1976) contends that product consumption and individuals'

evaluative criteria are related to social class. In an effort to eliminate variation

by social class, only respondents from similar social strata were chosen for this

study. Third, most lower class families are expected to be traditional so that the

husband or the father dominates the family purchase decisions. Finally, if

globalization is taking place in Korea, the lower class will be the last group to

follow.

Data were collected by means of a self-administered questionnaire to the

newly married couples who were on their honeymoon on a resort island about

300 miles south of Seoul, the capital city of Korea. The island is a very popular

honeymoon resort. The island can be accessed either by an airplane or

combination of surface transportation (bus and sea lines or train and sea lines).

68

Air travellers were selected for the sample because the middle or upper class

tend to travel by air.

At the beginning of the questionnaire administration, young couples who

appeared to be just married were approached by trained interviewers and

asked whether they were on their honeymoon. If they were on their

honeymoon, they were solicited to participate in the study. An envelope

containing the printed questionnaires for brides and grooms was given to each

cooperative spouse by the interviewers. It was asked that these questionnaires

be filled out and returned to the interviewers. The participating couples were

also asked to complete the questionnaires independently. The couples were

encouraged to question the interviewers whenever a misunderstanding arose.

Couples married for the first time constituted the sample. In 1985. about

410.000 couples were married in South Korea (Yewon. 1986). Given this target

population. 680 couples who qualified as being on their honeymoon were

solicited for interviews in the three-month period of October through December,

1989. Of this sample, 400 couples filled out the questionnaire. Of these,

responses were not useful from 35 couples because one of the spouses did

not complete the entire sun^ey. Thus, the final sample size was 365 couples,

yielding a response rate of about 59 percent. Each cooperating couple was

given a useful can opener as an incentive to complete the questionnaire. The

sample is not purported to be representative due to the convenience sampling

69

strategy. Convenience sampling is not uncommon in studies on FDM (e.g.,

Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980).

Five male and five female inten/iewers were recruited from a university on

the island and trained in the administration of the sun^ey (e.g., explanation of

the study, guidelines, and inten/iewing manner). Female interviewers

interviewed brides while male interviewers interviewed bridegrooms. Hyman

(1954) recommended that personal information is easier If both parties are the

same sex.

Statistical Procedures

The objective of examining the first set of hypotheses is to investigate the

extent to which the overall decision process is dominated by particular

members of the family decision-making units. The first set of hypotheses were

examined using a one-way MANOVA (e.g., Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980; Roberts,

Wortzel, and Berkeley 1981). Here the dependent variable (influence) was

treated as a vector variable (4 subdecisions of each product chosen) having

three elements (the perceived influence of bride, groom, and parent). If the

overall relationship was significant, then univariate t tests were utilized to identify

the origin of the most important variations in influence.

A factor analysis was performed on the SSRS and the summed scores

on the same factor (dimension) were used as input to multiple regression

analysis in order to test the related hypotheses. The wife scales (TW =

traditional wife role and SA = wife self-actualization), containing eight and four

70

items respectively were run separately on the responses of the brides and

grooms (e.g., Schaninger, Buss, and Grover 1982). The procedure was

duplicated for the husband scales (TH = traditional husband role. IE =

institutionalized equality, and HA = husband alteration) contained seven, two.

and two items respectftjily. The items which comprised dimensions with

statistically significant loadings were summed and used In multiple regression

analysis.

A series of regression models was developed to examine the relationship

of gender-role orientation (the SSRS) and resource variables (educational

levels) as independent variables with the perceived influence of each family

member In FPDM as dependent variables. Multiple regression models are

appropriate to examine the suggested hypotheses in this study since the

constant sum scores and the SSRS are interval scale. There are several

studies in FPDM that employed regression analysis (Churchill and Hansen

1974; Ferber and Lee 1974; Mehrotra and Torges 1977; Rigaux-Bricment 1978;

Jenkins 1979; Beutler and Sahlberg 1980; Filiatrault and Ritchie 1980; Kourilsky

and Murray 1981; Miller 1984; DeMaris and Leslie 1984; Morgan 1985).

Four factors were extracted from the SSRS in the study (the factor

procedure is explained in the section of measurement of the scale on page 71).

The independent variables in all regression models were the summed scores of

the four dimensions (TW, SA. HA. and TH) of the Scanzoni's Sex Role Scales,

the educational levels of each respondent, and the educational levels of the

71

respondent's mother. The regression models with the husband scales (TH and

HA) and other educational levels were run on data provided by grooms.

whereas the models with the wife scales (TW and SA) and other independent

variables (the resources variables) were run on data provided by brides. The

procedure was deemed necessary to properly interpret the regression results.

The dependent variable in each regression analysis for each subdecision of a

given product was the perceived relative influence of one member of the family

(e.g.. bride, groom, or parent) as derived from the constant sum scale

discussed earlier.

Two regression equations, for example, are given as follows:

FBS =po+ i^JH + ySgHA + y gEDG + /S^EDM + e (1)

FBS = A + /3,TW + ^2SA + ^3EDB + /3,EDM + e (2)

where FBS = bride's (or groom's) perceived influences of the bride (or

the groom) on the decision of which brand to choose

for the purchase of furniture.

TH = traditional husband role,

HA = husband alteration.

TW = traditional wife role.

SA = wife self-actualization,

EDG = the groom's educational level

EDB = the bride's educational level, and

EDM = the educational level of a respondent's mother.

72

The first equation was run on data provided by grooms since it contains the

husband scales, whereas the second was run on data provided by brides since

it contains the wife scales. The procedure was duplicated for other

subdecisions of other products employed for the study.

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

Summary statistics in Table 3.2 (pp. 79-81) show that the average age of

the bridegroom was approximately 28 years and was higher than that of the

bride whose average age was 25. The statistics also indicate that grooms had

higher levels of education than brides, supporting Hill's (1970) mating-gradient

tendency In Korea. The income of the respondents was considerably higher

than the Korean household average. According to the Economic Planning

Board of Korea, the average monthly income of Korean households was about

657,000 won (about 940 dollars) in 1988. The average monthly income of the

groom's father group (1,170,000 won) is highest among the groups. The

average monthly income of the groom's group (990,000 won) is higher than

that of any individual member of the bride's family. It is also true that in

average, monthly income of grooms' mothers (510,000 won) is higher than that

of brides' mothers (420,000 won). This closely parallels the Korean national

profile of the middle and upper class. In summary, the characteristics of the

respondents are considered to be acceptable for examining the issues and

hypotheses of this study.

73

Measurement of the Scale

A common factor analysis was conducted separately on grooms'

responses to three husband scales of the SSRS and on brides' responses to

two wife scales. The type of factor analysis used for the study was the principal

factor method with iteration. Initial communality estimates were computed from

the squared multiple correlations and factor rotation was accomplished by a

varimax (orthogonal) technique. All these procedures are consistent with the

methods that Scanzoni (1975) employed. The results of factor analyses

presented in Table 3.3 (pp. 82-83) were consistent with the factor solutions

obtained by Scanzoni (1975).

With proportion criterion, two factors of the wife scales were retained

from the bridegroom respondents as well as the bride respondents. The two

factors of the wife scales account for about 27 percent of the bride's total

variance and about 28 percent of the groom's total variance as shown in Table

3.3 (pp. 82-83). Two factors of the husband scales were also extracted from

the separated runs on both sets of respondents. The husband scales account

for about 28 percent of the groom's total variance and about 30 percent of the

bride's total variance. The total variance explained for both the wife and the

husband scales was almost the same as obtained in Scanzoni (1975). The

factor pattern of both the husband and the wife scales retained from the groom

respondents are highly consistent with the patterns retained from the bride

respondents. At first glance, the factor loadings of both the husband and the

74

wife scales fi-om the bride respondents are higher than those obtained from the

groom respondents. The factor loadings in magnitude are also very similar to

the loadings in Scanzoni (1975).

Table 3.3 (pp. 82-83) shows the two gender roles that were extracted

fi-om factor analyses of twelve separate items for bridegrooms and brides.

Scanzoni (1975) labeled the first factor as 'traditional wife roles" (TW). He

defined it as "representing an emphasis in which the interests of husband and

children are placed ahead of those of the wife" (p. 29). The TW with high score

emphasizes a traditional wife's role that is acceptance of her subordination to

her husband's and child's interests. A low score, on the other hand, indicates

a modern wife's role, which rejects the notion of subordinating wife interests.

Scanzoni's (1975) definition of the second factor is "one in which wife

interests are equal to those of husband and children " (p. 29). He named it

"wife self-actualization" (SA), which describes role interchangeability or co-

provider rather than traditional role specialization. A high score on the SA

indicates greater rejection of equality of interests. A low score means greater

acceptance of equality of interests. Scanzoni (1975) claimed that both of the

TW and SA facets posses considerable face and conceptual validity since the

SA scale provides motivation in part to move the wife along the route toward

the status of equal partner with the husband (Scanzoni 1972), whereas the TW

dimension is based on the status quo.

75

Two other factors were obtained from the husband scales on both sets

of respondents run separately. The first factor consists of seven items and was

labeled "husband alterations" (HA). The two-factor solutions on these nine

items are different from the factor solutions obtained by Scanzoni (1975).

Scanzoni (1975) extracted three factors in which the two items, b and c, formed

a different dimension fi-om the present study. Scanzoni (1975) named it

"institutionalized equality' (IE) since both items emphasize equality. However,

the contents of the two items are highly related to the items d and e.

Consequently the two items b and c together are loaded on the HA dimension

with which items d and e were loaded in the present study.

The HA was defined as "one in which husband's interests remain

basically superior to or more significant than those of the wife, but there exists

the live option of temporary incursion into the husband's interests for the sake

of wife interests" (Scanzoni 1975, p. 37). The HA indicates a change toward the

direction of more modernity and away from traditional husband-role

orientations. A high score on HA means a traditional role and a low score

indicates a modern role.

The last factor extracted was labeled the 'traditional husband" (TH) role.

Scanzoni (1975) defined it as "a form of the 'patriarchal ideology' (Scanzoni

1970: 151) in which the greater significance of the husband's interests and

authority are legitimized in the statuses ascribed to him by sex" (p. 38). A high

score reflects traditionalism, and a low score, modernity.

76

To examine the internal consistency of scales, Cronbach's (1951) Alpha

was calculated on each scale of the SSRS as shown in Table 3.3 (pp. 82-83).

The coefficient alphas for the TW and the SA were marginally acceptable,

whereas the coefficient alphas for the SA and the TH are questionable.

However, It is understandable that the two scales have a lower than

recommended alpha value, since they contain only four and two items

respectively, and Cronbach's alpha is, in part, a function of the number of items

contained in the scale.

Table 3.4 (p. 84) shows that all the means of the four scales on data

provided by grooms are higher than those of the four scales on data provided

by brides, indicating that Korean bridegrooms are more traditional than the

Korean brides. In other words, women in general held a considerably more

modern sex role attitude than men. This finding is consistent with the results of

previous studies (Kim and Lee 1989; Rao and Rao 1985; Tomeh 1978; Brogan

and Kutner 1976; Scanzoni 1976). Brogan and Kutner (1976) reported that

female undergraduate students were more nontraditional. Brides' means of the

scale scores except TH were lower than the scale average value (three).

implying that Korean brides are modern-oriented in gender roles. Table 3.5 (p.

85) presents the frequencies of the four scales used in the study. The

frequency of the TH dimension on both sets of data is skewed slightly towards

traditional orientation while the other three scales indicate a normal distribution.

77

In summary, the 21 items were split a priori into two subsets

(Scanzoni 1975) and subjected to common factor analysis. The two factors of

the husband scales and the two factors of the wife scales were obtained by

running groom and bride respondents separately. The factor solutions for both

sets of respondents were consistent with each other as well as with

Scanzoni (1975). It is the reason that the four dimensions were selected as

input to the series of regression analyses, hoping to find a relationship between

gender-role norms and the perceived influence of the family members in

product purchase decision making.

78

Table 3.1: The Summary of the Scanzoni Sex Role Scale

Dimensions

Traditional Wife (TW)

Wife Self-Actualization (SA)*

Problematic Husband Alterations (PHA)*

Institutionalized Equality (IE)*

Traditional Husband Role (TH)

Total

N

a

4

5

2

2

21

Highest Possible Scores

40

20

25

10

10

105

Average

24

12

15

6

6

63

Lower Score

tradition

tradition

tradition

tradition

tradition

tradition

Higher Score

modern

modern

modern

modern

modern

modern

* denotes that items In the scale were reverse scored

79

Table 3.2: Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

Age

20-24

25-29

30-34

43-49

50-59

60-69

70 or more

No Response

Ecjucation

No School

QracJe School

High School

Some College

College Graduate

Some Graduate

No Response

Groom Respondents

Groom

N

10

269

77

9

%

2.9

75.6

21.5

Father

N

6

160

95

25

79

%

2.7

55.7

33.0

8.5

Mother

N

23

224

88

11

19

%

a7

64.8

25.3

33.0

Bride Respondents

Bride

N

135

222

3

5

%

37.5

61.6

.9

Father

N

27

204

78

11

45

%

8.3

63.7

24.5

3.3

Mother

N

86

218

45

2

14

%

24.6

62

12.8

.6

1

8

111

56

144

17

28

.3

2.4

32.9

16.6

42.7

5.0

26

131

84

3

42

5

74

9.0

45.0

28.9

1.0

14.4

1.7

58

197

61

2

8

1

38

17.7

60.2

18.7

.6

Z4

.3

2

12

176

51

90

5

29

.6

3.6

52.4

15.2

26.8

1.5

19

112

126

9

33

5

61

6.3

36.8

41.4

3.0

10.9

1.6

47

194

73

6

8

—

37

14.3

59.1

22.3

1.8

2.4

—

Table 3.2: Continued

80

Occupa­tion

No Job

Farmer

Labor Worker

Salesman

Clerk

Engineer

Manager

Profes­sional

House Wife

Other

No Res­ponse

Groom Respondents

Groom

N

1

4

24

16

146

92

29

12

4

37

%

.3

1.2

7.3

4.9

44.5

28.0

8.8

3.7

1.2

Father

N

3

57

7

37

35

22

38

8

4

154

%

1.4

27.0

3.3

17.5

16.6

10.4

18.0

3.8

1.9

Mother

N

11

48

5

24

6

2

7

1

60

2

199

%

6.6

28.9

3.0

14.5

3.6

1.2

4.2

.6

36.1

1.2

Bride Respondents

Bride

N

6

4

8

12

80

41

3

9

33

5

164

%

3.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

39.8

20.4

1.5

4.5

16.4

2.5

Father

N

2

75

8

23

49

24

36

12

8

128

%

.8

31.6

3.4

9.7

20.7

10.1

15.2

5.1

3.4

Mother

N

6

51

18

6

4

1

6

2

60

5

206

%

3.8

32.1

11.3

3.8

2.5

.6

3.8

1.3

37.7

3.1

81

Table 3.2:

Monthly Income (in 1.000 won*)

Less than 300

300 - 399

400 - 499

500 - 599

600 - 699

700 - 799

800 - 899

900 - 999

1,000 or more

No Response

Continued

Grcx)m Respondents

Grcxsm

N

11

13

42

59

62

46

31

7

56

28

%

3.3

3.9

1^4

18.0

18.9

14.0

9.4

Z^

17.0

Father

N

23

14

10

41

18

11

12

4

58

174

%

11.9

7.3

5.2

21.4

9.4

5.4

6.3

2.1

30.1

Mother

N

42

14

5

14

4

3

—

1

13

269

%

43.7

14.6

5.2

14.6

4.2

3.1

—

1.0

13.5

Bride Responderrts

Bride

N

28

35

35

26

17

4

6

—

9

205

%

17.5

21.9

21.8

16.2

10.6

2.5

3.7

—

5.6

Father

N

7

9

14

29

17

19

14

7

47

204

%

4.2

5.5

8.5

17.5

10.4

11.6

8.6

—

28.8

Mother

N

27

10

7

11

1

4

1

—

8

296

%

39.9

14.5

10.1

15.9

1.4

5.8

1.4

—

11.5

1

* $1.00 = 700 won in Korean currency

82

Table 3.3: Factor Solutions of the Scanzoni Sex Role Scale (Loadings)

Traditional Wife Role (TW: Wife Scale)

a A married woman's most important task in life should be taking care of her husband and children.

b. She should realize that a woman's greatest re­ward and satisfaction come through her children.

d. If she works, she should not try to get ahead in the same way that a man does.

f. A wife should not have equal authority with her husband in making decisions.

g. If she has the same job as a man who has to support his family, she should not expect the same pay.

j . A wife should realize that, just as a woman is not suited for heavy physical work, there are also other kinds of jobs she is not suited for, because of her mental and emotional nature.

k. A wife should give up her job whenever it incon­veniences her husband and children.

1. If a mother of young children works, it should be only while the family needs the money.

Cronbach's Alpha Total Variance Explained

Man 1

.60 1

.53 !

.38 1

.27 1

.32 1

.38 1

.58 1

.53 !

.18 I

Woman

.56

.59

.45

.26

.28

.45

.60

.53

.19

Groom i

.31 1

.36 !

.40 1

.52 1

. 51 J

.30 1

.44 !

.38 1

.63 1

.21 !

Bride

.31

.44

.41

.64

.61

.34

.50

.50

.69

.19

Wife Self-Actualization (SA: Wife Scale)*

c. Having a job herself should be just as important as encouraging her husband in his job.

e. She should be able to make long-range plans for her occupation, in the same way that her husband does for his.

h. If being a wife and mother isn't satisfying enough, she should take a job.

i. There should be more day-care centers and nursery schools so that more young mothers could work.

Cronbach's Alpha Total Variance Explained

.55 1

.45 1

.48 !

.49 1

.07 1

.55

.51

.34

.56

.07

.50 1

.60

.34

.40

.53

.07

.62

.69

.27

.47

.54

.08

* denotes that items in the scale were reverse scored.

83

Table 3.3: Continued

Husband Alteration (HA: Husband Scale)*

d. If her job sometimes requires her to be away from home overnight, this should not bother him.

e. If a child gets sick and his wife works, he should be just as willing as she to stay home from work and take care of the child.

f. If his wife makes more money than he does, this should not bother him.

h. On the job, men should be willing to work for women supervisors.

i. A married man should be willing to have a smaller family, so that his wife can work if she wants to.

b. If his wife works, he should share equally in household chores such as cooking, cleaning, and washing.

c. If his wife works, he should share equally in the responsibilities of child care.

Cronbach's Alpha Total Variance Explained

Man 1 Woman

.57 1 .51

.38 1 .50

.50 1 .58

.38 ! .46

.42 I .49

.55 1 .72

.76 1 .72

.24 ! .25

Groom • Bride

.29 1 .54

.25 1 .40

.30 I .49

.32 1 .53

.37 I .34

.65 1 .68

.76 I .64

.61 ! .69

.17 ! .22

Traditional Husband (TH: Husband Scale)

a. A married man's chief responsibility should be his job.

g. The husband should be the head of the family.

Cronbach's Alpha Total Variance Explained

.45 1 .45

.32 1 .34

.04 ! .04

.93 1 .42 1

.29 1 .72 — . _ l _

.38 i .45

.11 ! .08 1

* denotes that Items in the scale were reverse scored.

84

Table 3.4: Means of the Scanzoni Sex Role Scales

Scales N Means*

Traditional Wife (TW)

Grooms

Brides

254

360

3.20

2.81

Wife Self-Actualization (SA)

Grooms

Brides

356

355

2.94

2.42

Standard Deviation

.50

.54

.65

.66

Husband Alteration (HA)

Grooms

Brides

356

350

2.78

2.19

.51

.53

Traditional Husband (TH)

Grooms

Brides

362

360

4.01

3.74

.72

.85

* Higher is more traditional.

85

Table 3.5:

Range

1.0-1.49

1.5-1.99

2.0 - 2.49

2.5 - 2.99

3.0 - 3.49

3.5 - 3.99

4.0 - 4.49

4.5 - 4.99

5.0

No Response

Frequencies of

WifeJ

TW

Groom

0

2

17

85

116

106

24

4

0

11

Bride

0

18

72

137

92

31

8

2

0

5

the Scan

>cales

zonl Sex Role Scales

SA

Groom

2

12

48

99

101

60

27

5

2

9

Bride

27

39

94

101

172

17

6

0

0

10

Husband Scales

HA

Groom

4

14

84

109

116

26

2

1

0

9

Bride

41

52

163

64

27

2

1

0

0

15

TH

Groom

0

3

5

7

37

60

114

72

64

3

Bride

2

1

18

22

59

65

93

51

49

5

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter presents the results of the empirical analysis on each of the

hypotheses in the study. The interpretation of these results is also discussed.

Equal Influence between Family Members in Decision Makino

The first set of hypotheses examines whether the perceived influence of

the family members is equal for a given subdecision in the choice process of

FPDM. These hypotheses was first examined using a one way multivariate

analysis of variance (MANOVA). Separate analyses were performed on the

responses of bridegrooms and brides; (1) thus, the mean influence of grooms

was compared with that of the groom's own parent data and the mean

influence of brides was compared with that of the bride's own parent; and (2)

compared were grooms' influence of self and brides as perceived by grooms,

as well as brides' influence of self and grooms as perceived by brides. As not

all couples in the study had purchased each product included, analyses

presented are only for those couples with actual purchase experience for a

given product.

Two different runs of a one-way MANOVA were conducted due to the

nature of the constant sum scale. The class variable for the first run included

86

87

the three members: the groom, the bride, and the groom's parents for the data

provided by grooms or the groom, the bride, and the bride's parents for the

data provided by brides. Class levels for the second run were restricted to the

bride and the groom.

The constant sum scale has as a characteristic the perceived influence

score of one family member is determined if the scores of all the other family

members are given. For example, the perceived influence score of parents is

determined if both groom's and bride's scores are provided. Because of this

attribute of the constant sum scale, conducting a MANOVA with the three levels

of the class variable may unnecessarily increase the probability of accepting the

null hypothesis of equal means in family decision influence across the three

levels by increasing the degree of fi-eedom by one. In order to avoid this

problem, the second MANOVA was run for the two levels of the class variable,

leaving the parents out. The results of the two MANOVA runs were different,

but the conclusion regarding significant differences remained the same. The

results of the MANOVA with the three levels of the class variable are presented

in Table 4.1 (pp. 114-115).

The results of the MANOVA show that the null hypothesis of equal

perceived influence across brides, grooms, and parents for all the given

subdecisions was rejected (p < .001) as presented in Table 4.1 (pp. 114-115).

Univariate t- tests were conducted to identify the origin of the most important

variables in perceived influence since the null hypothesis was rejected.

88

Before further discussion of the results is presented, it is appropriate to

comment briefly on the expectations and wedding customs in the Korean

culture. Most Koreans before World War II married without even seeing their

prospective spouses until the day of the wedding ceremony, most marriages

being arranged by marriage brokers. For many, their spouses were

determined by their fathers even before they were born. Most decisions

relating to the wedding were made by the parents. If this tradition held today,

interaction would not be expected between the prospective spouses in

decisions relating to the wedding. Thus for this case, this study would not be

necessary.

However, this tradition has changed a great deal. For example,

honeymoon trips were not a Korean custom until sometime after World War II,

although they are popular in modern Korea. The honeymoon is entirely the

product of Western influence. Instead, the groom went to the bride's house for

the wedding ceremony and spent three or seven days in the bride's house after

the wedding ceremony. After several days, the groom came back to his house

alone, leaving her bride in her house for one year. The groom might visit her

bride for some occasions such as his father's-in-law birthday during the one-

year period. After one year the bride came to the groom's house to live with

her husband.

By tradition, a house for the newlyweds is usually provided by groom's

family. Tradition says that the bride and her family members should not

89

intervene in this decision process of purchasing the house. Thus it is believed

that the housing decision is groom-dominant. The same tradition applies to

products that have traditionally been purchased by the bride's family. If this

custom holds now, it is not expected that the bride has influence on her

groom's decision for the purchase of the house. In this regard, the groom's

perception of his parents' influence would be greater than that of his bride's

since filial piety, as mentioned earlier, is emphasized in Korea.

However, there are indications that these traditions are being challenged

by contemporary forces. Korean mass media such as The Dona-A Daily News.

Yewon (a popular magazine), and Ghaiuna Chosun (also a popular magazine)

have reported that the buying behavior of prospective newlyweds is changing.

Unlike in the past, an increasing number of prospective couples go shopping

together and there is considerable interaction observed between prospective

spouses in the purchase decision process. These modifications to traditional

divisions of family involvement and influence in purchasing behavior have

largely been attributed to increased education (especially among young women

in Korea), industrialization (as Korea interacts in a world economic sphere), and

Western influence (as increased international travel and media exposure occur),

including the influence of Christianity.

Another sign of change in Korean wedding customs reported in Korean

mass media concerns the substantial decrease in the number of marriages

arranged by marriage brokers, whereas love-marriages have increased.

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Interaction in purchase decisions by couples whose marriages are arranged is

likely to be considerably less than among couples formed by love-marriages.

These powerfiji economic and cultural forces give rise to the issue of whose

(spouse or parents) influence is greater in family purchase decisions for the

new family. Thus, an expectation is that if tradition holds, the perception of

parents' influence is greater than that of spouse's and if not. spouse's influence

Is greater than parents'.

Table 4.2 (pp. 116-119) shows that brides, on the average, perceived

themselves to exert significantly greater influence than bridegrooms on all the

subdecisions of room fijrniture, hanbok. television sets, wedding dresses, and

refiigerators. These products have traditionally been the exclusive domain of

brides. That is, Korean tradition suggests that the bride and her parents would

be the controlling participants in the decisions relating to the purchase of these

particular products. Thus, under the traditional view, the groom should

manifest little involvement in this process.

As Table 4.2 (pp. 116-119) shows, however, there is substantial

interaction between spouses in decision making for almost all products

examined. Brides perceived grooms to exert levels of influence ranging from

12.2 percent concerning how much to pay for the fijrniture purchase decisions

to as high as 26 percent of the subdecision of which color to choose for

wedding suits. Although brides are perceived to exert the major influence in

the decision process for these particular products, brides are seen to exert

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considerably greater influence than would be suggested by these presumably

bride-only products.

For decisions concerning television sets, refrigerator, furniture, and the

bride's wedding dress, grooms consistently overestimated (relative to brides'

perceptions of their spouses) their influence across all the subdecisions,

whereas, for house decisions, brides consistently overestimated their influence.

This finding may imply that Korean grooms have a stronger desire to maintain

traditional husband family dominance, while brides may prefer to press for

greater changes in Korean lifestyle from traditional to contemporary. In other

words, young Korean females, more than males, are moving in the direction of

globalizing their norms and buying behavior towards equalitarianism.

It is significant that for all products except hanbok. the brides perceived

the influence of their parents to be less than that of their spouses. This is an

indication that traditional Korean society is changing toward equal sharing in

decision making, although Korean society may not have reached the level of

equal sharing as observed in Western society, especially in the United States.

The housing data present a similar pattern as data on the other

products. Grooms were perceived by themselves and by brides to exert

greater influence than their spouses across all the subdecisions of housing.

Yet the groom's perception of his spouse's influence is considerable although

the degree of bride's influence varies across subdecisions in this product

category.

92

Thus it is suggested that for a product that has been in the bride's

domain of the purchase decision influence in Korean tradition, the bride tends

to dominate with her perception of her groom's substantial influence that is

greater than that of her parents' influence. The same generalization applies to

products in the groom's domain in the tradition. That is. the groom still

dominates in decisions that have been traditionally his and his spouse's

influence is greater than that of his parents. Table 4.2 (pp. 116-119) indicates

that a groom's perceived self influence on only two subdecisions of groom's

wedding suit was not statistically significant. The two subdecisions were which

brand to choose and which store to choose. On the other hand, grooms

perceived that their influence is much greater than brid&'s on the other two

remaining subdecisions, such as when to buy and which color to choose. The

reason is that to grooms, when to buy and which color to choose may be more

important than the other two subdecisions. Grooms might want to avoid time

conflict between their work schedule and time for shopping for their wedding

suits in making a when-to-buy decision. Similarly, a groom might insist on

choosing the color of the suit that he liked. On the other hand, the other two

subdecisions such as brand-choice and store-choice decisions were not as

important as the flrst two subdecisions to grooms. As a result, grooms shared

equal influence with their spouse.

The groom's perceived influence of the bride on groom's wedding suit is

greater than the bride's perceived influences of the groom on bride's wedding

93

dresses. Thus, while decisions concerning bride's wedding dress are

dominated by the bride, decisions for groom's wedding suit are not groom-

dominant, a result that is consistent with Davis and Rigaux (1974).

This finding may also be explained by Korean custom. Usually a Korean

husband does not accompany his wife to a women's dress salon. Most Korean

women go to women's store with their friends or their mothers. Most Korean

males do not have much knowledge about women's clothing. However, many

Korean wives accompany their husband to buy his suit. Here expert

knowledge might play a greater role than other factors.

As expected, for the purchase of hanbok. both brides and grooms

perceived their parents to exert more influence than their spouses. Korean

tradition and expert knowledge may contribute to this result. Older Koreans are

more likely to wear such traditional suits for more occasions than is the case for

younger Koreans, As a result, younger couples as interviewed in this study do

not possess the required expertise as their parents to execute the decision

process for the hanbok. Parents are often depended upon to supply this

expertise. Consequently, both grooms and brides perceive the influence of

their parents to be greater than either their own influence or that of their

spouse, with one exception. On the average, either groom's or bride's

influence is greater than their own parent on the subdecision of which color to

choose. This flnding reflects a transition of Korean society from traditional or

patriarchal to modern or equal society. If tradition had held, children would

94

have obeyed their parents almost on all occasions and accepted the color their

parents selected for them. Such participation and influence by children in a

strongly traditional custom is another manifestation of the changing order of

husband-wife-parent interaction in Korean culture.

For honeymoon accommodations, both groom and bride respondents

viewed the groom's influences as being significantly greater than the bride's.

However, note that both brides and grooms underestimated their own influence,

relative to their estimates of the influence of their spouses. That is, both

grooms and brides overestimated their spouse's influence across all the

subdecisions.

Speculation as to why grooms were seen as more influential in the

decision process for honeymoon accommodations may relate to expertise and

knowledge. Because young males are permitted to travel more freely in Korean

society, brides may defer to the knowledge of grooms for this travel-related

decision. In their examination of family vacations, Filiatrault and Ritchie (1980)

also found that wives viewed their husbands as exerting significantly greater

influence (for 11 of 17 subdecisions) or equal influence (for six subdecisions).

Because there was no prior indication of parental involvement in the decision

process for honeymoon accommodations, the influence of parents was not

ascertained.

95

The Relationship of Perceived Influence to Gender-Role Orientation and Resource Variables

Hypotheses H2a through H4b are concerned with the possible effects of

gender-role orientation and resources. Tables 4.3-4.9 (pp. 120-133) summarize

the regression analyses related to these hypotheses. The relationship of

gender-role orientation (GRO) to the perceived influence of family members for

a given subdecisions across seven products is investigated first. The impact of

the resource variables on the perceived influences follows.

Gender-Role Orientation and the Groom's and Bride's Perceived Self Influence

Hypotheses H2a and H2b state that the GRO of the prospective couples

is related to their own perceived influence for a given subdecision. From

Chapter III, the Scanzoni Sex Role Scale as employed in this research involves

five dimensions: traditional wife (TW), wife self-actualization (SA), traditional

husband role (TH), institutional equality (IE), and problematic husband

alterations (PHA). The groom's perceptions of self as well as his bride's

influences as related to his sex role norms are examined in this section. In the

following section, the bride's perception of self and her groom's influence are

evaluated.

firnom's perception. Tables 4.3 (p. 120) and 4.4 (p. 122) reveal that for

the purchases of television sets and refrigerators, there is no single F value in

all the regression models that is statistically signiflcant on data provided by

grooms. The null hypothesis that all beta coefficients are simultaneously zero is

96

not rejected. Thus, there is evidence that the models for television sets and

refi-igerators are not statistically significant. The FP values are low, ranging from

.004 for store choice to .025 for brand choice of television sets, indicating that

the goodness of fit is poor and that the proportion of variation in the perceived

influence explained by all the sex role scales and the resource variables is very

low. However, the objective of this study is not to predict spousal influence, but

rather to examine how GRO and the resource variables relate to the perceived

influence.

The only relationship between the GRO and the groom's perceived

influence of self found to be statistically significant is in the brand choice for

television sets. The TH dimension of the SSRS has a significantly negative

relation with the groom's perceived influence of self at the alpha level of .10.

The beta coefficient of -6.85 indicates that the more traditional the groom, the

less his perceived influence of self in the subdecision of the brand choice for

television set purchasing. This finding is contrary to what was expected and no

explanation is apparent.

From the groom's perception of his bride's influence, however, all of the

beta coefficients of the TH dimension are significant at the five percent level for

the three subdecisions (brand, when to buy, and how much to pay) and at the

ten percent level for store choice in the television regression models. Beta

coefficients of the TH are significant for two subdecisions (when to buy and

how much to pay) of refrigerator purchase, although none of the F values

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indicate significance. These findings are contrary to what was expected.

Research indicates that the more traditional the groom is in the TH dimension,

the greater he perceives his bride's influence in all subdecisions concerning

television sets. A possible explanation for these contrary findings might be that

grooms at the stage of forming a new family may feel that the decision domain

of the television purchase belongs to the brides no matter what the groom's

gender-role norms are. A television set might be a product for which the

Korean bride had the dominant influence, as implied by Davis and Rigaux

(1974).

For the purchase of furniture, GRO is signiflcantly related to perceived

influence in the subdecision of store choice, as illustrated in Table 4.5 (p. 124).

The F value is significant at an alpha level of .10. Ten percent of the variation in

perceived influence was accounted for by GRO and the resources variables.

The beta coefficient was also signiflcant at an alpha level of .10, indicating that

the more traditional the groom, the higher the level of perceived influence of self

in the choice of a store for the furniture purchased, as expected.

Results of the regression analyses for the house data reveal that neither

the TH nor the HA dimensions are related to the groom's perceived influence of

self as shown in Table 4.6 (p. 126). However, as expected, the TH is

significantly negatively related to the grooms' perceived influence of brides in

two subdecisions (which type of house to choose and what size of the house

to choose) at an alpha level of .05. Grooms perceived that the less traditional

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(or more modern) the groom, the higher the level of perceived influence of

brides for these two subdecisions of housing.

For the purchase of hanbok. the only significant relationship (alpha =

.05) found is in the case of the HA dimension and grooms' perceived infiuence

of self for the given subdecision of when to buy. None of the beta coefficients

of the SSRS are significantly associated with the grooms' perceived influence of

brides across all the subdecisions (Table 4.8, p. 130). The more modern the

groom, the less his perceived influence of self in making a when-to-buy

decision for the purchase of hanbok.

With respect to honeymoon accommodations, results of the regression

analyses reveal that all the beta coefficients of TH are significantly related to the

grooms' perceived influence of self, whereas the HA was significantly related to

brides' infiuence for all four subdecisions as indicated in Table 4.9 (p. 132).

The results obtained here are as expected, i.e., the more traditional the groom,

the more the perceived infiuence of self in the four subdecisions for the

honeymoon. On the other hand, the more modern the groom, the more the

perceived influence of his bride.

Finally, data for the groom's wedding suit show both the TH and HA

dimensions are not significantly related to the groom's perceived influences of

either self or spouse for all four subdecisions (Table 4.7, p. 128). This finding

implies that this relationship is product specific.

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Bride's perception. Responses fi-om brides indicate that GRO is

significantly related to perceived influence is found only for three products. For

the purchase of furniture, the relationship is signiflcant only for the decisions

involving the choice of a brand and a store (Table 4.5, p. 125). The beta

coefficients of the TW alone are significant in both brand and store regression

models. Contrary to what was postulated, the more traditional the bride, the

more her perceived influence of self for the subdecisions of the brand and store

choice. For the purchase of the bride's wedding dress, the TW is negatively

related to the bride's perceived influence of self for the store subdecision at the

significant level of .05 as presented in Table 4.7 (p. 129). The more modern the

bride, the more her perceived influence of self for the subdecision of the store

choice. For the honeymoon, brides who were more traditional in the SA

dimension perceived grooms to exercise more significant influence than self for

the subdecision of when to leave as shown in Table 4.9 (p. 133). On the other

hand, brides who were more modern in the SA dimension viewed themselves

as exerting more significant influence than grooms in the subdecision of how

long to stay.

In summary, data provided by grooms more than data provided by

brides supported the postulated hypotheses. The hypothesized relationship

between the GRO and the perceived influence was found to be mixed in this

study, depending upon product categories, subdecisions, and members of

family. The perceived influence in the FPDM was not related to the husband

100

scales of the TH and the HA simultaneously but to either one of the dimensions

if a relationship was found. This is also true of the wife scales. The TH

dimension was found to be related to the perceived influence more than any

other scales. These are indications that the SSRS is not a single scale, but four

separate scales.

Interpretation of the findings. The only product for which the HA

significantly affected the groom's perceived influence of self as well as his

bride's across all four subdecisions was honeymoon accommodations. On the

other hand, both the TH and the TW did not have any impact on the perceived

influence in the subdecisions concerning the honeymoon.

In the purchase of television sets, the opposite relationship was found in

the groom data. The more traditional the groom, the greater his perceived

influence of his bride in the subdecision of which brand to choose. For the

bride's perception (or the bride data), no relationship was found in television set

purchasing decisions. The contradictory findings of the television set to the

honeymoon may be explained in part by the relationship that depends upon the

involvement of the prospective couple In the decision process. With respect to

the purchase of television sets, it is a Korean tradition that grooms should not

be involved in the decision process. This is because television sets are

customarily purchased by the bride's family.

However, even if tradition is granted, grooms and brides were highly

interactive and were considerably involved in purchase decisions across all

101

products that have traditionally been either spouse-dominant, as seen in the

previous section. Both the groom and bride, for example, participate almost

equally in the decision process concerning the honeymoon.

For honeymoon decisions, grooms tend to dominate, although both

spouses were considerably involved in decision making. As noted earlier,

honeymoon decisions are customarily in both the groom's and bride's hands.

An explanation for this groom dominance in the honeymoon decisions may be

that in this situation, the bride and groom have to face each other. The bride

more than the groom, before the wedding ceremony, needs to demonstrate

that she is polite, graceful, and humble as it is a traditional way. It is a chance

for her to assure him that she will be a good and caring wife. It is also true that

the groom may have much more information about the honeymoon than the

bride, as discussed earlier. As a result, the bride may politely defer to her

groom so that the groom's decision dominates.

For the remaining five products, the GRO variable did not show a

significant relationship to perceived infiuence across the four subdecisions. For

the TW dimension, the number of the opposite relationships found was greater

than that of the hypothesized relationship. A possible explanation for this is that

as discussed earlier, those products for which the opposite relationship was

found are traditionally provided by the bride's family for the wedding. It is

expected that after the wedding ceremony has taken place, the

102

relationship could easily be reversed since both the groom and bride

substantially interacted in the purchase decision process for all the products.

The findings In this study are consistent with the findings of Churchill and

Hansen (1974) who examined the relationship of the joint involvement index to

the cost of product, family income, and the relative contribution of spouses to

the marriage by employing major consumer durable goods. Churchill and

Hansen (1974) reported that generally the findings were inconclusive and

discouraging.

Gender-Role Orientation and the Groom's and Bride's Perception of Parents' Influence

H3a and H3b postulated that the GRO is related to the prospective

couple's perceived influence of their parent for a given subdecision in the

FPDM. As before, grooms' perceived influence of their parents are evaluated

first, followed by brides' perception of their parents' infiuence.

Groom's perception. There are three products for which the GRO is not

significantly related to the groom's perceived infiuence of his parents as

presented in Table 4.3 (p. 120), 4.6 (p. 126), and 4.7 (p. 128). These three

products are television sets, houses, and wedding suits.

Concerning which store to patronize and how much to pay for

refrigerators, the TH variable was found to be significant but in an opposite

direction to that anticipated. This is summarized in Table 4.4 (p.122). The less

traditional the groom, the greater his perceived infiuence of his parent in the

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two subdecisions. The expected relationship of the HA to the perceived

influence of parents was found In only one subdecision (how much to pay) for

the purchase of furniture (Table 4.5, p. 124) and two subdecisions (which store

to choose and when to buy) in the hanbok data (Table 4.8, p. 130).

The findings in this study indicate that the TH variable had an opposite

relationship in the purchase decisions for refrigerators (Table 4.4, p. 122),

whereas the HA had the "right* direction to the perceived influence in the

purchase decision for hanbok (Table 4.8, p. 130). The TH and the HA together

were not related. To Koreans, the two scales may not be related at all. The

groom data show that the correlation coefficients of the TH to the HA is .038,

which is not statistically significant. In overall terms, the GRO was not found to

be related to the groom's perceived influence of his parent in the given

subdecisions.

Bride's perception. Responses from brides indicate no relationship of

GRO to the perceived influence of any subdecision for any product employed in

this study. Neither the TW nor the SA was related to the bride's perceived

influence of their parents in the decision process.

Resource Variables and Perceived Influence

Before examining the relationship of the resource variables to perceived

influence, the correlations between the GRO variables and the educational

levels were scrutinized to assess whether multicollinearity may constitute a

104

problem in the regression models. Table 4.10 (p. 134) shows that the Pearson

correlation coefficients between the GRO variables and the groom's educational

levels are negligibly low although the coefficients between the educational level

and the HA was statistically significant at the level of less than .01. On the

other hand, all the correlation coefficients between each of the TW and the SA

of the GRO and brides' educational levels were negatively related at the

significant level of less than .01. This was expected. By contrast, the

coefficients indicate that the higher the educational level of brides, the less

traditional the brides.

The contradictory findings in the correlation coefficients between the

groom and the bride data suggest that Korea is likely at the stage of transition

from a traditional society to a modern, industrialized society. Grooms (i.e.,

young males) manifest a tendency to cling to traditional values and resist

modernization, possibly fearing a loss of their ascribed superior status. Brides,

(i.e.,young females), however, appear more in favor of modernization and a

stronger involvement in family roles. Korean women wish to increase their roles

not only in family decision making but also in social decisions. For example,

legally, a woman could not be a head of a household until 1990. It took several

decades before Korean women's equal rights movement groups were able to

reform legislation that discriminates against women.

Grooms' education. The educational level of grooms is negatively

related to their perceived influence of themselves across four products:

105

fijrniture, house, wedding suit, and hanbok. as shown in Tables 4.5 (p. 124), 4.6

(p. 126), 4.7 (p. 128), and 4.8 (p. 130), respectively. That is, the higher the level

of grooms' education, the less their perceived influence of self. The opposite

relationships were found in the decisions regarding which store to choose and

when to buy for furniture; how much to spend for houses; which store to

choose and which color to choose for wedding suits; and which brand and

color to choose for hanbok.

Brides' education. Contrary to what was postulated, higher levels of

brides' education did not Increase their perceived influence of self in the FPDM.

Similar to the results regarding the groom's education, the bride's educational

level had an opposite relationship to her perceived influence of self if the

relationship was found to be significant There were only two products for

which the opposite relationship was significant at the level of .10. Brides'

educational attainment was negatively related to their perceived influence of self

in deciding which store to choose and how much to pay for television sets

(Table 4.3, p. 121), which color to choose for wedding suits, and which color to

choose for hanbok (Table 4.8, p. 131). As for husbands, the higher the brides'

educational level, the less the bride's perceived influence of self in the given

subdecisions.

For both grooms and brides, their resources failed to strengthen their

perceived influence of self in the FPDM. In this regard, the theory of resources

was not supported in this study. One possible explanation for the results is that

106

social education as well as formal education in Korea has emphasized filial

piety. Korean society as a whole has stressed the importance of filial piety.

Formal education in Korea has taught equality in horizontal relations, yet it has

reinforced the traditional value of filial piety in vertical relations. Thus, the

opposite relationship was found.

The relationship of brides' educational level to the their perceived

influence of their mothers provided further evidence to the opposite relationship.

The higher the level of brides' education, the greater their perceived influence of

their mothers in the FPDM. This finding provides support for Rodman's (1967)

theory of resources in cultural context. The strength of a cultural ideology such

as filial piety constrains the educational influence brought to the perceived

influence.

Mothers' education. It appears that the educational level of brides'

mothers is the most important variable in the regression equations in this study,

since the positive relationship between the educational level of brides' mothers

and brides' perceived influence of brides' mothers was found most frequently

as shown in Tables 4.3-4.9 (pp. 120-133). The relationship was found in the

purchases of flve products: television sets, refrigerators, furniture, houses, and

wedding suits. As indicated in Tables 4.3-4.9 (pp. 120-133), the subdecisions in

which the relationship was found to be significant varies with products.

This finding can be explained in part that the mother's education may

reinforce the cultural ideology of filial piety. The highe, the educational level of

107

the bride, the more her dependence upon her mother in FPDM. On one hand.

brides wish to demonstrate their filial piety to their parent in the way that they

yield their decision roles to their mother. On the other hand, mothers want to

see the demonstration of filial piety from her educated daughter. Thus, mothers

have greater infiuence perceived by brides in decision making.

In summary, for the theory of resources, the findings in this study were

mixed. Both grooms' and brides' educational level were not related to their

perceived influence of themselves in the FPDM. These findings are not unique

to this study. The theory of resources has not been supported in the

developing countries (Michel 1967; Rodman 1967; Safilios-Rothschild 1967).

However, the mothers' educational level was related to the brides' perceived

influence of mothers, supporting the theory. As a result, the theory should be

understood in the context of culture as suggested by Rodman (1967).

The Summary of Findings

Equality in the Perceived Influence of Family Members

HI a: The prospective groom's perceived influence of self and his bride

are equal for a given subdecision in the choice process of family

decision making.

This hypothesis tends not to be supported by the findings in this study

with one exception as shown in Table 4.2 (pp. 116-119). In the purchasing

decision for a groom's wedding suit, this hypothesis was supported in deciding

108

what brand to choose and which store to choose. In the prospective groom's

perception, his influence is significantly different fi-om his bride's in all four

subdecisions for the purchase of all the products investigated in this study

except the wedding suit. Grooms perceived that they were dominant in the

purchase of houses and in the decisions relating to honeymoon

accommodations. Grooms viewed brides to be more Influential in deciding the

purchase of television sets, furniture, hanbok. and refi-igerators.

Hib: The prospective bride's perceived influence of self and her groom

are equal for a qiven subdecision in the choice process of family

decision making.

The findings In this study do not lend support to this hypothesis. Brides

viewed their infiuence as greater than grooms for the purchase of all the

products except houses and honeymoon accommodations. However, brides

perceived their influence as less than grooms across all the subdecisions

except when to leave for the honeymoon. Thus, there Is signiflcant difference in

the perceived influence of grooms from that of brides.

Hie: The qroom's perceived influence of self, his bride, and his parent

are equal for a qiven subdecision in the choice process of family

purchase decision makinq.

As indicated in Table 4.11 (pp. 135-138), this hypothesis is not

supported. For the purchase of the groom's hanbok. grooms allocated more

109

influence to their parents across all four subdecisions. For all other products,

grooms appear to be dominant in all the four subdecisions.

H id : The bride's perceived influence of self, her qroom. and her parent

are equal for a qiven subdecision in the choice process of family

purchase decision making.

The results of MANOVA and t-tests show that this hypothesis was not

supported. Like the findings in the groom data, brides' parents were dominant

across all the subdecisions for the purchase of bride's hanbok except in

deciding what color to choose. For other products, the bride's influence was

greater than her parent.

Gender-Role Orientation and Perceived Influence

H2a: The more traditional the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

qroom. the greater his perceived influence of self for a given subdecision

in FPDM.

The findings in this study were mixed, depending upon the dimensions

of the SSRS, the product categories, and the subdecisions investigated. For

the decisions regarding the honeymoon, this hypothesis was supported. For

the fijrniture data, the relationship was found to be significant in one

subdecision; which store to choose. However, the TH had an opposite

relationship in a decision concerning what brand to choose for the purchase of

110

television sets, whereas the HA had an opposite relationship in a decision

involving when to buy for the purchase of hanbok.

H2b: The more traditional the oender-role attitudes of the prospective

bride, the oreater her perceived influence of her qroom for a qiven

subdecision In FPDM.

The findings here did not support this hypothesis. An exception was the

relationship of the SA to the bride's perceived influence in the decision

concerning when to leave for the honeymoon. For the remaining two

subdecisions and other products, no significant relationship was found.

H2c: The more modern the qender-role attitudes of the prospective

qrcom. the qreater his perceived influence of his bride for a given

subdecision in FPDM.

As is evident in Tables 4.3-4.9 (PP. 120-133), this hypothesis receives

mixed support since the sign of the relationship was either positive or negative,

depending upon the product categories. For television sets, the TH dimension

was associated with the perceived influence across all four subdecisions, but

the direction was opposite. For the refrigerator influence data, the direction

also was opposite in two subdecisions: when to buy and how much to pay.

The direction of the relationship was that the more traditional the groom, the

more his perceived influence of his own. For houses, the TH dimension is

significantly related to the perceived infiuence in deciding which type of house

to choose and what size of house to choose. For the remaining subdecisions

I l l

of houses, no significant relationship was found. For the honeymoon data, the

sign was positive in all four subdecisions. No relationship was found for the

remaining four products.

H2d: The more modern the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

bride, the qreater her perceivad influence of self for a given subdecision

in FPDM.

This hypothesis received mixed support. For the purchase of furniture,

the relationship was opposite In the subdecisions of what brand to choose and

which store to choose. No relationship was found in the other two

subdecisions. In fact, a significant relationship was found in only one

subdecision of which store to choose for the purchase of the wedding suit and

how long to stay for the honeymoon. For all other products, no relationship

was found.

H3a: The more traditional the gender-role attitudes of the prospective

qroom. the qreater his perceived influence of his parent for a qiven

subdecision in FPDM.

Overall, this hypothesis received little support. For the refrigerator data,

the TH was negatively related to the perceived infiuence in deciding what brand

to choose and which store to choose. For the other products, the TH was not

related to the perceived influence. On the other hand, the HA was positively

related to the groom's perceived influence of his parent in deciding how much

112

to pay for the purchase of furniture and which store to choose and when to buy

for the purchase of hanbok.

H3b: The more modern the qender-role attitudes of the prospective

bride, the less her perceived influence of her parent for a qiven

subdecision in FPDM.

The findings in this study did not support this hypothesis.

Resource Variables and Perceived Influence

H4a: The qreater the resources (e.q.. education) the prospective bride

has, the qreater her perceived influence of self for a qiven subdecision in

FPDM.

This hypothesis received little support. For the television set data, the

bride's educational level was oppositely related to her perceived influence of

self in deciding which store to choose and how much to pay. An opposite

relationship was also found in the subdecision of which color to choose for the

bride's wedding dress and which brand to choose for the bride's hanbok.

H4b: The qreater the resources (e.q.. education) the bride's mother has.

the qreater the bride's perceived influence of her mother for a given

subdecision in FPDM.

This hypothesis tended to be supported. The support came from five

products: television sets, refrigerator, furniture, house, and bride's wedding

dress. For the purchase of the refrigerator, the bride's perceived influence of

her mother increased as the educational level of her mother increased in all four

113

subdecisions. For the purchase of the bride's wedding suit, a positive

relationship was found in all subdecisions except In deciding which color to

choose. For the purchase of furniture, the relationship was found in two

subdecisions regarding when to buy and how much to pay. In addition, the

relationship was also significant in deciding how much to pay for the television

sets and which type of house to buy for houses.

114

Table 4.1: The MANOVA Results for Household Influence in Family Decision Making

Products/SutKJecisions Grooms' F Values" Brides' F Values*

Television Sets

What brand to choose

Which store to choose

When to buy

How much to pay

Refrigerators

What brand to choose

Which store to choose

When to buy

How much to pay

33.19

66.98

77.78

174.77

270.29

203.98

260.44

280.27

101.76

99.30

138.48

199.27

143.83

97.09

117.05

110.27

Room Furniture

What brand to choose

Which store to choose

When to buy

How much to pay

358.02

328.58

367.20

363.22

House

Which type to choose

What size to choose

Which place to choose

How much to pay

65.87

71.26

88.27

69.58

124.28

105.12

121.67

117.28

205.51

180.37

198.76

221.82

Significant at p<.01

115

Table 4.1: Continued

Products/subdecisions Grooms' F Values* Brides' F Values*

Wedding Suit

What brand to choose

Which store to choose

When to buy

Which color to choose

258.54

213.32

217.14

243.82

166.41

112.42

124.23

110.86

Hanbok

Which brand to choose

Which store to choose

When to buy

What color to choose

37.73

69.44

22.59

27.15

66.69

95.37

69.67

91.67

Honeymoon Accommodation

Where to go

Which hotel to stay

How long to stay

When to leave

5.17"

52.52

36.12

53.99

16.34

79.64

96.99

131.70

* Significant at p<.01

^ Significant at p<.05

116

Table 4.2:

Products/ Subdecisions

The Influence Structure of Prospective Couples

Percep­tion by N

Influence of

Groom's Parent

(GP) Groom

(G) Bride

(B)

Bride's Parent

(BP)

Statistical Significance of Differences in Influence of

GP-G G-B BP-B

Television Sets

What brand to choose

Which store to choose

When to buy

How much to pay

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Grcxjm

Bride

249

319

249

319

249

319

249

319

2.5

—

3.8

—

4.5

—

4.4

—

31.0

21.3

30.8

20.4

29.8

19.7

28.3

16.9

66.5

59.7

65.4

56.6

65.6

56.5

67.3

55.6

—

18.9

—

23.0

—

23.5

—

27.7

a

«

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

...

a

Refiigeratcxs

What brand to choose

What store to choose

When to buy

How much to pay

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

GrcDom

Bride

249

319

249

319

249

319

249

319

6.3

—

7.9

—

6.1

—

6.3

—

23.1

16.9

23.6

16.9

23.0

15.6

21.8

14.2

70.7

59.3

68.7

55.0

70.7

56.0

71.6

55.1

—

23.8

~-

28.1

—

28.3

—

30.6

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

—

a

...

a

—

a

—

a

a Significant at p<.01

118 Table 4.2: Continued

Products/ Subdecisions

Percep­tion t>y N

Influence of

Groom's Parent

(GP) Groom

(G) Bride

(B)

Bride's Parent

(BP)

Statistical Significance of Differences in Influence of

GP-G G-B BP-B

Wedc&ig Suits

What brand to choose

Which store to choose

When to buy

Which color to choose

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

315

298

315

298

315

298

315

298

15.3

—

20.6

~

17.3

—

9.3

—

44.2

21.0

41.6

22.0

45.7

20.7

51.8

26.0

40.5

57.9

37.8

54.3

37.0

54.1

38.8

59.8

—

21.1

—

23.8

—

25.2

—

14.3

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

—

.16

a

.17

a

a

a

a

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

Hanbok

What brand to choose

Which store to choose

When to buy

What color to choose

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

263

289

263

289

263

289

263

289

44.5

—

50.9

—

43.4

—

33.7

—

17.1

14.9

13.4

14.9

21.9

15.7

22.0

17.2

38.4

39.8

35.7

32.1

34.7

37.1

44.3

51.3

—

45.3

._

53.0

—

47.2

—

31.5

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

...

a

—

a

—

a

—

a

a Significant at p<.01

119

Table 4.2: Continued

Products/ Subdecisions

Honeymoon

Where to go

Which hotel to stay

How long to stay

When to leave

Percp-tlon by

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

Groom

Bride

N

Influence of

Groom's Parent

(GP) Groom

(G)

337

332

337

332

337

332

337

332

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

52.1

53.3

58.2

59.7

56.1

59.0

57.5

60.1

Bride (B)

47.7

46.6

41.7

39.7

43.9

40.6

42.5

39.2

Bride's Parent

(BP)

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Statistica Significance

1 'Of

Differences in Influence of

GP-G G-B BP-B

—

_

—

—

—

—

—

—

b

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

—

—

«

—

—

—

—

—

a Significant at p<.01

b Significant at p<.05

120

Table 4.3: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Television Sets; (a) Groom's Perception

Groom's Perception of

Groom's Influence

Bride's Influence

The Influence of the Groom's Mother

Vari­ables

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

Brand

Beta

-6.85

t

-1.29

1.26

.025

8.18

-4.37

2.22"

-1.69"

1.90

.037

Store

Beta t

6.42 1.67"

.93

.019

When

Beta t

8.77 2.27*

1.53

.030

-3.18 -2.06*

1.26

.025

Price

Beta t

7.68 2.03*

1.48

.029

• -

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDG = the groom's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of groom's mother

121 Table 4.3:

Bride's Perception of

Groom's Influ­ence

Bride's Influ­ence

The Influ­ence of Bride's Mother

Contii

Vari­ables

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

lued; (b) Bride's Perception

Brand

Beta t

Store

Beta t

-4.62 -1.98*

1.27

.019

When

Beta

-3.81

t

-1.82"

1.24

.018

Price

Beta t

-3.90

-4.38

-1.67"

-1.66"

2.22"

.032

5.67 2.32^

2.02"

.029

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDB = the bride's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of bride's mother

122

Table 4.4:

Groom's Percep­tion of

Groom's Irrfluence

Bride's Influence

The Influence of Groom's Mother

The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Refi-igerators; (a) Groom's Perception

Vari­ables

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

Brand

Beta t

Store

Beta

-4.44

t

1.92*

.97

.022

When

Beta

6.38

t

1.70"

.94

.021

Price

Beta

7.60

-3.99

t

2.06*

1.17

.026

-1.87"

1.18

.026

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDG = the groom's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels s of groom's mother

124

Table 4.5: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Furniture; (a) Groom's Perception

Groom's Percep­tion of

Groom's Influ­ence

Bride's Influ­ence

The Influ­ence of Groom's Mother

vari­ables

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

Brand

Beta t

Store

Beta

4.97

-3.65

3.40

t

1.85"

-1.98*

1.67**

2.06"

.042

When

Beta

-3.19

t

-1.69"

.80

.017

Price

Beta t

5.69 1.83"

1.02

.021

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDG = the groom's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of groom's mother

125

Table 4.5: Continued; (b) Bride's Perception

Bride's Perception of

Groom's Influ­ence

Bride's Influ­ence

The Influ­ence of Bride's Mother

Vari­ables

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

Brand

Beta t

7.28 1.74"

1.16

.018

Store

Beta

-4.66

t

-2.72*

2.54"

.038

9.21 2.13*

1.53

.023

4.64 1.96"

2.30"

.035

When

Beta

-2.92

t

-1.79"

1.62

.025

4.32

4.10

1.88"

1.67"

2.25"

.034

Price

Beta t

5.03

4.89

2.11*

1.91*

3.05*

.046

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDB = the bride's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of bride's mother

126

Table 4.6: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Houses; (a) Groom's Perception

Groom's Percep­tion of

Groom's Influ­ence

Bride's Influ­ence

The Influ­ence of Groom's Mother

Vari­ables

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

Type

Beta t

-8.08

-3.72

-3.05*

-2.07*

4.08*

.078

Size

Beta t

-6.85 -2.53*

2.56*

.043

Place

Beta t

Price

Beta

-5.35

t

-2.37*

1.57

.026

2.98 1.73*

8.10

.014

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDG = the groom's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of groom's mother

127 Table 4.6:

Bride's Percep­tion of

Groom's Influence

Bride's Influence

The Influence of Bride's Mother

Continued; (b)

Vari­ables

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

Bride'

Type

Beta t

3.11 2.57*

1.82

.034

s Perception

Size

Beta

4.56

t

1.96"

1.24

.023

Place

Beta t

Price

Beta

-4.67

t

-1.80*

1.59

.030

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDB = the bride's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of bride's mother

128

Table 4.7: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables In Purchase Decisions for Wedding Suits; (a) Groom's Perception

Groom's Percep­tion of

Groom's Influ­ence

Bride's Influ­ence

The Influ­ence of Groom's Mother

Vari- • ables

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

Brand

Beta t

•

Store

Beta

4.83

-3.90

t

2.11*

-1.67"

1.97"

.030

-4.53 -2.07*

1.57

.024

When

Beta t

-4.57 -2.16*

2.27"

.034

Color

Beta t

-5.06 -2.43*

1.90

2.85

.029

2.24*

1.45

.022

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDG = the groom's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of groom's mother

129

Table 4.7:

Bride's Percep-tion of

Groom's Influ­ence

Bride's Influ­ence

The Influ­ence of Bride's Mother

Continued; (b) Bride's Perception

Vari­ables

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

Brand

Beta t

-5.12 -2.14*

Z15"

.034

4.06 Z02*

1.43

.023

Store

Beta t

-8.40 -2.18*

1.88

.030

3.39 1.71"

1.25

.020

When

Beta t

-5.08 -Z14"

2.14"

.034

4.76 2.30*

1.60

.026

Color

Beta t

-4.77 -2.24*

1.93

.031

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDB = the bride's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of bride's mother

130

Table 4.8: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Hanbok-(a) Groom's Perception '

Groom's Percep­tion of

Groom's Influ­ence

Bride's Influ­ence

The Influ­ence of Groom's Mother

Vari­ables

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

Brand

Beta

-3.70

t

-1.90"

1.53

.028

Store

Beta t

9.58 1.69"

.88

.016

When

Beta

-8.88

t

-2.34*

1.97"

.036

12.85 2.40*

1.57

.029

Color

Beta

-4.57

t

-2.25*

1.86

.034

4.54 1.81"

1.62

.030

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDG = the groom's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of groom's mother

131

Table 4.8: Continued; (b) Bride's Perception

Bride's Percep­tion of

Groom's Influence

Bride's Influence

The Influence of Bride's Mother

Vari­ables

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

Brand

Beta t

-4.13 -1.66"

.74

.012

6.25 2.31*

1.97"

.033

Store

Beta t

5.39 1.98*

1.21

.020

When

Beta t

Color

Beta t

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDB = the bride's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of bride's mother

132 Table 4.9: The Relationship of Household Influence to GRO and

Resource Variables in Purchase Decisions for Honeymoon Accommodat ions; (a) Groom's Perception

Groom's Percep­tion of

Groom's Influ­ence

Bride's Influ­ence

Vari­ables

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

F Value

R2

Where to Go

Beta

5.10

t

1.80"

1.43

.020

-5.12 -1.82"

1.75

.022

Which Hotel to Choose

Beta

6.42

t

1.89"

1.07

.015

-6.42 -1.89"

1.07

.015

How Long to Stay

Beta

6.20

t

2.06*

1.99

.028

-6.20 -2.06*

1.99"

.028

When to Leave

Beta

5.37

t

1.78"

1.06

.015

-5.37 -1.78"

1.06

.015

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDG = the groom's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of groom's mother

133 Table 4.9:

Bride's Percep­tion of

Groom's Influence

Bride's Influence

Continued; (b) Bride's Perception

Vari­ables

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

F Value

R2

Where to Go

Beta t

Which Hotel to

Choose

Beta t

How Long to Stay

Beta t

-4.13 -1.91"

1.11

.016

When to Leave

Beta

3.96

t

1.81"

1.02

.015

* Significant at p<.05

" Significant at p<.10

EDB = the bride's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of bride's mother

134

Table 4.10: The Correlation Coefficients between the Resource Variables and the Scanzoni Sex Role Scales

Groom Respondents

TH

HA

EDG

EDM

TH

1

.038

.068

-.018

HA

.038

1

.153*

.063

EDG

.068

.153*

1

.169*

EDM

-.018

.063

.169*

1

Bride Respondents

TW

SA

EDB

EDM

TW

1

.207*

-.203*

.042

SA

.207*

1

-.147*

-.036

EDB

-.203*

-.147*

1

.242*

EDM

.042

-.036

.242*

1

* significant at <.01

EDG = the groom's educational levels

EDB = the bride's educational levels

EDM = the educational levels of respondents' mothers

idin

gs

' of

Fir

Sum

mar

y 1:

T

he

Tab

le 4

.1

H4b

(0

X

H3b

H

3a

H2d

o CM

X

H2b

H

2a

< CO

? < X

X

< CO

%

< X

X 1 -

< CO

1 < X

X

H1b

CO

X

Per

cep­

tion o

f

Sub

-de

­ci

sion

s P

rod­

ucts

a o

a o

CD

c

(D C

Gro

om

CD

c

CD

c

Brid

e

Bra

nd

a o

CD

c

CD C

Gro

om

yes

a o

(D C

(D C

Brid

e

Sto

re

a o

0)

c

CD

c

Gro

om

(D C

CD C

Brid

e W

hen

a o

(D

c

o c

Gro

om

CD C

(D C

Brid

e

Pric

e

Tel

e­vi

sion

S

ets

(D C

CD C

Gro

om

yes

(D C

o c

Brid

e B

rand

a o

c

(D C

Gro

om

yes

C

(D C

Brid

e S

tore

a o

(D

c

(D C

Gro

om

yes

<D C

CD C

Brid

e W

hen

o

C2. O

(D C

(D C

Gro

om

yes

(D C

CD C

Brid

e

Pric

e

Ref

rig­

era­

tors

135

tinue

d

1:

Con

Ta

ble

4.1

H4b

H3b

H

3a

H2d

H

2c

H2b

H

2a

H4a

< CO

? <

X

X

< CO

AA

l

<

X

X 1-

< CO

? <

X

X

H1b

H

ia

Per

cep­

tion

of

Sub

-de

­ci

sion

s

Pro

d­uc

ts

0)

c

CD

c

Gro

om

Q.

o

CD C

CD C

Brid

e B

rand

yes

(D C

<D C

Gro

om

a o

CD C

CD C

Brid

e S

tore

(D C

CD C

Gro

om

CD C

<D C

Brid

e W

hen

<D C

(D C

Gro

om

0

c

CD C

Brid

e P

rice

Fur

ni­

ture

0

c

Gro

om

0

c

0

c

Brid

e T

ype

0

c

0

c

Gro

om

0

c

0

c

Brid

e S

ize

0

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS, CONTRIBUTIONS. LIMITATIONS. AND

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

Conclusions

This study sought to explore several hypotheses that have been

advanced in family decision making literature to explain consumer purchase

behavior for new family formation in Korea. Specifically, the study sought to

determine: (1) whether the perceived influence of the prospective groom and

bride is equal in the prospective groom and bride dyad and in the prospective

groom (bride) and his (her) mother dyad (which is unique in this study); (2)

whether sex role orientation of the bride or groom is related to the perceived

influence of the prospective new couples; and (3) whether the theory of

resources has a positive relationship with the perceived influence of the

prospec tive newlywed in the purchase of consumer durable products for new

family formation.

Results of analyses performed in this research indicate that the groom's

perceived influence of self was significantly different from that of his bride

across all the products in this study. The groom's perceived influence of self

was also signiflcantly different from that of his mother. Similar results were

obtained from the bride data. These findings may suggest that prospective

couples tend to make purchase decisions autonomically for most products

139

140

investigated rather than jointly (e.g.. Davis and Rigaux 1974) although the

pattern of decision making (syncratic or autonomic) depends on several

factors: who and how many members of the family were involved in the

decision process, product categories, subdecisions, cultural norms, and each

family member's comparative knowledge about a product. The findings in this

study show that in groom, bride dyads, decisions tend to be made jointly

(decisions concerning the honeymoon), whereas in parent, groom, bride triads

purchase decisions were more often autonomic. Thus, it may be concluded

that, based on responses from grooms and brides, when the extended family is

Involved in decision making, Korean consumers do not recognize equal status

between the sexes.

The relationship between gender role orientation and perceived infiuence

were mixed, again depending upon the dimensions of the SSRS, product

categories, subdecisions, and family members. For all the subdecisions

concerning the honeymoon, the HA had a positive effect on the groom's

perceived influence of self and on that of his bride. For the purchase of

television sets, the TH had an opposite relationship with the groom's perceived

influence of the bride across all subdecisions. For other products, the

relationship is less than clear. These findings suggest that perceived influence

may be product or subdecision speciflc rather than being applicable regardless

of product or of subdecision. This flnding supports the product specific

hypothesis (Davis and Rigaux 1974; Churchill and Hansen 1974) and the

141

subdecision specific hypothesis (Wilkes 1971; Davis 1970). Again, the findings

here suggest that the perceived influence of structure on family purchase

decision making may depend upon cultural values and locus of product

knowledge.

This study investigated whether the resource variables were related to

the perceived influence in the FPDM. The findings in this study were also

mixed. The bride's educational level tends to decrease her perceived influence

of self in the FPDM. However, the educational level of the bride's mother tends

to Increase the bride's perceived influence of her mother in the FPDM. The

mixed flndings in this study are not unique. The findings of the previous

studies were inconclusive (Kandel and Lesser 1966; Safilios-Rothschild 1967,

1969; Buric and Zecevic 1967; Fieldman 1967; Michel 1967; Rodman 1967;

Kandel and Lesser 1972). The findings in this study suggested that the theory

should be understood in cultural context as suggested by Rodman (1972).

This study also indicates that young Korean consumers are adopting

"global" values and purchasing behavior. This study does support the

"globalization hypothesis" (Levitt 1983) in a fijndamental way even though it did

not focus specifically on the issues of "globalization". Fundamentally, as world

cultures and consumer behavior converge in the manner suggested by

"globalization" theory (Levitt 1983), the real possibility of standardization of

strategic marketing processes and programs becomes more apparent.

142

Contributions

Theoretical Contributions of the Study

This study makes two major contributions not found in previous

research. Previous studies have Ignored household influence structure of the

family at the premarital stage of the family life cycle, although the purchase of

prospective brides and grooms provide opportunity to marketing practitioners.

As a result, we have little knowledge of purchase behaviors of the newly

forming family. This study provides insights into the decision process of the

newly forming family members as they are involved in the purchase of major

durable goods prior to the wedding. An important finding here is that even

before marriage in a traditional society such as Korea, both prospective grooms

and brides are highly involved in decision making. This is a unique

contribution.

Almost all previous studies that included children have focused on

children's influence on their parents' decision behavior. Moreover, all have

examined children as children, i.e., offspring still living under their parents'

tutelage. In the present study, the focus was on (a) children who were

establishing their own family structure through marriage; and (b) parental

influence on their adult children's decision behavior rather than the influence of

children on parents.

There are other contributions. Davis (1976, p. 250) noted that

"researchers have devoted little attention to explaining why, for the same

143

decision, families vary in 'who decides.' This issue will undoubtedly become

more important as efforts are made to locate families having particular role

patterns." This study contributes to the resolution of this issue by examining

the relationships of the resources of the family member to the household

influence structure. In other words, the theory of resources employed in this

study can be used to predict purchase influence within families.

This study includes a recently enrjerging construct in family studies,

gender-role orientation (GRO). This study represents a further step towards

generalization of the findings fi'om Quails' (1987) investigation of gender-role

orientation related to household Influence structure in family purchase decision

making (FPDM). However, the flndings of this study were generally not

consistent with Quails'(1987).

This study is the first to investigate household influence structure in

Korean FPDM and provides insights into the family decision behavior in Korea.

Descriptive information generated by this study should be useful to future

researchers in Korea as well as in the West. Knowledge gained from this study

might possibly be extended to Japan and China, which belong to the same

Confucian heritage group.

Finally, the evidence of equalitarian movement in family decision making

in Korea provides new direction to consumer research. Globalization in context

of consumer behavior will give ample opportunities to consumer researchers.

144

Manaaerial Contributions of the Study

The first implication of this study for marketing management is that

managers can use GRO as a criterion to segment the market. The market can

potentially be separated into gender-role modern and gender role traditional

segments, since the two may develop different consumption priorities and

purchase patterns (Schaninger. Buss, and Grover 1982; Moore-Shay and Wilkie

1988). For example. Bonfield (1978) found small but significant differences in

infiuence patterns of the traditional couples in the sample. Marketing managers

can develop different strategic planning and advertising strategies to aim at the

two different markets, since they know different infiuence patterns of the two

segments.

Newly forming families become an important segment that has heretofore

largely been ignored. The purchase behavior of newly forming families shows a

major difference: they buy without switching brands (Wattenberg 1874).

Marketing managers should not ignore this important segment, which provides

enormous economic opportunities. Continued study of the dynamics and

characteristics of this stage of the family life cycle may offer valuable insight to

managers for developing appropriate marketing strategies for this segment.

The results of this study may provide valuable information to international

marketers. The cross-cultural differences in family decision making need to be

detected and should be reflected in marketing strategy design and programs

more in accordance with the needs of international consumers.

145

Marketing practitioners should bear In mind that however incomplete,

globalization of culture and values is a fact of life (Levitt 1983). And with

globalization arises the issue of when and where to standardize one's product

and promotion strategies. A condition to successful implementation of

globalized strategy is that "globalization" of social values and consumer buying

behavior should be apparent first before standardization of one's product and

promotion is Implemented. Consequently, international marketers must know

which social norms, values, preference, or consumer buying behaviors (in a

local market) resemble "global" norms before implementing standardized

strategies. This study provides an initial tool with which marketers can partially

test whether globalization of buyer behaviors has taken place in a particular

regional market. In particular, this study offers a tool to evaluate the degree of

"equal sharing" in purchase decision making.

Limitations

There are limitations inherent to this study. First, non-respondents could

not be identified and thus, not contacted. Therefore, the effects of non-

response bias have not been specified. Also, some respondents may have

answered in a more socially desirable fashion, e.g., brides answering the items

of the SSRS. Another limitation to this research is the specific demographic

stratum from which the sample was drawn. Additional study is desirable across

more diverse demographic segments. Finally, only a limited number of

146

products were included. A wider representation would be helpful in future

studies.

Suaoestions for Future Research

The perceived influence In this study was limited to a spouse's

perception of bride's/groom's influence. Future research might compare the

family members' perceived Influence with bride's/groom's influence as

perceived by extended family members. Data should be collected from both

parents of the brides and grooms as well as from the brides and grooms since

parents' responses could be significantly different from their children's.

Marshall (1963) found very low intercorrelatlons when children's and parents'

responses about the child's use of money were compared. These

disagreements may reduce predictability of child's behavior in the use of

money.

This study includes only one element of the resources variables;

education. Future studies should include other elements such as income,

occupation, competence, and personal attractiveness that may further explain

variations in FPDM.

In this study, only four major subdecisions per product category were

used. Future research might examine decision making in more detail, and

might also examine how confiicts between participants are resolved. In this

study, the stage of the consumer buying process was fixed at the last stage. In

147

order to understand the dynamic nature of family decision making, future

studies may include at least two stages of the process.

A future study may focus on the globalization in the context of consumer

behavior. It is essential to first develop a conceptual fi-amework of globalization

in the context of consumer behavior.

Another issue worth examining is the stability of the factor structure of

the SSRS. The SSRS has manifested some structural differences fi'om one

study to another. The factor structure in this study was obtained by using only

one demographic group in Korea, i.e., those between 20 to 35. Thus, future

studies should test structural stability over different age groups.

It might also be desirable to use several different scales to measure the

gender role orientation and use the best one for the final analysis. In addition,

it may also be desirable to update the SSRS as well as some other scales

available now since most scales were developed more than ten years ago.

These scales may not be adequate to measure the gender role orientation of

individuals who are in a rapidly changing society such as Korea. It would also

desirable to develop more suitable methods of analysis for analyzing family

interactions in purchase decision making.

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APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

164

165

Thanks for participating in this study. Every precaution is being made to keep your responses in strict confidence. Please make sure you give an answer for each question.

PART I. The following sentences say something about opinions. There are no right or wrong answers. You will probably agree with some of the sentences and disagree with others. We want to know how much you agree or disagree. Please circle one number for each sentence, depending on your opinions.

Circle the number 5, Circle the number 4, Circle the number 3, Circle the number 2, Circle the number 1,

if you strongly agree with the sentence. if you agree with the sentence. if you have mixed feelings about. f you disagree with the sentence. if you strongly disagree with the sentence.

1. A married woman's most important task in life should be taking care of her husband and children 1 2 3 4 5

2. She should realize that a woman's greatest reward and satisfac:tion come through her children 1 2 3 4 5

3. Having a job herself should be just as important as encouraging her husband in his job 1 2 3 4 5

4. If she works, she should not try to get ahead in the same way that a man does 1 2 3 4 5

5. She should be able to make long-range plans for her occupation, in the same way that her husband does X i^- . . . . 1 2 3 4 5 for his ,1 * L ,j

6. A wife should not have equal authority with her husband in making decisions u- ' ' '

7 If she has the same job as a man who has to support his family she should not expect the same pay 1 2 J 4 b

8. If being a wife and mother isn't satisfying enough, she ^ 2 3 4 5 should take a job •

9. There should be more day-care centers and nursery , ^ ^ , . schools so that more young mothers could work 1 2 3 4 b

10 A wife should realize that, just as a woman is not • suited for heavy physical work, there are also other

kinds of jobs she is not suited for. because of her ^ 2 3 4 5 mental and emotional nature • • • ' • • * "

11. A wife should give up her job whenever ,t inconveniences ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ her husband and children .' " * . \M " " " i

12. I f a rllother of young children works, it should be only ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ while the family needs the money '.' : ' V ' "•'L^ ^ o ^ A ^

13. C a r r i e d man's chief responsibility should be his ,ob 1 2 3 4 5

166

14. If his wife works, he should share equally in household chores such as cooking, cleaning, and washing 1 2 3 4 5

15. If his wife works, he should share equally in the responsibilities of child care 1 2 3 4 5

16. If her job sometimes requires her to be away from home overnight, this should not bother him 1 2 3 4 5

17. If a child gets sick and his wife works, she should be just as willing as she to stay home from work and take care of the child 1 2 3 4 5

18. If his wife makes more money than he does, this should not bother him 1 2 3 4 5

19. The husband should be the head of the family 1 2 3 4 5 20. On the job, men should be willing to work for women

supervisors 1 2 3 4 5 21. A married man should be willing to have a smaller

family, so that his wife can work if she wants to 1 2 3 4 5

PART II. When your family bought products listed below for your wedding, how much influence did you have or how much did you perceive your family members' influence in purchase decision-making? Please allocate a total of 100 percent to you, your spouse, and your parent in making the purchase decision. Leave it a blank if either you or your spouse did not purchase the product.

Television Set Your Your Total father mother Bride Groom percent

What brand to choose ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = 100% Which store to choose ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = 100% Whentobuy ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = ^^0% How much to pay ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = 100%

Refrigerator ,r . • Your Your Total father mother Bride Groom percent

What brand to choose ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( > = ]00% Which store to choose ( ) + ( + + = 0 ° ' ^ Whentobuy ( ) + ( + + = ° ° ^ Howmuchtopay ( ) + ( > + < ' + ( ' " ^°°^°

167

Room Furniture

What brand to choose Which store to choose When to buy How much to pay

Video Tape Recxjrder

Your fathei (

(

(

(

Your mother Bride Groom

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

)

)

)

)

Total percent

= 100% = 100% = 100% = 100%

What brand to choose Which store to choose When to buy How much to pay

Washer

What brand to choose Which store to choose When to buy How much to pay

Your father

Your mother Bride Groom

( ) + ( ( ) + ( ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + (

( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) =

) =

) =

) =

Your Your father mother Bride Groom ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) =

Total percent 100% 100% 100% 100%

Total percent 100% 100% 100% 100%

Gas Range

What brand to choose Which store to choose When to buy How much to pay

Microwave Oven

What brand to choose Which store to choose When to buy How much to pay

Your father ( )

Your mother Bride Groom

(

+ ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) =

) =

) =

) =

Your father

Your mother Bride Groom

( ) + ( ( ) + ( ( ) + ( ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

Total percent 100% 100% 100% 100%

) =

) =

) =

) =

Total percent 100% 100% 100% 100%

House

Which type to choose What size to choose Which place to choose How much to pay

Wedding Suit

What brand to choose Which store to choose When to buy Which color to choose

Hanbok

What brand to choose Which store to choose When to buy Which color to choose

168

Your father

Your mother Bride Groom

( ) + ( ) + ( )-H( ) = | \ ( ) + ( ) ^ ( =

( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) =

Total percent 100% 100% 100% 100%

Your father

Your mother

( ) + ( ( ) + ( ( ) + ( ( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + (

-1-

Bride Groom ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) =

) =

) =

) =

Your father (

Your mother Bride Groom

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + (

Honeymoon Acxx)mmodation

Where to go Which hotel to stay How long to stay When to leave

Total Bride Groom percent ( ) + ( ) = 100% ( ) + ( ) = 100% ( ) -H ( ) = 100% ( ) + { ) = 100%

Total percent 100% 100% 100% 100%

) =

) =

) =

) =

Total percent 100% 100% 100% 100%

PART III. Would you please provide us information about yourself? Once again, your information will be held in strict confidence.

Age Your age ( ) Your father's age ( ) Your mother's age ( )

169 Education

1. No School 2. Grade School 3. High School 4. Some College 5. College Graduate 6. Some Graduate School

Monthly Income

Your Monthly Income ( ) won Your Father's Monthly Income ( Your Mother's Monthly Income (

Occupation

1. No Job 2. Farmers 3. Labor Worker 4. Sales Person 5. Clark 6. Engineers 7. Managers 8. Professionals 9. House Wife

10. Others

Yoursel Your Father

Your Mother

) won ) won

Yoursel Your Father

Your Mother

Religion

Your's ( ) Your Father's ( ) Your Mother's (

Living Parents

Are your parents alive? Both father and mother are alive ( Only father is alive ( ) Only mother is alive ( ) Both parents are deceased ( )

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION