Shalev, I. (2014). Implicit energy loss: Embodied dryness cues influence vitality and depletion....

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Journal of Consumer Psychology xx, x (2013) xxx–xxx

JCPS-00383; No. of pages: 11; 4C:

Research Article

Implicit energy loss: Embodied dryness cues influence vitality and depletion

Idit Shalev

Department of Education and Zlotowski Center of Neuroscience, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, POB 653, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel

Received 8 March 2013; received in revised form 10 September 2013; accepted 27 September 2013

Abstract

Consumers have long recognized that thirst motivates beverage consumption, however little is known of the consequences of dryness-relatedcues and experienced energy. Based on the embodied cognition view (Landau et al., 2010; Meier et al., 2012) and motivational perspective forenergy (Clarkson, 2010; Inzlicht & Schmeichel, 2012), four studies examined the idea that activation of different levels of the dryness–thirstmetaphor (e.g., semantic primes, visual images, or physical thirst) will influence perceived energy. In Study 1, participants primed with dryness-related concepts reported greater physical thirst and tiredness and lower subjective vitality. In Study 2, participants who were physically thirstywere less persistent in investing effort in an unsolvable anagram task. In Study 3, images of arid land influenced time preference regarding when tobegin preparation to make a monetary investment. Finally, in Studies 4a and 4b, exposure to the names of dryness-related products influencedimpressions of the vitality of a target person. Overall, the findings suggest that physical or conceptual dryness-related cues influence perceivedenergy and may have consequences on consumer behavior.© 2013 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Embodied cognition; Implicit processes; Vitality; Energy; Depletion; Homeostasis

Introduction

The psychological literature has long recognized the con-sequences of water dehydration (Sawka, Cheuvront, & Carter,2005), indicating that the homeostatic need for satiation (Farrellet al., 2006; Hull, 1943) motivates basic acts of consumption(Wadhwa, Shiv, & Nowlis, 2008). Research has demonstratedthat people explicitly associate beverage with energy(Vartanian, Schwartz, & Brownell, 2007). Likewise, subliminalpriming of drinking cues increased beverage consumptionamong thirsty participants (Karremans, Stroebe, & Claus, 2006;Strahan, Spencer, & Zanna, 2002). However, little is known ofthe association between dryness-related cues and the ex-perience of depletion. Models of psychological energy, bothpast (Selye, 1975) and present (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007),suggest that subjective energy states are a byproduct of bothphysical-somatic and psychological factors. Building upon theperspective of embodied cognition (Landau, Meier, & Keefer,2010; Meier, Moeller, Riemer-Peltz, & Robinson, 2012; Meier,

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lished

ues in

Schnall, Schwarz, & Bargh, 2012), we argue that perceptual orphysical input of thirst/dryness triggers perceived homeostaticdysregulation that activates an associative cluster of depletion,such as the automatic evaluation of energy and behavioralschemata to procrastinate or withdraw specific behaviors and toreduce effort in performance based on perceived energy level(Bargh & Morsella, 2010; Hofmann, Strack, & Deutsch, 2008).In the sections that follow, we will first describe the existingnotion of depletion and then explain the tenets of the presentresearch.

Motivational influence on depletion

The capacity of organisms to successfully implement goal-consistent responses despite distracting or countervailing in-fluences is defined as self-regulation (Baumeister & Vohs,2007). Extensive research based on the ego depletion model hasrepeatedly demonstrated that energy available for self-regulation could be depleted by a temporary reduction in thewillingness to engage in volitional action caused by priorexercise of volition (Baumeister, Bratlavsky, Muraven, & Tice,

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2 I. Shalev / Journal of Consumer Psychology xx, x (2013) xxx–xxx

1998; Baumeister & Vohs, 2007; Hagger, Wood, Stiff, &Chatzisarantis, 2010). Some studies indicate that this energy ismostly physical and relies on glucose metabolism and thatglucose supplementation to depleted individuals replenishesresources (Gailliot et al., 2007). However, research alsosuggests that the effects of carbohydrate consumption are notnecessarily due to a direct increase in the energy available toexecute self-control, but rather to an indirect increase inmotivations to engage in self-control (Molden et al., 2012).

Pursuing this line of thought, ample research indicates thatmotivational factors moderate depletion effects (Inzlicht &Schmeichel, 2012; Job, Dweck, & Walton, 2010; Muraven &Slessareva, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2008). For example, there isevidence that one's perception of available regulatory capacityinfluences one's self-regulatory ability independent of objectivecapacity measures (Clarkson, Hirt, Jia, & Alexander, 2010).Likewise, a subjective feeling of aliveness and energy, definedas subjective vitality (Ryan & Frederick, 1997, p. 529), hasbeen directly linked with behavioral outcomes in ego depletionparadigms, mediating changes in behavioral measures ofself-control performance (e.g., Muraven, Gagne´, & Rosman,2008) which helps replenish self-control at a much quicker rate(see Muraven, Shmueli, & Burkley, 2006). Vitality representsenergy that one can harness or regulate for purposive actions,entailing positively toned, energized states (Ryan & Deci,2008).

This prior research demonstrates that motivational aspects—but not necessarily motivation originating from a consciousvolitional source—influence the experience of depletion.Research suggests that environmental conditions influence theexperience of energy without conscious awareness. For ins-tance, there is evidence that being outdoors is associated withgreater subjective vitality (Ryan et al., 2010; Weinstein,Przybylski, & Ryan, 2009). However, little is known of theeffect of different environmental cues on perceived energy andthe mechanisms underlying these effects.

Embodied cognition

Embodied cognition research (e.g., Barsalou, 2008; Meier,Moeller, et al., 2012; Meier, Schnall, et al., 2012; Niedenthal,Barsalou, Winkielman, Krauth-Gruber, & Ric, 2005) providesadditional insight into the automatic activation of the body–mind association in different environments and its possibleinfluence on perceived energy. This perspective suggests thatthere are strong associations between metaphorically-relatedphysical and psychological concepts (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980;Landau et al., 2010), such that activation automatically spreadsfrom concepts driven by experiences in the physical world totheir metaphorically-related social concepts (for reviews, seeBarsalou, 1999, 2008; Meier, Moeller, et al., 2012; Meier,Schnall, et al., 2012; Niedenthal et al., 2005; Spellman &Schnall, 2009). Embodied concepts activate mental representa-tions that influence behavior indicating that this process ofconcept activation carries motivational value to approachor avoidance behavior (Eitam & Higgins, 2010; Ferguson &Bargh, 2004). For example, exploring the metaphorical links

Please cite this article as: Shalev, I., Implicit energy loss: Embodied dryness cues indx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2013.09.011

between physical and social temperatures (e.g., “warm smile,”“cold as ice”), researchers found that participants perceiveothers as “warmer” after they have held a warm rather than acold cup of coffee (Bargh & Shalev, 2012; Williams & Bargh,2008) and, conversely, experience a room as physically colderafter having been socially rejected (Zhong & Leonardelli,2008). Similarly, washing one's hands also “washes away”feelings of guilt (Lee & Schwarz, 2010, 2011; Zhong &Liljenquist, 2006), and sweet taste preferences and experiencespredict pro-social inferences, personalities, and behaviors(Meier, Moeller, et al., 2012; Meier, Schnall, et al., 2012).

Following the logic of embodied cognition, there is evidencethat firming one's muscles can help firm willpower and thatfirmed willpower mediates one's ability to invest energy inlong-term goals (Hung & Labroo, 2011). However, little isknown of the association between physical or environmentalcues and reduced energy for action.

To understand the source of embodied concepts, some notethat higher mental processes reuse evolutionarily olderprograms (Anderson et al., 2012); others suggest that this typeof embodiment appears to be rooted in early associatedexperiences in the physical world (Bargh, Schwader, Hailey,Dyer, & Boothby, 2012). Studies indicate that more than onemechanism is probably involved in producing embodimenteffects—semantics (e.g., the physical concept of “dryness” isalso a synonym for the concepts “drained” and “exhausted”),pan-cultural perceptions (see Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007), orhard-wired mechanisms (Kang, Williams, Clark, Gray, &Bargh, 2010).

In harmony with the embodied cognition perspective, wehypothesized that another potential influence on energy isconcept activation of thirst/dryness, a subjective sensationaroused by liquid deprivation of a person or environment. Thedryness metaphor is associated with feeling drained, empty, anddepleted in many languages (e.g., Arabic, Hebrew, Spanish).

According to the embodied cognition perspective, the thirst/dryness metaphor could be activated on the conceptual orphysical level. The physical level of dryness is associated withthirst, a basic homeostatic need, which signals the need forimmediate satisfaction. There is evidence that the physicaldiscomfort induced by moderate dehydration negativelyinfluence subjective perceptions of mental energy. Forexample, deterioration of cognitive performance during mildwater restriction has been observed for a lower performance intasks involving sustained concentration or short-term memorywhen compared to hydrated controls (Labbe et al., 2009).Research has demonstrated the association between physicalthirst and cognitive accessibility of drinking-related cues,suggesting that basic homeostatic needs such as thirst cause aheightened motivation and perceptual readiness to environ-mental cues that is instrumental in satisfying immediate needs.For example, evidence for the thirst body–mind associationindicates that participants who were made thirsty respondedfaster to drinking-related items in a lexical decision task andperformed better on an incidental recall task of drinking-relateditems relative to a control group (Aarts, Dijksterhuis, & Vries,2001).




3I. Shalev / Journal of Consumer Psychology xx, x (2013) xxx–xxx

The sensation of dryness is not only associated solely withthe individual's physical need for homeostasis, but it is alsoingrained in culture and history—indeed, civilization hashistorically flourished along coasts rather than deserts,suggesting that not only thirst but also environmental,nonhuman cues such as parched landscapes, arid-land fruits,or desert products may similarly influence the experience ofdepletion.

Thirst and dryness could also be activated at the metaphoriclevel, indicating deficiency (e.g., “a thirst for love”) and, thus,inhibits long-term goals. As people regularly speak of beingparticularly drained, this metaphor could be associated withanother core metaphor of the body as a container (Schnall, 2013)that can be either filled with energy or depleted/emptied of it.

Based on the centrality of homeostatic needs (e.g.,temperature, thirst) (Farrell et al., 2006; Hull, 1943), we arguethat the embodied mind serves a functional purpose, namely,aiding in self-regulatory processes (Balcetis & Cole, 2009;Bargh & Shalev, 2012), such as in the estimation of availableenergy in the face of homeostatic needs. Understandingthe environmental conditions that influence the experience ofdepletion is important for any task that demands self-regulationand may have consequences for consumer psychology. Forexample, activation of the dryness metaphor may increasemotivation to consume beverages, decrease motivation toinvest in long-term goals, and increase tendency for impulsiveshopping. Similarly, perception of arid environments may havea spillover effect on product evaluation or impressionformation. For instance, visual images of an arid environmentor semantic dryness concepts published on consumer websitesmay influence consumers' energy to engage in long-terminvestment or influence personal impressions of workers orproducts. We suggest that the dryness metaphor influencesperceived vitality and action initiation, as well as the capacityfor self-regulation.

Present research

Pursuing this line of thought, in the present set of studies, weexamined the effect of the embodied cognition metaphor ofdryness on perceived energy. We suggest a basic modelwhereby the embodied dryness/thirst metaphor is activated bydifferent levels of dehydration cues (semantic concept, visualimages, and physical sensation), and we argue that these primesactivate a cognitive representation of dryness and, in turn,reduce perceived energy. This prediction was tested bymeasuring the effect of physical and conceptual dryness in aseries of four studies. The first study tested the associationbetween dryness-related concepts and psychological feelings ofthirst and tiredness by documenting how dryness-relatedconcepts (vs. quenched vs. neutral ones) influenced perceivedthirst, perceived tiredness, subjective vitality, and affect. Thesecond study tested the effect of physical thirst on persistencymeasured by performance. The participants were made thirstyby eating a salty snack (vs. mint candies vs. a control) and thenattempted an unsolvable anagram task. In the third study, wetested the prediction that visual images of arid land (vs. land


featuring water vs. a control) would increase procrastination inpreparing to make a monetary investment. Finally, in the fourthstudy, we examined the idea that environmental cues and typesof products affect one's perceptions of other peoples' energylevels. We conducted a perception task involving three scena-rios including nonhuman products. Based on the idea thatactivated concepts operate on content in the environment, evenif the effect of that content is not intended (Bargh, Green, &Fitzsimons, 2008), we tested the prediction that a personpresented in an environment of products related to drynesswould be perceived as less vital than one in an environmentrelated to products that were wet or neutral. This prediction wasconceptually replicated in Study 4b by testing the idea that theproducts a commercial worker sells (hair dryers vs. wet-lookhair spray) influence the perceived vitality of that marketingagent.

Finally, based on the assumption that dryness induces theexperience of dysregulation, whereas a homeostatic state actsmore as a default, we expected that dryness-related primes wouldproduce stronger effects than would water-related primes. Thispattern (a stronger effect of the negative compared to the positiveend of the dimension under scrutiny) is in harmony with thegeneral principle that “bad is stronger than good” in terms ofstimulus effects on judgment, subjective states, and socialbehavior (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer, & Vohs, 2001).Thus, because our research activates a deficiency metaphor, weexpected that dryness-related cues would markedly depleteperceived energy (compared to quenched or control conditions)of individuals, whereas quenched-related cues would beassociated more closely with homeostatic or normal levels ofperceived energy.

Study 1

Study 1 was designed to test the hypothesis that depletion-related concepts will increase the subjective sense of thirst andtiredness and decreased subjective vitality. To test this, the“scrambled sentence test” priming method (Bargh & Chartrand,2000; Srull & Wyer, 1979) in which participants first creategrammatically correct sentences out of each of a series of wordsets was used to unobtrusively expose subjects to conceptsrelated to dryness (vs. quenched or neutral conditions). Next,participants completed several scales in a random order.

Methods

ParticipantsA total of 157 students of Ben Gurion University in Beer

Sheva, Israel (112 females, 45 males) volunteered to participatein the study in exchange for a credit course. The sample rangedfrom 21 to 33 years of age, with a mean age of 24.77 (SD =2.16).

ProcedureThe study was presented as two unrelated studies on syntax

and vocabulary. The participants arrived at the laboratory andsigned consent forms with an experimenter who was blind to




Table 1Correlations between thirst, tiredness, subjective vitality, positive affect andnegative affect in Study 1 (N = 157).

Variables 1 2 3 4 5

1. Thirst –2. Tiredness .49 ⁎⁎⁎ –3. Vitality − .44 ⁎⁎⁎ − .47 ⁎⁎⁎ –4. PA − .34 ⁎⁎⁎ − .29 ⁎⁎⁎ .58 ⁎⁎⁎ –5. NA .20 ⁎ .18 ⁎⁎ − .33 ⁎⁎⁎ 0 –

⁎ p b .05.⁎⁎ p b .01.⁎⁎⁎ p b .001.


the research hypothesis. They were randomly assigned tocomplete one of three versions of a scrambled sentence primingtask corresponding respectively to dryness, quenched, orneutral primes and consisting of 15 sets of five scrambledwords each. For each set, participants were asked to choosefour words to compose a grammatically correct sentence. Forthe dryness prime, half the sets contained dryness-related words(i.e., arid, dehydration, desert, drought, dry); for the quenchedprime, half of the sets included words related to satiation (i.e.,quenched, satiated, saturation, watered, replete); and for theneutral prime, all the sets contained words unrelated todepletion or satiation. None of the words used in theexperiment were related to human objects. Surveys werehanded to participants in closed envelopes that included oneof the three versions of the scrambled sentence task and copiesof the following scales in a random order:

Thirst scale. This is a one-item self-reported scale.Participants were asked to rate the extent to which theycurrently felt thirsty on an 11-point Likert scale (0 = not atall to 10 = very much).Tiredness scale. Subjects were asked to rate the extent towhich they currently felt tired on an 11-point Likert scale(0 = not at all to 10 = very much).Subjective vitality scale (SVS; Ryan & Frederick, 1997).This scale consists of seven items: “I feel alive and vital” “Ihave energy and spirit,” “I don't feel very energetic,” (andconversely) “I feel alert and awake,” “I look forward to eachnew day,” “I feel energized,” and “I feel so alive I just wantto burst.” Responses were made on a 1 (strongly disagree) to7 (strongly agree) scale with respect to how participants felt“right now.” Internal consistency for the scale in the presentsample was acceptable (Cronbach's α = .82).PANAS (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). This scaleincludes two higher-order scale scores for positive affect andnegative affect. Responses for 20 positive or negativeemotion words were made on a 1 (very little or not at all)to 5 (extremely) scale with respect to how participants felt“right now.” Internal consistency in the current sample wasadequate for negative affect (Cronbach's α = .82) and forpositive affect (Cronbach's α = .86).

Lastly, participants were debriefed as to their awareness ofthe study goals. In this case, none of the participants was awareof them.

Results and discussion

Before performing the analyses examining the effects of thedryness primes on the various dependent variables, Pearsonproduct–moment correlation coefficients were computed toexamine the relationships between the dependent variables (seeTable 1).

A one-way between-group MANOVA with the environ-mental prime as the independent variable and five measures(thirst, tiredness, subjective vitality, positive affect, andnegative affect) as dependent variables was conducted to


evaluate the effect of physical dryness concepts (vs. quenchedvs. neutral) on self-reported energy.

The analysis revealed a significant multivariate main effectfor the environmental prime, Wilks's λ = .839, F(10,296) =2.71, p = . 003, ηp

2 = .084. Given the significance of theoverall test, one-way ANOVAs were conducted on each of thevariables independently. Next, based on our predictions, weconducted planned comparisons between the dry and neutralconditions and between the quenched and dry conditions.These comparisons were conducted because we theorized thatthe effect would be mostly driven by the dry condition (seeTable 2).

Given the above results, four out of the five dependentself-reported measures provided strong support for theresearch hypothesis by revealing that dryness primesincreased the experience of physical thirst and tiredness anddecreased subjective vitality. The findings demonstrate themetaphoric association between arid land and personalexperience of thirst and tiredness. Consistent with ourprediction, when comparing the dry and neutral conditions,most of the effects were driven by the dry condition andcannot be explained by negative or positive affect. However,there is also evidence that positive affect is associated with thequenched condition. A possible explanation for this is thesemantic association between words related to satiation,reinforcement, and positive affect.

Study 2

The results of Study 1 support the hypothesis that thedryness metaphor could be activated by dryness-relatedconcepts. People tend to feel thirsty, tired, and less vital whenexposed to the conceptual level of the dryness metaphor.According to our model, experiences of depletion can similarlybe induced by the physical experiences of thirst. Study 2 testedthe idea that physical thirst will deplete persistence inperformance task. In this study, persistence at working onunsolvable puzzles was examined because it has frequentlybeen used as a behavioral measure of frustration tolerance,which is one aspect of consumers' ability to invest effort inlong-term goals (e.g., mortgage payments) (Baumeister,Sparks, Stillman, & Vohs, 2008). For our purposes, it issignificant that self-regulation requires personal persistence inpursuing a long-term goal despite the temptation to quit a




Table 2ANOVAS, planned comparisons, means and standard deviations by experimental group in Study 1 (N = 157).

Experimental groups Planned comparisons (two-tailed)

Scale A Q N F(2,154) p η2 Contrast t(154) p η2

Thirst 5.73 4.22 4.50 5.16 .007 .06 a 2.43 .01 .036(2.52) (2.65) (2.50) b 3.02 .003 .055

Tiredness 5.56 4.20 4.07 5.82 .004 .07 a 3.06 .003 .050(2.59) (2.66) (2.12) b 2.82 .005 .048

Vitality 4.04 4.66 4.36 6.24 .002 .07 a 1.74 .074 n.s(.88) (.90) (.92) b 3.53 .002 .075

PA 2.54 2.94 2.62 4.46 .013 .05 a .60 .54 n.s(.75) (.76) (.60) b 2.84 .005 .040

NA 1.61 1.70 1.69 .32 .72 n.s a − .67 .50 n.s(.56) (.54) (.62) b − .72 .47 n.s

Note. Experimental groups: A = arid, Q = quenched, N = neutral. Standard deviations appear in parentheses below means. For PA: F(2,153), t(153); for NA:F(2,152), t(152). Contrasts: arid vs. neutral = a, arid vs. quenched = b.


frustrating task. Based on this logic, participants with lessregulatory capacity—presumably, the ones who were thirsty—should quit the task sooner than other participants.

Methods

ParticipantsNinety-four undergraduates from various university

departments of Ben-Gurion University (75 females and 19males) participated in the study in exchange for a smallmonetary compensation. Their ages ranged from 21 to29 years, with a mean age of 24.18 (SD = 1.52).

ProcedureThe study was presented as several unrelated tasks.

Participants arrived to the lab individually. They filled outconsent forms and were asked if they had any food allergies.Next, to eliminate possible differences in participants' initialperceived energy levels, they completed the subjective vitalityscale. Then participants were randomly assigned to one ofthree experimental conditions (thirst, quenched, and control).In the thirst condition, the participants were asked to identifydifferent flavors of salty Pringles chips (original, salt, sourcream, onion, barbecue, and pizza) that were in a small bowl.In the quenched condition, participants were asked to identifythe flavor of white candies (a combination of mints) that werein a small bowl. Previous research indicates that mint-flavoredgels or mint candies scored as being significantly morerefreshing than other flavors (Labbe, Gilbert, Antille, &Martin, 2009; Westerink & Kozlov, 2004). In both conditions,participants were asked to taste the items in the bowl and towrite answers to the following questions: “What was theflavor of the Pringles or candy?” and “Would you recommendit to your friends?” The empty bowls were collected when thetask was completed. In the neutral condition, participants weregiven a sheet of paper with black and white photos and askedto identify popular locations in writing (e.g., the Leaning


Tower of Pisa, White House, Eiffel Tower, Old City ofJerusalem, Taj Mahal, and Victory Gate). Next, for amanipulation check, all of the participants were asked toreport the extent to which they currently felt thirsty on a7-point Likert scale (1 = not at all thirsty to 7 = very thirsty)and their current mood state on an 8-point bipolar Likert scale(−4 = very negative to 4 = very positive). After that,participants were handed a list of 25 anagrams of 7 letterseach. Out of the 25 anagrams, four were solvable, whereas theother 21 were not. Participants were asked to raise a hand—first when they completed reading the task instructions andnext when they wanted to continue on to the next task. Whenparticipants completed reading the instructions theexperimenter measured the time they invested in the anagramtask with a stopwatch. The participants were then handed thedebriefing report as to their awareness of the study goal. Twoparticipants who reported being aware of this goal were thusexcluded from the sample. Finally, participants were thanked,paid, and dismissed.

Results

Base-line subjective vitality scoresInternal consistency for the scale was acceptable

(Cronbach's α = .77). A one-way ANOVA revealed nosignificant main effect for subjective vitality, F(2,91) = .13,p = .87, indicating no differences in base-line subjectivevitality between the experimental conditions.

Thirst manipulation checkA one-way ANOVA revealed a significant difference in

thirst between the experimental groups, F(2,90) = 17.80,p ≤ .0001. Summary statistics for the three conditions are asfollows: thirsty condition (M = 5.68, SD = .211), quenchedcondition (M = 4.03, SD = .214), and neutral condition (M =4.25, SD = .218).





Mood effectsA one-way ANOVA revealed no significant difference in

mood between the experimental groups, F(2,90) = .021, p =.97. Summary statistics for the three conditions are as follows:thirsty condition (M = 2.34, SD = 1.69), quenched condition(M = 2.32, SD = 1.37), and neutral condition (M = 2.26,SD = 1.43).

We hypothesized that thirst would deplete participants'performance in the anagram task as compared to the quenchedand control conditions. A one-way ANOVA was conducted totest this hypothesis, F(2,91) = 3.61, p = .031, ηp

2 = .074.Consistent with our prediction, the time invested in theunsolvable anagram task was less in the thirsty condition(M = 4.20, SD = 2.33) than in the quenched condition (M =5.55, SD = 2.04, t(91) = 2.50, p = .014, ηp

2 = .063) or theneutral condition (M = 5.32, SD = 2.04, t(91) = 2.07, p =.04, ηp

2 = .043). These findings suggest that the effect wasmainly driven by the dryness manipulation, indicating thatphysical thirst reduced persistency in a frustrating task. Thus,consistent with our prediction, physical thirst impairsself-regulation.

Study 3

Thus far, we have shown that people tend to feel thirsty andtired after semantic exposure that activates the drynessmetaphor, and we have shown that physical thirst influencespersistence in performance. Study 3 moved beyond the first twostudies by testing the effect of visual environmental imagesrather than semantic or physical cues. As consumers must oftenmake decisions at a specific point in time (Baumeister et al.,2008), procrastination in making these decisions may beinfluenced by the experience of depletion. Based on theassumption that external triggers can predispose an organismtoward perceived costs of an intended action, we hypothesizedthat activation of the dryness metaphor by revealing an imageof land that was arid would increase participants' procras-tination toward beginning preparation for a monetary invest-ment compared to showing a land image featuring water or tothe control condition.

Methods

ParticipantsA sample of 156 MTurk respondents in the U.S. (70

females, 86 males) was recruited.Seven participants who did not follow the online instructions

were not coded. The sample ranged from 18 to 75 years of age,with a mean age of 32.24 (SD = 12.41).

ProcedureThe study was presented as two unrelated tasks. Participants

were randomly assigned to visualize one of three images (aridland, land with water, and a control; see Appendix 2). Thelandscape images were identical except for the foreground,which was composed using a Photoshop program. We utilized


an immersion manipulation check from Weinstein et al. (2009).All participants read the following instructions:

Imagine yourself in this place. Look around, noticing allaspects of your environment. Pay attention to the colors.Notice the textures. Imagine yourself breathing in the air;notice any smells that may be present. Imagine any soundsyou may hear. Let yourself take in all the aspects of theenvironment in front of you.

Next, participants were asked to rate the extent to which theyfelt they were in the place they saw on a 5-point Likert scale(1 = not at all to 5 = very much).

Following this, in an ostensibly different task, the partici-pants were given a temporal preference task inspired by Freitas,Liberman, Salovey, and Higgins (2002, Study 2). The partici-pants read the following text:

Please imagine that you plan to apply for a monetaryinvestment. To complete the application, you will need toprovide your financial records and write an essay about yourlife. The deadline to submit the application is three monthsfrom now. When would you most want to begin writing theessay? (13-point scale: 0 = today, 4 = in 4 weeks, 8 = in8 weeks, 12 = on the last day).

Next, the participants filled in a 10-point Likert currentmood scale (1 = very negative to 10 = very positive). Last, theywere debriefed as to their awareness of the experimentalhypotheses. None of the participants were able to identify thepurpose of the study with any accuracy.

Results and discussion

Preliminary analysis

Pearson product–moment correlation coefficients werecomputed to examine the relationships between the dependentvariables. Significant positive associations were obtainedbetween immersion and mood (r = .20, p = .012, N = 155,two-tailed). Significant negative associations were obtainedbetween immersion and time preference (r = .18, p = .02, N =155, two-tailed).

Manipulation check

A one-way ANOVA revealed no difference in immersionbetween the experimental groups, F(2,153) = .39, p = .67.Summary statistics for the three conditions are as follows: aridland (M = 3.34, SD = 1.73), land with water (M = 3.11, SD =1.14), and the neutral condition (M = 3.17, SD = 1.14).

To check the research hypothesis that an arid-land imagewill reduce preference to begin an application for a monetaryinvestment as compared to an image of land with water or acontrol group, we conducted a one-way between-groupsMANOVA. The analysis revealed a significant multivariatemain effect for environmental prime, Wilks's λ = .934,F(4,302) = 3.59, p = .036, ηp

2 = .033. Given the significance





of the overall test and the planned comparisons, one-way ANOVAs were independently conducted on the twovariables.

Time preference

We hypothesized that participants viewing the arid imagewould be less motivated to begin the task compared to theimage with water or the control condition. As expected, asignificant main effect was revealed for the image condition,F(2,153) = 4.70, p = .010, ηp

2 = .058. The analysis wasfollowed by planned comparison tests that suggest that themean time preference about when to begin the task score waslonger in the dryness condition (M = 6.19, SD = 4.17) than inthe land with water (M = 4.30, SD = 3.96, t(153) = 2.40, p =.017, ηp

2 = .03) and neutral conditions (M = 3.96, SD = 3.82,t(153) = −2.85, p = .005, ηp

2 = .05).

Mood

The findings indicate no difference in mood between thethree conditions: F(2,152) = 1.27, p = .28. Summary statisticsfor the three conditions are as follows: arid-land condition(M = 6.67, SD = 2.10), land with water condition (M = 6.80,SD = 1.88), and neutral condition (M = 7.34, SD = 2.00).These findings further support the effect of visual drynessprimes on perceived energy for action initiation.

Study 4a

The first three studies have shown that individuals'perceived energy was influenced by physical or environmentalcues associated with dryness. If as predicted, the physicaldryness cues activate more abstract, psychological concepts ofenergy and resource depletion, dryness primes should affectone's impressions of other people as well as feelings of one'sown energy level. Consumers are often involved in multiplehuman interactions (e.g., with marketing agents). However,little is known about the effect of environmental cues andproducts on their attitudes. Many studies have shown thatidentical priming manipulations influence both one'sperceptions of others and one's own subsequent behaviors(e.g., Bargh, Gollwitzer, Lee-Chai, Barndollar, & Troetschel,2001, Experiment 2; see review in Dijksterhuis & Bargh,2001). Following the procedure of Nisbett and Bellows (1977),we conducted a person–perception experiment in whichparticipants were asked to evaluate the subjective vitality ofa person in a dry-product environment (e.g., dryer/driedapple) vs. a water-related product environment (e.g., washingmachine/fresh apple) vs. a neutral-product environment (e.g.,refrigerator/packaged apple). All other factors in the vignetteswere held constant. We predicted that the person in the dryproduct environment would be perceived as less vital than theperson in the wet or neutral product environment. Furthermore,we predicted that participants would have no awareness of thesource of their judgments.


Methods

ParticipantsParticipants were 300 MTurk respondents in the U.S. (154

females and 146 males) who participated in an online study inexchange for a small monetary compensation.

Thirteen participants who did not follow the onlineinstructions were not coded. Their ages ranged from 18 to70 years, with a mean age of 33.40 (SD = 11.88).

ProcedureThe study was presented as a reading comprehension task.

The participants were randomly assigned to read one of threestory versions. The story described a coincidental meeting ofthe narrator with her cousin “Yanna” in a grocery store (seeAppendix 2). They had gone to school together and had beenoffered internships in different parts of the country. The twocousins spent time sharing stories of internship experiences.The experimental and control versions of the stories wereidentical except for several key references in which remindersof Yanna's property are mentioned (e.g., Yanna's dryer vs.washing machine vs. refrigerator). After reading one version ofthe story, participants rated Yanna's vitality on the subjectivevitality scale (SVS; Ryan & Frederick, 1997). Internalconsistency for the scale was sufficient (Cronbach's α = .90).Responses were made on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (stronglyagree) scale with respect to Yanna's vitality (e.g., “Yanna hasenergy and spirit”). Finally, they were debriefed and thanked;none were able to guess the experimental hypothesis.

ResultsWe hypothesized that the dry primes would reduce the

perceived vitality of Yanna compared to the water-relatedprimes and control conditions. A planned comparison testconfirmed this hypothesis. The mean subjective vitality scorewas lower in the dryness-related primes (M = 4.26, SD = 1.24)than in the water-related primes (M = 4.93, SD = .99, t(297) =4.25, p = .0001, ηp

2 = .057) or in the neutral condition (M =4.61, SD = 1.14, t(297) = 2.43, p = .01, ηp

2 = .018).Consistent with our prediction, these findings suggest that thiseffect was mainly driven by the dryness-related primes.

Study 4b

Commercial websites or advertisements often include workers'job descriptions as well as relevant product images. Based on theidea that exposure to the thirst/dryness metaphor has a spillovereffect that engenders impression of perceived vitality, thisconceptual replication study tested the effect of dryness-relatedconsumer products on impression formation. The participantswere exposed to commercial like descriptions of workers whomarket either hair dryers or styling spray that make the hair lookwet and were asked to rate their vitality. We predicted thatparticipants exposed to the hair-dryer vs. the wet-look hair spray(e.g., hair serum spray, spray gel) condition would rate themarketing agent associated with the dry products as less vital. Thisfinding would converge with the results of Study 4a.





Methods

ParticipantsThe participants were 122 students of Ben-Gurion University

(92 females, 30males) who were recruited in the student center inexchange for a candy bar. The sample ranged from 19 to 35 yearsof age, with a mean age of 24.72 (SD = 2.50).

ProcedureThe participants were randomly assigned to read one of two

commercial descriptions. The two versions included a similardescription of Sarah who works in “Hair Dryers” a companythat markets hair dryers (vs. “Wet-Look Hair Spray”). As partof Sarah's job, she demonstrates to clients how the dryers (vs.the wet-look spray) work to dry (vs. wet) hair. Next,participants were asked to rate Sarah's vitality on the subjectivevitality scale (SVS; Ryan & Frederick, 1997). Responses weremade on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) scale withrespect to Sarah's vitality (Cronbach's α = .86).

Finally, participants were debriefed as to their awareness ofthe experimental hypotheses. None of them were able toidentify the purpose of the study.

ResultsAn independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare

the subjective vitality scores in the hair dryer versus wet-lookhair spray conditions. Consistent with our hypothesis that thedryness product will have a spillover effect on the targetedperson's perceived vitality, participants considered the targetperson to be less vital in the hair-dryer (M = 3.59, SD = .99)than the wet-look spray (M = 4.14, SD = 1.29) condition,t(120) = 2.82, p = .006.

General discussion

Extensive research on consumer behavior has demonstratedthat thirst increases the basic act of beverage consumption(Wadhwa et al., 2008). The present research indicates that theconsequences of human and nonhuman dryness-related cues gobeyond merely quenching thirst. In the four studies weconducted, we obtained evidence that physical and conceptualdryness-related cues influence perceived energy. In Study 1,activation of dryness-related concepts using a scrambledsentence task increased the experience of physical thirst andtiredness and decreased self-reported vitality. In Study 2,participants who were thirsty from eating a salty snack wereless persistent in continuing an anagram task as compared toquenched participants or the control group. In Study 3,participants primed with visual images of arid land were morelikely to procrastinate in initiating a monetary investment taskcompared to participants primed with visual images of land andwater or a control group. In Study 4a, the priming effect ofphysical dryness cues from inserting words associated withdryness irrelevantly into a story extended to impressions ofother people's perceived vitality, suggesting that the drynessmetaphor has a spillover effect on impression formation. Thesefindings were conceptually replicated in Study 4b, indicating


that dryness-related products in a commercial contextinfluenced the evaluation of the vitality of a marketing agent.

These findings indicate the multilevel processing of thedryness metaphor (Landau et al., 2010), indicating the presenceof a possible semantics mechanism. The physical concept of“drained” is also understood as “tired” in different languages(e.g., in Arabic, the same word is used for dryness and useless,in Hebrew, dryness describes a state of low energy). Likewise,our findings were obtained by visual processing of dryness-related photos and physical thirst and were obtained by usingmultiple perceptual methods. In Study 1, we used the scrambledsentence task that induced the experience of thirst. In Study 3,participants were exposed to a visual image and were asked toimagine they were there. In Study 4a, the participants wereexposed to dryness-related products in an irrelevant context,and in Study 4b, the participants were exposed to drynessconcepts in a commercial context. A similar pattern of resultswas obtained by making participants physically thirsty in Study2. These findings are also in line with the somatic markerhypothesis (Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio, 1991) according towhich perception of somatic state information makes us morelikely to approach or withdraw from a situation. These somaticsignals can also function at a nonconscious level, where theindividual is unaware of his/her bodily activity.

Research on visceral states suggests that only physical thirststrengthens the general belief in states of the world that “fit”that visceral experience (Risen & Critcher, 2011); however, thefindings of this set of studies suggest that either physical orconceptual aspects of the dryness metaphor operate similarlytoward goal activation (Bargh & Morsella, 2010).

The results of the present research also contribute to theliterature on motivation. Whereas ample research demonstratesthat motivational factors moderate typical depletion effects(Inzlicht & Schmeichel, 2012; Job et al., 2010; Muraven &Slessareva, 2003), the present research demonstrates the effectof incidental contextual cues on the experience of depletion. Itis important to note that individuals rarely put themselves in thesituation of experiencing extreme dehydration, which helps toexplain that physical and psychological reactions are influencedby momentary experiences. Our findings suggest that percep-tual activity, just by itself, can trigger a wide variety of highermental processes through the automatic activation of physicaland psychological concepts (Bargh, 2002; Bargh et al., 2012;Veltkamp, Custers, & Aarts, 2011).

Our findings also highlight the association between energyand perceived affordances that have been demonstrated instudies with animals, indicating that animals optimize theirenergy expenditures in ways that must be supported byperception (Warren, 1983). Pursing this line of thought,experiences of energy and depletion may not necessarily beassociated with the self's capacity or the self's willingness toengage in volitional action (see also Ackerman, Goldstein,Shapiro, & Bargh, 2009; Bargh & Huang, 2009). Researchindicates that experiences of reduced energy may be influencedby nonconscious processes that interact with each other andalso with conscious processes (Chartrand, 2005; Chartrand &Fitzsimons, 2011; Hofmann et al., 2008).





Following this view, our findings propose a complimentaryperspective that physical or environmental cues signal theenergetic costs of action and, subsequently, influence willingnessto engage in additional volitional action (Baumeister et al., 1998).From the perspective of needs satisfaction (Ryan & Deci, 2008),physical and environmental dryness cues may signal animmediate need for homeostasis, thus, a delay in satisfaction ofpsychological needs associated with greater subjective vitality(Ryan & Deci, 2008).

The implications for consumer behavior are diverse. Ourfindings indicate that concept activation through websites orcommercials influences thirst and tiredness, which may havedirect application on consumer behavior (e.g., increasedbeverage consumption). Similarly, our findings suggest thatphysical thirst reduces frustration tolerance. The influence ofdryness primes on energy for action was further demonstratedin our studies by participants' tendency to procrastinate whenfaced with needing to begin an application for monetaryinvestment. Consumers are often faced with the task of makingmultiple decisions at a specific point in time (Baumeister et al.,2008). From this reasoning, a state of perceived energy lossmay affect decision making or action initiation (e.g., whetheror not to invest money in the stock market or to purchase aproduct).

Following the same logic, our findings suggest that names orphotos of dryness-related products have a spillover effect onimpression formation. These findings may have multipleapplications for advertisement and website design. Consumerresearch has often investigated the effects of messages onconsumer attitudes toward products; however, little is knownabout the effect of environmental conditions or products on ourattitudes affecting our own energy, our energy evaluation ofothers, and the perceived costs of an anticipated action.

The significance of this work resides in its establishment of aframework that will contribute to further investigation of theembodied cognition of dryness/thirst perceived energy andautomatic self-regulation. Our set of studies was conducted inIsrael and in the U.S.; future research will further examine thepossible associations between bodily experiences of thirst anddepletion in variety of socio-cultural context, informed bycultural imperatives, values, and habits (Leung, Qiu, Ong, &Tam, 2011). Application of embodied cognition models toresearch on energy can open up new research avenues andintervention to better control implicit energy loss (Shalev &Bargh, 2011). Intervention based on visual imagery or theactivation of body–mind associations could potentially haveimportant implications for consumer behavior, human moti-vation, performance, and functioning in a variety of domains.

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank Aradhna Krishna, Norbert Schwarz, and theanonymous reviewers for their very helpful comments in regardto this manuscript; John A. Bargh and Joseph Tzelgov for manyvaluable discussions on related issues; and Tamar Amit, BarKitay, Gon Lavi, Yael Lokiec, Limor Nuss, Maya Simon, and


Osnat Snir for their able assistance in data collection anddiscussions over lab meetings.

Appendix 1. Photos used for Study 3

Appendix 2. Stories used in Study 4a

In September or it could have been early October last year,by chance, I met my cousin Yanna in a grocery store. We hadstudied together and later had internships in different parts of





the country. I remember that Yanna had long hair and that Ialways enjoyed reading her magazines. I also remember thenoisy dryer that was located in the corner of her living room. Itwas always humming when I visited. I was excited to suddenlysee Yanna and hear all about her experiences. We planned to goto a movie, and Yanna wanted to buy some dried apples first.While she was paying for the dried apples, I needed to makesome phone calls and could not talk to her. Later that day,Yanna told me all about her internship. She said she now livesin a house I know very well. In fact, I used to garden in its dryback yard. The movie was interesting and our time togethermade me feel nostalgic about my school days. Okay, I know itsounds a bit silly because tomorrow I must get back to myoffice to meet one of my clients.

Water-related condition

In September or it could have been early October last year,by chance, I met my cousin Yanna in a grocery store. We hadstudied together and later had internships in different parts ofthe country. I remember that Yanna had long hair and that Ialways enjoyed reading her magazines. I also remember thenoisy washer that was located in the corner of her living room.It was always humming when I visited. I was excited tosuddenly see Yanna and hear all about her experiences. Weplanned to go to a movie, and Yanna wanted to buy some freshapples first. While she was paying for the fresh apples, I neededto make some phone calls and could not talk to her. Later thatday, Yanna told me all about her internship. She said she nowlives in a house I know very well. In fact, I used to garden in itswatery back yard. The movie was interesting and our timetogether made me feel nostalgic about my school days. Okay, Iknow it sounds a bit silly because tomorrow I must get back tomy office to meet one of my clients.

Neutral condition

In September or it could have been early October last year,by chance, I met my cousin Yanna in a grocery store. We hadstudied together and later had internships in different parts ofthe country. I remember that Yanna had long hair and that Ialways enjoyed reading her magazines. I also remember thenoisy refrigerator that was located in the corner of her livingroom. It was always humming when I visited. I was excited tosuddenly see Yanna and hear all about her experiences. Weplanned to go to a movie, and Yanna wanted to buy somepackaged apples first. While she was paying for the packagedapples, I needed to make some phone calls and could not talkto her. Later that day, Yanna told me all about her internship.She said she now lives in a house I know very well. In fact, Iused to garden in its brown back yard. The movie wasinteresting and our time together made me feel nostalgic aboutmy school days. Okay, I know it sounds a bit silly becausetomorrow I must get back to my office to meet one of myclients.


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