Student Number: 1061772 Module code: ETM703

Module name: Pedagogy

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Student Number: 1061772 Date: 13/09/2012

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Due Date: 13/09/12 Date Submitted: 13/09/12

Required length…5000.words Actual length 4516 words

The

aim

of this research is to help to improve Literacy within X school and

to also improve on my practice as a teacher. The OFSTED report for

School X in 2011 stated the following:

What does the school need to do to improve further?

Raise students’ attainment in English and mathematics further, so that by 2012, it is

consistently in line with national averages.

They also stated in their section of what needed to improve that

they asked the leadership of the school to

“Help even more of you to gain higher GCSE grades, particularly in English and

Mathematics”

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My word count is within the required word length andthis is printed on my work and on this form.

I have made sure that my name does not appear in my work.

I have checked that every author I mention appears in my reference list.

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I have kept a backup copy of my work.

Based on this, the decision was made to focus on Literacy within X

school and improve on its delivery and understanding.

School X is a comprehensive school with a high ratio of English as

an additional Language (EAL) and special educational needs (SEN) in

the inner city, with a high level of disadvantaged students.The

school has a population of just over 1000 students. Over 60

different languages are spoken, including English. We have students

with a wide range of special needs. We also cater for students with

profound and multiple learning disabilities (PMLD). A number of

pupils who are EAL are often placed into GCSE PE, and choose the

subject based on the fact that it is sport without truly

understanding the depth of Knowledge needed to attain at least a C

grade. The challenge therefore is even greater as it includes

teaching the students key words in a Language that they hardly

understand.

It is said that

“Literacy unites the important skills of reading and writing. It also involves speaking

and listening, which, although they are not separately identified in the Framework,

are an essential part of it. Good oral work enhances pupils’ understanding of

language in both oral and written forms and of the way language can be used to

communicate. Thus the framework ……………. contributes substantially to the

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development of speaking and listening. It is also relevant to teaching across the

whole National Curriculum ………….” (Dfes 2002)

When one thinks of literacy in Physical education many things come

to mind. One main thing is understanding that each subject area will

have its own set of words and pedagogy. There are everyday words in

PE that mean something else depending on the context, for example

words such as field and pitch (Dfes 2002). These words will be apparent

to the teacher but not necessarily to the students. Teaching

literacy across the school curriculum can in a sense prove to be

unfair to some subjects as some have the burdened task that their

subject may weigh more heavily on one particular area of literacy

than the other for example in subjects such as English and History

where there is an emphasis on writing which is just one of the three

areas of literacy.

The National Strategies (2004) discusses 3 main areas of

cross-curricular focus in relation to promoting literacy and

learning in Physical Education, these areas are learning

through talk, learning from text and learning through writing.

They have provided very detailed guidance on how to

implement and monitor these 3 areas . In my opinion the

documet has been comprehensive and carries all the

guidelines needed for all teachers within PE to embed literacy3

into our PE curriculum. I am in agreement as all the Schemes

of Work (SoW) within PE have been created to include cross-

curricular focus on two particular areas literacy and

numeracy.

According to the Pie chart found in government documentation that

covers the 9 categories of Key skills (Dfes 2004) Physical

education only falls into 4 out of these nine categories The

national strategy is not about using the limited time we have for

‘talking’ to take the place of Physical activity. Instead it has

saught to raise awareness of how Physical Education can make a

positive contribution to literacy by teaching physical skills.

The four key skills of literacy,that are very important inPhysical Education lessons, are listening, speaking, readingand writing. I believe that the 9 key skills can be covered bythe four aspect mentioned before and therefore we can fit intoall categories in some small way.

An example I will use is that of Using talk to clarify and present

ideas, active listening to understand, talking and thinking together

and using writing as a tool for thought. These are the obvious but

what about when we look at the other aspects of writing such as .the

ability to articulate and express ones self is very important to

do at KS3 or KS4 where students may be taking written exams or when

giving written feedback to peers. As we endeavour to include into

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KS3 PE writing which will impact sttudents writing skills at GCSE we

encourage written evaluation during KS3 which means students will

need to develop appropriate expression to give feedback to

themselves and their peers

. According to DFES (2004)

“Time spent talking through ideas, and planning before and evaluating after

performance, enhances that performance”

and if students are not aware of the language of PE they will not be

able to adequately feedback and in turn enhance theirs or their

peers performance.

“…using specific vocabulary saves time, ensures clarity and raises standards through

linking words to concepts.” (DFES 2004)

Understanding the language of the subject can also help individuals

who use English as an additional language. This will help them to

develop vocabulary and help our students to understand the

complexities, behind the English language. Understanding the

language of a specific subject will assist with language

development, speaking, writing skills, listening and reading. I have

found that within PE reading in PE at KS3 is not always promoted but

according to the DFES this should be encouraged as,

“.... the promotion of wider reading can enhance pupils’ breadth of understanding

and enjoyment of the subject;”

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If pupils are encouraged to read this can help students at KS 3 gather more information

about particular sports which could inadvertently improve their vocabulary across the

school.

Listening as another component of literacy is very important in PE

for various reasons: safety, following instructions, to understand

the task and terminology used to express it, and to improve

performance, just to name a few, this is a very important skill in

being literate in physical education. The literacy strategy sets out

clearly what children should be learning at each stage. In order to

support this work as part of the whole school drive, words used in

PE that parallel those use in other subject areas for example a quad

in sport and a quad in math should be used and brought to the

attention of the students. The main impression to be sold to

students is that literacy is a part of their everyday life.

Defining Literacy

The issues that arise when seeking a single definition of literacy

are many. The major debate over what is literacy and what it seems

to be is very iimportant when considering the education of our

students. In the first class I had we were asked in groups what we

defined literacy as; my first response was the ability to read and

write. While I guess my answer was not wrong, after much debate I

realized it was not entirely right either.

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As we progressed I begun to understand that there was definitely

more to what I thought literacy was. I soon realized that forming a

single definition would prove to be a difficult task since there are

so many things that can be seen as literacy. The easiest way of

defineing literacy is the ability to read and write (Kearns,

1985). It may however be argued that this reflects the

general concensus of the policy-makers, the government, and

the average layman. (Green 2004). This may be the same view

many teachers and students have (de Souza, 2007). Literacy

is about much more than simply being able to decode text.

Skills in literacy are needed in everyday life to read road

signs, check emails, communicating with a peers, using a

instruction manual for a new device, ordering from a menu in a

restaurant, sending text messages etc. As I continued to

search for a more appropriate definition I happened to come

upon Au’s (2004) Au's description of Literacy which states

“the ability and the willingness to use reading and writing to

construct meaning from printed text, in ways which meet the

requirements of a particular social context”.

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As an educator we take a wider view of literacy not just reading and

writing, but cognition, its history, the social factors and the

psychology of literacy

Barton (2007) suggests that we should view literacy from three

perspectives: the Social view of literacy, the Psychological view of

literacy and the Historical view. I agree with Barton on this as in

my classroom that is very multicultural and therefore they come with

different interpretations of the same text. The main reason

for this in my opinion is the cultural and historical

differences that students bring to a literacy task.

David Barton however argues that literacy is rather about linking

the growth of oral and written language and the distribution of

knowledge over the last ten thousand years. To be literate therefore

is to play your role in the world of languages and ideas. I believe

that if I play my part as an educator I will encourage students as

they read, write, and speak.

Autonomous and ideological models of literacy

Street’ points out in his writing how the autonomous model doesnt recognize

relationships between people and their cultural practices while on the other hand

the ideological model acknowledges as “inextricably linked to cultural and power

structures in society” (433). Further, Street tontinues to try to blend the

autonomous and the ideological models and speaks about the fact t that the

ideological model already provides for a blending

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The ‘autonomous’ model of literacy works from the point of

view that literacy, in itself, autonomously will have effects

on other social and cognitive practices. For example, the

introduction of literacy to an illiterate person, will have

the effect of improving their

their economic prospects, cognitive skills, and will make them

better citizens, without taking into consideration the social

and economic conditions that accounted for their pridicament

in the first place. The alternative, ideological model of

literacy offers a more culturally sensitive view of literacy

practices as they vary from one context to another. This model

starts from different premises than the autonomous model. The

ideological model is a process where people will construct a

mental model of the social world. Meanings of concepts are

often built by the language people use on a daily basis.

Historical, social, political and economic factors all

influence this model. – “it posits instead that literacy is a

social practice, not simply a technical and neutral skill. It

is about knowledge: the ways in which people address reading

and writing are themselves rooted in conceptions of knowledge,

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identity, being. Literacy, in this sense, is always contested”

(Street, 2000, p: 7-8)

Barton endeavours to show that there is a

“Strong social basis of children’s early learning of literacy, which he calls “emergent

literacy”.

Freebody (2009) suggests that the relationship between social

background and achieving in school seems

‘Not to change a great deal over time or across locales’ (p.23).

Both writers are at two ends of the spectrum one suggesting that

there is a relationship between social background and achievement

and the other disagreeing with this. Freebody suggests in his

writing that time and locality do not have an effect on the

relationship between social background and school achievement

(literacy in this case).

Whilst there is research which supports this view, other results do

show there is a positive correlation linking more advantaged social

background with generally higher reading literacy levels. but they

also show that this correlation is very different across certain

countries, like research carried out it was found out that Korea,

Canada, Japan and Finland all have a smaller correlation less steep

than that for the rest of the world. However when you compare, the

results for the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and, the United

States the correlation between social background and literacy is

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very high as a whole (OECD, 2001, p.308); as the correlation gets

higher the more being socially disadvantaged is associated with poor

educational achievement.

Barton argues that literacy is deeply embedded not only in writing

but in spoken word and daily communications. What surprised me from

his writing is that he saw, learning to read as not just about the

story, but about the way in which parents and children talk to each

other during story time, what Barton calls the story around the

story. What Barton calls “talk around the text” is often

“richer in variety and complexity of linguistic structure than other everyday talk” (p.

145).

Therefore this places much thought on building bridges between home

and school in understanding literacies and helping to raise

attainment. More research is now being focused on home literacy

practices at every Key stage so that researchers can get a complete

picture of the literacies being employed by students in order to

consider ways to use home literacy practices to support school

literacy practices. For example Roberts et al (2004) looking at

primary age children and found that

“support of the home environment was the strongest predictor of children's language

and early literacy skills and contributed over and above the specific literacy practice

measures in predicting children's early language and literacy development.”

(Roberts 2004)

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It is very important as educators to understand the

theoretical models of literacy which are considered when

designing schooling policy and practice. Street (2000) says

there is not necessarily a one to one relationship between a

specific theory of literacy and a specific teaching method. If

I were to choose one model, it would start with the autonomous

model, as it is a more skill based approach to literacy and

easily delivered.Educators are mostly of the assumption that

students do not have much literacy experience out of school as

cann be seen and is evident from the reading log given to my

students. I would then gradually move on to the ideological

model, this is because x school is of the belief that most

students have not had much literacy experience out of school.

Therefore considering the social context will become

much easier to comprehend.

The Historical View of Literacy

Literacy has a history; meaning that how people have been introduced

to literacy or how they look at literacy comes from how their

families may have deemed literacy or the importance placed on

literacy. Our life histories will over our lifespan have many

literacy events occurring from early childhood onwards which it is 12

built upon. We do change, and as children and adults, are always in

a process of learning about literacy .Any literacy event also has

what is known as a social history. Current things that we do

culturally are created out of what has occurred in the past.

The use of history is invaluable, as it is important as educators to

understand a pupils historical background i.What is their cultures'

outlook on literacy? is oracy more important than written

communication? It puts a different perspective on the development of

language and writing that helps us understand reading and how

students gains the skill of reading

Literacy. Barton claims that,

“Rather than isolating literacy activities from everything else in order to understand

them, an ecological approach aims to understand how literacy is embedded in other

human activity, it’s embedded in social life and in thought, and its position in history,

language and learning” (Barton, 1994, p. 32).

Barton’s ecological approach to literacy is about the relationships

between a person and the environment.

When we consider the historical view we are able to find the

historical context for our expectations, understandings of various

theories and policies, and all the issues surrounding literacy. For

the purpose of my research into Caribbean boys and their

home/background influence I strongly agree with the social context

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within which children learn to read and how they interact with

reading text within school.

Genre theory

Genre theory came out of writing as social action. It helps to

understand the various ways that writing takes action in

communities. It not only focuses on how writing gets done, but goes

into detail on the process leading up to the end product of the ways

writing gets done, and also supports a deeper understanding of

reading as a well as writing.

Different theorists have placed the types of written genres often

used in the classroom in various ways. Collerson (1988), suggests

a separation into what is called Early genres (narratives, recount,

observational comment, and labels) and Factual genres which cover

( explanations, arguments, and reports or exposition and

procedural), whilst Wing Jan (1991) on the other hand separates

writing into Factual genres (explanations reports, surveys,

procedures, information, , interviews, biographies, descriptions,

recounts, narrative and persuasive writing,) and Fictional which

are, (contemporary modern fiction and traditional fiction). Over

recent years there is, now a greater agreement on what the most used

non-fiction genres are. In England the National Literacy Strategy

(DfEE, 1998) has chosen to adopt the use of the categories of non-

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fiction genres developed by Martin and Rothery (1980) and further

established by Wray and Lewis (1995; 1997).

There are six more widely used types of non-fiction genre

identified; they were explanation recount, persuasion, procedure,

report, and discussion. Each of these genres has its own

characteristic text construction and language types. Martin and

Rothery (1980) found that, out of these six genres, recounting

seemed to be the most widely used by children in school. Students

spend a lot of time telling the story of what they did or found out.

With all these various theorists on written genre it can prove

fairly difficult to outline specific genre types. This would depend

on the theorist you are working with and their definition of the

genre type, even though they do overlap in some ways you still stand

a chance of omitting some due to the choice of theorist for example

the non-fiction genre type.

In Physical education at KS4 students write in continuous prose and

often use explanations, reports, procedures, information,

descriptions, and recounts. Based on the genre theory these would

fall heavily into the factual genre type. A good example is that of

the pre released scenario which is a part of the GCSE exam, where a

student is identified,an explanation of what sporting activities

he/she takes part in and out of school, what influences his choice

of sport, his body type etc. Exam candidates are then asked to

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answer questions based on the scenario given. So a good example of a

question is. “What type of training method would you suggest X

student use to improve his transition from long distance swimming to

becoming a 100m sprinter?”. This will entail the use of describing,

explaining and writing procedures. How good is this genre theory we

may ask? Does it divide the social classes? Can it only be accessed

by one group and not another? According to Greenwood (1998)

“We should, therefore, ask critical, metarhetorical questions, such as what sorts of

communication does the genre encourage, what sorts does it constrain against?

Who can--and who cannot--use this genre?..." Greenwood (1998)

Because the nature of genre is based on cultural and social

knowledge, what then happens to the student who arrives with little

or no knowledge of certain linguistic structures they will stand to

be at a disadvantage without the cultural knowledge required.

The Simple view of Reading

The Simple View of Reading originated in the 1980’s, when the

‘reading wars’ rwere taking place; an equation was formulated

in an attempt to restore the two opposing camps of early

literacy teaching - the Whole Language or ‘Real Books’

approach on the one hand and the Phonics view on the other

(Gough and Tunmer, 1986). These two approaches are often

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represented as ‘top down’ and ‘bottom up’. The SVR presents

reading comprehension as the product of listening

comprehension and decoding. The relationship is formalised in

the equation below by Gough & Tunmer, (1986)

Reading = Decoding x Spoken language comprehension

 

Understanding the symbols of text is needed as well as being

able to read it so that it can be understood. So in order for

someone to be able to read they must have the ability to both

recognise and interpret words.

The problem arises with students who may be dyslexic, have a lower

reading age than their year group or the text given may be quite

difficult to read. This occurs quite often in GCSE PE, where

students complain quite often about not understanding what they have

read. Barriers to comprehension may entail a lack of vocabulary both

generally and vocabulary specific to the subject. Another barrier is

that of cross cultural barriers, content can be culturally

influenced and so if an individual is not familiar with something

for example “snow” they would not understand the implications of

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The interpretation of

words sentences &

Context-free wordrecognition ability

someone telling the story about snow on a beautiful wintery morning.

These are but a few and I can see this in my teaching in particular

GCSE PE where students with English as an Additional language face

these barriers even more so than those that are native English

speakers. For example when asking students about particular sports

that they are not familiar with based on culture, such as Boccia

which is a well known disability sport within the borough but not

widely played otherwise.

Rationale

Each year Caribbean students under perform at GCSE getting 5 A*- C

including English and maths compared to the other nationalities

.This led me to think that their level of literacy may be a cause

for concern, in particular for the boys whose attainment is

consistently low in the theoretical aspects of the exam.

This led me to my research question: What are the perceptions of

reading among Black Caribbean boys within X \school?

To research this further I interviewed students from KS3 & KS4. I

found that interviewing was the most appropriate method as it gave

students the opportunity to express themselves more deeply and for

me to go a bit more in-depth into feelings of why they read or did

not read. The interviews were conducted in an environment where the

students felt most comfortable in the PE office.

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Firstly we should look at the definition of an interview. Frey and

Oishi (1995:01) define it as

"a purposeful conversation in which one person asks prepared questions

(interviewer) and another answers them (respondent)"

This exercise takes place so that information can be garnered on a

specific topic or an area to be researched. Interviews can be a very

informative tool, which can open doors to further research with the

use of other methodologies such as experiments and observations

(Jensen and Jankowski 1991:101). Interviews have three basic

structures. They can be structured which is considered a closed

interview style or unstructured which is more of an open interview

style and semi structured which allows for new themes and ideas to

be explored based on what is said by the interviewee. When using the

Open-ended or unstructured interviews method Nichols (1991:131)

defines it as

“an informal interview, not structured by a standard list of questions”.

When the interviewer uses Open-ended questions it allows allow

for deeper probing into the first responses of the respondent

to help pull out a more detailed and in-depth answer to the

question (Wimmer and Dominick 1997:156). The quality of the

data will therefore be dependent on the quality of the

interviewer questions. As an interviewer, it is important to

gauge how much or how little one should probe. There are

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advantages and disadvantages for using any interview method.

It gives room for questioning to be guided in the direction

you want it and you are able clarify anything that needs to be

made clearer than a questionnaire (Frey and Oishi 1995:03).

Interviews rely heavily on the respondent’s willingness to

give accurate and complete responses (Breakwell, Hammond and

Fife-Schaw 1995:238). They may often alter their answers due

to feelings of inadequacy embarrassment, nervousness, lack of

knowledge on the topic, confusion or memory loss. On the other

hand, they may provide very detailed responses in an attempt

to discover the purpose of the study (Wimmer and Dominick

1997:162). Validity and reliability of the interview may be

influenced by these points (Breakwell, Hammond and Fife-Schaw

1995:238-239).

"Interviewing is a complex and demanding technique" (Frey and Oishi

1995:02).

I will be conducting a semi-structured interview as it will provide

me with more in-depth answers and feedback. This will create an

opportunity for me to do the following freely: modifying the order,

or changing the wording of my questions as I see necessary, it would

leave me the flexibility of explaining to students if they are

having difficulty understanding any questions, and to also leave

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out questions felt unnecessary and add questions as the case may

arise (Robson, 2002)

Method

Participants

The three students came from Caribbean families; all three were

male. The participants were chosen because they were black Caribbean

boys. Three participants were chosen because those were the

available numbers within the school who had come directly from the

Caribbean to the United Kingdom. Although it was a small sample, it

was enough to get an overview of opinions as they were all from

different year groups in the school.

The interviews took place in a quiet room at the school and were

taped with the permission of students. Informed consent was received

from parents before the interviews were conducted.

From the interviews the following results were found:

When students were asked about their culture of reading at home they

indicated that there was not a culture of reading at home, this

suggests that most of these students do not have a culture of

reading embedded within their home environment and therefore it

impacts them in the school environment and their attitude towards

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learning and reading within other subjects. As none of the students

are within KS4 PE doing GCSE I have had to use information based on

their other subjects and how well they were performing, and also use

of a reading log from their lessons in one day. From the data two of

the three students were underachieving in subjects taken. One

student who had a culture of reading at home and had the support of

parents who read to him at a young age instilling reading was fairly

better positioned to get good passes. The students had very mixed

perceptions of reading one student said “reading is done by girls”

which in my analysis is a cultural dilemma, as it is believed in the

Caribbean that reading is not very masculine. According to research

done

“Within Caribbean academia traditional patterns of study exist. Boys have identified

English and reading as “too girlish” for males, and Parry’s study indicated that even

female teachers perceived English and grammar as being women’s subjects."

(Parry, Odette. 2004)

When tracking the students over three days using the reading log it

was seen that the literacy experiences of the students varied, when

talking to them more in detail it was discovered that students

attitude to learning correlated to their attitude to reading. There

were subjects such as humanities which is a fairly heavily reading

based subjects, that two of the respondents had the most reading

done. They discussed the fact that there were a lot more key words

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within science. This was expected as science is one of the main

subjects which has a specialist language, and to fully access any

type of exercise you must read and comprehend technical languages.

The average time they spent writing did not vary very much over the

classes. Humanities stood out however as one of the main subjects

that seemed to have been writing intensive. In Physical Education

however students did no reading or writing in the lesson. When

further investigating the student spoke more about learning through

questioning and sharing ideas with each other, This was expected as

the Dfes report speaks about PE as heavily geared towards learning

through talk. As a practitioner this leads me to the conclusion that

if I am going to help improve literacy as a cross curricular

approach in particular considering the cultural barriers to

accessing literacy. I will need to look at my approach. I will need

to use possibly more culturally sensitive examples where most can

access the curriculum without difficulty. I learnt a great deal

about types of writing and possible ways of incorporating more

writing into PE so that certain literacy skills can be practiced and

enhance, as it seemed that we weighed too heavily on the practical

and not the other aspects that would promote PE through other media

than just exploratory talk.

JN

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INDEX

Interview Questions

Research Question- Is there a cultural/social correlation

between literacy (reading) and attainment with boys coming to

the UK from the Caribbean?

1. Do you like to read?

a. Why or why not?

2. What do you understand by being literate

3. Do you think Reading is important?

a. Why or why not

4. How often do you Read?

a. More in UK? Or more in Caribbean. If different, why?

5. What type of books do you read for pleasure now?

a. Has it changed since moving to the UK?

6. What do you think reading is?

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7. Do you see you parents reading at home?

8. What actions do you take when you do not understand what

you have read?

9. What do you do when you’ve come to words you may not know? What else do you do?

10. Name me 2 books you are reading at school presently.

And 2 you may be reading at home.

11. How much time do you spend reading at home?

12. Do you read with any younger brothers or sisters,

other children at home, or parents at home?

a. Do your parents spend time reading to you?

b. Do you like it when a bigger brother or sister reads

books to you?

c. Do you choose your books that you read?

13. What is your favourite thing to do in your spare

time?

14. What are your favourite shows, or movies?

15. Are there things about reading that you may like in

particular?

a. Name a few

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16. Is there anything about reading that you may not

particularly like? Name them and explain why?

17. What kinds of books or reading material do you read

a lot?

18. What would you like to learn to be able to make

yourself a really good reader?

19. What does the term “reading” mean to you?

20. Why do you think people read?

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Literacy Log: Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Session 1 Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Session 2 Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Session 3 Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Session 4 Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Session 5 Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Session 6 Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

Subject:

Time reading?

Time writing?

After school Time reading?

Time writing?

Time reading?

Time writing?

Time reading?

Time writing?

Time reading?

Time writing?

Time reading?

Time writing?

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References

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Barton, D. (2007) Literacy: An introduction to the ecology of written language. Oxford: Blackwell

Breakwell, Glynis M, Sean Hammond & Chris Fife-Schaw (1995): Research Methods in Psychology. London: Sage.

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DfES publication, Ensuring the attainment of Black Caribbean boys (2004),

Frey, J.H & S.M.Oishi (1995): How to Conduct Interviews by Telephone and in Person. London: Sage.

Goodman, T. Lillis. J. Maybin and N. Mercer (eds.) Language, literacy and education: A reader. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

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OECD (2004). Learning for tomorrow’s world: First results fromPISA 2003. Paris:

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Parry, Odette. (2004). "Masculinities, Myths and Educational Underachievement: Jamaica, Barbados, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines". In Rhonda Reddock (Ed.), Interrogating Caribbean Masculinities: Theoretical and Empirical Analyses, pp.167-184.Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press

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Street, B. (1984) Literacy in theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

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Wimmer, Roger D & Joseph.R.Dominick (1997): Mass Media Research: An Introduction. Belmont, MA: Wadsworth.

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