oe iv

:mikxerdmrp cxe ,on`p acp ,oeqlcpn `xfr ,jeh l`kin

zkxrnd xikfn:aaeg l`wfgi

�Û gr dpycb"ryz Û

l ` x y i z e c l e z x w g l o e r a x

zil`xyid zixehqidd dxagdÛmilyexi

okezd

439mkg gp:xetiq ly zixehqidd ezernyn :eipeg ycwn znwde irny ,oeipegp

il"fg

471xwd sqei:d`nd ziy`xa daecta daiyie dilhi`a ezgtyne yieeixh opgei 'x

dxyr yngd

501yyd il`i:ze`na milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip :ze`eeld iwqr

miycg miknqn xe`l dxyr ryzde dxyr dpenyd

zxewia ixace mixtq

527siqi ilr:Ra’anan Boustan, Oren Kosansky and Marina Rustow (eds.), Jewish ¥

Studies at the Crossroads of Anthropology and History: Authority, Diaspora,

Tradition

532xlcpdxcl il`:Deborah Dash Moore (General Editor), City of Promises: A

History of the Jews of New York, 1–3

540aepaec dix`:dibele`izd :mlyend ipicnd xcqde d`eap ,xvipkx ehe` miig

qe`xhy e`il ly zipicnd

547slee dbep:xeaiv yi`e dxen ,oeixehqid :xbpih` l`eny ,i`pxa awri

553onxqe ixpd:xeaiv yi`e dxen ,oeixehqid :xbpih` l`eny ,i`pxa awri

558iwqpilxw megp:zicedid zeine`la "ux`"e "mr" :ieecae wfew ,lhxa l`xyi

566xwgnd zextqn

569zkxrna elawzpy mixtq

XXIXp`a mixivwzzilb

[(b"ryz) gr dpy ,l`xyi zeclez xwgl oerax ± oeiv]

ze`na milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip :ze`eeld iwqr

miycg miknqn xe`l dxyr ryzde dxyr dpenyd

z`nyyd il`i

jxevd lya aex it lr ,zekyenn zetewz zeaega diexy dziid milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd

.dlhpy zeaexnd ze`eeldd lr ddeab ziaix mlyl1zeqpkda ifkxn aikxn eid dl` ze`eeld

,1727 zpya dlidwd mewiy xg`l mb ,icxtqd llekd ly2ze`eeld zgwl dtiqed dlidwde

ze`eeldd feg` .dxyr ryzd d`nd ly miyingd zepyl cre dxyr dpenyd d`na mb

miyily ipy cr zivgn ickl eribd ziaixde oxwd inelyzy cr ,deab dk did zeqpkdd jqn

`ny e` ,xicz da wa`p llekdy dleg drx eid ze`eeldn zeaegd m`d .llekd ze`vedn

m`e ?`weec zlaewnd zilklkd dhiyd dziid efy jk lr dcirn ze`eeldn zeaegd zxby

dhiy dze` ixeg`n dcnr dqitz efi`e llekd zlklka ze`eeldd ciwtz did dn ,jk

?zilklk

ik ,mireci zexewna zycegn d`ixwe miycg zexewn jnq lr ,oerhl ywan df xn`n

dwelgl jxc dyniy dxyr ryzd d`nd rvn` cr milyexia ze`eeld zlihp ly dhiyd

dlidwd ia`yn ly ef dwelg ,mle`e .llkd zaehl dleba llekd qiiby mia`ynd ly ycgn

dlidwd ly ikxbile`d dpand z` dwfig ,jtdl `l` dixag oia oeieeyd z` dxiabd `l

*zicxtqd dlidwa iper itlk zeyib iepiy ,ily xehwecd zceara izpc eay `yep aigxn df xn`n

'texte i`pxa awri 'text ly mziigpda dazkpy ,2011 ,dtig zhiqxaipe` ,1880±1841 milyexia

x"cl dgely dcez .axd mreiq lre mzkxcd lr mdipyl zecedl zywan ip` .oiwvewxwÎfx oepn`

dnrp x"cl ;zizxagdÎzilklkd izepyxt iwte` z` aigxd dnr cinznd bel`icdy ,`xew lkin¦

ly ezaizk jldna zeax il riiqy ,xicz inr zwleg `idy il`ehwlhpi`d rtyd lr a`f oa

zecedl zywan ip` cer .eizerici xve` z` zeaicpa inr wlgy ,ohxbne`a xfril` x"cle ;df xn`n

,zelirend mzkxcde mdizeiptd lr lhxa l`xyi 'textle d`pÎoa oexi 'textl ,oinipa ilxe` 'textl

zcgein dcez .xn`nd xetiyae ceciga eriiq eizexrdy ,'oeiv' zrd azk mrhn inipep`d hteyle

ae`h fkxnl dcez ,seqale .eizericine eznkgn dax dk zeaicpa inr wlgy ,uk iqei 'textl

.df xn`n zaizkl onf zeptl il exyt`y bieev oex 'textle wxei eip zhiqxaipe`a l`xyi icenill

1dpin ;715 ,708 ,206 ,203 'nr ,`"iyz milyexi ,l`xyi ux` igely ,ixri mdxa` :lynl e`x

,odk oepn` ;185±183 'nr ,d"nyz aia` lz ,dxyr rayd d`na milyexia zicedid dlidwd ,ofex

izlidw oebx`e dlklk dxag :inlqend htynd ziaa micedi ,dn`lq dicaere il`witÎoeniq rayil`

rayil` ,odk oepn` ;205±152 'nr ,e"pyz milyexi ,dxyrÎdpenyd d`nd :zip`n'zerd milyexia

,b"qyz milyexi ,dxyrÎryzd d`nd :inlqend htynd ziaa micedi ,e`ipi'b lii`e il`wit oeniq

.60±54 'nr

2.oldl e`x

502yyd il`i]2[

dhil`l dlidwd itqk ly ix`d wlg zxard jez ,oenn ilraae zeaiyia dkinz zervn`a

,lbx zhiytl llekd ztew z` xac ly eteqa d`iad mb ef dhiy .zipxezde zilklkd

.dly ibele`ci`de ilklkd dpand z` ycgn oegal dlidwd dvl`p dizeawray

xwgnd ly ecwena aex it lr dcnr `l ze`eeldn erapy zeaegd ly mciwtz zl`y

.hxta milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd lye ,llka zeicedi zelidw ly ixehqiddÎilklkd

xwgnd znieqn dcinay cr ,reaw dk did llekd zlklka ze`eeldn zeaegd ly aikxnd

ewqry mipeixehqidd ly mherin ,cere z`f .ze`ivnd zaiegne zirah drtez oda d`x

l` ef dl`y ehiqd miizenk zexewn xcride zicxtqd dlidwd ly miilklkd mihaida

llekd ly ze`eeldn zeaegl mixaqd ipy xwgnd zextqa `evnl ozip z`f mr .miileyd

lecbd xrtl oexzt ze`eelda d`ex ,mipey zegily iazk lr jnzqnd ,cg` xaqd .icxtqd

,cgey ,miqn inelyz enk zeigxkde zelecb ze`ved oial zenexzn zephw zeqpkd oia

.miipra dkinze zexekyn3ly zepeaygd ixtq lr jnzqdy ,xzei winrn ,xg` xaqd

rivd ,dxyr ryzd d`nd on oeayg itc xtqn lre dxyr dpenyd d`nd on dlidwd

llekd ztew ,df xaqd itl .md s` odl ewwfp mieelnd j` ,ze`eeldl wwfp mpn` llekdy

.ddeab zizpy ziaix eilr lawle mtqk z` ciwtdl elki miihxt miyp` eay wpak dyniy4

3`"nxzd±x"zd zepya l`xyiÎux`a icedid aeyid ,zb oeivÎoa lv` `evnl ozip ef dyibl ze`nbec

,h"id d`na daeyie l`xyi ux` ,a`il` ikcxn ;35 ,23 'nr ,b"kyz milyexi ,(1881±1840)

yeaikd ztewza l`xyi ux`a icedid aeyiid ,dlibxw iav ;145 'nr ,1978 milyexi ,1917±1777

.147 'nr ,o"yz aia` lz ,(1840±1831) ixvnd

4Jacob Barnai, ‘The Jerusalem Jewish Community: Ottoman Authorities and Arab

Population in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century – A Chapter of Local History’,

Jewish Political Studies Review, 6, 3–4 (1994), pp. 7–45, esp. p. 13mixexia' ,lhxa l`xyi ;

cgeinae ,118±97 'nr ,(g"lyz) bn ,oeiv ,'e"hxz zpyn milyexia micxtqd llek xikfz ileya

dlidw zetewa yeniyd lr eriavd zexg` zelidw ly mixweg mb .112 'nrwpak,lynl ,jk .

ixag d`n xear zerwyd wpak dyniy (dikxez) xinfi` zlidw ly dztew ik d`xd i`pxa awri

etqk z` laiw l`xyi ux`l zelrl hilgdy mdn ine ,mtqk z` da eny md ;l`xyi ux` ztew

zexenz ,'dxyr ryzd d`na xinfi`a l`xyi ux` ztew' ,i`pxa awri :e`x .ziaix ztqeza

oeyxb .148±135 'nr ,g"nyz milyexi ,mixg`e benl` l`eny zkixra ,dycgd zicedid dixehqida

feg` .dxyr dpenyd d`na (oilet) e`hte` zlidw ly ze`vedde zeqpkdd z` oga hxcped cec

,micedi mpi`ye micedi ,llekl mieelnd ,hxcped it lr .ze`eeldn ribd dlidwd zeqpkd llkn lecb

mb hxcped .mikynznd ziaixd inelyza mipiipern eid `l` mz`eeld itqk z` lawl etiv `l

miinewnd mitiwzd ly qxhpi`d lr xenyl xzid oia ecrep micediÎ`ll ze`eeldy jk lr riavd

:e`x .dzgeexa mdigeex zkixk zervn`a zicedid dlidwd ly dzenlyl be`clGershon D.

Hundert, The Jews in a Polish Private Town: The Case of Opatów in the Eighteenth

Century, Baltimore 1992, pp. 104–108,zecner ze`eeld ik oiiv xlh mc` .Wyderkafziaixa ,

mitqk qeibl jxc eyniy ,zeiqpkn jk xg`e miliv`n dligza elawzpy ,7% ly ziqgi dkenp

micedid ly zilklkd zelirtd' ,xlh mc` :e`x .izlidwd qnd on xeht ebiyd dixiyry dlidwl

zkixra ,mdizexecl oilet icedi :xaye meiw ,'18Îd d`nae 17Îd d`nd ly diipyd zivgna oileta

it lr .224±220 'nr cgeinae ,224±209 'nr ,f"pyz milyexi ,` ,onheb l`xyie lhxa l`xyi

ik ,wpak `id mb dyniy dxyr ryzd d`na dtexi` gxfna ziciqgd wicvd xvg ,lhxa l`xyi

]3[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip503

,ipyd xaqdd eli`e ,elawzdy xg`l ze`eeldd itqk z`vwd z` ogea epi` oey`xd xaqdd

.ze`eeldd on dgieexd llekd ztew mby gipn ,wpal llekd ztew z` deeynd5

llekd ly zepeaygd xtq ,epnn ohw wlg wx xwgp dzr cry ,ycg xewn ly gezip

,m"xz±`"ixz milyexia icxtqd6ziaxn ik epnn dler ,ziy`x .dibeqd lr ycg xe` jtey

.micediÎ`ll dpzipy efn ddeab dziidy ziaixae ,dlidwd ixag micedin elhip ze`eeldd

gxkd did ike micediÎ`ll zeaegn rap dlidwd ly dqixwd mei`y oerhl ozip `l ok lr

ebivdy zegilyd iazk aex it lr mipiivny itk ,ddeab dk ziaixa ze`eeldd z` lehil

dxaqa jnez epi` zepeaygd qwpta ze`vedd itirq gezip ,zipy .l"ega dlidwd ix"cy

.zixeaiv diipa e` miipra dkinz oebk ,xeaivd ikxevl d`ved myl elhip ze`eelddy

mipnefnl wwfp `l xak llekdy meyn df did `l ze`eeldd bdpn wqtp xy`k ,ziyily

.`weec zeaega rwy llekdy meyn ,zepeaygd qwpta miritend miknqn micirny itk ,`l`

zxyt`ne ,zhleal ozegkep z` zkted ze`eeldd zlaw ly dhiyd zwqtdl rwxd ztiyg

s`e ,llekd zlklka ze`eeldn zeaegd ly mciwtz zl`y z` eppeic fkxna aivdl epl

.ef dhiy dwqtp recn oegal

cxtqd dlidwd ly itqkd dpand gezipl xarn zbxegd zeaiyg zrcep dl` zeibeqlzi

miqgid lre dlidwa egeexy zeibele`ci`d zeqitzd lr xe` zektey od ,ok` .milyexia

.zepeyd l`xyi zelidwa miilklk mipan gezipa zeriiqn s`e ,dkeza miizlidw miptd7

,lhxa l`xyi :e`x .minelyze ze`eeld ,zerwyd zxeva dpnn e`vi axd xvg l` enxfy mitqkd

'?"sqkd xexv jld o`l":mr owzl ,'zeciqgd ly miilklkd dihaid lr zilikynd zxewiad

ze`eeldd zhiy .134 'nr cgeinae ,137±123 'nr ,b"ryz milyexi ,dtexi` gxfna zeine`le zexe`p

mieelnl miitqk milenbz wtqnd mitqk qeibl oepbpnk mipey miicedi mipebx` ynyl dkiynd

oxwd lr uk iqei ly exwgnn ,lynl ,dler jk .deelnd oebx`l riiqn `ed day dcin dze`a

mibeqn mb `l` zenexzn wx `l l"ww ly dizeqpkd eid 1948±1920 mipyd oia .l`xyil zniiwd

lk .zeiqpte miiga zepeafir ,aeg zexbi` ,ze`eeld zxeva xzid oia eqieby ,zeqpkd ly mipey

ze`eeld lr ziaix ifeg`a m` ± mieelnl minelyz zxarda dkexk dziid elld zexevd on zg`

ztewl ziaix inelyz zxeva m`e ,zeen xg`l oeafir zyxedl dxenza zehpxk m` ,aeg zexbi` e`

milyexi ,dpicn mxha l`xyil zniw oxw :rwxwd zifga ,uk iqei :e`x .milenbz zetewl e` diqpt

.217 ,151±150 ,58±56 ,4 'nr ,a"qyz

5:e`x .'ze`eeld zgiwl ici lr daivwz z` of`l dlczyd dlidwd' :i`pxa awri azek lynl jk

,mly ,'dxyr dpenyd d`nd ly diipyd zivgna milyexi zlidw ly itqkd ledipd' ,i`pxa awri

.198 'nr cgeinae ,217±195 'nr ,(a"qyz) f

6,zine`ld diixtqd ,milyexia micxtqd llek zepeayg qwptR24 = Ms. Heb. 951978 zpya .

'e"hxz zpyn milyexia micxtqd llek xikfz ileya mixexia' exn`n z` lhxa l`xyi mqxt

icedid mrd zeclezl ifkxnd oeikx`l eribdy miccea mitc lr jnqp df xn`n .(4 dxrd ,lirl)

seq cr ,xtqd ly mitc cer eribd mipy xg`l .milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd ly zepeaygd xtqn

±`"ixz milyexia micxtqd llek ly ze`vede zeqpkd zepeaygd qwpt :e`x .(1863) b"kxz zpy

.miqwptd ipy oia d`eeyd ,oldl e`xe ;5319 .pi` i"k ,icedid mrd zeclezl ifkxnd oeikx`d ,b"kxz

7l`xyi zelidwa dibele`ci` oial zeilklk zewihwxte mipan oia xywd lr ecnr mipey mixweg

dznwd ialya oeictd ly eciwtz z` dpga dict daiag ,lynl ,jk .zecdia zeizc zerepzae

504yyd il`i]4[

ipepbpn gezip zervn`a dxag ly mikxrd xg`e ilklkdÎizxagd dpand xg` aewrl ozip

.dia`yn ly dwelgd zepexwr xg`e (ze`eeld e` zenexz ,ieqin oebk) dly mitqkd seqi`

,jk .sqkd z` `ivedl cvik dxagd zbdpd zlawny zehlgd it lr zrvazn ef dwelg

mitqk biydle mitiwre mixiyi miqin zervn`a mitqk seq`l dleki zicedi dlidw ,lynl

,oehlyl miqn lr d`iven dlidwd sq`py sqkd z` .ze`eelde zenexz zervn`a mitqep

± xeaiv ikxevl ze`vede miciwtz ilral zexekyn ,dlidwd ly zeiaihxhqipinc` ze`ved

,dxaga zepeyd zeveawd lr zyend qnd lhp .cere miiprl reiq ,xeaiv ipan ,ze`ixa ,jepig

micirn dl` lk ± llkd ikxevl ixeaivd sqkd rwyen eay ote`de ieqinn mipzipd mixehtd

.miiprl mixiyr oia mixrtd wner lre zizxagd zeixcileqd zcin lr8

,epgley lr miyp` gx`nd lbxl diilr cwenl jtd mc` xy`k .zeciqgd zrepz ly dzecqnzde

oexztd ceqin z` ui`d dxeagd zwfg` ly ilklkd jxevd .migxe`d zqpkd oenina dira dxvep

onfd mr .dxeaga 'miipr ipa'l 'zelkid ipa'n oeictd itqk exar dligza .dqpkd xewnk oeictd ly

eraw zeax zexvg ly zepwz .envr z` xnyl ywiay oepbpn da xvepe ziciqgd xvgd dcqnzd

l`e wicvd l` migxe`d on mexfl elgd oeictd itqke eigxe` zlklk lr i`xg` epi` wicvdy

dxeagd ,oeictd :zeciqga ilklkÎizcÎizxagd mbcd ly ezegztzdl' :dxn`n e`x .exvg ly oepbpnd

.375±311 'nr ,d"pyz milyexi ,oeyyÎoa mgpn zkixra ,oilneb iqgi ± dlklke zc ,'lbxl diilrde

zlidwk l`xyi ux`a dxyr ryzd d`na mifpky`d millekd znwd cvik d`xd lhxa l`xyi

ibivp mre `vend zevx` mr eniiwy mixywd z`e mdly mitqkd seqi` ipepbpn z` davir micnel

ipeivÎmexhd icedid aeyiia dlklke dxag lr ?mzepne` mzxez' :exn`n e`x .l`xyi ux`a zenvrnd

oia xywd lr riavd i`pxa awri .53±35 'nr ,(2004) 14 ,l`xyi znewza mipeir ,'l`xyiÎux`a

dpenyd d`na oed wey ly ezxivi oial milyexia zeixvepde zeicedid zelidwd ly cgeind oiite`

dxrd ,lirl) i`pxa :e`x .xird ly miilklkd miiga ifkxn xiykn od ziaixa ze`eeld eay ,dxyr

.207 'nr ,(5

8zip`n'zerd dixtni`ay zeicedid zelidwa miilklk mixaynae miizxag migzna dwqry zextqd

,lynl ,ofex dpin .zelidwd ly zeqpkdd seqi` ly mipepbpna ± oey`xd xewna aex it lr dpc

cegiiae ,owlaae dikxeza zelecbd zeicedid zelidwa mixiyrl miipr oia miqgid z` dpga

zecr dl` zelidw eid dxyr rayd d`nd seq onl ,ofex it lr .iwipelqae xinfi`a ,leap`zq`a

.zepehlyd mr miilklkd mdixywn rap mxyery miyp` ly dphw dveaw icia oed ly fekixl

elcb jkn d`vezke ,ipera digy dlidwd ziaxn itlk zixeaiv zeixg`n dxrpzde dkld ef dveaw

dl` mizenirl miifkxnd miiehiad cg` .miielb mizenir icil eribdy cr miizxagd mixrtd

ieqind ixd ,iaiqxbext did ± dkixr ± xiyi ieqin m` .miqnd seqi` zhiy cbp ze`gnd eid

enliyy in mb eidy ,dlidwa mixiyrd mixagd .miiprle mixiyrl ddf did ± dla`b ± siwrd

licbdle xiyid qnd qner z` oihwdl raw jxc egilvd ,dlidwd ipax zexekyn z` aex it lr

:e`x .siwrd qnd lhp z`Minna Rozen (ed.), The Last Ottoman Century and Beyond: The

Jews in Turkey and the Balkans, 1808–1945, 1, Tel Aviv 2005, pp. 90–94, 141–142.

dixtni`a zeifkxnd zeicxtqd zelidwd zebidpna zexenzd' ,iel xpa` :e`x df `yepa cer

,zip`n'zerd dixtni`a micedid zecleza miwxt :xdqd ini ,'dxyr ryzd d`na zip`n'zerd

zrey] 'miipr zery' qxhpew ,sleeÎraq lgx ;271±237 'nr ,e"pyz aia` lz ,ofex dpin zkixra

ipya eiehiae izlidwÎmipt belit ly eizexewa ihnze ixp`'f oeir :(1847 xinfi`) epic`la [miipr

micedi ,d`p oa oexi ;1998 ,oli`Îxa zhiqxaipe` ,jnqen zcear ,miicedi miicxtq q`ltew ixiy

mixiyrd eywia zeip`n'zerd zelidwa wx `l .146±145 'nr ,f"qyz milyexi ,miphleqd zklnna

]5[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip505

milyexia icxtqd llekd ly zep eaygd xtq .`

qwp td xe`iz .1

llekd ztew ly ze`vedde zeqpkdd enyxp milyexia icxtqd llekd ly zepeaygd xtqa

.1880±1851 mipyd oia9zine`ld diixtqd ly ci iazkl dwlgna `vnp xtqd ly cid azk

,zikxeza ,zinx`a milin ea zealeyne zixar aezk `ede micenr 770Îk ea yi .milyexia

miihtyn miknqn dyely xtqa yi ze`vedde zeqpkdd ly zeneyxl sqepa .ziaxrae epicla

,1854 zpyn ,oey`xd jnqnd lr .aeg ixhy lr zelaw xtqne llekd zeaeg ledipl mirbepd

ledipa mkgd ly eizeieknq xezie lr xidvdl `a `ede ,eaew wgvi ,f`c iy`a mkgd mezg

zeaeg zqixtl mkqd `ed ,1859 zpyn ,ipyd jnqnd .oldl oecp df jnqna ;llekd itqk

ziwlg zeaeg zwignl mkqd `ed ,1866 zpyn ,iyilyd jnqnde ,llekd zbdpd dnzgy

.ze`eeld xzei lehil `ly zeaiigzdle ,zeaeg zqixtle10

zeclezl ifkxnd oeikx`d l` eribdy icxtqd llekd ly zepeaygd xtqn mitc dnk

.lhxa l`xyi ly xwgn fkxna ecnr icedid mrd11xtq itc onfd mr etxhvd dl` mitcl

oeikx`d on zepeaygd xtq ly dl` mitc z`eeydn .b"kxz±`"ixz mipyd on zepeaygd

dheih md dl` mitcy ,dler zine`ld diixtqay cid azkl icedid mrd zeclezl ifkxnd

dheihd .m"xz zpyl cr ribnd ,zine`ld diixtqa `vnpy zepeaygd xtq l` dwzredy

.azkd zeki` lre micenrd zexzek lr dctwd zegt da yi :dzxeva xwira xewnd on dpey

ehnyp ,zepeayg zpy ly dteqa xwira ,minieqn mihixt ± ipkez lcad mb epyi mizrl

dxyr dpenyde dxyr rayd ze`nd ly oileta ,lynl ,jk .dqpkdd lr xiyi qn melyzn rpnidl

xkeg' ly cnrn zlaw ici lr ,qn mlyl maexiqa oexhtÎliv` mr mdixywa dlidwd icin` exfrp

qnd .zetheyd ze`veda cenrl dizeiexyt` lre dlidwd lr eciakd jka .okeqk iepin e` 'illk

) xyad lr siwrdKropkadlidwd aivwz zlcbdl zeaeygd zeilklkd zeibhxhq`d zg`l did (

.224±220 'nr ,(4 dxrd ,lirl) xlh :e`x .rbtpy

9dnk oiivp oldl e`aeiy mikxrd z` oiadl ick .miyexba ze`aen qwpta llekd zeqpkde ze`ved

dtewzne xef`l xef`n dpzyd yexbd jxr .dxyr ryzd d`nd rvn` ly milyexin miilklk mipezp

.yexb 110Îk zilbp` dxil eli`e ,yexb 100 deey dziid zikxez dxil aex it lr ,z`f mr .dtewzl

,meil yexb 6±3 oia gieexd inei lret ;yexb 160±40 oia rp dxez cenlza cnln ly iycegd exky

200 oia rp izpyd dxicd xky .dpyl yexb 3,000Îk lr dcnr iy`a mkgd ly ezxekyn eli`e

ozip cg` yexba .xzeia ddeab dnxa xeic xear yexb 2,000Îl ce`n dkenp dnxa xeicl yexb

:e`x mipey zexewn it lr zerahna diipwd zleki mekiql .dphw ziaexk e` mivia 4 yekxl did

.ipy wxt ,(ziakek dxrd ,lirl) yyd

10lehia lre zeaeg zqixt lr md s` micirn dxyr dpenyd d`nd on zicxtqd dlidwd iqwpt

zetqep zeiecr .215 ,208±207 'nr ,(5 dxrd ,lirl) i`pxa :e`x .aeg ixcqdl zehiyk ziaix

dxyr dpenyd ze`nd on milyexia inlqend oicd zia ly miknqna `evnl ozip dl` zehiyl

,149 ,143 ,141 ,132 ,129 zecerz ,(2 dxrd ,lirl) dxyr dpenyd d`nd ,odk :e`x .dxyr ryzde

.26 dcerz ,(2 dxrd ,lirl) dxyr ryzd d`nd ,odk ;166±159

11.oldl e`x

506yyd il`i]6[

oeikx`a `vnpy cid azk ,sqepa .ze`vedl zeqpkdd oia oefi`l ribdl ick dwzrda mizrl

.zine`ld diixtqay cid azka mi`vnpd miihtynd miknqnd z` llek epi` ifkxnd12

`ed ,mle`e .ziqppit zelirt lr geeic xnelk ,ze`vede zeqpkd ly meyix llek qwptd

z` swyn epi`lkzetewd lk z` crzn epi`e dlidwa dniiwzdy zilklkd zelirtd

mitqk ,miqn ,zex"cy :mipey dqpkd itirq llek qwptd .ezrya da elrty zeixeaivd

zepey zewcv ,oecpelne epxeeiln raw jxc eribdy mitqkd oebk l"ega mipey mifkxn etq`y

hxtn dnec ote`a .miqn seqi` zxkgde mzxkyd e` miqkp zxikn ,ze`eeld ,llekl exqnpy

,micakp ly gexi` ,zenezi ztew ,dwefgz ze`ved ,zexekyn :mipey d`ved itirq qwptd

inelyze miqn ,oxwe ziaix ± aeg inelyz ,minkg icinlzle dwcvle miiprl epzipy mitqk

zeqpkdd ly illk aeyig oi` s`e ,qwpta minkeqn mpi` dl` mitirq .mitiwzl zepzn

lr zeizpy ze`ved ly illk aeyig oi`y itk ,mixg` dqpkd itirqn e` miqnn zeizpyd

ildpnn rpny xac ,miizpy minekiq mb qwptd on mixcrp .zeaeg ixfgd lr e` zexekyn

z`xwl ,zg` mrt wx qwpta riten izpy mekiq .aivwzd ly zllek dpenz lawl mitqkd

.eteq

dtewzd ipa zexewn jnq lr13zetew dnk dlidwa eldpzd ,envr llekd qwpt it lre

`a zetqepzetewd on zg` lkl sqkd .mileg xewia ztewe miipr ztew oebk ,sivx `l ote

mitqkd on minieqn mifeg` ly dxiyi dxarda mizrle ,mipey miqn zxeva dabp elld

zeaiyi ,ok enk .ux`l uega zereawd zetewa etq`py mitqk ly e` mix"cyd etq`y

xearl ila miipxez zecqenl eribd miax mitqke ,miinepehe` miilklk miig eldip zepey

,ixeitihpen e` cliyhex enk mipacp ly dziid ztqep zitqk zelirt .llekd ztew jxc

zitqk eldep cinz `ly zecqen znwd jxevl e` dlidwa zenieqn zeveawl mitqk exiardy

.llekd icia

mitqep mitebe zetew ly zi`nvr zitqk zeldpzde ,cg` cvn miizpy minekiq xcrid

avnd ly dxexa dpenz eildpnl wtiq `l llekd qwpta meyixdy jkl e`iad ,xg` cvn

.dlidwd ly itqkd

12zivgna milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd ly miiteq zepeayg ixtq oial dheih oia dnec dpgadl

.197 'nr ,(4 dxrd zligz ,lirl) i`pxa :e`x dxyr dpenyd d`nd ly diipyd

13milyexia ig (1853±1782) igxt wgvi .h"kyz milyexi ,milyexi aeh ,yacn wezn ,igxt wgvi :e`x

.epiclae zixara xqen ixtq azk igxt .minrt xtqn icxtqd llekd ly egilyk mitqk seq`l `vie

:mb e`xLudwig August Frankl, The Jews in the East, trans. from the German by P.

Beaton, Wesport, Conn. 1975`tex did ,dindea cili ,(1894±1810) lwp`xt hqebe` bieecel .

,dpieen uxd dfil` ly dzegilya 1856 zpya milyexil `a `ed .xteqe i`pezir ,xxeyn ,ezxykda

.milyexia oey`x ipxcen icedi xtq zia miwdl ,lnl xlc` oerny ixhqe`dÎicedid liv`d ly eza

oa i`gei :e`x xtqd zia znwd aiaq zewelgnd lr .dpy dze` ly uiwa gztp lnl xtqd zia

' ,dilcbmipewizl miyextd qgia dptn zcewpk (f"hxz) lnl qenlet :"jvwern `le jyaecn `l"

,dil`ix ,zebd ,dixehqid :l`xyi ux`a `"xbd icinlz ,'jepigasqeie oeqpfex l`xyi zkixra

.72±55 'nr ,`"ryz milyexi ,oilaix

]7[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip507

qwp ta meyixd zhiy .2

zhiy .`pc zncwn mlera dvetp dziidy dhiy ,'ze`vede zeqpkd' ly dhiya ldep qwptd

e` dqpkd lk ly xnelk ,zg` dlert ly meyix zexev izy zllek ze`vedde zeqpkdd

dqpkd oial geex oia dpgad `ll ,onf jxe`l mia`ynd znixf z` crzn meyixd .d`ved

.mipeyd minelyzde ze`wqrd ibeq oia e`

:d`ad zpekzna `ed meyixd miwqer ep` eay zepeaygd qwpta

me kqhe xit14

200m'z odk ic [ae]h[l]fn [dqil]eal xc` [yc]g [se]qn [miyc]g (3=) b xykd [mel]yz

(miypn jxeaz=)

250myd=) e'id oend dyn i'bl xi` [yce]g [se]qn [miyc]g 4 (ziaix=) xykd [oea]ygl

(ediigie exnyi

myxp ,odk aeh lfn dqileal mleyy ,miyceg dyelyl ziaix xear yexb 200 ly melyz

oend dyn xiabl mleyy yexb 250 ly mekqd ,ote` eze`a .d`vedd itirqa zg` mrt

,d`vedd itirqa zg` mrt myxp ,b"ixz a` ycega15ozip ddf meyix ote` .d`ld oke

.dqpkdd itirqa `evnl

izy eid ,o`k epnbcd dze`y ,(zg` dqipk qiqa lr=) zicvÎcgd zepeaygd zhiyl¦

,zxg`d ;zeqpkdl ze`vedd oia of`l zepeaygd ldpnl xyt`l ,zg`d :zeifkxn zexhn

.mitqkd lr micwteny in lre mqeibe mia`ynd zwelg ote` lr gewit xyt`lenk seba

ildpn m`e enxzy mitqkd ewleg cvik zrcl ywal miieyr minxezd eid zicxtqd dlidwd

.xyeia mciwtz z` mi`lnn llekd16

14.dxdad myl ,ily ztqez od 'hexit'e 'mekq' zexzekd

15ozip ecnrn lr .dlidwd icin`n cg` did oend dyn .184 'nr ,(6 dxrd ,lirl) zepeaygd qwpt

dlidwd iqpxtn did oend dyn .oec` ,iail'v ikxezd x`ezd ly xeviw ± i'b x`ezd on cenll

.dxyr yyd d`na mip`hleqd xvga mi`tex eid diy`xy ,cxtq iyxebnn oend zgtyn i`v`vne

16`nd oia ip`n'zerd oehlyd ly zepeaygd ledip zhiycr ,dxyr ryzd ± dxyr rax`d ze

,z`nifpzd zeawra zip`n'zerd dixtni`d ly divxhqipinc`a zicvÎec zepeayg zldpd ueni`l¦

) zebxcnd zhiy dziidMerdiveneniwdy zip`dli`d dpicnd on minlqend eyxi dze`y ,(

`ed ef dhiy ly miaeygd zepexwrd cg` .1353±1256 mipyd oia dniiwzdy ,o`xi`a milebpend

Îa dzyrp zebxcnd zhiya zepeayg ixtqa daizkd .zetiwy xcridSiyakatzecewp `ll daizk ,

.lynnd ly zeiceq zeieazkzdl mb dyniyy ,zccewne zipxvw daizk idef .geex `ll hrnke

elki `l mixgeq jk lya .oede miqkp ,geex ,onefn oia dcxtdd xcrid did dhiyd ly sqep oiit`n

:e`x .dileyde dxend zhiya dzyrp zepeayg ledipa dxykdd .ef dhiya yeniy zeyrlMehmet

Erkan, Oguzhan Aydemir and Cemal Elitaş, ‘An Accounting System used between theï

14th and 19th Centuries in the Middle East: The Merdiven (Stairs) Method’, The 11th

World Congress of Accounting Historians, Nantes, France, 19–22 July 2006, pp. 1–29

508yyd il`i]8[

Îec zepeayg zldpd dgztzd zg` dqipk qiqa lr zepeaygd ledip zhiy cvlve` ,zic ¦

Îec zepeayg zldpd .dletk dqipk lycvly zilklk dlert lk meyix lr zqqean zi ¦

zegtl cg` oeayg day ,dletk zepeayg zkxrna miitqk mikxra zenikl zpzipd wqrd

zepeaygd zldpda df ote`a znyxpd dlert lka .dkefn zegtl cg` oeayg ecbpke ,aiegn

miiwzn zepeaygd zldpd zkxrnay jk ,iekifd mekq oial aeigd mekq oia oefi`d xnyp

.zekfd zexzi mekq oial daegd zexzi mekq oia oefi` oezp rbx lka

zeaegd leqigl `iadl oeiqipd mr ,dxyr ryzd d`nd ly miyingd zepy rvn`a

jke .ea mipc ep`y zepeaygd qwpta mb ef dhiya izcewpe iwlg yeniy dyrp ,ze`eeldn

:d`xp df17

me kqhe xito f`n18

194igxfn wgvi [mk]gl xykd [oeay]gldvex19970el (x`yp=) iwa776

30(!jk) y`ih`r wgvi [mk]g [yc]wdl xykd [oeay]gldvex155el iwa125

[miyc]g 6 e'hxz zah [se]qne (ocr egep=) r'p

itlk aegd jqn iekipk mbe d`vedk mb ,miinrt dyrp ± yexb 194 ± d`vedd mekq meyix

mlyl xzep sqk dnk alye aly lka zrcl llekd iy`x elki ef jxca .igxfn wgvi mkgd

.mda miaiegn eid xaky ziaixd inelyzn

dtexi`a lg ef dtewza .dxyr ryzd d`nd rvn`a wx agxp yeniyl dqpkp ef dhiy

oia dcxtdde zeipxcend zeiwqrd zenfeia lecibd awr ,zepeaygd ledipa ynn ly iepiy

z` e`hia d`nd rvn`a elgy zepeaygd ledipa miiepiyd .eledip oial wqr lr zelra

xifgdl mieqn mxeb ly ezleki zkxrdl irvn`n :zepeaygd zldpd ly ciwtza iepiyd

yeniy lr zehlgd zlaw jxevl rcin wetiql ze`ik mldpl e` ecia ecwtedy mia`ynd z`

avnd ly zipkcr dpenz zlawl jxcke ,geex zxivile drwydl qiqak ,xnelk ,mia`yna

.oezp rbx lka oebx`d ly itqkd

vÎecd ledipl cebipaepi`e migeex ccen epi` ze`vede zeqpkd ly zepeayg ledip ,ic ¦

izla eid ze`vedde illk ote`a dreaw dziid dqpkddy oeeikn ,mirevia zkxrda wqer

miiwzdl ef dhiy dkiynd okl .gewit dxyt`y dhiya did ic dl`k zeaiqpa .zerpnp¦

.mixfpne zeiziiqpk zelidw enk zephw zelidw ly zepeaygd ledipa

dlidw ly zepeayg ledipl eite`a `et` dnc milyexia icxtqd lleka zepeaygd ledip

minxezl ze`xdle ze`vedl zeqpkdd oia of`l dziid zifkxnd ezilkze ,dlecb `l zizc

.mciwtza milren mpi` dlidwa mitqkd ildpn ik20

17.268 'nr ,e"hxz oqip ze`ved ,(6 dxrd ,lirl) zepeaygd qwpt

18.dxdad myl ,ily zetqez od 'of`n'e 'hexit' ,'mekq' zexzekd

19.ziaix inelyz el miaiig ± xnelk

20J.R. Edwards, A History of Financial Accounting, London 1989, ch. 4–5ixn`na .

]9[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip509

mirbep mipey`xd ipy .zepexzi dyely mpyi ixehqid xewnk zepeayg qwpta yeniyl

milbznd miiepiyy `ed oey`xd oexzid .ixehqid xewnk eaihl iyilyde xewnd zepin`l

zepeayg ledip ly mipeixehqid .dlidwd iiga miihnxc miiepiy swyl mileki zepeayg qwpta

dni`zne dpzynd ,zlbzqn dwihwxt `ed dixehqidd jldna zepeayg ledip ik ,mipreh

`id oky ,zeaivi ly cnn ef dwihwxta yi ,z`f mr cgi .mewnde onfd i`pzl dnvr z`

.zernyn zlra daiq `ll dpzyn dpi`21

gewit xyt`n epi`y ote`a azkp df xn`na oecpd qwptd .zepin` `ed ipyd oexzid

ip ev igmitheyd migeeicd .izlidwÎmipt did eilr dyrpy cigid gewitdy d`xpe ,liri

.onfd wgxnn oexkif lr miknqp mpi`e qwpta mihxetnd miilklkd micrvl jenq enyxp

.ixehqid xewnk ddeab zepin` qwptl dpwn xacd

zk`lne qwpta d`ixwd .ixehqid xewnk qwptd ly eaih xen`k `ed iyilyd oexzid

dxe`kl ipebcgd meyixd zexnl .zih` dcear zeyxec eay mipeyd mitirqd ly geprtd¦

oi`y ,zeketdz ax gzn xtqk mi`xwp qwptd icenr 770 ,ze`vedde zeqpkdd itirq ly

z`ixwa wx xxazne xdazn cenre cenr lk .oexg`d cenrd l` miribny cr eteq z` zrcl

zeixyt` zeihd zpznn zih`d dceardy meyn ,mixwegl oexzi jka yi .eixg` `ad cenrd¦

cvn zipxny `idy ,zepeaygd ledip ly dwihwxtd ,cere z`f .qwptd i`vnn zepyxta

.dlidwa miizxag miiepiy zpigal xewnk jnqna ynzydl zxyt`n ,xg` cvn zlbzqne cg`

z`ni fpzd ztewza zip`n'zerd dixtni`a zep eayg ledip lr gewitd .3

dixtni`a ifkxn cri eid hxta zepeayg ledipae llka zilklkd zkxrna zenxetx

gpenl ilelin mebxz) ycgn oebx`d .dixg`le (1876±1839) z`nifpzd ztewza zip`n'zerd

oehlyd zecqena divfipxcen ikildz fxfl crep zip`n'zerd dixtni`d ly (z`nifpz ikxezd

lya ,mixw zngln xg`l cgeina u`ed df jildz .ziqppitd divxhqipinc`d mdae ,mipeyd

ikxevl ueg ze`eeld lr zeaegd mr zeccenzd xyt`iy ,xceqn itqk ledipa segcd jxevd

Îd mwed 1862 zpya .1854 zpy onl exahvdy dnglnd oeninDivan Muhasebatcxyn ,

j` ,1876 zpya wx `ln ote`a lertl lgd df cxyn ,mpn` .izlynnd zepeaygd ledip

) dkixrd ciwtz cxted eznwd mr xakAuditing,mitqkd cxynn zepeaygd ledip ly (22

ev ,oei`ned iÎh'gd ,jkl jynda .mitqkd ledipa zetiwyl zeaiegnd lr cirdy jldn

un`n' :zetiwyl ip`n'zerd oehlyd ly zyxetn zeaiegn llk ,1858 zpyn dnxetxd

:miaezkay‘Accounts of Ideology: Accounting Methods and Social Constructions in the

Sephardic Account Book 1851–1880’dyrp oday zepeaygd ledip zehiy z` zgzpn ip` ,

.dl` zehiy oial zeihiletÎzeizxag zeqitz oia xywd z` oke ,df zepeayg xtqa yeniy

21.14 'nr ,(20 dxrd ,lirl) qcx`ec`

22Haydar Kulaksiz, ‘Public Financial Administration of the Ottoman Empire between the

Years 1838–1880 and Muhasebat Genel Mudurlugu (General Directorate of Public

Accounts)’, 11th World Congress of Accounting Historians, Nantes, 19–22.7.2006

510yyd il`i]10[

ly eneqxte ezpkd oiipra ,dpexg`l drawp xy` ,zcgeind dpwzd reviaa rwyei cgein

.'dpy icn ,dlrpd izephleq ly ze`vede zeqpkd qwpt23

Îec zepeayg ledipl dxare dzpzyd zepeaygd ledip zhiyvccerl ick xzid oia ,ic ¦

zepeaygd ledipa zeciwt xiykdl ick .xg` cvn ely divlebx xyt`le cg` cvn xgqn

d`nd ly miyingd zepy ziy`xae ,xtqd izaa ezrnhda ip`n'zerd lynnd lgd ipxcend

lye dpicnd xve` ly zepeayg ledipl dkxcd ixtq mqxtzdl elgd dxyr ryzd

.mixgeq24ly zicrlad dzeknq z` yibcdy 1858 zpyn dnxetxd ev sxge ,z`f zexnl

zelidwa miiy`xd miizcd miciwtzd ilra z` zepnl dycgd zifekixd divxhqipinc`d

,mxky z` mlyle zeinlqen `ld25k jka oi`oehlyd ly iynn gewit lr riavdl ic

.hxta milyexiae llka dixtni`a zeicedid zelidwd ly zepeaygd ixtq lr ip`n'zerd

.mdilr gwtl mi`znd mc`d gek did `l oehlyle zixar eazkp elld zepeaygd ixtq

± mix'vipid leqig xg`l .minlqend mipizpd axwa `weec exkip miiynn zeaxrzde gewit

zaky z` yilgdl ip`n'zerd oehlyd ywia 1826 zpya ± milbx lig ly zilird zecigi

ledipa zeaxrzd ici lr inlqend ycwdd itqkn zepdle ,miin`lq`d zcd inkg ,`nlerd

zxard ly dnbnd dwfgzd d`nd jynda .miycwdd iqkp ly iaihxhqipinc`de itqkd

.zip`n'zerd dpicnd xve`l sweed iqkpn mitqkd26

ziyrnd ezleki awr `weec e`l zicedid dlidwd l` xcg mitqkd ledipa zetiwyl ugld

zeg"ec mqxtl yiy oehlyd ly dhlgdd ,z`f mr .dlidwd ipiipra axrzdl oehlyd ly

zkixke ,oei`ned iÎh'ga oiwzd eledip lr dctwdde llka xgqnd cecir ,miizpy miitqk

zexxerzdd zrepz ,dcdpd ixika axwa itqk ledipa zetiwy mr zizeaxzd diigzd

elrt dl` lk ± dxyr ryzd d`nd ly dpey`xd zivgna dlgdy ziaxrd zizeaxzd

ilrtn ly miizpy zeg"ec ly meqxt sxvl yi jkl .itqk ledip ly zeycg zenxep zxivil

zepezira jk xg`e dtexi`a zepezira dligz ,milyexia miicediÎ`lde miicedid cqgd

.milyexia ritedl dlgdy27

23,dgeztd dhiqxaipe`d ,dycgd zra oekizd gxfnd ly dixehqidl `ean ,jilx` ibg lv` mbxezn

.33 'nr ,b daihg ,`"pyz±f"nyz aia` lz

24meqxt xg`l dpy ,1859 zpya ,lynl ,jk .dixtni`d ly miiaxrd zefegnd iabl mb oekp xacd

d`nd ly ziaxrd zizeaxzd diigzd ,dcdpd iliaenn ,ip`zqea l` qexhea mqxt ,oei`ned iÎh'gd

xeaig ik ip`zqea l` yibcd xtql dncwda .mixgeql zepeayg ledipl dkxcd xtq ,dxyr ryzd

:e`x .dpicnd wegn aeyg wlg `ed oiwz zepeayg ledipy meyn mb yxcp ziaxra dfkpj¡IÏÃBNnJ»A,BN»A ÒyËi LBN·jMB¯f»A ¹n¿ ϯ jU,PËjÎIz` daqdy h`i'g lewipl dcen ip` .1859

.df xtql ial zneyz

25.32 'nr ,(23 dxrd ,lirl) jilx` lv` mbxezn eva ihpeelxd sirqd gqep ly mebxz

26.76±75 'nr ,`"pyz milyexi ,zipxcend dikxez ly dzginv ,qi`el cx`pxa

27miizpy migeeic dxyr ryzd d`nd ly miyingd zepy seq onl mqxtl dlgd zicedid zepezird

oezira ,lynl ,jk .milyexia micedid mitexzplitd ly cqgd ilrtn ly ze`vedde zeqpkdd lr

driazd .milyexia cliyhex zia ly cqgd ilrtn lr geeic riten ,4 'nr ,1859 hqebe`a 10 ,cibnd

cbp zepey zeriq ibivp icia wyp dktd mitqkd ledipa zetiwyl zepezird zervn`a zixeaivd

]11[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip511

milyexia icxtqd llekd ly zep e aygd ixtq lr gewitd .4

mitqk iyp` egwit ,zicxtqd dlidwd dnwey day ,1727 zpy f`n etlgy mipyd d`na

.icxtqd llekd ly zepeaygd ixtq lr miipevig28seqi` lr mi`xg` eid dl` mitqk iyp`

dwwfp dxyr dpenyd d`nd ziy`xa .icedid aeyiil elld mitqkd zxarde dleba zenexzd

`hyew iciwt cre .ilklk mewiyl hxta milyexiae llka l`xyi ux`a zicedid dlidwd

dixtni`a zicedid zilklkd dhil`d ixagn akxed df cre .1726 zpya ef dxhnl mwed

.ip`n'zerd oehlyd mr miilklkde miizxagd mdixywn mgek z` ea`yy ,zip`n'zerd29

zbdpd lr zxewia gzn creed .llekd ztew lr wecd gewit miiw `hyew iciwt cre

miiewil lr aeye aey rixzde dbixgk eipira dqtzp zitqkd dzeldpzd xy`k dlidwd

oia .lwelw ledip lya m` oiae zezigy lya m` oia ,llekd iciwt ly mzcear ixcqa

.zfxten ziaixa llekl mitqk eeld xy`k milyexi iciwta `hyew iciwt etfp xzid30

ylgidl dlgd milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd ly dbdpda `hyew iciwt cre ly ezfig`

,dxyr ryzd d`nd ziy`xa,(m"`ewtd) mcxhyn`a milkxn`de miciwtd oebx` zrted mr

eid `hyew iciwtl dnecay ,oxdrl mig`d icia 1825±1809 mipyd mipyd jldna mwedy

zei`avd zenxetxd awr dkrc mipexg`d dl` ly mzrtyd .mitqk iyp` md s`

.dxyr ryzd d`nd ly iyilyd xeyra zip`n'zerd dixtni`a erveay zeiaihxhqipinc`de

zeifekixd znbn lr eywde ax gek exavy ,mix'vipid icecb ewxet dl` zenxetx zxbqna

xeka ± dl` micecb mr exywp mdiwqry ,mixiyr micedi mixgeq xtqn .zenxetxd ly

.oehlyd z`xeda egvxp ± o`ni'b` ediryie i`ab l`wfgi ,dpenx`k wgvi31dbdpdd ,llkk

aeyiid z` bidpdl dzleki dylgp mb jkn d`vezke ,df jldnn dylgp leap`zq`a zicedid

l`xyi ux`a millek ly lecb xtqnn gek ietii laiw m"`ewtd oebx` .l`xyi ux`a icedid

mipepbpn zxiviae dtexi`a seqi`d iagxn zagxda jexk did df jildz .mnya mitqk seq`l

.dycgd dtewzl eni`ziy mitqk seqi` ly miycg32oebx` od `hyew iciwt cre od

x`exata 16 ,oepald ;miipr itqka milren mdy eny`ed diqexe oilet i`ab ,dnbecl .zeaixi zeriq

miipr ztew itqka lrend mc` mr dlert szyn `edy jka cygp iy`a mkgd .52±51 'nr ,1866

.cere ,291±290 'nr ,1866 xaehwe`a 5 ,oepald ;opz` zxenz mifpky`d ly

28iciwt' zeqga dxyr dpenyd d`na l`xyi ux` icedi ,i`pxa awri :e`x `hyew iciwt oebx` lr

.a"nyz milyexi ,'`hyew

29lk ly dinepehe`d zcin z` dl` miinewn miqgi eraw dxyr ryzd d`nd ly zenxetxd iptl

:e`x .dkeza oedd ilra ly drtydd zcin z`e ,dlidwe dlidwEsther Benbassa, Sephardi Jewry:

A History of the Judeo-Spanish Community, 14th–20th Centuries ,Berkeley 2000, p. 19

30'nr ,(c"lyz) ` ,mly ,'18Îd d`nd zivgna milyexia zicedid dlidwd zbdpd' ,i`pxa awri

.295±293 'nr cgeinae ,315±271

31,xw` iwey :e`x mix'vipid ligl leap`zq`a zicedid dbdpdd oia miilklkd mixywd lr cer

,aia`Îlz zhiqxaipe` ,jnqen zcear ,ciwtz ly ditxbeia ± mix'vpid w`'be` ly o`ibxf`ad

.a"qyz

32dpey`xd zivgna l`xyi ux`a icedid aeyiide mcxhqn`a milkxn`de miciwtd ,oxhypbxen dix`

512yyd il`i]12[

ixtq lre icxtqd llekd ly mitqkd ledip lr egwit ,dpey dxeva ik m` ,m"`ewtd

.ely zepeaygd33ikxbile`d ite`d z` elaiw ,mipey milcada m` mb ,elld mipebx`d ipy

oial mitqkd ildpn ly ziyi`d daehd oia of`l eywia mb j` ,irah xack dlidwd ly

.minkg icinlz ly mzgeexl be`cl yi ditly dibele`ci`d meyii34

zbdpd oia zewelgn rlbzdl elgd 1816 zpya milyexia ifpky`d aeyiid yecig mr

lgd .m"`ewtd etq`y mitqka mipexg`d ly mwlg lr mifpky`d zbdpd oial micxtqd

iawr ote`a elicbd dl` minkqd .mikeqkqd z` xeztl oeiqipa zenkqd ebyed 1819 zpya

ly oiiprd zcin z` ecixed iyrn ote`ae etq`py mitqka mifpky`d ly iqgid mwlg z`

.icxtqd llekd ly zitqkd zeldpzda m"`ewtd35zehlgdd ilawn lr ugld zgt ,cg` cvn

ixtq z` zwcead zxewia xcrid dziid zernynd ,xg` cvn .llekd ztewl rbepd lka

ly miyingd zepy rvn` onl wx .miixeaivl miiyi`d miqxhpi`d oia zpf`ne zepeaygd

ly zepeaygd ixtq lr gewitd wcdzde xfg ,jynda d`xpy itk ,dxyr ryzd d`nd

.zicxtqd dlidwd

llekd zeaeg .a

lle kd zeaege eae w wgvi axd .1

iy`a mkgd ly ezen mr36eaew wgvi axd yxi 1848 uiwa oib`b mdxa` axd milyexia

mkgd xidvd ,1854 sxega ,okn xg`l mipy yyn zegt .enewn z` dpenye mirayd oa

oebx`d znwd .3 'nr ,`"nyz ,milyexia zixard dhiqxaipe`d ,xehwec zcear ,18Îd d`nd ly

ycgn dwelgde seqi`d zehiy lr cpleda zeicedid zelidwd axwa zewelgnn ,xzid oia ,drap

ixrc ilkxn`e iciwt" cqend zeedzd' ,onkn sqei :e`x oebx`d znwd lr .l`xyi ux` itqk ly

± oeiv ornl ,oeqnxa sqei ;84±69 'nr ,(b"nyz) 27 ,dxczw ,'mcxhqn`a "ycewdmiciwt zeclez

a l`xyiÎux` cra milkxn`e,cpledmilkxn`de miciwtd' ,lhxa l`xyi ;h"lyz milyexi

b ,mcxhyn`n milkxn`de miciwtd zexb` ,'zexewnde oebx`d xwgl mieew :mdizexb`e,h"twz :

.gi±`i 'nr ,h"lyz milyexi

33ecwena ,lynl ,ecnr zepeayg ledipa zetiwye ze`eeldn zeaeg .274 'nr ,(30 dxrd ,lirl) i`pxa

dzencl' ,dlibxw iav :e`x .milkxn`de miciwtd len 'daxeg'd iyp`l 'xvg'd iyp` oia jeqkqd ly

cgeinae ,48±33 'nr ,(e"nyz) 37 ,dxczw ,'a"xz±h"vwz milyexia miyextd llek zbdpd ly

.40±38 'nr

34dyrna epizrc dgp `l oiicr' :m"`ewtd eazk x"z elqkn igxt wgvi axl zxbi`a ,lynl ,jk

daiyi meyn dqpkd mey mdl oi`y minlye mi`xi g"z yiy epl rcep xg` epigeliy ixt dwelgd

dnkn dqpkd mdl yiy mixg`e cg` ycgl s` mytp z` zeigdl ea oi`y hren xac milawn mde

iazk inelvzl oeknd ,159 zxbi` ,g ,m"`ewtd zexb` .'dniyxd itk dlecb dcina milhep zeaiyi

.70811 ,zine`ld diixtqd ,ci

35,1914±1870 ip`n'zerd oehlyd idlya dzegztzda milyexia zicxtqd dcrd ,aeliifet `xeib

.154±147 'nr ,`"qyz ,oli`Îxa zhiqxaipe` ,xehwec zcear

36icia 1841 zpya milyexi ly oey`xd iy`a mkgl dpen (1848±1787) oib`b mdxa` miig axd

]13[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip513

lk lr xzeen `ed ik zicxtqd dlidwd ly minkgd icinlz epiny mibivp ipta iy`a

qwpta z`vnp eaew axd ly dnezgd ezxdvd .mdil` oxiarne ,zeilklkd cgeina ,eizeieknq

.'minlerl did `l' edenky xeng ilklk xayn lr cnln dpkeze ,llekd ly zepeaygd

oiae ,aegd ilra mr llekd ly zicizrd zeldpzdd lr cgeina eaew axd akrzn jnqna

:xidvn `ed xzid

yexb dying cr [el]it` [dhe]xt mey icil `eaz xy` dqpkddn akrl `ly ...ilr izlaw

mibivpd=) md ik llk (igek i`a=) j'al `le izlefl `le il mirbepd `l ...zeaeg [oea]ygl

deyd htyne mdn cg`k ip` mbe (aegd ilra=) g'ad lk mr ebdpzi cvik exgai (mipennd

.xac mewi ok mznkqd (it lre=) i'tre eplekl didi37

?zeqpkd akrl `ly zeaiigzdd xyt dne xaecn zeaeg eli` lr ,dfd xaynd did dn

ilklkd xaynd zaiq ,1855 zpya ixeitihpen dynl icxtqd llekd xqny jnqn it lr

myl lhpy ze`eeld xear mlyl llekd ul`py mideabd ziaixd inelyz dziid jynznd

.dxyr ryzd d`nd ly miyelyd zepya i`kf oa opgei my lr zqpkd iza uetiy38uetiyd

zc ipana miiepiy jexrl dpey`xl xizdy ,ilr cngn icia ux`d yeaik xg`l xyt`zd

mdny miax zeaega llekd rwy ,jnqna orhp jk ,xwid uetiydn d`vezk .miinlqen `l

.egtze ekldy mideabd ziaixd inelyz lya xwira ,zekex` mipy ulgidl gilvd `l

el riiql mipeyd zegilyd iazka milyexia icxtqd llekd `xw mipy ze`n jxe`l

ieqin ,dngln e` zxeva ,zetbn lya zeaexw mizrl sxgedy ,iper ly xeng avn awr

.mrxetl iyew yiy ziaix mr zeaeg lya oke ,bixg39mitqkd ledip ly ixaynd ite`d

ciwtz dkeza zcb`nd ,iy`a mkgd zxyn .zeipehlyd zenxetxd zxbqna ip`n'zerd oehlyd

axd iepin mr ,1835 zpya cqep ,zizc dlidw ly dbdpd ciwtze xika ip`n'zer ciwt ly igxf`

.(o`nxit) inyx ev zervn`a leap`zq`a iy`a mkgl iel mdxa`

37.738 'nr ,(6 dxrd ,lirl) zepeaygd qwpt

38zqpk izad zepal witqn gke zeyx ozpe mixvn xy lecbd xyd gex z` 'd xird dpyd dze`e'

lecb zefixfa cenrl `"rife r"p oifeq m"xdenk lecbd oe`bd my`xa mklne onfd ipax enikqde

ik `nxb oice zeqxdpd zepal dlecb d`ved dzid t"kr ...'dl zeyrl zr exn` ik oipad zn` lr

oxw dpyl dpyne 'fpd oipad aegn ziax miebl mlyl ick ziaxa mieel epiid jli`e dpy dze`n

xhq`b ci azk' ,oiihyple xi`n :e`x .'epx`ev lr elr ebxzyd zeaegd lere ...`lf`e `tiqen aegd

,xen`k .82±80 'nr ,(g"lyz) bn ,oeiv ,'e"hxz zpya milyexia micxtqd llek ly xikfz :975

zybcd .i`kf oa opgei y"r zqpkd iza uetiy iptl mb zeaega drewy dziid zicxtqd dcrd

mixexia ,lhxa :e`x .zizc zernyn eperxtl zeqiibzdle el qgiil dcrep aegl daiqk uetiyd

.118 'nr ,(4 dxrd ,lirl)

39,dix'ibl`) oevigd axrna 1812±1806 mipyd oia aaqy ,iqeziit awri 'x ly ezegily azka ,dnbecl

.'oda zlke` ziaix'e micedid itqk z` da milfeb miiebdy ,milyexi zwevn dx`ez ,(aele qipez

glypy ,ield l`xyi x"a l`tx iax ly zegilyd azka .708 'nr ,(1 dxrd ,lirl) ixri :e`x

,dgt o`nileq ,ycgd hilyd zeriaze oehlyd itelig awr ik xn`p ,1827 zpya ewexnl milyexin

,ixri ;'...zexite oxw ...ax jq aeg ...oiyxece oil`ey ux`d ili`e ...lek`l dn epl oi`' :zxeva awre

.715 'nr ,my

514yyd il`i]14[

.dxyr dpenyd d`na mb miiwzd milyexia icxtqd lleka40zi`xg` dziid llekd ztew

,zenexzne ieqinn zetheyd zeqpkdd lr sqep ,oenind ikxcn zg`e ,minelyz ly dxey lr

dcixi e` xayn ly zetewza ,zrl zrn .micediÎ`lne micedin ze`eeld zlihp dziid

lya zexidna exahvd ellde zeaegd inelyza cinzdl dlidwd dgilvd `l ,dqpkda

.dpya mifeg` mixyrl dxyr oia dxyr dpenyd d`na erpy ,mideabd ziaixd ixeriy41

zcewpl cr ciakdl dkiynd ziaixd :envr lr xfg zeaegd zxiav zeawra dlertd ote`

ote`a xaynd on llekd z` uligy ,lecb mitqk qeib rvan jxrp xaynd zcewpae ,xayn

.`ad ilklkd xaynl cr ,ipnf

aeg lra ly ezedf dler eaew axd ly ezxdvdn ?icxtqd llekd ly miyepd eid in

xevrl eywia minkgd icinlz ik d`xp .envr iy`a mkgd ,jnqnd xagn ± xexa ote`a cg`

xear xfgd gihadl ick llekd itqka ynzydl ,eaew axd ,iy`a mkgd ly ebdpn z`

dqpkddn akrl `ly' zeaiigzd lr eaew axd ly eznizg .llekl ozp envr `edy ze`eeldd

,zayiizn 'izlefl `le il mirbepd `l ...zeaeg [oea]ygl ...[dhe]xt mey icil `eaz xy`

wz it lr :milyexia zeaegd oerxit ikxc lr epl yiy zncew drici mr ,dxe`klowizy dp

xfgd lk iptl micediÎ`ll zeaeg xifgdl dlidwd lr did xayn onfa ,`hyew iciwt cre

ibdpne zenkqdd ,zepwzd lk mr cgi ,1842 zpya dqtced zeaegd xfgd zpwz .micedil aeg

mey cia gk oi` d`lde meidny' ,dpwzd draw ,'minikqn ep`' .cg` zepwz xtqa ,xird

zeaeg erxtzi xy` cr eaegn dphw dhext rxtdl mlyexia xy` dy` e` yi` `xap

itl xird ipenn i"r l`xyi xa lk rxtzi 'd aihii xy` aehdn jk xg` my xy` miiebd

.'eiqkp42miyep oia zexgz ik cnln axd ly ezxdvdl encwy mipyd on qwpta oeir ,mle`e

citwdl dyixcd on xzei wfg ripn dziid ziaix inelyze ze`eeld ixfgd lr dlidwd jezn

.dpwzd meyii lr43

mb zehlgd enya lawl minkgd icinlz ibivpl dxyt` eaew axd mzg dilry dxdvdd

.mdizehlgd lr xrxrl lkei xg` edyin e` `edy ilan ,enr zevriizd `lle excrida

,ux`l uegn e` ux`dn ,lleka lawzzy dqpkd lk ik ,`id dxdvdd ly ztqep zernyn

mcvn minkgd icinlz .mitqkd z`ved ote` lr ehilgi mde ,mibivpd icil cin xearz

ly ,dxxyd ly e` dlidwd ly zeitqk zeriazl zeixg` lk eaew axdn xiqdl eaiigzd

.aeg ilra ly e` miipr

40,(4 dxrd ,lirl) mixexia ,lhxa ;39±35 'nr ,(4 dxrd ,lirl) milyexia zicedid dlidwd ,i`pxa

±104 'nr.105

41.207 'nr ,(5 dxrd ,lirl) i`pxa

42xy` miyecwl mler ipe`b mipax i"r e"z mlyexi w"drt mibdepd mibdpne zenkqde zepwzd xtq

.`"r ek ,b"nxz milyexi ,`"rif ux`a

43mb ecnr micigil ze`eeldn zeaeg oerxta dti`e dti` ziiyre iewl zepeayg ledip lr zeprh

,lirl) dlibxw :e`x .1840 zpya miyextd llek zbdpd lr m"`ewtd oebx` ly zxewiad cwena

.40±38 'nr ,(33 dxrd

]15[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip515

ze`vede ze qpkd .2

xaynl encwy mipyd on zepeaygd qwpta oiirl yi llekd zeaeg zedn z` oiadl ick

xeavl icxtqd llekd jiynd xaynl encwy mipya ik ,micnl ep` zeqpkdd itirqn .xkfpd

.ze`eeldd sirq did dl` mipya llekd ly xzeia lecbd dqpkdd sirq .miycg zeaeg

mipyd oia milyexia icxtqd llekd ly dqpkda ze`eeldd aikxn z` zhxtn d`ad dlahd

.(1854±1851) c"ixz±`"ixz

aex it lr ,ze`eeld ly ohw xtqn .12%±10% ly ziaixa epzip ze`eeldd lk hrnk

,'ycwd zxeza d`eld'k epievy ze`eeld44zexR ewleg aexle ,15%±14% ly ziaixa epzip¥

.miyicwnd oiae llekd oia ycwdd45nzeqpkdd llkn ze`eeldd xeriy ik ,dler dlahd o

feg`ay s` ik ,dlahd on dler cer .55.8% lr rvenna cnr 1854±1851 mipyd rax`a

micedin elhip ze`eeldd zivgnn xzeiy ixd ,zexkip zecepz eid micediÎ`ln ze`eeldd

.onf zcewp lka46

,dlidwa micin` miyp` :dlidwd ixika (`) :zeveaw yelyl ewlgp micedid mieelnd

eeld elld .eigibyne llekd iciwt e` iy`a mkgd enk ,mixika miciwtz ilra mllkae

dlidwd ixika ly minezi e` zepnl` (a) .zeaexw mizrl ce`n milecb minekq llekl

ze`eeldd .ziaixn ddeab `l dreaw dqpkd lawl eywiay ,ziqgi miphw minekq ilra oke

.miycwde zeaiyi (b) .zrl zrn epzipe ziqgi zephw eid elld47dpzyd d`eeldd mekq

llk jezn 16%Îl 6% oia rp miycwdd ze`eeld ly owlg .daiyid ly dxyer it lr

.ze`eeldd48

44.xeaivd zaehl ycwen dlrn `idy ziaixd on wlg zegtly oxw ,xnelk

45;216 'nr ,(7 dxrd ,lirl) d`pÎoa :mb e`xe ;oldl e`x ,ziaix zxykdl zlaewn dxev did ycwd

Haim Gerber, ‘Jews and Money-Lending in the Ottoman Empire’, Jewish Quarterly

Review, 72 (1981), pp. 100–118

46([1 dxrd ,lirl] dxyr dpenyd d`nd ,odk :e`x) dxyr dpenyd d`nd on miknqn ik d`xp

.minlqen mr xgqna ewqry miqpxt ly zeaegl daxr icxtqd llekd ztewy jk lr miriavn

aege onefna minekq micxtqd ycwd ly aegd llek zecg` zecerzay oeeikn dler ef dxryd

dlecb zxkfpd zenkd ik d`xp .oeaqa aeg zexikfnd ,139 ,130 zecerz ,my :lynl e`x ;dxegqa

iqpxt ly mxgqnl axr llekdy izxryd zraep o`kne ,xgqn epi` dpiipry dwqrl mi`zdl ickn

ihxt mc` cinrdl did ip`n'zerd bdpndy ,dketd dprh ebivd mikxerd ik oiivl yi .dlidwd

llekd ztew ly mitqk ipiipr eribd xy`k okle ,dlidwd ly did aegd xy`k mb aegd lrak

z` lhal ick jka oi` .miraezd e` mirazpd eid xeaivd ztew lr mi`xg` eidy in ,oicd zial

dpennd ciwtd zervn`a ,zrl zrn envr cinrd llekdy zexyt`d z` zelrdl ick `l` mzxryd

.cizra xwgna oegal yi ef dxryd .ihxt mc` ly aegd lrak ,dtewd lr

47ieaixa izynzyd o`k .'zeycwd' e` 'miycwd' `ed ycwd ly ieaixd ,oyeyÎoa` oelin it lr

.zexewna `aedy itk ieaixa izynzyd mihehivae 'miycwd'

48853/4Ð1850/1) c"ixz±`"ixz meyixd zepy ipezp gezip.(6 dxrd ,lirl) zepeaygd qwpta (1

516yyd il`i]16[

( 1854±1851) c"ixz±`"ixz icxtqd llekd zeqp kda ze`e eldd aikxn

onfd ztewzzeqpkdd jqze`e eldd jqmice d iÎ `ln z e`e e ld

zeqpkdd jeznze`e eldd jq je zn

miyexbamifeg`amiyexbamifeg`a

`"ixz fenz±`"ixz elqk267,480139,05052%27,29019.6%

a"ixz fenz±`"ixz a`584,038339,57858%54,99716%

b"ixz a`±a"ixz lel`422,475265,92363%97,84337%

c"ixz a`±b"ixz a`330,640150,30945%69,80046%

lekd jq1,604,633894,86055.8%249,93028%

dlgdy dpya ,zepeaygd qwpt it lr ?ze`vedd akxd lr df zeqpkd akxd rityd cvik

422,000Îk lr llekd zeqpkd ecnr (1853±1852) b"ixz a`a dniizqde a"ixz lel`a

zervn`a eqieb cala yexb 187,000Îke ze`eeld zervn`a eqieb mkezn 235,000Îk .yexb

44%Îk mkezn ,zeaeg ixfgd lr yexb 277,000Îk llekd `ived dpy dze`a .ieqine zenexz

inelyz oiae egwlpy ze`eeldd inekq oia xrtd .oxwd oerxitl dxzide ,ziaix inelyzl

llekd zeqpkd jqn 22.5% did df mekq .yexb 42,000 `et` did dpy dze`a oxwde ziaixd

zenexzn llekd zeqpkdn ziyingn dlrnly `id xacd zernyn .ieqinne zeacpn ,zenexzn

pbpn zervn`a ,llekd ,xg` oeyl .ziaixn dqpkdk mieelnl exfgycgn wlig ,ze`eeldd oe

dkiizydy dveaw icil zexiyi odn xkip wlg xiarde dlidwd llkl ecrepy zenexzd z`

.zizxagd dikxbile`l rixknd daexa

miixeaiv mia`yn ziiptd eaiig od oky ,llekd zlklk lr dqnrn eid zepeyd ze`eeldd

mipey melyz itirqn :onfa zeaegd erxtp cinz `l .ziaix inelyze zeaeg oerxit ikxevl

.'oyi aeg' eid minieqn mixfgd ik ,dler qwpta49

milyexia mice di ly ziaixa ze`e e ld .3

dixtni`d iwlg x`yl d`eeyda dicedi epzpy ze`eeldd swida dcgiizd milyexi

mitqk eeld milyexia micedi .dxyr dpenyd ± dxyr rayd ze`na cgeina ,zip`n'zerd

mieelnd micedil ewtiq md .miwpak elrt dl` mixfpn .xira mixfpnl xwira milecb mitwida

zepdil dkf deelnde ,dqiletd lra my iepiy ici lr cil cin oxiardl did ozipy ,zeqilet

:miccvd ipy ikxev lr dpr mixfpnl ze`eeldd bdpn .xfpna etqk zcwtd xear ziaixn

z` egipdy micedid eli`e ,mipan znwde zerwxw zyikx myl ze`eeldl wewf did xfpnd

49,lynl ,jk .ziaix m`e oxw m` ,oyi aeg ly minelyzk miriten ef dpya miax melyz itirq

.'oyi aeg' oeayg lr ,yexb 55 jqa ,miyceg 6 xear ziaix ef dpya dlaiw oeap (!) dce`i zpnl`

dpenyd d`nd ly zepeaygd iqwpta mi`ex ep` dnec drtez .134 'nr ,my ,zepeaygd qwpt :e`x

.(5 dxrd ,lirl) i`pxa :e`x .dxyr

]17[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip517

.aivi dqpkd xewnl ewwfp milyexia rwzydl ick m`ven ux`a mdiwqr50dziid ziaix

ziaixd inelyz ,efn dxzi .dizecrl milyexia zicedid dlidwa zinihibl dqpxt `et`

.ipcnld ocerii z` qqal 'micneld zelidw'l exyt`51

ze`eeldd itqka ynzyd `l `ed ,mixfpnl cebipa j` ,zeax ze`eeld laiw llekd ik xexa

eaipiy zerwxw zyikx zervn`a lynl ,ilklkd eqiqa zagxdl e` zeizyza drwydl

.cizra zexR52riwyd `l 1854±1851 mipyd oia .miqkp llekd cai` zepecpd mipyd jldna ¥

zagxde 1853 zpya rwxw zyikx ly zg` dlert hrnl ,llk zizyza icxtqd llekd

zenezie minezil reiqle xtq izal ze`ved oebk ,xeaiv ikxevl ze`ved .dxezd cenlz

ztew itqk e`vi dn lr ,ok m` .llekd ze`vedn 10%În zegta enkzqd ,milege miiprle

p ?llekd:d`ad dlahd it lr z`f oga

(1854±1853) c"ixzd zpya icxtqd llekd ze`ved53

d`ve dd sirq(miye xba) me kq

miqne mitiwz37,482

zexekyne zethey ze`ved54353,94

minkg icinlze zeaiyi ,dxez cenlz7,200

miipr16,771

zeaeg ixfgde ziaix214,270

`hyew iciwt4,000

lekd jq333,66655

xanhtq zligz) c"ixz a`l b"ixz lel` oia llekd ze`ved ,zepeaygd qwpt it lr

± 1853inelyzl eptedy yexb 47,000Îk jezn .yexb 330,000Îk lr ecnr (1854 ilei seq

zagxd ± zizyza erwyed yexb 1,600 wx ,llekd zwfgd ly zethey ze`vedle zexekyn

d`eeld ze`wqra jeeiz izexiy xear minelyze zexekyn lr e`ved xzide ,dxezd cenlz

melyzl ,(2,110) zexiky jxevl ,(5,121) miciwtz ilra ly zethey ze`ved lr ,(23,021)

ecrei yexb 12,000 ,miipr ikxevl eptedy yexb 16,771 jezn .cere (1,933) rahn itelig lr

oerxitl dziid ,llekd ze`vedn 64%Îk ,xzeia dlecbd d`vedd .`gqtc ihigle gnwl

.ziaix inelyzle ze`eeld

50.103±102 'nr ,(45 dxrd ,lirl) xaxb

51.45±44 'nr ,(7 dxrd ,lirl) lhxa

52dtewzd idlya xeaivd zaehl zerwydd herin lr cer .icxtqd llekd ze`ved akxd ,oldl e`x

,(35 dxrd ,lirl) aeliifet :e`x ef dlidwa zip`n'zerd.24 'nr

53.229±214 ,193±183 'nr ,(6 dxrd ,lirl) m"xz±`"ixz zepeaygd qwpt jezn ceair

54.gpret `l enyxp eay cid azky e` hxit `l xteqdy ze`ved xear yexb 7,000Îk llek df mekq

55zepeaygd qwpt ;yexb 2,700 d`vedd itirqn llekd xteq xiqd d`vedl dqpkdd oia of`l ick

.193 'nr ,(6 dxrd ,lirl)

518yyd il`i]18[

cgeina cbpzd `l iy`a mkgdy i`ce dxyr ryzd d`nd ly miyingd zepy ziy`xa

(1851±1850) `"ixzd zpya .llekd ztewl mieelnd oia did envr `ed ixdy ,ze`eeldd bdepl

,icxtqd llekl yexb 5,000 eaew axd deeld56mekq el deeld (1852±1851) a"ixzd zpyae

44,000 ly mekq eaew axd riwyd (1853±1852) b"ixzd zpya ,dpde .yexb 3,000 ly

wx `l ecrep dl` ze`eeld ik d`xp .12%±10% ly zrvenn ziaixa ,llekd ztewa yexb

xavy zeaiyil zeaeg zeqkl iyi` oeiqip eid mb `l` etqk lr ziaix eaew axl wiprdl

mekqd zvwn iabl mipiivn d`vedd itirq oky ,ze`eeld lya od s` d`xpd lkk ,llekd

zeclez zaiyil mipy 10 xet mzi` eprxte ,o'xdn x'hrn d`eld' :ea dyrpy yeniyd z`

.'d'dlf wgvi57

dly ziaixd inelyz z` shey ote`a lawl jiynd eaew axd.llekd ztewn i`kf did m

510±500 ly miiyceg ziaix inelyz lr llekd xteq geeic (1854±1853) c"ixzd zpya

dxezd icenlza micnln ly mdizexekyn eid 1855 zpya ,d`eeyd myl .eaew axl yexb

.ycegl yexb 120±40 llekd ly58

oerxitl e` ziaix inelyzl dyixca llekd ly ezlc lr ewtczdy mixg` aeg ilra

mia`ynd aex z`vwd .milyexia zicxtqd dlidwa mixg` micakp mixag eid zeaeg

z` zxyl eciwtzy obxe`n cqenk llekd lr dciakd ze`eeld xfgdle ziaix inelyzl

.miycg zecqen zxivia e` eizecqen zagxda mitqk riwydl epnn drpn `id oky ,dlidwd

,jkl sqepa .milcbe mikled zeaeg zxiav jez ze`eeldd leblbl oezp did llekd ly evxn

,miciwte miza ilra ,minkg icinlz ly znvnevn daky zilklk dpigan dqqia ef zeldpzd

ozip elld mipya mpn` .lhean `l oed ef jxca exave aeye aey mtqk z` llekl eeldy

eid aex it lr j` ,drepv dqpkd odieelnl ewiprdy ,zephw ze`eeld mb zrl zrn `evnl

e` zepnl` eid mieelnd xy`k mb .zinewnd zilirl ekiizydy ,mireaw miyp` mieelnd

.dlidwd iy`x ly mdix`y dl` eid ,minezi

oeeikn .eizeieaiigzda cenrl gilvd `l llekdy cr milecb dk ektd ziaixde aegd ixfgd

ztew z` ldip minkgd icinlz zrcle ,oiipr lrae aegd ilran cg` did iy`xd axdy

mipexg`d ehilgd ,mixg`d aegd ilra ly mdizeiekf mr cg` dpwa dler epi`y ote`a llekd

eizeieknq z` epnn riwtdl ,mcwznd elibn drapy zifitd ezyleg z` lvpl ,dyrn zeyrl

,mkqdd on cenll xyt`y dnk cr .migibynde miciwtd ± mdibivp icia ociwtdle zeilklkd

llekd ledip ote` ly dpey dqitzn rap `l minkgd icinlz oial eaew axd oia gznd

z` zeabl dcin dze`a mi`kf mnvr e`x mleky ,miyep oia wa`n did df .eitqke icxtqd

dtewa eciwtdy oekqigd zeipkz lr ziaixd z` lawl ,epi`xy itk e` ,llekd ztewn maeg

.ef

56.14 'nr ,zeqpkd ,my ,zepeaygd qwpt

57.116 'nr ,my ,zepeaygd qwpt

58,zine`ld diixtqd ,ci iazk inelvzl oeknd ,e"hxz ixeitihpen icwtnF6152.

]19[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip519

eaew axd oia oecpd mkqdd jynda zegqepn iy`a mkgd ly eizeieknq lr zelabdd

:minkgd icinlz ibivpl

e` (dxeaw inc=) w'nc e` xyt e` zeaeg ixhya iznizg oipra ,zipymiazk e` weliq

zcnrde oewizl mdipira d`xi xy` xac lka biiq e` dnkqd oin lka llekl rbepd xaca

icinlz=) g'zd [zl]rn znkqdae (miciwtde migibynd=) w'teynd znkqd i'tr [ll]ekd

mdnr mikqdle zecedl ilr lhen aeigd (ml`ebe mxev mxnyi=) 'evi [min]eyxd (minkgd

md enikqiy xaca [el]it`e (xwire llk=) r'ek dpznde diigce aexiq mey izla ...mezgle

...dnizg zry cr xac eze`n drici il epzi `le zeyrl

zrici i'tr z`fa m` ik ...dnizg mey mezgl `ly dxenb dlaw ilr izlaw ,ziyily

[min]eyxd g'zd 'rn znkqd i'tr miiepn mdd minia eidi xy` miciwtde migibynd znkqde

.(lirl xkfpk=) l'fpk59

ix ebhw mia`yn zwe lg o e pbpn :ze `e eldd zxhn .4

.wpal llekd ztew z` ektd llekl ze`eeldy d`xp dxe`kl60,dxyr rayd d`nd ziy`xn

xarn xira ygxzd ,hxta milyexi lye llka l`xyi ux` ly zilklk driwy zeawra

lk axwa .zepxw lr ziaixne zevetzd on ribnd oed lr zepryidl zipxvi dceare xgqnn

.ifkxn dqpkd xewnk mitqk wey ef dtewza gztzd milyexia zecrd61egieexd mieelnd

zepexzid cg` ,llekd zpigan .mdipiipr ledipl i`xy` elaiw mieeld eli`e ,ddeab ziaix

.l"egn zenexzd enk `ly ,odn dxicqd dqpkda uerp did ze`eelda62elki mieelnd

.xgeql xaer rahnk llekd xqny aegd ixhya ynzydl63

dzxiy dxyr ryzd d`nd rvn`a ik ,dler icxtqd llekd ly zepeaygd qwptn ,mle`e

.i`xy`l mieeld ly jxevd z` xy`n xzei mieelnd z` llekd ztewl ze`eeldd zwprd

itk ,laiwy ze`eeldd itqk z` riwyd llekdy jk lr miriavn mpi` qwptd ineyix

dlcap ,l`xyi ux`a zelidwd ziaxn enk ,milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd .miwpa mibdepy

dqpkdd zexewn ly rixknd aexdy jka zip`n'zerd dixtni`d iagxa zexg` zelidwn

zerwyda ielz did `l icxtqd llekd ly zeqpkdd swid okle ,zenexzn ribd dly

59.738 'nr ,(6 dxrd ,lirl) zepeaygd qwpt

60.lirl e`x

61.217 'nr ,(5 dxrd ,lirl) i`pxa

62.147 ,142 'nr ,(3 dxrd ,lirl) dlibxw

63ly (rahn ixry=) miqxewa dgnen iziyrp dxdn cr' :millekd ixhy lr xtqn qiix odk mixt`

onfy ,zexhy "llek"d on zeabl milczyn eid dlecbd "dwelg"d ilawn ..."millek"d zexhy

,dxic xky mda mlyl ick ,migexd cqtda mxknle ,miizpy mbe dpy ,dpy ivg xg`l lg mperxt

miyexb mitl` jke jkn d`nl dryz mdn dnk aeygl did ilr .dnecke dxeaw ,dpezg ze`ved

lleka mb dbedp dziid llekd zexhya ef yeniy zxevy xryl ozip .'...mipeiletp jke jkn e`

.232 'nr ,f"yz milyexi ,` ,l`xyi ux` zepexkf ,ixri mdxa` :e`x .icxtqd

520yyd il`i]20[

eztewza .mitqkd weya e` zeqpkd ixviin minxeba llekd riwydyyniy eaew axd ly

,icxtqd llekd l` zeaiyine miihxt miyp`n mitqk zexardl cinz hrnk 'd`eeld' gpend

dxhnd ik ,dler zeqpkdde ze`vedd ledip gezipn .(ziaix=) 'xykd'l dxenza epzip dl`e

ef dxhn ike ,ze`eeldd ipzepl dqpkd zwtqd dziid elld mipya ze`eeldd ly zifkxnd

ze`eeldd oepbpn .icxtqd llekd ly eize`vedl zexeywd zexg` zexhn lr dzeaiyga dzlr

ilrae zeaiyia minkg icinlz ± znieqn zixebhw dveawl mitqk zevwdl llekl xyt ¦̀

dveawl wlegnd ,ixebhw mia`yn zwelg oepbpn dl` ze`eelda ze`xl yi jk lya .oenn

.dlidwd cvn zeticrl dkefd znieqn64

ihilp` ilk epicia ozep mia`yn zwelg oepbpnk ze`eeldd iedif .cala ihpnq oiipr df oi`

oia miqgid z` gzple mdipia zeeydl xyt`n oke ,mitqep dwelg ipepbpn iedifl aeyg

ozip mixacd z` yigndl ick .ixnegl izeaxzd oia ,zeitqk zehlgd oial dibele`ci`

.zexic lr zewfge miycwd :ze`ad ze`nbecd izya ynzydl

llekd zeqga mi it elg dqpkd zexewn .b

miyicwnl dqpkd xewnk miy cwd .1

.dleba mitqk seqi`l ekxca eaew wgvi axd xhtp 1854 hqebe`a65dxab llekd zwevn

meyn ,icxtqd dfn xzei laq ifpky`d llekd mpn` .(1856±1853) mixw zngln zeawra

zxard dxvrp dnglnd onfae ,diqexn eribd dnglnd iptl mifpky`d ly zeqpkdd aexy

,myn mitqkd66dnglnd zeawra .`ven ilcad `ll xird iayeza drbt dnglnd j`

oefn exb` `avd xear zeizlynn zeyikx lr eknqy d`eaz ixqtq .obcd ixign exin`d

.ezayed zepiilvde xgqnde ,weya d`eazd i`ln z` envnve67sxegd etqep ef dwevn lr

.dwqdl mivra xeqgnde 1854±1853 zpy ly dywd68dk did mixw zngln zepya iperd

,oit leqpewd azk ,cak,arxn ezne 'mdizgz ...erxk'y miyp` ly zertez ercep ik cr

oebk ,zifit dcear ytgl ebdp `l llk jxcay miyp`e ,'zqpkd zia gzta cg` dxwna'

zexbqnd zg`a alzydl ick elkiy lk eyr ,miype zewizeed zegtynd ipan mixirv mipax

.milyexia inei xkya zecear ewtiqy69eywia ,minkgd icinlz xwirae ,miaxd aegd ilra

64.aeh`te` zlidwa hxcped oigady itk ,dlidwd zpigan xg` ciwtz did micediÎ`l epzpy ze`eeldl

dlidwd ly dzenly lr xenyl miqxhpi` mb eid lleka rwyed mtqky dxxye drtyd ilral

.108 'nr ,(4 dxrd ,lirl) hxcped :e`x .micedil micediÎ`l oia zixad lre

65.zrd dze`a rax`e mipeny oa didy jka aygzda ddenz zegily

66.38 'nr ,(3 dxrd ,lirl) zb

67oxd` mbxz ,1856 cr 1853 zpyn milyexia dileqpewd ixztcn milr :dteq zezr ,oit qnii'b

.263±262 'nr ,m"yz milyexi ,xin`

68.170 'nr ,(3 dxrd ,lirl) a`il`

69.341 'nr ,(67 dxrd ,lirl) oit

]21[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip521

ewiprdy miycwdd z` livdle llekd ztewa cwtedy mtqk z` dxfga lawl jxc `evnl

.zeiyceg ze`avw mdl

ixag lye xird iayez ly df did oey`xd .iyew ly mipgaen mibeq ipy xvi df avn

z` zepxwd ilral xifgdl dyxcpy ,llekd ztew ly did ipyd .mikxvn zbyda dlidwd

,aevw onfa zrl zrn eycgzd oaih mvrn llekl ze`eeldd .jkl dkexr dziidy `la mtqk

oxwd z` lawl miciwtnd etiv `l llk jxcae ,mixg` zenewna mb bedp didy itk70`l`

.ziaixd inelyzn zepdile jiyndl

ekxry zcgein ziabna .oey`xd iyewd mr zeccenzda riiql dvlgp dtexi` axrn zecdi

daxd ± yexb oeilin ipyk ± h"yil 18,500 l`xyi ux` icedi zaehl etq`p dilbp` icedi

icedi texzplit ,`xeh dcedi yixed ,ef ziabnl sqepa .llekd ly zeaegd swidl xarn

zaehl ixeitihpen dyn ly zeqtexhet`a xlec 50,000 ly oeafir ,qpilxe` eipn ipwixn`

.l`xyi ux` icedi71z` hxtnd xikfz llekd iy`x epikd ixeitihpen ly exewia z`xwl

,ux`a iriaxd exewia zra ,1855 zpya .mlqgl ick d`xad zipkz rivne llekd zeaeg

z` silgdy ,(`"pg) dit`rlea` miqp miig axd my`xae zicxtqd dlidwd iy`x exqn

.ixeitihpen dyn icil reiqd zywa z` ,iy`a mkgd ciwtza eaew axd72

xikfza .yexb ivge oeilink ± h"yil 13,400 lr micxtqd zeaeg ecnr ,xikfzd it lr

.ze`eeldn zeqpkd ehnyed zeqpkdd hexitn .eize`vede eizeqpkd akxd z` llekd hxit df

mitirqd cg` .ze`vede zeqpkd ly dnbecl dpy llekd hxit ixeitihpenl ybedy xikfza

:df ilklk cqen lr micnl ep` jk ab` .miycwdl zeaegd swid z` hxtn zeaegd xfgd ly

ozepy (zeiaix :ixw) geixe xykdmpenn egipdy miza ilra dnkn epidc zeycwddn llekd

zzin xg`l `edd oxwa dkfi in mdiiga mixcqne odizexit milke` odiig ini lke lleka

ixei=) c"eil m` 'fpd yicwnd mdl dkif xy`l (jk xg`=) j"g` ozep llekde dy`de yi`d

(enler zial xhtpd=) r"alpd my lr [ipel]t zaiyi z`xwpe (minkg icinlz=) g"z (drc

(65=) d"q odixhy itk mlyexi iayezn aexw e` wegx eirceine eiaexwl e` dy` e` yi`

.zeycwdd aegn yexb sl` (600=) x"z oxw mdy dpya mitl`73

yicwnd z` od zilklk dpigan ynyl crep miyicwnd oial llekd oia ilklkd xcqdd

zepeaygd qwpta .dipaxe ycwdd itqk zervn`a dnwedy daiyid icinlz z` od ezia ipae

lleka zcwtend oxwd itqk lr ziaixd eay ycwd (`) :miycwd ibeq ipy zedfl ozip

eay ycwd (a) ;mdl crein ycwddy minkgd icinlz oiae ezia ipae yicwnd oia zwlgp

70.108 'nr ,(4 dxrd ,lirl) hxcped

71uegn dpey`xd dpekyd ,mipp`y zepkyn znwd z` 1860 zpya ixeithpen mfi df oeafir itqka

.zenegl

72,lirl) mixexia ,lhxa ;(38 dxrd ,lirl) oiihyple :dn`zda e`x egeziple xikfzd ly `lnd gqepl

.(4 dxrd

73.94±93 'nr ,my ,oiihyple

522yyd il`i]22[

oxwd zxaer ezenae ,eiig ini lkl yicwnl zpzip lleka zcwtend oxwd itqk lr ziaixd

zeycwdd ixhy ik jixrn xikfzd .milyexia miig md m` mb ,eiyxeil `le llekd l`

,yexb 65,000 `id dpya df mekq lr znleynd ziaixd ike ,yexb 600,000 lr micner

lr ziaixd ,dyrnl .mifeg` 11Îk lr zcner zeycwdd itqk lr zllekd ziaixdy epiid

.mifeg` 15±14 `id zepeaygd qwpta zpievnd miycwdd

zepxwd on llekd l` mexfiy mekqdy ,dgpdd lr qqean miycwdd ly ilklkd oeibidd

zbdpd .ziaix inelyzk e`vedy minekqd on lecb didi miyicwnd zen xg`l ea exzeeiiy

dziid zeaeg zxiav .etq`py mitqkd z` driwyd `le df oeibid it lr dlrt `l llekd

miycwdde zepxwd ilra xtqn lcby lkk egtze ekld zeaegde ,ef dhiy ly igxkd oiit`n

llekd z` mi`ex m` wx oiadl ozip ef dhiy ly oeibidd z` .lleka mtqk z` egipdy

dciwtzy dtewkixwird.dlidwd ly zilklkde zipxezd zilird z` qpxtl `ed

xqny xikfza geecy dnl cebipa ,icxtqd llekd ly zeaegd ziaxn ,lirl epi`xy itk

ztewa ecwtedy zepxwd jqn jenp feg` eid mde ,miycwdn erap `l ,ixeitihpenl llekd

aex it lr ekiizydy miihxt miyp` icia ecwted zepxwd aex .ziaix eaipiy ick llekd

miycwdd m` ik ,dler micigi ly ze`eeldl miycwdd z`eeydn .zinewnd dikxbile`l

oenn ilral dwelg oepbpn eid ze`eeldd ixd ,dxez ilral mitqk zwelgl oepbpn eyniy

.dlecb dziid miipyd oia dtitgd ik m` ,zeaiyi icinlz gxkda mpi`y

ly dcerii z` zepyl ywia ixeitihpen dynl llekd yibdy xikfzd m`d ,z`f xe`l

?zilklkde zipcnld zilird z` xwira zqpxtnd dtewk dzlert z` wiqtdle llekd ztew

zg` d`eeld zervn`a mtqk z` livdl zeaegd ilra ly mpeiqip lr riavn jnqnd ile`e

?miycwdde ze`eeldd ly mia`ynd zwelg oepbpn ly ezlert jyniz dixg`ly ,dlecb

,cerii zyegz zlra zilir zlidwk ixeitihpen ipta mnvr ebivd micxtqd ,lhxa it lr

jnqnd .iciip `lc iqkp cearye zeicizr zeqpkd jnq lr ziwqr d`eeld lawl die`xd

ote`ay ,zizxeqnd zicxtqd dlidwd meiw jynd ly hqtip`n oirk' `et` did el eyibdy

zeicedid zelidwd zg` cvn zilklk dlert ceqi lr oyid z` miiwl ea rven ilqwecxt

.'xzeia "zeipxcen"d74ly xikfza geec eilry aegd z` zedfl mileki ep` dzr ,mle`e

xeyw epi` df aeg lqgl oeiqipd .miihxt miyp`l zeaiigzdn eaexa raepd aegk llekd

oey`xd jldnd z` ea ze`xl ozipe ,`weec llekd ly zipxnyd dibele`ci`d jyndl `et`

ze`eeldd zwihwxt z` meiq llkl `iadl oeiqipe llekd ly ilklkd ledipd ly iepiya

.xeaivd ia`yn ly zycegn dwelgl oepbpnk

zexic zwfg .2

zeidl elgd ze`eeldde dlidwd ly itqkd ledipa zernyn lra iepiy lg 1855 zpy onl

yexb 2,500 ly ze`eeld mixyr llekd qiib dpy dze`a ,lynl ,jk .zepbxe`ne zecqenn

74.118 'nr ,(4 dxrd ,lirl) mixexia ,lhxa

]23[milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd itqk ledip523

.'mibl`fn`d ly aegd' melyzl ecrep oleky ,zg` lk75ze`eeldd feg` cxi 1856 zpya

zeax ze`eeld ,cere z`f .lilk ze`eeldd enlrp zexetq mipy jeze 20Îl zeqpkdd jqn

d`eeld .llk eyceg `l okn xg`le miyceg drax` e` dyely ly zexvw zetewzl epzip

elhip dl` ze`eeldy wiqdl mileki ep` okle ,milecb migeex daipn dpi` dxvw dk dtewzl

zqixt mkqd ,ok enk .mieelnd ly dl` z` `le ,`weec llekd ly eikxv z` wtql ick

cn lr xexiaa riavn 1859 zpyn zeaeg.aegd ixhy yecig `ll zeaeg xfgd ly zeipi76

zeaeg jke ,zepeaygd ledip ote`a `hazd mb ze`eeldd leqigl un`nd ,lirl epi`xy itk

Îec zepeayg ledipa enyxp ze`eeldn llekdv,mle`e .zeaegd xg` shey awrn xyt`nd ,ic ¦

dlidwd ixiyr e`vn ,dhil`d zaehl zenexzd itqk ly zycegn dwelgn rpnp llekdy s`

.zexicd zwfg :mdizeqpkd znx lr xenyl dtiwr jxc

oiay xywl aex it lr zrbep `l` llk llekd ly epiipr dpi` zexic zwfg ,dxe`kl

.llk jxca micedid ,eixiic oial dwfgd lra oiae ,inlqend ziad lra oial dwfgd lra

.ef dibeqa ezeaxern z` cqin jkae zepwzd xtqa zewfgd zl`yl yxcp llekd ,mle`e

xvgd azek epi`e iebd mr wqrzn epi` `ede dwfg el yiy in lk' ik zraew 'zewfgd zpwz'

dnn d`nl dxyr m` ik dpya dpy icn ezwfg xeara gwil zeyx el yi `l eny lr

.'(dphw dhext=) w"t elit` ...`l eze `wec iebd xikyny77zepwzd xtqa dritend ,dpwzd

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.25% lr elri `l elldy i`pza ,(1857±1856) f"ixz zpya dpynd ixiicn78zewfgd ilra

75dciwtze bl`fn` zgtyn zece` lr mihxtl .238±237 'nr ,(6 dxrd ,lirl) zepeaygd qwpt

miicxtq minfi ,qlb sqeie wxw zex :e`x dxyr ryzd d`na l`xyi ux` ly zilklkd zegztzda

.b"pyz milyexi ,1918±1816 ,b`l`fn` zgtyn :l`xyi ux`a

76.678±677 'nr ,my ,zepeaygd qwpt

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.zeabl mdl

ly mdigeex z` liabdl oeiqipd ik cirnd ,oewiz cer df lr sqep okn xg`l miizpyk

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79.`"r bn ;a"r an ,my

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d`iad milyexi icedi ly dgeexd zl`ya ,miicediÎ`le miicedi ,miitexi` minxeb ly

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.xn`na oecpy milyexia zicxtqd dlidwd ly qwptd znbec ,zepeaygd iqwpt md

XXXISUMMARIES

the benefits extracted by the communal coffers from such banking practices.

Furthermore, it does not take into consideration the differences between diverse

forces within the community and the historical changes in the financial practices

of the community.

Based on the Sephardic Kollel’s account book for the years 1851–1880, this

article argues that the practice of loans was part of a regressive redistribution

mechanism of the funds raised for the Kollel in the Diaspora, and that in the

mid-1850’s it brought the coffers to a state of bankruptcy that forced the community

to reconsider its financial structure and ideology. In light of the analysis of this

largely new source, this article claims that the community’s debts were, in fact,

an intended outcome of a regressive redistributive financial policy. This mechanism

promoted the oligarchic structure of the community by allocating funds raised in

the Diaspora for making interest payments.

This study includes a discussion of current scholarship on such topics as class

polarization, processes of change in financial practice, various contextual and

geo-political forces, and the implications of these findings for understanding the

communal structure.

XXX SUMMARIES

The incontestable historical truths regarding Onias’ temple relate to an intense

crisis and struggle over the high-priesthood in Jerusalem during the turbulent reign

of Antiochus Epiphanes in the years preceding the Maccabean Revolt – a crisis

that also engulfed the royal court and which spurred the migration of Onias, a

member of the high-priestly family, to Egypt where he established an altar and

a temple.

RABBI YOCHANAN TREVES IN ITALY AND A TALMUDIC ACADEMY

IN PADUA IN THE 15TH CENTURY

by Joseph R. Hacker (pp. 471–500)

This article traces the career of Rabbi Yochanan Treves in Northern Italy on the

eve of the 15th century on the basis of old and new sources. R. Yochanan, the

former chief Rabbi of France, and a student of Catalan Jewish sages, was very

likely a rabbi in Padua for a certain period. Later on, some members of his family

are found there, and there is evidence for the existence of an advanced academy

for Jewish studies in the city which included some Catalan Jewish scholars. In

the appendices, a number of documents are published, one of which reveals R.

Yochanan’s messianic inclinations and propaganda, and his attraction to Catalan

circles.

LOAN BUSINESSES: ACCOUNTING FOR THE FINANCES OF THE

JERUSALEN SEPHARDIC COMMUNITY BETWEEN 1851–1880

by Yali Hashash (pp. 501–525)

During the 18th century and until the mid-19th century the Sephardic community

in Jerusalem found itself constantly in debt due to high interest loans. Until

recently scholars have related to this mode of financial practice as a form of

banking. Such an approach is innovative in dealing with previous studies that

have analyzed loans as an undesirable but necessary means of financial survival

for the community. However, it remains somewhat limited in its ability to explain

CONTENTS

439 Noah Hacham : The High Priesthood and Onias’ Temple: The Historical

Meaning of a Rabbinic Story

471 Joseph R. Hacker : Rabbi Yochanan Treves in Italy and a Talmudic Academy

in Padua in the 15th Century

501 Yali Hashash : Loan Businesses: Accounting for the Finances of the

Jerusalem Sephardic Community between 1851–1880

Books and Reviews

527 Eli Yassif : Ra’anan Boustan, Oren Kosansky and Marina Rustow (eds.), Jewish

Studies at the Crossroads of Anthropology and History: Authority, Diaspora,

Tradition

532 Eli Lederhendler : Deborah Dash Moore (General Editor), City of Promises: A

History of the Jews of New York, 1–3

540 Arie Dubnov : Haim Otto Rechnitzer, Prophecy and the Perfect Political Order:

The Political Theology of Leo Strauss

547 Noga Wolff : Jacob Barnai, Shmuel Ettinger: Historian, Teacher, and Public

Figure

553 Henry Wassermann : Jacob Barnai, Shmuel Ettinger: Historian, Teacher, and

Public Figure

558 Nahum Karlinsky : Israel Bartal, Cossack and Bedouin: Land and People in

Jewish Nationalism

566 Research

569 Books Received

XXIX Summaries

ZION

Editors:

EZRA MENDELSOHN, NADAV NA’AMAN, VERED NOAM,

MICHAEL TOCH

Editorial Secretary:

YEHEZKEL HOVAV

�VOLUME LXXVIII • 4 • 2013

A QUARTERLY FOR RESEARCH IN JEWISH HISTORY

THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF ISRAEL • JERUSALEM