Large Scarps and Massive Slide on the Briatico–Bivona Shelf, Calabria, Italy: Potential Link with...

Large Scarps and Massive Slide on the Briatico–BivonaShelf, Calabria, Italy: Potential Link with the DestructiveSeptember 1905 Earthquake

Jean-Daniel Stanley†, Maria Pia Bernasconi‡*, and Graham A.J. Nickerson§

†Geoarchaeology Program andDepartment of Paleobiology E-205 NMNHSmithsonian InstitutionWashington, DC 20013, U.S.A.

‡Dipartimento di BiologiaEcologia e Scienze della Terra (DiBEST)Cubo 15B, Universita della Calabria87036—Rende, Cosenza, Italy

§Highland Geo Solutions45 Highland HeightsTaymouth NB E6C1Y2, Canada

ABSTRACT

Stanley, J.-D.; Bernasconi, M.P., and Nickerson G.A.J., 2014. Large scarps and massive slide on the Briatico–Bivonashelf, Calabria, Italy: potential link with the destructive September 1905 earthquake. Journal of Coastal Research, 30(2),215–227. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

A multibeam sonar (MBS) survey of the northern Capo Vaticano shelf between the towns of Briatico and Bivona, Calabria,Italy, has revealed a markedly broken margin offset by three large scarps: the upper scarp (S1) at approximate depths of16–22 m, the middle scarp (S2) at ~36–58 m, and the deeper scarp (S3) at ~88–101 m. The configuration of S1 shows highrelief to 33 m and a slope to 598, which suggests a fault or tectonic–gravitative origin. Substantial volumes of sediment,mostly sand, are being rapidly transferred from the inner shelf toward and across the upper shelf break, and one couldexpect a smoothing and burial of the upper scarp, but 10 MBS profiles show the sharp, angular shape of that feature. Someof the mass gravitative deposits just below some headwall scarps that extend to the shelf-slope that break NE of Briaticoalso reveal very recent origins. Additionally, a massive slide block north of Bivona, ~350–400 m in length, appears to havedetached from the inner shelf and shifted onto the middle shelf. It is proposed that several of these seafloor features may,in some manner, be associated with the powerful and destructive September 1905 earthquake that affected a large sectorof Calabria. Five potential epicenters on the SW margin of Calabria have previously been proposed for that event, and thisMBS study area is in proximity to one of those. It is recommended that two localities in the survey area, one NE of Briaticoand the other north of Bivona, be selected as test zones for further geological and geophysical analyses.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Calabrian Arc, Capo Vaticano peninsula, epicenters, faults, gravity flows, land uplift,sand waves, sediment displacement, seismotectonics, shelf breaks, Tyrrhenian Sea.

INTRODUCTIONThis investigation focuses on high-relief, step-like scarps

and associated seafloor features discovered on the continen-

tal shelf that abuts the northern Capo Vaticano peninsula on

the SW Tyrrhenian margin of Calabria, Italy. The study area,

recently examined by ship-mounted multibeam sonar (MBS),

lies less than 1 km seaward of the shoreline, between the

towns of Briatico to the west and Vibo Marina to the east

(Figure 1). The original purpose of the cruise was to gather

detailed information of the seafloor surface to identify

possible underwater archaeological features on the shelf in

the vicinity of two large, submerged Greek breakwaters near

the mouth of the Trainiti River (Bernasconi and Stanley,

2013; Jannelli, Lena and Givigliano, 1992). Although obser-

vations made during this research cruise did not reveal new

archaeological structures, the MBS survey unexpectedly

recorded very large, morphological features that had not

been previously described on that shelf. Along most of the

inner shelf, at a depth of about 20 m, the bottom surface is

sharply broken by a well-defined scarp of high relief. Two

other large scarps that had not been previously reported were

also mapped at middle and outer shelf depths in the western

part of the survey area off Briatico. All three shelf breaks are

oriented near-parallel to the present coastline.

The presence of these distinct, step-like features is of

interest in light of seismotectonic observations made in the

region: the high hills backing the coastline in the study area

have been uplifted at very rapid rates (Antonioli et al., 2009;

Bianca et al., 2011; Tortorici et al., 2003), the terrains on land

and offshore have been affected by active faults (Cucci and

Tertulliani, 2006; Tortorici et al., 2003), and this sector,

positioned in the Calabrian Arc, is one of the most

structurally active in Italy, affected annually by dozens of

earthquakes, most of low intensity (magnitude [M] � 4)

(Boschi et al., 1995; Cucci and Tertulliani, 2006; Guerra et al.,

2006; Tiberti, Fracassi, and Valensise, 2006). This region has

attracted the attention of numerous geologists and geophys-

icists during the past century because, at least in part, of the

powerful (M � 6.8 6 0.2) and highly destructive earthquake

that occurred on 8 September 1905 (Cucci and Tertulliani,

2006, 2010). The event resulted in more than 500 deaths, 327

very seriously damaged villages, and the loss of more than

14,000 houses in this sector of Calabria (Guerra and

Savaglio, 2006; Pugliese, 1996).

The 1905 earthquake and the tsunami associated with it

(Piatanesi and Tinti, 2002; Tinti, 2006) resulted in an

extensive body of scientific publications dating from 1906,

just after the event (Rizzo, 1906), to the present (Loreto et al.,

DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-13-00158.1 received and accepted inrevision 10 August 2013; corrected proofs received 19 August 2013.Published Pre-print online 18 November 2013.*Corresponding author: [email protected]� Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2014

Journal of Coastal Research 30 2 215–227 Coconut Creek, Florida March 2014

2012), all in agreement as to its high intensity. However, the

position of the earthquake epicenter and the seismogenetic

source continue to be active topics of discussion but have

remained without final resolution. The nature and scale of

new shelf morphobathymetric and sedimentological infor-

mation presented here warrant attention and may, perhaps,

provide some further assistance in detecting some effects in

the marine environment associated with that major event.

BACKGROUNDAttention is directed toward the shelf platform positioned

between the northern margin of the Capo Vaticano peninsula

and the adjoining slope that extends seaward to the southern

Gulf of Saint Eufemia in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Figure 1, left).

The study area is located in, and is part of, the Calabrian Arc,

the highly tectonically active region in southern Italy that

geologically and seismically records the effects of plate motion

and contact between North Africa and southern Europe in the

central Mediterranean (Basili et al., 2008; Milia et al., 2009;

Tansi et al., 2007). Nautical charts of the seafloor shelf and

slope in this region (CNR, 1985), most compiled with standard,

single-beam systems, have been insufficiently detailed to

clearly illustrate the bathymetric features discussed here.

Moreover, published offshore geological mapping in this region,

such as in the Gulf of Saint Eufemia (Loreto et al., 2012; Milia et

al., 2009), has provided valuable local seafloor morphological

data and subbottom stratigraphic and tectonic information in

deeper water settings, but most studies have not detailed the

shallower, MBS-surveyed, upper continental margin area

shown in Figure 1.

The references cited in the present study comprise mainly

recent publications on the geology, geophysics, and seismology

of the Tyrrhenian–Calabrian study area. They enable the

reader interested in obtaining an updated background access to

the locality of faults and earthquake epicenters documented on

land and at sea in the region around the survey area described

herein. For example, a number of studies in this region have

proposed different potential localities for the epicenter of the

1905 event. Among the five localities that have been proposed,

two are positioned on land: the original proposed by Rizzo

(1906) on the Lamezia Terme coastal plain to the NE, and one

in the hills in the vicinity of Vibo Valentia to the south of the

Figure 1. Left: Location map of the study area on the northern margin of Capo Vaticano peninsula, SW Calabria (C). Image source is from http://upload.

wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Southern_Italy_topographic_map-blank.png. Also indicated are the Tyrrhenian Sea (TS), the Ionian Sea (IS), the Gulf of

Taranto (GT), and the regions surrounding C: Campania (CA), Basilicata (B), Puglia (P), and Sicily (S). Right: The MBS survey area, extending seaward between

the towns of Briatico and Vibo Marina. Circles with numbers correspond to rivers and/or torrents that discharge sediment onto inner shelf in the examined area.

1, Spadaro Fiumara; 2, Rizzuta Fiumara; 3, Trainiti River; 4, Sant’Anna River.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2014

216 Stanley, Bernasconi, and Nickerson

survey area (Boschi et al., 1995). The other three localities are

positioned offshore: in the central part of the Saint Eufemia

Gulf (Riuscetti and Schick, 1964), off the Capo Vaticano

peninsula near Briatico (Camassi and Stucchi, 1997), and one

at some distance directly west of Capo Vaticano (Michelini et

al., 2005). A review of the literature indicates that authors are

conscious of the seismological complexities and limitations in

selecting a definitive epicenter position for the 1905 event and

Figure 2. (A) MBS image of the surveyed area that shows distinct scarps and offsets discovered on the northern Capo Vaticano shelf. (B) Position in the survey

area of 10 near-parallel, seaward-trending profiles (P1–P10), which extend between~20 m and 120 m of depth, and of two cross-section profiles (P5a and P11) that

intersect two large seafloor features described in text. Also indicated are the three scarps (S1–S3).


Large Scarps and Massive Slide on the Briatico-Bivona Shelf 217

recognize the need for further geophysical and geological

observations.

Of the five potential epicenter localities proposed, the one off

the Capo Vaticano peninsula near Briatico (Camassi and

Stucchi, 1997) is the closest to the survey sector discussed in

this article. It is estimated to be about 2000 m north of that

town and positioned within ~1000 m of the western margin of

our MBS survey area (Figure 2). This proposed Briatico

epicenter is also in proximity to the SW–NE-trending Capo

Vaticano fault that parallels the NE-oriented shore of the Capo

Vaticano peninsula toward Briatico, and then extends seaward

into the Gulf of Saint Eufemia (Anzidei et al., 2006).

The high hills that back the coastal plain are characterized

by rapid, average uplift rates, some to 1 to 2 mm/y since the

Pleistocene (Bianca et al., 2011), resulting from deep-seated to

shallower underlying, large-scale strike-slip faulting and from

more-surficial, extensional tectonics and normal faulting

(Basili et al., 2008). Moreover, geoarchaeological investigations

on land near the northern Capo Vaticano coast indicate

considerable changes in both environmental settings and in

shoreline positions since Greek times (Cucarzi, Iannelli, and

Rivolta, 1995; Jannelli, Lena, and Givigliano, 1992). Recent

studies show that coastal margin development in this region is

associated with motion of proximal terrains both on land and at

sea, and that evolution has continued to the present (Stanley

and Bernasconi, 2012a). Especially useful is the finding that,

midway between Bivona and Briatico, the two Greek break-

waters off Trainiti (Figure 2) have been submerged and

substantially tilted seaward, and that the shoreline in that

sector shifted landward and then readvanced seaward by

several hundred meters since Roman times (Bernasconi and

Stanley, 2013).

METHODOLOGYThe seafloor data acquired by the MBS system provide high-

quality, sharply defined three-dimensional (3-D) images that

can be viewed from different angles and perspectives and that

show details of bottom features as small as several centimeters.

The MBS database described and interpreted here was

collected in June 2011 aboard the RPM Nautical Foundation

research vessel, the Hercules.

Bathymetric mapping was obtained with a hull-mounted,

dual-head EM3002D MBS echo sounder from Kongsberg

Maritime division. The two heads are mounted at oblique

angles so as to provide increased coverage compared with a

single head system. Operationally, we have found that the most

effective configuration for the R/V Hercules is a sector of 658 for

each head with an overlap of 58 at nadir. The system emits a

total of 508 beams at a maximum rate of 40 pings/s, and it uses

multiple frequencies (293, 300, and 307 kHz). The advanced,

real-time processing power of the system allows adjacent

beams to be steered, so they span a specific angle or cover a

specific distance on the seafloor. The frequency determines the

vertical resolution, which was a constant 1 cm over the survey

area. Conversely, horizontal resolution depends on the distance

travelled from the transducer to the seafloor. Beams intersect-

ing the seabed at a normal angle, typically the inner beams

close to nadir, are at a higher resolution than are those striking

the seafloor at an oblique angle, such as the outer beams. Depth

also has a large effect on the ability of a multibeam to resolve

seabed features. Because our survey ranged from approxi-

mately 10 m to deeper than 100 m, the horizontal resolution

ranged anywhere from 20 cm to .10 m. The principles of

underwater acoustics can be found in Medwin and Clay (1998)

and Lurton (2002).

The raw sounding data collected by the Kongsberg system

was converted to depths with CARIS software. This process

takes the copious slant range measurements and converts

them to points with Cartesian coordinates and an assigned

depth value. Data from CARIS was exported to Fledermaus to

clean them, using the CUBE algorithm (Calder, 2003). CUBE

uses stochastic methods to analyze the accuracy of the ship’s

positioning and echo sounder to identify and eliminate random

noise from the sounding data. When multiple overlapping

survey lines are used, the most reliable measurements are

accepted and erroneous data are excluded. The filtered results

are then gridded using a weighted moving-average filter

(Fledermaus User’s Guide, 2011) to produce a 3-D surface

representing the bathymetry of the survey area.

The survey grid was loaded into Global Mapper geographic

information system (GIS) software and merged with various

other geospatial data sets, such as topography and remotely

sensed imagery, along with geomorphological and geological

structures mapped and published in other research publica-

tions. These various data sets were plotted in a single

compilation and used to interpret seafloor structures along

the coastline. Features apparent in the bathymetric data

between 10 m and 100 m and/or apparent in the imagery data

in areas too shallow (,10 m) for the survey vessel to navigate

were investigated. Profiling tools were used to generate

bathymetric profiles along the coast, which generally trend

perpendicular to the shoreline. These profiles were used to

graph depth vs. horizontal distance to enhance large bathy-

metric trends.

To supplement the MBS survey, two dives were made by

personnel of the Nucleo Sommozzatori of the Guardia di

Finanza of Vibo Valentia Marina in June 2012 to obtain

‘‘ground-truth’’ information along a seafloor track that closely

paralleled the upper-scarp margin. Dive depths on the inner

shelf covered the area between ~16 m and 20 m just landward

of the scarp to ~25–30 m below the upper-scarp break, and a

continuous record of the seafloor surface was made by video

camera.

OBSERVATIONSShelf Scarps and Offsets

The sector surveyed by MBS was about 6.5 km long,

approximately 1.6 km wide, and covered an area of ~10.4

km2 (Figure 2A), with seafloor data between depths of ~18 m

and~125 m obtained from ship track lines parallel to the coast.

Using that database, a series of 10 near-parallel, seaward-

trending profiles, numbered P1 to P10, from W to E, were

selected for detailed analysis (Figure 2B). The profiles were

oriented approximately perpendicular to the coast and ranged

in length from 1000 m (P4, P5) to 1500 m (P1, P2, P8, P9; Figure

3). The distances between those 10 profiles ranged from about

400 m to 1000 m. An eleventh profile (P11) was obtained at

midshelf depths between 50 m and 65 m to detail a large, high-



relief seafloor feature observed in the area between profiles P9

and P10 (Figure 2).

During the course of the survey, three shelf breaks or scarps

(S1–S3) were mapped in the MBS survey area, and the

following data were determined for each feature (Table 1):

maximum slope at the scarp, relief of the scarp, average slope of

the shelf between scarps, distance between scarps, and a

description of postdepositional downslope failure as observed

on the MBS profiles. Also noted on the inner shelf were the

distance from the shore to the landward position of the profile

line and the average slope of the shelf just landward of the first

(S1, or uppermost) scarp.

Scarp S1 was the most continuous of the three shelf breaks

and could be traced in the survey area for a distance of~5.5 km

between profiles P1 and P9 (Figure 2B). The average slope of

the shelf platform landward of that scarp ranged from 1.28 to

,3.58, and the depth of the shelf along the upper part of that

break occurred between 13.4 m and 22.2 m, becoming shallower

eastward. Its maximum slope ranged between 16.88 and 58.38,

and the scarp relief ranged between 7.0 m and 33.1 m. The

average slope between the base of S1 and the next shelf break

(S2) below it ranged between 1.68 and 5.78.

Scarp S2 was localized on three profiles (P2, P3, P4) on the

middle shelf in the western study area (Figure 2B). The

distance between the base of S1 to scarp S2 ranged from 443 m

at profile P2, 363 m at profile P3, and 38 m at profile P4. The

depth of that second scarp ranged from 57.5 m to 35.5 m,

decreasing easterly from P2 to P4. MBS analysis showed that

scarp S2 merged with the shallower scarp S1 toward the east,

between profiles P4 and P5. The slope of S2 ranged from 19.58

to 33.68, with the steepest inclination along profile P4; those

values are somewhat lower than those recorded for S1.

Scarp S3 occurred on the same profiles as S2, that is, P2, P3,

and P4 (Figure 2B). The distance between the base of S2 and the

third scarp ranged from 998 m to 644.9 m, becoming shallower

and eventually disappearing toward the east (absent in profiles

P5–P10). The maximum slope measured at S3 ranged from 8.18

to 16.98 and was of lesser importance than the two previously

described, shallower, step-like shelf breaks (Table 1). The depth

of this feature ranged from 88.0 m to 100.5 m and occurred on

the outer shelf platform, close to the shelf-slope break.

In lateral continuity, scarp S1 was the longest of the three

shelf breaks. That scarp was generally directed WNW to ESE,

with an orientation that varied from 758080 to 1308540. Local

irregularities in scarp direction generally paralleled those

observed along the WNW–ESE-trending present coast, includ-

ing some anomalous orientations that paralleled larger shore-

line promontories, such as Punta di Safo (Figure 2). The shorter

and deeper breaks S2 and S3 off Briatico also paralleled the

coast.

Recent Inner Shelf-Scarp Sediment DisplacementSeveral sedimentary bedform types on the shelf surface were

associated with the three scarps, especially the upper S1 scarp,

described in the previous section. Those features, indicative of

active seaward transport of material from the inner to the outer

shelf, are discussed here because they provide useful insight

into the recent evolution of this offshore, step-like margin.

The MBS surveyed area included only a narrow stretch

(,100 m) of near-horizontal to slightly inclined (,3.58) sector of

the inner shelf, positioned just landward of, and parallel to,

scarp S1 (Figures 1 right, 2). The shelf between the coast and

survey area was characterized locally by large sand waves, a

number of which can be distinguished on Google Earth (2012)

images (Figure 4). They display straight, parallel crests, mostly

concentrated on the inner shelf between the eastern breakwa-

ter (EB) and profile P9 (Figures 4, 5A, and 5B). Although the

sand waves were large, their trough-to-crest relief was

relatively modest, approximating 1 m. Measurements of 11 of

those large features indicated the spacing of crest-to-crest

distances ranging from 36 to 96 m, well within the size

generally attributed to large, mobile, sand-wave bedforms

(Schreiber, 1978).

Locally superposed on those large sand waves, or abutting

against them, were current-produced sand ripples (,60 cm in

length from crest to crest) and sand mega-ripples (ranging from

Figure 3. Sea bottom surface profiles along 10 downslope transects (P1–P10). For each profile, the length (in meters, horizontal axis) and the depth range

considered (in meters, vertical axis), the three scarps (S1–S3), where present, and the largest headwall scarp (heart-shaped scarp) identified on P5 are indicated.



60 cm to several meters in length). Their crests were generally

oriented at various angles to those of the sand waves (Figure 5

A–D). Of particular note were the increasingly diverse bedform

types and crest orientations of the smaller features recorded

just landward of the S1 scarp, as shown in Figures 5C and D. In

that zone, sand waves and ripples become less distinct, and

bedforms indicated the effects of more-varied current patterns.

Also of note are Posidonia seagrass fields of various dimensions

and plant densities, interspersed with sand waves, mega-

ripples, and ripples, as depicted in Figures 4 and 5. Some

seafloor photos collected at the time of the bottom dives show

seagrass leaves deflected in the direction of the predominant

current (Figure 5E).

The dives made along the scarp S1 track showed that sand

waves and Posidonia meadows tended not to extend to depths

beyond the upper part of the scarp. The shelf surface below 20

m, like that of the shallower inner shelf at depths above scarp

S1, also indicated a largely sandy texture but was locally mixed

with some silt and clay and reworked primarily by organisms

rather than by bottom currents. Sediment current bedforms

rapidly gave way to a more-bioturbated surface, which included

mounded burrows produced by infauna (Figure 5F) and surface

traces.

Markedly different types of large sedimentary structures

were observed at depths below the S1 scarp. They are of

gravitative downslope displacement rather than of bottom-

current origin. They were oriented perpendicularly to the scarp

and extended from the scarp S1 base down and across the

deeper inclined shelf surface (Figure 2A). The structures at the

base of S1 were irregularly distributed about every 200 m or

less between profiles P1 and P9 (Figure 2), and the most

prominent ones occurred between profiles P5 and P7 (Figure 6).

They comprised long, narrow, linear features that ranged in

width between 50 m and 200 m and could be traced across the

middle and outer shelf for distances of ca. 1500 m to the shelf-

slope break. Some, such as the one parallel to profile P5, appear

to continue seaward to depths beyond the limits of the MBS

surveyed area (.125 m) and likely even farther seaward onto

the continental slope. Although most of those structures were

subtly to modestly well defined, there was one particularly

sharp and distinct linear feature oriented parallel to profile P5.

It extended from the large, heart-shaped headwall scarp down

all the way across the shelf surface, which is inclined in a NNE

direction (Figure 6B).

The linear structures tended to widen gradually (75–200 m)

in a seaward direction. In some cases, however, those elongate

features were discontinuous and their segments on the deeper

outer shelf resembled low-lying mounds of isolated, low-relief,

overlapping lobes, some of which were linguoid shape, or they

presented as individual irregular protuberances (Figure 6B).

Older linear structures appeared to be partially masked by a

thin sediment cover (structures between P6 and P7; Figure 6B),

whereas others that were sharper and better defined likely

indicated a younger origin (P5, Figure 6B).

Elongate, seaward-trending structures below scarp S1 were

identified as mass gravity deposits. Those that appeared to

have included more cohesive and poorly internally organized

strata are slumps (cf. Gascoyne, 1978), whereas others that

show some internal reorganization were displaced as less-Table

1.

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P6

900.9

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P8

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dense, more-fluid gravity flows (Middleton and Hampton, 1973;

Middleton and Southard, 1977). The best-defined and perhaps

most-complete downslope mass gravity deposit in the study

area was the slump oriented parallel to profile P5 in, and

extending just below the heart-shaped headwall scarp (Figure

6A). This linear belt of displaced sediment was clearly derived

from failure of material that had originally formed in what now

remains as the steepened headwall scarp S1 slope at, and just

below, 20 m. It accounted for the volume of material that was

detached, failed, and flowed from the steep incline (36.78), with

a high relief (33.1 m), downward with incomplete reorganiza-

tion of sediment during transport. Associated features included

locally well-defined lateral margins, pressure ridges, second-

order flow fabric, and translated blocks between the headwall

and translational-toe domains (cf. Gascoyne, 1978). As shown

on the MBS image, large, individual fragments forming the

chaotic, displaced mass are not only apparent in plan view

(Figures 6B) but also in the cross-section of that slump deposit

(Figures 2, P5a, 6C). Sediment blocks of considerable size were

recognized in the upper part of the slump, as shown on the

cross-section, with some exceeding 15 m in length and 1 m in

relief.

In addition to slumps and other mass-flow deposits, a

particularly large, distinct, arcuate feature was observed along

profile P11, positioned at the middle-shelf depths between

profiles P9 and P10 (Figure 2B). The long axis of that structure,

ca. 350–400 m, was oriented approximately parallel to the 60 m

isobath. In both plan view (Figure 2A) and the cross-section

view (Figure 7, lower), the shallower, upslope segment of the

structure merges with the seafloor surface sediment, whereas

its seaward profile shows a distinct, high-relief, scarp-like face

between depths of 55 m and 62.5 m (Figure 7, upper and lower).

GEOLOGICALLY RECENT SHELFBREAKFORMATION

The presence of the three well-defined, step-like shelf breaks

offshore, localized largely between Briatico and Punta di Safo,

is not entirely surprising in view of the almost continuous and

periodically powerful seismotectonic activity in this part of the

Calabrian Arc. This is a region where hundreds of earthquake

epicenters have been recorded on land and at sea during the

past two decades (Cucci and Tertulliani, 2006; Guerra et al.,

2006) and where fault motion and high average rates of land

uplift (to 1–2 mm/y) have been measured for the Quaternary

(Antonioli et al., 2009; Bianca et al., 2011; Tortorici et al., 2003).

It is unusual, nevertheless, for a continental shelf, even one

being deformed in an active tectonic region, to be offset to the

extent observed here. We do not believe that the scarps

originated as a result of fluvial sediment input at earlier times

of seasonal floods, inasmuch as the river mouths at the coast

are not aligned with the headwall scarps we observed on the

inner shelf (Figures 1 and 2). However, without the availability

Figure 4. Google Earth image showing the narrow stretch of inner shelf landward of scarp S1 between the eastern breakwater (EB) to the west, and profile P9 to

the east. A series of near-parallel sand-wave crests, oriented at a low angle to scarp S1, record the dominant eastward path of coastal currents. Coast-parallel

Posidonia meadows occur primarily on the innermost part of the shelf. Also indicated are H, Greek harbor; TR, Trainiti River mouth; TD, Trainiti Delta; and RR,

the railway line.



Figure 5. Seafloor photos taken by divers along a track parallel to the upper margin of scarp S1, at depths between 16 m and 25 m. (A and B) Mega-ripples

showing parallel crests. (C and D) Mega-ripples and ripples variably oriented (note truncation of one set of bedforms by another in C). (E) Posidonia seagrass

interspersed with ripples, with some leaves deflected in the direction of prevailing current. (F) Mounded burrows (white arrows) on the bioturbated seafloor

bottom at depths below the S1 scarp.



Figure 6. (A) MBS image observed from NE toward land showing a close-up view of the steep, high-relief, heart-shaped headwall along scarp S1 at profile P5. (B)

MBS image showing a close-up view of the most prominent slump and gravity flow deposits between profiles P5 and P7; their configuration varies from sharp and

distinct such as the one just below the heart-shaped scarp along P5, to muted as in those to the east. These distinctions likely denote different times of formation

(discussed in text). Isobaths in meters and location of cross-section profile P5a are also indicated. (C) Cross-section of slump along profile P5a deposited above

seafloor depths at ~100 m; note large blocks, some exceeding 15 m in length and 1 m in relief (depth and length scales in m).



of deep penetration, high-resolution, subbottom seismic pro-

files for this specific sector, we can only speculate at this time

that the three submerged scarps are, in some manner, fault

related and triggered at unknown depths beneath the seafloor

surface. The steep, high-sloped, laterally extending scarps,

especially S1, resemble extensionally displaced structures on

land, such as some of the step-like faults and marine terraces

on the adjacent north Capo Vaticano hills, which have been

subject to uplift at least since the Pleistocene (Antonioli et al.,

2009; Bianca et al., 2011; Tortorici et al., 2003). Of note in this

respect are the two closest large fault traces on land, oriented

SW–NE, which delineate the surveyed zone, i.e. the Capo

Vaticano fault to the immediate west and the Vibo Valentia

fault to the south (Cucci and Tertulliani, 2006; Tortorici et al.,

2003). The orientation of the three scarps we mapped, however,

parallel the WNW–ESE trends of the large and active

Coccorino and Nicotera faults on the southern margin of the

Capo Vaticano peninsula (Bianca et al., 2011, their Figure 1).

The submarine scarps also closely parallel the well-defined

WNW–ESE-trending isobaths, probably structurally con-

trolled between 200 and 400 m of the adjacent continental

slope (Bianca et al., 2011) and some fault trends in the Gulf of

Saint Eufemia (Tansi et al., 2007, their figure 1).

Direct evidence of recent displacement of the seafloor surface

adjacent to the survey sector is provided by the configuration of

one of the two long Greek breakwaters (EB, Figure 4) that

extends from near the shoreline at Trainiti to roughly 300 m

seaward on the inner shelf. This feature, mapped by Jannelli,

Lena, and Givigliano (1992), shows that its submerged upper

surface descends from�3 m msl at the coastline to�9 m msl on

the inner shelf, the latter being positioned only several

hundred meters landward of scarp S1. This lowering beneath

the present sea level by as much as 6 m of the structure’s upper

surface occurred at some time between the end of Greek time

and the present (Bernasconi and Stanley, 2013; Stanley and

Bernasconi, 2012a). This late Holocene to recent seaward-tilted

configuration is attributed largely to natural substrate subsi-

dence and seafloor structural offset at rates from ~2.6 to 2.8

mm/y (Stanley and Bernasconi, 2012b). It should also be noted

that the NNE tilt of the shelf parallels the same structural-tilt

trend observed on land in the Capo Vaticano peninsula (Bianca

et al., 2011, their figure 1). It thus appears that terrains

landward of the shore experienced mostly uplift, along with

lateral displacement in some cases, whereas the adjacent

underwater features of the northern Capo Vaticano shelf

primarily record a step-like lowering.

MBS observations suggest recent geological development of

the scarps and their likely continued evolution in late Holocene

time to the present. A strong line of evidence for this, albeit

indirect, is provided by their overall angular, high-relief and

steeply inclined form. This expression of recent formation is

maintained in spite of the high-energy sedimentary bedforms

Figure 7. (Upper) MBS oblique view toward land of the massive slide block at middle shelf depths observed on profile P11 denoting its arcuate shape and the

presence of its distinct scarp-like face. The position of the SE–NW-oriented cross-section is also indicated. (Lower) Cross-section of P11 showing the upslope

segment of the slide that merges with seafloor surface sediment, and the 7.5 m relief of its scarp-like face (between about 55 and 62.5 m). Depth and length in

meters. Circles in both images indicate upper part of scarp that faces downslope. (Color for this figure is available in the online version of this paper.)



that prevail along the inner shelf and cause large volumes of

sand to be transferred seaward from the innermost shelf

downslope to and across the broken topography of the shelf

platform. The bedforms recording this displacement include

sand ripples that generally require mean-flow velocities of

~20–30 cm/s and sand waves that usually develop at stronger

mean-flow velocities from ~30–80 cm/s (Reineck and Singh,

1980). Moreover, sand wave crests are positioned mostly

transverse or at a small angle to the dominant current direction

and record the prevailing eastward trajectory of coastal

currents in this inner shelf area above scarp S1. This current

trend is confirmed by mapping of the nearshore area

documented by the Italian CNR (1985).

Sedimentation studies of sand waves in the nearshore sectors

of some margins in other parts of the world provide estimated

sand-wave migration rates to 10–15 m/y (Bijker, Wilkens, and

Hulscher, 1998). An easterly displacement of the sand body by

~1 km on the inner shelf in the study area since the 1905

earthquake can be projected conservatively if a sand-wave

advance rate of 10 m/y is assumed. The crests of those mobile

bedforms in the study area are oriented S–N (from 3548 to 68 N),

and as they advance, the sand waves come into contact at an

angle with the WNW–ESE-trending scarp S1 (Figure 4). That

causes considerable volumes of sand to be actively shifted to,

across, and down the steep scarp face toward the greater

depths of the shelf surface. At that rate of seaward sediment

displacement and loss to the inner shelf, it is expected that,

over time, the scarp and shelf surface below it would have

become considerably smoothed, partially buried, and much less

well-defined than presently observed. This would suggest that

scarp S1 is a young and still-evolving feature.

The long, narrow, seaward-trending sedimentary structures

just below scarp S1 are those that have been displaced

primarily by the effects of gravity, such as slumps and less-

dense, more-fluid gravity flow deposits rather than bottom

currents. These displaced sediments are derived primarily

from periodic failure of material that had originally formed

along the steepened scarp S1 at depths of ~18 m to ~22 m. In

some instances, the narrow sediment tongues below a scarp,

such as the deposit along profile P5, present all the character-

istics typical of a mass of material that has been detached,

failed, and displaced from shallow depths down the steep

incline with incomplete reorganization of original strata during

transport in a seaward direction. Structures present beneath

these scooped-out scarps, such as the heart-shaped depression

at the head of profile P5, display the well-defined characteris-

tics of slumps between the headwall and the translated blocks

of the toe domain (Figure 6). The configuration of gravitative

deposits, either of muted or of sharp and distinct form, could

well record differences in the timing of their formation.

By far the largest gravitative failure (P11) was interpreted

here as a massive (.350 m long), cohesive slide block derived

from the inner shelf, perhaps detached at or near scarp S1. The

MBS images show that it is not a slump involving major

disruption of the original stratification during transport, but a

slide block derived from the inner shelf that moved en masse

with only minor dislocation and reworking of the strata within

it during transport. That material slid on its semiconsolidated-

to-indurated base in a seaward direction (cf. Reineck and Singh,

1980), moving across the fairly gentle incline to its present site

on the middle shelf. Some of the recent sediment that partially

covers the rear (landward margin) and upper part of that block

may have been triggered as a very large cloud of material at the

time of the gravity event. It is envisioned that much of that

material may have been blocked by the massive, displaced

section resting on the midshelf and became trapped behind it.

HOW RECENT IS RECENT?This MBS survey was key for discovering and describing the

large morphobathymetric features on the northern Capo

Vaticano shelf, but new research efforts will be required to

more reliably interpret their origin and the timing of their

formation. It will be essential to survey the three scarps by

means of high-resolution, subbottom seismic profiling to map

their 3-D configuration and to determine whether they are, in

some manner, associated with the 1905 seismotectonic event.

For example, it is necessary to determine whether the sharp

and distinct scarp S1 was the result of a major offset that

occurred during a single brief span of time or was formed by

several major vertical offset movements or by multiple slippage

events over a longer period. It should also be established

whether the three scarps in the Briatico area were associated

with a single event or were formed at different times,

independent of each other. With high-resolution geophysical

data, it may, perhaps, be possible to identify whether a series of

small, low-relief, step-like offsets are buried at depth beneath

the large S1 scarp feature. If that were the case, one could

imagine a scenario not unlike the one that produced some

terrace offsets through the Pleistocene to recent time on the

adjacent land that backs the survey area, but with the

difference that offshore terrains have been lowered by

extensional displacement rather than having been uplifted.

Even with the availability of that information, however, the

timing of scarp origin and that of the massive slide block

detached from the inner shelf would remain unknown. To

establish whether there was any possible relation with the 1905

earthquake, it would be necessary to recover a set of continuous

sediment sections in cores collected along several traverses from

the inner shelf to and across scarp S1 and also across the slide

block. Age determination of such a relatively recent event would

require application of two or more dating methods. Very recent

events (at the century level) need short-lived isotope-count

analyses, such as lead-210 and cesium-137, whereas radiocar-

bon dates could be used to determine ages in excess of~200–300

years. It would also be helpful to emplace time–depth sensors to

be monitored periodically on the step-like shelf-break surface.

These might serve to detect possible elevation shifts that may

result from ongoing and future displacement triggered by

downslope gravitative motion, faulting, or combined tectonic–

gravitative processes at depth (Rebesco et al., 2009).

Based on the present MBS survey and the seismotectonic

databases available for this northern Capo Vaticano sector, it is

suggested that two sectors of the Briatico–Bivona inner shelf

survey area examined here may have failed either largely or

partially as a result of the 1905 earthquake and warrant

additional attention. One is positioned along scarp S1 to the NE

of Briatico and includes the area between profiles P5 and P6,

and the other is the massive slide block at profile P11 north of



Bivona. A multidisciplinary investigation using diverse tech-

nologies will likely be the most productive approach to

exploring the two areas proposed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSAppreciation is expressed to Dr. J. Royal, RPM Nautical

Foundation for generously providing ship time and equipment

on the R/V Hercules; Captain E. Vella and crew for their

valued assistance; and Mr. K. Llewellyn of Highland Geo

Solutions for efficient collection of the MBS data during the

cruise. The authors thank Mr. W. Boardman for assistance in

compiling the final figures in this article, and Mr. P. L.

Clemente for editorial assistance and text preparation. Dives

were conducted by personnel of the Nucleo Sommozzatori–

Guardia di Finanza of Vibo Valentia Marina, Calabria,

through the sponsorship of Commander A. D’Amico. Helpful,

constructive, outside reviews were made by Drs. F. Muto,

University of Calabria-Rende, and C. Tansi, IRPI-CNR of

Cosenza, Calabria. Travel funds for this project (to J.D.S) were

provided by the Director’s Office and Department of Paleobi-

ology of the National Museum of Natural History, Highland

Geo Solutions, and the RPM Nautical Foundation; funds for

field work and travel were provided (to M.P.B.) by the

University of Calabria (Ministry of Education, Universities

and Research grant ex-60%), and by the Office of Fellowships

and Grants of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

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