Landslides and lineament mapping along the Simpang Pulai to Kg Raja highway, Malaysia

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Landslides and lineament mappingalong the Simpang Pulai to Kg Rajahighway, MalaysiaN. Yusof a b , M. F. Ramli b , S. Pirasteh c & H. Z. M. Shafri da Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate, Universiti TeknologiMalaysia, 81310, UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysiab Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,43400, Serdang, Malaysiac Spatial and Numerical Modeling, Institute of AdvanceTechnology, University Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang,Selangor, Malaysiad Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400,Serdang, Malaysia

Available online: 30 Jun 2011

To cite this article: N. Yusof, M. F. Ramli, S. Pirasteh & H. Z. M. Shafri (2011): Landslides andlineament mapping along the Simpang Pulai to Kg Raja highway, Malaysia, International Journal ofRemote Sensing, 32:14, 4089-4105

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Landslides and lineament mapping along the Simpang Pulai to Kg Rajahighway, Malaysia

N. YUSOF*†‡, M. F. RAMLI‡, S. PIRASTEH§ and H. Z. M. SHAFRI¶

†Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM

Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

‡Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia

§Spatial and Numerical Modeling, Institute of Advance Technology, University Putra

Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

¶Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia

(Received 30 July 2009; in final form 26 March 2010)

Geological structural features, such as the discontinuities that may be detected on

satellite imagery as lineaments, in many cases control landslide occurrences.

Lineament may represent the plane of weakness where the strength of the slope

material has been reduced, eventually resulting in slope failure. The main objective

of this study is to assess the relationship between lineament and landslide occur-

rences along the Simpang Pulai to Kg Raja highway, Malaysia. Lineament map-

ping was undertaken utilizing Landsat imagery and landslide distributions were

identified based on field mapping and historical records. Lineament density maps

of length, number and intersections were generated and compared with landslide

distributions. The lineaments were also visually compared with the landslide

occurrences. The results showed that there is an association between the linea-

ments and landslide distribution. Thus, lineament mapping is essential for the early

stages of planning to prevent hazard potential from landslides.

1. Introduction

Malaysia has a humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 2450 mm

and average temperatures of 22–32�C. The high-intensity tropical rainfall coupledwith hilly areas and a deeply weathered rock profile comprise near-ideal conditions

for landslide development (Dunning et al. 2009). Human activity in these susceptible

areas, such as undercutting the geologically weak slopes for road construction, may

‘over-steepen’ the slope and subsequently induce landslides (Norbu et al. 2003,

Keunza et al. 2004, Dunning et al. 2009).

Landslides in both natural and cut slopes are a common problem in Malaysia,

especially in areas where indiscriminate land use change occurs. The Simpang Pulai to

Kampung Raja highway is one of the areas where landslides are prevalent. This is due

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected].

This article was originally presented at the 2nd International Conference on

Geoinformation Technology for Natural Disaster Management and Rehabilitation,

Bangkok (January 2009), and initially processed by Dr. Saied Pirasteh and Dr. Nitin

K. Tripathi.

International Journal of Remote SensingISSN 0143-1161 print/ISSN 1366-5901 online # 2011 Taylor & Francis

http://www.tandf.co.uk/journalsDOI: 10.1080/01431161.2010.484434

International Journal of Remote Sensing

Vol. 32, No. 14, 20 July 2011, 4089–4105

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to the intensive slope cut for construction of the highway, which passes through the

Titiwangsa mountain range (Husaini et al. 2005). Although there have been no fatal-

ities so far, there has been one close call, when a motorist braked just on time to avoid

being swept into a ravine by a mudslide at kilometre 13 of the Pos Slim to Kampung

Raja highway (The Star 2006).Landslides are reported in many cases to be controlled mostly by structural trends

such as discontinuities (Walker et al. 1987, Hui et al. 1990, Nagarajan and Khire 1998,

Aziman and Husaini 2001, Pradhan et al. 2006). A discontinuity plane can be defined

as separation or fracture in a geological formation which divides the rock into two or

more pieces (Prost 1994). Fractures are commonly caused by stress exceeding the

rock’s strength where loss of consistency in rock structure occurs. These structural

weaknesses originated mostly around physical discontinuities such as faults, joint sets

or dykes (O’Leary et al. 1976, Davis 1984, Clark and Wilson 1994).These discontinuities can be identified and measured not only by geological field

survey but also by utilizing remotely sensed imagery through means of lineament

interpretation and the characteristics of spatial patterns of fractures (Caran et al.

1981, Finely and Gustavson 1981, Prost 1994, Koike et al. 1995, Rowan and Bowers

1995, Keller and Pinter 1996, Banerjee and Mitra 2004).

Lineamentwhichmaybe identifiedasa lineof landscapereveals theunseenstructureof

the rock basement (Hobbs 1904). These discontinuities in rocks frequently result in linear

or curvilinear morphological features along the intersection of a fracture plane or thesurface expression ofa fault (Paulsenand Wilson2004, Kheiralla etal. 2006, Masoudand

Koike 2006, Al-Mokredi et al. 2007). A good correlation between structures mapped,

such as the fault trends on the field and lineament system, enables lineaments to be

regarded as representative of the structural indications of the particular areas (Arlegui

and Soriano 1998, Morelli and Piana 2006). The presence of lineaments also may greatly

affect the stability of rock masses (Andreas and Allan 2007).

In this study, only the topographically negative lineaments were utilized to repre-

sent the discontinuity features (Juhari and Ibrahim 1997, Koch and Mather 1997,Solomon and Ghebreab 2006, Ramli et al. 2009). The identification of negative

lineaments was based on linear valleys (Jordana and Schott 2005). The linear valley

was used as the primary identification criterion to represent the negative lineament on

the imagery (Koike et al. 1995, Sarp 2005).

Structural weakness due to the presence of lineaments has been identified to cause

slope movements by many researchers (Crosta and Zanchi 2000, Agliardi et al. 2001,

Ambrosi and Crosta 2006). The movement is slow and continuous for a long period of

time and may contribute to large cumulative displacements (Cruden and Hu 1993,Ballantyne 2002, Ambrosi and Crosta 2006). However, it is not clear whether the

structural lineament features play an active or passive role in the slope movements –

whether they coincide with a zone of stress concentration or are simply a zone of weak

rock (Ambrosi and Crosta 2006).

Occurrences of landslides are mostly identified in areas of linear patterns or linea-

ments (Nagarajan et al. 1998). Many researchers have shown that lineaments corre-

late with landslide distribution (Nagarajan and Khire 1998, Nagarajan et al. 2000,

Pradhan et al. 2006, Yilmaz and Yildirim 2006). Therefore, the main objective of thisarticle is to identify the relationship between landslide occurrences along Simpang

Pulai highway and lineament in the study area. The lineament study may reveal

generalities that will support understanding of landslides in the region (Ayalew and

Yamagishi 2005).

4090 N. Yusof et al.

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2. Study area

The main range, locally known as Banjaran Titiwangsa, is the main backbone of

Peninsular Malaysia and stretches to about 500 km from the border with Thailand,

trending northwest–southeast along the Peninsular Malaysia. The study area is located

at the Simpang Pulai to Kampung Raja highway which passes through the Banjaran

Titiwangsa, with slope steepness varying from 35� to 40� (Bujang et al. 2008; figure 1).

Simpang Pulai is situated in Perak while Kampung Raja is in Cameron Highlands,

Pahang. A highway was built to connect these two small towns in May 1997 and

scheduled to be completed in 2000. However, the project was only completed andopened to the public on 24 February 2004 due to several landslides that delayed the

project (Hussein and Alimat 2003). Landslide 4 was reported to be the largest landslide

and was triggered by the intense rainfall in March 2001 (Bujang et al. 2008; figure 1).

2.1 Geological setting

The study area is underlain by granite and metasedimentary schists (figure 1). The rocks

are moderate to completely weathered. Highly fractured schist shows more complex

geological structures compared with granite. Granite covers about 63% of the study area,

while schist comprises about 37% (Bujang et al. 2008). Owing to the intrusion of granite,

schist is normally situated at the upper part of the elevation (Husaini et al. 2005). The

intrusion of granite batholith during the Triassic converted sedimentary rocks into highlyfolded and faulted metasedimentary rocks (Hutchison et al. 1973). For granite, generally

the weathering profile ranges from 6 to 10 m thick residual soils or completely weathered

rock (grade VI–V), which gradually changes to high to moderate weathered rock (grade

IV–III) at depths of 15–20 m (Bujang et al. 2008). For the schist area, the thickness of the

residual soil is less than 6 m, followed by weathered rock and alternatively close-spaced

weathering of hard to weak layers (Bujang et al. 2008). Four faults have been identified

by the Department of Minerals and Geoscience (DMG) in the study area (Ramli et al.

2009; figure 2). There is a possibility that more extracted lineaments probably of faultscan be recognized from the Landsat imagery. Novak and Soulakellis (2000) also deli-

neated many lineaments on the Landsat imagery such as the faults and tectonic contacts

that were previously unmapped. The obtained lineaments will enhance the density

analysis and their association with the landslide occurrences.

3. Methodology

3.1 Data collection

Landslide locations were identified from previous studies (Aziman and Husaini 2001,

Husaini et al. 2005), interpreted from 1:10 000 scale 2005 aerial photos and field visits.

The moderate scale of the aerial photos renders it difficult to differentiate between

landslides and bare soil. To overcome the problem, only landslides that were clearly

visible during the field visits were mapped (Claessens et al. 2007, Zhang and Wang2007) and their locations were recorded using a Garmin GPS 72 hand-held attached to

a personal digital assistant. The accuracy of the GPS (Global Positioning System)

observations were less than 15 m (Garmin 2002). Pack et al. (1998) suggested that the

landslide positions should be mapped at the head scarp of the slope failure. However,

it was difficult to reach the landslide scarp due to the steep slope and soil overflow.

Thus, the positions of landslide were observed from each end of the landslide toe. The

height of the landslides was approximated based on the number of the slope berm.

Landslides and lineaments analysis 4091

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Figure 1. Field station location and lithological map of the study area.


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The estimated landslides were digitized as polygons (Duman et al. 2005) in the

geographic information system (GIS) environment (table 1).

The Lineament map from manual lineament interpretation using Landsat TM and

ETMþ of 1990 and 2005 which had been field-verified were utilized. Details on the

method of lineament identification may be found in Ramli et al. (2009).

3.2 Analysis

Lineament density analysis consisted of lineament density (Greenbaum 1985), intersec-

tiondensity (AndreasandAllan2007)andlengthdensity(MorelliandPiana2006),which

were represented in the form of maps. In order to obtain the intersection density map, the

intersection points for every intersect lineament were extracted using the GIS software.

Intersections of lineament were thought to be important in this study. This is because

lineament intersection may be the fault intersection (Florinsky 1996, 2000). The presence

of fault intersections may lead to landslide development (Karakhanyan 1981) due to theproduction of more highly fractured rock (Trippa and Vearncombe 2004, Schwarz and

Kilfitt 2008). Emre et al. (2005) also stressed that the landslide incidence in the Bornova

Basin, _Izmir, Turkey may be related to the eastern segment of the _Izmir fault.

The aim of producing the lineament density maps is to relate probable favourable

zones for landslide occurrences and to identify any spatial associations with landslide

locations. These maps may show the highest fracture density of the study area, which

may represent the geologically weak zone in the study area.

The definition of lineament density depends on the input lineament. The lineamentlength density can be defined as the summed length of lineaments with a specified unit

area of the grid, while for the number of lineament is the number of lineaments

existing per unit area or in each pixel (Al-Mokredi et al. 2007). Multiple fault inter-

sections in various orientations may lead to high density of fracturing at the intersec-

tion point (Trippa and Vearncombe 2004). Because of this, intersection of lineament

density may signify the number of intersection points at a specific per unit area.

The density analysis undertaken utilized the kernel density adapted from the

quadratic kernel function (Silverman 1986). This method may result in a smoothestimation of density surface distribution from a set of observed occurrences (Bailey

and Gatrell 1995). It is recommended for use for fracture concentration identification

(Raju and Reddy 1997). The lineament density was classified into three categories

which consist of low, moderate and high density (Sarkar and Kanungo 2004). The

spatial pattern of high-density lineament areas was expected to have a higher degree of

rock fractures (Hung and Batelaan 2003).

Apart from density analysis, the landslide areas were also overlain on the lineament

map in order to detect any possible spatial relationship between the landslides and thelineaments. Only lineaments within 200 m from the landslide area were selected based

on the probable distance of instability that may be influenced by the lineaments.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Landslides

Based on the previous studies by Aziman and Husaini (2001) and Husaini et al. (2005),

15 landslides were mapped. During the field visit, another six landslides were identi-

fied. In total, 21 landslides were identified in the study area (figure 2) and all landslides

were found to occur on the slope cuts.


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Fifteen landslides were identified in schist and the remaining six landslides were in

granitic rocks. The landslide areas range from 0.40 to 61.80 acres based on GIS

analysis. Landslide size based on Cornforth (2005) ranges from small (two locations),

medium (18 locations) to large (one location). The largest landslide in the study area is

landslide 4, with a size of 61.80 acres (figures 2 and 3). The landslide scarp can be

clearly observed at the top of the slope (figure 3). Field inspection showed that theslope material is highly foliated and heavily jointed. In comparison, the other land-

slides are significantly smaller compared with this one (figure 4).

4.2 Lineament

The lineament mapping was undertaken before the location of the fault was known. This

is because the first geological map of the study area that the authors managed to obtain

Figure 2. Landslides and lineament length density of the study area.


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Figure 3. Landslide 4 after slope toe remediation.

Figure 4. Landslides and lineament number density of the study area.


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had only lithological information. Upon overlaying the faults over the lineament map, it

was really interesting to find that three out of four faults identified by DMG had been

already delineated in the forms of lineament where LI was equal to FI, L2 was equal to

F2 and L4 was equal to F4 (figure 2). Although the placements are slightly off, this is

understandable due to the smaller scale of the map (1: 150 000), published by DMG.Ramli et al. (2009) proposed that FI mapped by DMG could well be extended

further (F1 in figure 2). This is based on the shape of the valley and also a fault in a

nearby area that trends similarly to fault F1 (Ramli et al. 2009; figure 2).

The result from the lineament length density (LL) map showed that the highest

density concentrated around FI, which is around Bukit Kerekelih, Bukit Seniok and

Bukit Semanggol (figure 2). Around the road alignment, the concentration is mainly

between Bukit Semanggol and Gunung Pass.

On the number of lineaments (NL) map, the highest density concentrated aroundFI, which is around Bukit Kerekelih, Bukit Seniok, Bukit Semanggol and Gunung

Pass and, for the road alignment, the highest density concentrated around Bukit

Seniok, Bukit Semanggol and Gunung Pass (figure 4).

On the lineament intersection density (IL) map, the highest density areas were

located around Bukit Kerekelih, Bukit Semanggol and Gunung Pass (figure 5). For

the road alignment section, it is only between Bukit Semanggol and Gunung Pass.

The result from LL, NL and IL density maps (figures 2, 4 and 5) showed that most

of the high lineament density areas are concentrated around the major lineaments thatcoincide within FI as delineated by DMG (figure 2).

Moderate and high lineament density areas from LL and NL maps (figures 2 and 4)

are more widespread, covering about 90% of the study area, whereas in the LI map

(figure 5), they cover only about 50% of the study area. The results from the lineament

density map of LL, NL and LI consistently show that the areas between Bukit

Semanggol and Gunung Pass are high-density areas in terms of LL, NL and LI.

4.3 Comparison between landslides and lineament density

All landslides were found to occur within the high- and moderate-density areas of the

LL map. However, only two landslides, 4 and 5, occurred in the high-density area

(figure 2). Similarly for the LN map, all landslides were within the high- and moderate-

density areas; however, the number of landslides that occurred in the high-density area

were much higher - 14 landslides (1–14, figure 4). For the LI density map, only 15

landslides occurred inside the high- and moderate-density areas. For the high-density

area, four landslides occurred inside it, namely landslides 1–4 (figure 5). Eleven land-slides were located in the moderate-density area and another six in the low-density area.

Perhaps if we consider that landslide 4 is the most geologically sensitive area based on

its size, we can say that the LI map is the most useful in terms of pinpointing the largest

landslides compared with LL and LN maps because of the larger area that has been

delineated (figure 6). However, in terms of showing all the landslides that occurred, it is

less suitable because six landslides occurred in the low-density area of the LI map.

The area with the high density level was suspected to be highly fractured due to the

concentration of lineaments and intersection of lineaments. Interestingly, most of theexisting landslide incidents were located in this area. Generally, this shows that there

is a correlation between the lineaments and the occurrences of landslide in the study

area. This is especially true where, in all three maps, landslide 4 occurred inside the

high-density area.


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4.4 Landslide occurrences and lineament

The selected lineaments and intersection of lineaments within a radius of 200 m fromthe landslide area were identified. All landslides except landslide 19 are located within

a radius of 200 m of any lineament. Among the 20 landslides, eight of them are also

located within an intersection of lineaments (landslides 1–5, 8, 9 and 14; table 1).

Interestingly, landslide 4 was recorded to have the highest number of lineaments

and the intersection of lineaments. From the overlay, 12 lineaments and six intersec-

tions are within a radius of 200 m from the landslide area (figure 6), while in landslides

1–3, there is one major lineament with a length of more than 1 km crossing through

these landslide areas. The major lineament was also found to be intersected with otherlineaments in a perpendicular direction and the intersection points are located near

landslides 1 and 3 (figure 6).

Figure 5. Landslides and lineament intersection density of the study area.


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In the other three landslides, namely 8, 9 and 15, one lineament crosses through

them. The lineament in landslides 8 and 9 was identified as a major lineament except

for landslide 15.

An intersection of lineaments falling between the landslide area was identified only

in landslide 4. There was one intersection point located on the slope cut of landslide 4

(figure 6). The other intersections of lineaments were located within a 200-m radius ofthe landslide area.

Qualitatively, from the results from the three density map analysis, and from the

landslide occurrences overlaid onto the lineament map, it is clear that there is a

relationship because most of the landslides occurred in moderate- and high-density

lineament areas. The study does not mean to oversimplify or state that only lineament

influences landslides, or to suggest that the landslides that occurred in the study area

Figure 6. Lineaments and intersections of lineaments in landslide 4.


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were mainly because of the presence of lineament, which is a subject for further

research.

5. Conclusions

The extracted lineaments were found to be closely correlated with the landslide occur-

rences in the study area. Comparison between landslide occurrences and the lineament

density maps showed that most landslides occurred in high and moderate lineament

density areas. The most significant finding perhaps is that all three density maps showed

landslide 4 as the high-density area. Results for overlaying the landslides on the

lineament map also showed that landslide 4 has the highest number of intersections

of lineaments.

The results of the study suggested that lineament mapping may be used in identify-ing potential landslide areas in highway alignment selection. This can be achieved by

including the lineament mapping at the early stage of road alignment planning,

especially in high-terrain areas to prevent routing them through potentially high

landslide hazard areas.

Acknowledgements

This project is supported by the Malaysian Science Fund under grant number 04-01-

04-SF0676. The authors would also like to acknowledge the referees for their con-

structive comments.

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Landslides and lineament mapping along the Simpang Pulai to Kg Raja highway, Malaysia

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Transcript of Landslides and lineament mapping along the Simpang Pulai to Kg Raja highway, Malaysia