Khmer Ceramic Technology

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Khmer CeramiC TeChnology

Chapter 14

Khmer Ceramic Technology: A Case Study from Thnal Mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen

Chhay Rachna, Heng Piphal and Chhay Visoth

in January 2007, the Department of monuments and archaeology 1 of the aPSara authority, in collaboration with the national University of Singapore and the institute of asian Culture, Sophia University, conducted an archaeological excavation at the Thnal mrech Kiln Site located on the Thnal mrech dike, in the village of anlong Thom, Phnom Kulen, approximately 35km northeast of Siem reap in the famed angkor region (Figs. 14.1 and 14.2).

The zone, containing multiple kiln sites, including two main groups with more than 20 kilns on an ancient dike, is frequently known as Anlong Thom (approximately “big river channel”) due to its location near a village bearing this name. however, this term covers a fairly sizeable area. Specific kiln locations are known to locals as Sampov Thleay (wrecked ship) or Thnal Mrech (pepper road) in current terms and oral history. local names rather than name known by fellow researchers should be adopted, for purposes of clarity of identification, location and interpretation. This project, supervised by Professor John miksic, received support from the lee Foundation of Singapore and the aPSara authority to conduct this

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Figure 14.1: Central and northeast angkor, the location of Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).

Materializing SEA14_Rachna.indd 179 4/1/2013 12:42:55 PM

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Chhay raChna, heng PiPhal anD Chhay ViSoTh

archaeological project including mapping, excavation of Thnal mrech Kiln (TmK 02) and analyses of the kiln morphology and the pottery (both from the excavation and from surface collection of the Thnal mrech kilns). another Thnal mrech Kiln (TmK 01) was excavated at the same time, supervised by yukitsugu Tabata of Sophia University. The TmK 02 project was designed to build a better understanding of Cambodian ceramic technology, particularly in the angkor era when the so-called Kulen Ware was developed (miksic et al. 2009).

Technology

Ceramics obtained from the excavation and from the surface collection consist of earthenware and both glazed and unglazed stoneware. glazed wares represent the highest concentration of the total assemblage. earthenware comprises mostly cooking pots, large containers, and many small containers. Most of the stoneware (high temperature ceramic) was fired in kiln(s) at temperatures between 1100‒1300ºC to produce the non-porous and stone-like hardness. earthenware (low temperature ceramic) made intentionally for certain uses (e.g. cooking, water cooling) where porosity is a desirable trait, is constructed from plastic secondary clay containing considerable organic and inorganic materials that contribute to a lower melting point. in general, Southeast asian potters fire their earthenware ceramics in open or bonfire settings, where temperatures range between 600 and 800ºC; comparative research across Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam by louise Cort and leedom lefferts (l. Cort, pers. comm., 2012) suggests that some potters also fire their earthenwares in kilns, where temperature varies depending on the location of the ceramics in the kiln’s firing chambers. Some TmK 02 sherds appear (based on their

Figure 14.2: Thnal mrech Dike, Topographical Contour map in January and april 2006, and location of excavation in January 2007 and the groups of surface collection in march 2008 in the first group of TmK site (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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hardness) to be earthenware; however, this “earthenware” could actually be underfired stoneware, which reflects temperature variations within the kiln firing chamber. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that most of TmK’s “earthenware”-like vessels share the same shapes and use the same clay material as TmK’s stoneware. Variations among categories of Khmer “earthenware” and “stoneware” require more attention in ongoing research on kiln sites.

Shaping Technique

in the case of the Thnal mrech Kiln Site most of the morphologies of artifacts recovered from the excavation in January 2007 and from the surface collecting in march 2008 are still known by locals and words for them can be found in the Khmer dictionary (Chuon 1967). This enables us to produce a classification scheme of Kulen Wares based on Khmer terms for both shape and function, such as: kpoeurng sratob chek for roof tile; danlap for a round covered box; kotth for a conical-cylindrical box; khuoch for a bottle; ak kambor for a lime-paste pot; chan for a bowl or plate; kraal for a jar; phoeng and peang for a basin; ka-am for a water container; tho for a bottle; and chhnang for a cooking pot (Figs. 14.3, 14.4 and 14.5).

Pottery-making techniques present a challenge to the researcher who wishes to learn about the techniques employed in the manufacture of pottery. in general, manufacturing techniques should be included in the criteria for pottery classification. The various methods of vessel manufacture include employing paddle-and-anvil, coil construction, modeling, molding, and wheel throwing. Traces on the ceramic walls of the pottery at Thnal mrech suggest the use of all five techniques. The wheel throwing

Figure 14.3: architectural ware family, roof tiles, Thnal mrech Kiln 02, Phnom Kulen (Photograph: Ceramic Team, aPSara).

Figure 14.4: The lids of round box and conical-cylindrical box, small container family, Thnal mrech Kiln 02, Phnom Kulen (Photograph: Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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method is common in small size potteries such as danlap, kotth, khuoch, ak kambor, and chan. Coiling is mostly observed on the larger ones including kpoeurng sratob chek, krala, phoeng and peang, ka-am, and tho. modeling (hand manipulation) is used for decoration of lid knobs and for the presentation of animal figures, such as a pair of birds. molding (casting from a mold) is used for rong sbov (eave tiles) to produce decoration in high relief. another technique, paddle and anvil, was solely applied to the chhnang (cooking pot) as seen on a few pieces recovered from TmK 02.

Shaping technique of kpoeurng sratob chek (roof tile)

according to this classification, the potters used coiling and molding to shape the tiles; evidence of the coiling technique could be seen on the inner wall of the tiles and in the cross section (Fig. 14.6).

Figure 14.5: a round box, two conical-cylindrical boxes, and four bottles, small container family, Thnal mrech Kiln 02, Phnom Kulen (Photograph: Ceramic Team, aPSara).

Figure 14.6: Classification of architectural ware family, roof tiles, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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Kpoeurng sratob chek phkap (round tile or cover tile)

The trace of lines recorded on the surface of the inner walls is very smooth and parallel while the surface of the outer wall is rough with wavy lines. This suggests that the inner walls were shaped using a mould, while the outside walls were hand-shaped by compressing to the coiling clay on the mould.

evidence suggests that there were two possible ways of shaping a round tile:

(1) By applying coiled-clay on a cylinder-cone shaped mould, then compressing it to form a half-cone shape clay, and after that cutting it lengthwise to form two round tiles. a round tenon was fashioned by attaching a small clay piece on the interior surface.

(2) a clay cylinder-cone was formed by coiling a clay cylinder-cone, then cutting this lengthwise into two pieces, each of which was compressed on a cylinder-cone shaped mould to form a round tile, and later applying a round tenon on the interior surface.

however, the validity of this hypothesis remains a question due to two criteria: (1) if the first technique was used, the tile sizes should be the same. most tiles found from the excavation bear different sizes. nevertheless, this could also be the result of the use of different moulds; (2) if the second technique was used, both inner and outer walls should be smooth after having been shaped on the wheel.

Kpoeurng sratob chek phnga (flat tile or canal tile)

This was formed by compressing a round tile on a flat tool or mould to make it flat. Traces of the tool or mould could be observed at both corners of the flat tiles. The horizontal ridge-shaped tenon applied on the outer surfaces appears to have little variation in size. normally, there is only one tenon on flat tiles. however, the tiles used at the front end of the roof have two to fit the roof structure.

Rong sbov (eave)

eave tiles were formed by attaching a semi-triangular piece of clay with an ornamental pattern (for instance lotus petals or another floral design, made with the help of a mould) on kpoeurng sratob chek phkap. The joint between the tile and the attached piece was smoothed with the fingertip. many eaves had a vertical line of clay applied to the back as a decoration, and had two cut parts at the base, these cuttings are used as a stand on two other kpoeurng sratob chek phnga.

Prum dambol (finial)

Traces on the cross-section of finials suggest that they were shaped on a wheel by using coiled clay in the form of a conically-shaped object with multiple tiers and a lotus bud on top. a piece of flat clay was then formed into a round tile to serve as a support for the finial.

Shaping technique of small containers (danlap, kotth, khuoch, ak kambor, and chan)

all of these small containers were formed on the potter’s wheel (Figs. 14.7 and 14.8). The lids of danlap and kotth were decorated with a pointed tip, a lotus seed-pod, or, in a few cases, animal figures to make the knob. There were no traces of the cord scar on the bases of the containers. They were probably completely erased after shaping was finished. however, on the bases of some vessels from the TmK Site, traces remain of cutting or polishing by putting the pots back on the wheel again. in most instances this process had been used to cut a small foot or stand at the pot’s base, and sometimes a high stand was shaped. a study of the marks left in the inner walls of the containers showed that the wheel was spun in a counter-clockwise direction. most of danlap, kotth and their covers are of the same size. it implies a standardized size for these particular forms while designs could vary, so that danlap or kotth had its own cover, with each cover fitting only to its own body (danlap or kotth), as we could see in a complete set of small containers uncovered from TmK 02 (see Fig. 14.7).


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Figure 14.7: Classification of round box and conical-cylindrical box, small container family, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).

Figure 14.8: Classification of bottle, lime-paste pot, and bowl, small container family, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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Figure 14.9: Classification of jar, bottle, and basin, large container family, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).

Figure 14.10: Chart of the bases of jar, bottle, and basin, large container family, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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Shaping technique of the large containers (krala, phoeng and peang, tho, and ka-am)

in general, the potters used a wheel for the compound process known as coiling and throwing. They made a small lump of clay, threw it down onto the center of the wheel and pressed it into a flattened disk of appropriate size for the base of the big container, and then the potter attached the clay coil to the circumference of the disk so that the coil sometimes overlaps slightly (Cort 2000). however, very few traces of coiling could be observed even in the cross-section of the body. This suggests that coiling traces had been erased by polishing the surface, which corresponds to the fact that traces of bamboo or wooden tools are clearly present on the inner walls of many pots. Some of the bases had a cut foot or stand (Figs. 14.9, 14.10 and 14.11).

Decoration Technique

The decoration of ceramics found at the TmK Site consists of incising or freehand decoration by pressing or cutting lines into the paste of the vessel wall to form a combination of lines (Fig. 14.12). The decoration was possibly formed on the wheel. a common pattern consists of horizontal incisions. The wheel’s swift revolution produces a variety of horizontal incisions and bands of various widths and textures, prominently on the pedestal-based vessels, lids, shoulders, and necks. Vertical or diagonal incised or impressed lines are occasionally found as supplementary to the horizontal lines. however, only a few vertical incised lines were applied to the body of the danlap. Thus, the decoration techniques of the ceramics found at the TmK Site include modeling, molding, and incising.

Knobs were added to the lid of small containers by hand manipulation. They could have the appearance of a lotus flower, Chan fruit or an animal figure. after the wheel was used to shape the lid, most hand-made knobs were finished with the help of the wheel (Fig. 14.13, BC-a-b, for instance), but some were not (Fig. 14.13, BC-a-d, BC-c-b, BC-c-c, BC-d-g, BC-e-e, BC-e-f, BC-e-g, and the animal figure in BC-f).

Khmer potters used molds to decorate their rongs bov (roof tiles). The design of the molds consisted of a frontal lotus petal shape that could vary in decoration and border motif.

The greatest variety in design was produced by making incisions on the lids, resulting in seven types of motifs, each with several variations: a stamen, a star, a saw tooth, a Chan flower, another floral shape, a lotus leaf, and a lotus petal (Fig. 14.14).

Figure 14.11: Classification of water container and cooking pot, large container family, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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Figure 14.12: Classification of bottle family and design record, small container family, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).

Figure 14.13: Classification of lids, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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Figure 14.14: Classification of decoration on the lids, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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Glazing Technique

The essential Khmer glaze is lime glaze or lime-ash glaze, composed of wood ash and clay. These two ingredients were combined in established proportions and mixed with water to make a liquid with the consistency of heavy cream (Cort 2000; lacovetsky 2008).

in general, glaze observed on ceramics taken from TmK 02 comes in four varieties according to their colors: common Kulen green, hay yellow, milky white, and light brown. green glaze is the color of the majority of glazed wares.

all of these colors are made from the same lime or lime-ash glaze, fired in two different atmospheres (oxidation and reduction atmospheres). The green glaze is obtained in a reduction atmosphere, the yellow one in a oxidation atmosphere. The clay colors also differ, with reduced clay having a grey or darker color and oxidized clay a light sandy or whiter color (lacovetsky 2008).

The large containers (krala, phoeng and peang, and ka-am) offer no evidence of glazing possibly due to their sample size in the study. yet, the other glazed objects uncovered from the excavation offer some suggestions regarding the glaze technique. Changes in manufacturing strategy are visible through time, potters earlier in the sequence glazed both their vessels’ exterior and interior surfaces. later in time (and perhaps in response to increased demand for vessels), potters applied less glaze to the vessels’ interior surface. There are differences between the glazing of objects from TmK 02 and TmK 01 (also known as anlong Thom Kiln, alK 01). Whereas the potters at TmK 01 tried to glaze the interior surface of most pots completely, the potters from TmK 02 glazed the interior surface of their pots incompletely (yukitsugu and Chhay 2007; yukitsugu 2008). This evidence offers a good analytical characteristic of different kilns producing the same materials which allows archaeologists working at different sites to identify their finds easily.

Kpoeurng sratob chek (roof tile)

Kpoeurng sratob chek phkap and phnga, round and flat tiles, had no traces of dipping into liquid glaze. it is possible that an amount of liquid glaze was poured over the upper part of the surface of the tiles, with some intentionally glazed and some unintentionally. in contrast, eave and finial tiles show a few traces indicating that they were dipped into liquid glaze.

Danlap, kotth, khuoch, ak kambor, and chan (the small containers)

There were possibly two ways to apply the glaze on small containers:

(1) The interior was glazed by swirling a small amount of liquid glaze leaving twirl-marks on the interior wall. This swirling was in counter-clockwise direction. Then the pots were dipped into liquid glaze by holding the interior rim, which was not glazed. a piece of cloth may have been used to wipe the base, where the glaze was not needed. This technique is evident in many danlap, kotth, and lids.

(2) The pot was dipped into the glaze by holding the base. on part of the rim where glaze was not needed, it was wiped away. This method could have been used with all kinds of khuoch, and some danlap and kotth. The interior glazing was probably considered as not important to many types. only a few types, such as danlap, ak kambor, and chan, were intentionally glazed on the surface of the interior.

Kiln Structure

TmK 02 is one of the crossdraft kilns found in the angkor region (Fig. 14.15). it is assumed that potters exploited the slope of a pre-existing dike, Thnal mrech, to build a crossdraft structure. The slope was modified to become fundamental structural kiln elements including the floor, firebox, and base of the kiln wall. modification of the slope resulted in an oval pit. This process enabled the potters to plaster clay against the flat slope and pit walls to produce a hard floor and wall base after the firing process. This technique produced a strong and stable structure.


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Figure 14.15: a general view of the Thnal mrech Kiln 02, TmK 02a and TmK02b, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (Photograph: Ceramic Team, aPSara).

Figure 14.16: The flat plan and cross-section of TmK 02, Thnal mrech Kiln Site, Phnom Kulen (By Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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Two modified kiln structures and a floor with multiple steps including a firebox were uncovered (Fig. 14.16). The upper part of the kiln turned out to be the remains of an early kiln structure (TmK 02a) which was later modified/enlarged (TmK 02b). These two stages of TmK 02 do not exhibit the expected elongate oval shape; instead they describe a combination of oval and rectangular shapes. To clarify matters, each state will be described separately.

TMK 02a

This section of the kiln had an oval shape, of which the interior width was 2.90 m, and the remaining length (from the upper end until it is interrupted by TmK 02b) was 2.5 m. The foundation of a clay pillar, possibly supporting the dome, is seen in the middle with a diameter measuring 35 cm to 40 cm from base to body. The shape of this surviving portion of the kiln suggests that it was oval with an extended square body, of which the south and north walls of TmK 02a were parallel.

inside the kiln the original floor structure is still visible, with possibly two modified floor layers. The incline of the original slope is approximately 34.37%, while the second-stage floor layer is flat and level with the broken part of the western wall of TMK 02b. The northern part of a 10‒13 cm thick slap clay wall has also been excavated.

although TmK 02a is not complete anymore, we can make an estimate of its original measurements based on a comparison with TmK 02b. Supposing that the firebox of TmK 02a and TmK 02b were in a similar position, the full length of TmK 02a would be 7.50m and its width 2.90m. The upper part of the structure appeared to be a draft vent.

TMK 02b

The plan of the kiln was an elongated oval shape with a right angle corner at the southwest, and the northeast corner is unidentifiable but possibly displayed the same angle. The upper plan of the kiln had a slightly greater width. northern and western slab walls are almost perfectly aligned east-west and north-south. The southern wall was the firebox which runs off at an angle (160º) from the southern wall, forming a semi oval-shaped firebox.

The structure consisted of three parts: the draft vent, the ware chamber, and the firebox. The ware chamber was sloping. a tall step separated the ware chamber and the fire box, and the firebox is 1.10m lower than the ware chamber. The interior width of TmK 02b measured approximately 3.00m across at its widest point, and the overall length of the kiln (from the firebox the draft went) was approximately 5.20m.

TMK 02b, ware chamber

The length of the firing sector including the draft vent was about 4.20m x 3.00m, with the portion of the walls remaining 80 cm in height, while the slab clay wall remained about 30 cm thick.

Two successive floors (floor b1 and floor b2) were identified. Floor b1 was the oldest, floor b2 the youngest. During the final usage of floor b2, the potters modified the floor into 12 steps with irregular heights and widths. These steps were made of recycled firing supports and were plastered with clay bands to form platforms. These two stages of the floor are clearly visible at the upper part of the kiln where the two floors slope at approximately 52.5%.

The roof did not survive, but the pillars that had supported the dome were discovered. Four pillars are found in the middle and near the northern wall with diameters between 25 cm and 30 cm. There is no evidence of the use of bricks in the wall or roof of the kiln. Two side benches were added to/into the northern and southern slab walls, 30 cm x 50 cm, and we still have no answer to their use.

TMK 02b, Firebox

The firebox of TmK 02 is 1.10m below the level of the ware chamber. The southern wall of the firebox runs in zigzags. The portion adjoining the wall below the ware chamber was wider than the front. The portion of the inner wall that connected to the ware chamber was less vertical. on the front of the firebox,


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in the eastern wall, were two superimposed windows (stoking holes). These windows were most probably designed to facilitate the airflow and the addition of fuel during the firing process. only one stoking hole to the right (east-north) with an air hole above was identified, however whether there is another stoking hole to the left is unclear, because it is not excavated. The bottom of the stoking hole is located higher than the level of the firebox floor, which blocked the hole with fragments of burnt clay and plastered with clay that could be filled in after finishing the firing process.

The width of the TmK 02b firebox, along the back wall adjoining the ware chamber, is 2.10m, while the width of the remaining rear wall is 1.40 m. The interior length of the firebox is 0.90m. The height of the stoke hole on the interior wall of the firebox was approximately 20‒40 cm, and the remaining width of the stoke hole was 30 cm in the plan. The width of the ventilation was probably the same or less than the width of the stoke hole, and the remaining height of the air hole was only 10 cm.

Draft vent

The kiln certainly had a draft vent, but no trace of it could be identified during the excavation, since the kiln had collapsed and most of the upper structure had slid into the firebox. The slope of the floors of TmK 02b was approximately 52.5%, allowing the air to travel naturally across the ware chamber, from the stoke hole and the air hole at the front to the vent situated in the upper part of the kiln structure. Such a steep slope affected the speed and strength of the draft which secure the rise temperature needed for the pots to be matured.

Firing technique

The final stage of pottery making is the important stage, the firing processing. During this stage, the potter demonstrates his experience with regard to the crossdraft kiln and the firing technique, such as fuel, length of firing, temperature, atmosphere, and loading the ware. The potter’s work determines the serviceability of the ware, and it affects its attractiveness.

The wares uncovered from TmK 02 impress on their physical differences showing high temperature or low temperature, and the color of glaze and unglazed ware. The temperature of the ware chamber could make a difference to the ware in different locations (lacovetsky 2008).

Beside their glaze color (resulting from the reducing or oxidizing atmosphere) and the temperature in the ware chamber, the important technique of loading the ware was impressed by the potter. many special kiln-stacking devices seem to have been used during firing. The inner paste of these devices indicates the presence of silt, eroded from sandstone that may have been used as temper to reduce clay stickiness. These firing supports are divided roughly into three main types:

(1) The first type represents the majority of all firing supports. This type was made by hand rolling a piece of clay to produce a sausage-like shape. it was possibly used to stabilize ceramics by holding and separating lids knot-to-knot or shoulder-to-shoulder, and used as a support to stand a pot on top of another, noticeably the small containers such as danlap, kotth, and their lids (Fig. 14.17).

Figure 14.17: The first type of kiln-stacking devices, Thnal mrech Kiln 02, Phnom Kulen (Photograph: Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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(2) The second type is a semi-cylindrical brick-shaped support that was used to stand on the inclining floor. Three of these are observed intact on the upper floor of TmK 02b. however, during the last procession of TmK 02b, these supports were replaced by com-bination of the sausage-like shape modified into the stepped floor (Fig. 14.18).

(3) The third type is a small piece of clay applied to the interiors of danlap, kotth, and chan to stack smaller ceramics inside bigger ones. There are varieties of this type, sometimes consisting of just one piece of clay put at the inner bottom of the big pots, and most of the times consisting of two, three, or four pieces arranged at different angles (Fig. 14.19).

in general, floor modification from inclining floor to stepped floor, is likely indicative of separate firing processes for ceramics of different sizes on different steps. Small ceramics were placed on multiple steps while larger ones stood on pedestal firing supports, due to space limitations. as a result, some pieces of ceramics were adhered together during the firing process; particularly the lid and body were glued together during firing.

Hypotheses and Discussion

Charcoal samples collected from multiple layers in front of the kiln 02 produced a series of consistent dates:

– The sample recovered from layer 4c, date of 970 ± 30 BP, cal. AD 1016‒1157.

– The sample recovered from layer 4c, date of 941 ± 30 BP, cal. AD 1022‒1166.

– The sample recovered from layer 6b in the extension unite, date of 924 ± 30 BP, cal. AD 1025‒1208.

– The sample recovered from layer 3a, date of 918 ± 30 BP, cal. AD 1027‒1211.

– The sample recovered from layer 5, date of 905 ± 30 BP, cal. AD 1031‒1215.

Figure 14.18: The second type of kiln-stacking devices, Thnal Mrech Kiln 02, Phnom Kulen (Photograph: Ceramic Team, APSARA).

Figure 14.19: The first and third type of kiln-stacking devices, Thnal mrech Kiln 02, Phnom Kulen (Photograph: Ceramic Team, aPSara).


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These absolute dates suggest that TmK 02 was in use during a period of approximately 50 years, in the early 11th century aD (miksic et al. 2009). it is possible that other kilns at Thnal mrech Kiln may predate TmK 02, such as TmK 01, where a collaboration between Dma 1, aPSara authority and the institute of asian Culture, Sophia University, conducted another archaeological excavation (Thnal mrech Kiln 01, also published as anlong Thom Kiln 01, alK 01). The sample recovered from a layer in the firebox dated 1070 ± 30 BP (yukitsugu and Chhay 2007; yukitsugu 2008). This indicates that the Thnal mrech Kiln group may have been involved in long-term ceramic production throughout the angkor period.

Kilns on Thnal mrech are mostly built on an artificial embankment, thereby exploiting its slope. other kiln sites found in angkor are also built on embankments, such as at Sarsey, Khnar Po, and Tani. Conversely, Bangkong and one of the Sarsey kiln group were built on mounds in flat areas near river channels and ponds (ear 2000; Chhay and Chap 2002; Sok 2003; em 2004).

The crossdraft structure of TmK 02 was mostly similar in structure to all the excavated kilns in angkor. The main differences concern the side of the kilns and the evolution or development of the technique of the potters. The influence of the Chinese crossdraft kiln on the structure of TmK cannot be verified due to limited research. The structure could be the result of internal evolution from previous periods, external influence, or a combination of both (hein 2008).

TmK 02b refutes the presumption that kiln forms were often based on a symmetrical axis and elongate oval shape. it also suggests that different skills and methods were used by potters to build and modify kilns. Floor modification is likely indicative of separate firing processes for ceramics of different sizes on different steps due to space limitations. Small ceramics were placed on multiple steps while larger ones stood on pedestal firing supports stacked on the inclining floor. Space consumption may result in major ceramic deformation during the firing process. it is possibly one of the reasons that wasters represent most of the total artifact collection. Some wasters may have been utilizable, but the potters may have had a concept of completeness or beauty in their products and so did not distribute them.

artifacts uncovered from unit h provide a concrete typology of products that might have been made for distribution to various places during the angkor era. The majority of green-glazed wares and codes a, B, BC, C, and D falls into the typology of ceramics produced by the TmK site. Kulen Wares have been found almost in every angkorian site. This enables archaeologists/researchers to base their hypotheses on Kulen Wares found during excavations.

Acknowledgments

The excavation would not have been accomplished without support from: h.e Bun narith, Director of aPSara authority; h.e. ros Borath, Vice Director of aPSara authority; mrs. mao lao, head of Department of Conservation of monuments in angkor Park and Preventive archaeology; and the national University of Singapore. We extend our gratitude toward Prof. John miksic, Prof. alan lacovetsky, Prof. Don hein, and mr Serge rega, for insight and critics that helped to motivate us to achieve our goals. aPSara staff learned to draw the ceramics and take photographs for their publication at the aCCU Workshop for Protection of Cultural Heritage held at Siem Reap on 22‒26 October 2007.

great thanks to mr Tho Thon, mrs em Socheata, and mr Tep Sokha; and to undergraduate students lanh Udomrangdey, Sakhoeun Sakada, Keo Chansophany, mok Doueng, leng Vitou, nep Chanlaksmy, Voeur Vann, and Chan narin for their contribution with artifact analysis and drawing at the TmK Site, Phnom Kulen. great thanks also to the international institute for asian Studies and the Friends of Khmer Culture, who gave me the opportunity to present this paper at the euraSeaa 12th Conference. many thanks especially to Prof. louise Cort, Prof. leedom lefferts, and Prof. Joyce h. Clark, who have always motivated me and supported my works.

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Khmer Ceramic Technology

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