“Investigation On Flexural Behaviour of Ferrocement Panels”

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Jnana Sangama, Belagavi, Karnataka-590 014

A PROJECT REPORT ON

“Investigation On Flexural Behaviour of

Ferrocement Panels”

Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for

the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

LEON CHARLES USN:1NH14CV056

C PRASANNA KUMAR USN: lNH15CV031

RAJATH K R USN:1NH16CV088

ROSHAN KUMAR SAH USN:1NH16CV133

Under the guidance of

Dr. NATCHIMUTHU SUBRAMANI

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

NEW HORIZON COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BANGALORE-560 103

Outer Ring Road, Kadubeesanahalli, Bellandur Post, Near Marathalli,

Bengaluru-560103.

Department of Civil Engineering

Certificate

Certified that the project work entitled “Investigation On Flexural

Behaviour of Ferrocement Panel” is a bona fide work carried out by LEON

CHARLES, USN:1NH14CV056, PRASANNA KUMAR USN:1NH15CV031, RAJATH

KR USN:1NH16CV088 and ROSHAN KUMAR SAH USN:1NH16CV133 in partial

fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering of the

Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during the year 2019-2020. It

is certified that all correction/suggestion indicated for internal assessment have

been incorporated in the report deposited in the department library. The project

report has been approved as it satisfied the academic requirement in respect of the

project work for the said degree.

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD Signature of the Principal Dr. NATCHIMUTHU SUBRAMANI

Dr. NIRANJAN P S Dr. MANJUNATHA

Associate professor Prof. and HoD-CIVIL Principal

Dept. of Civil Engineering. Dept. of Civil Engineering. NHCE

External Viva

Examiner Signature with date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task would

be impossible without the mention of the people who made it possible, whose constant

guidance and encouragement crowned our efforts with success.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr. MOHAN MANGHANI, Chairman of New Horizon

College of Engineering for providing necessary infrastructure and creating good environment.

We would express our great thanks to Dr. MANJUNATHA, Principal of New Horizon

College of Engineering, outer ring road Marathahalli, Bengaluru -560103 for granting us

permission to undertake the VTU prescribed project.

We express our deep sense of gratitude and thanks to Head of Civil Engineering Department,

Dr. NIRANJAN P.S, for providing necessary facilities and encouraging us to make this

project grand success.

We express our gratitude to Dr. N SUBRAMANI Associate Professor, our project guide, for

constantly monitoring the development of the project and setting up precise deadlines. His

valuable suggestions were the motivating factors in completing the work.

We fell with a great pleasure to express our deep of gratitude and profound thanks to staff

members of the Department of Civil Engineering Their valuable guidance in both field and

office work helped us to complete the project within the prescribed time.

Finally, we express our sincere thanks to lab instructors who helped us in the camp to complete

the camp successful and all our friends for their kind co-operation and help for the successful

completion of the project.

LEON CHARLES

(1NH14CV056)

C. PRASANNA KUMAR

(1NH15CV031)

RAJATH K R

(1NH16CV088)

ROSHAN KUMAR SAH

(1NH16CV133)

Abstract Ferrocement is a cementitious thin wall based on the solid structure of reinforced

cement mortar with mesh layers of wire of relatively small diameter. Mesh can

be made of metal or other saturated material. It is generally suitable for thin-

walled structural elements because uniform distribution and dispersion of

reinforcement provide high tensile strength for optimal fracture resistance,

weight ratio, ductility and impact resistance. In this project, we have studied the

structural behaviour of ferrocement panel when a constant load of 10KN, 15KN

and 20KN is been applied on the ferrocement panels with varying thickness of

25mm, 30mm, 35mm and 40mm and varying mesh reinforcement single, double

and triple layers. In this study we came to conclusion that deflection decreases

with the increase in mesh reinforcement layers for varying thickness of

ferrocement panels.

Ferrocement has been widely used for the past two decades and is still in its

infancy. Adequate design information is discussed and sufficient investigation is

obtained to enable the safe design and construction of Ferrocement structures. It

can compete economically with alternative materials depends on the type and

location of the application.

However, innovative structures in different parts of the world clearly point to the

unique and unmatched properties of this material and therefore, great potential is

being explored.

CONTENTS Abstract

List of Figures

List of Tables

1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 FERROCEMENT INGRADIENTS ............................................................................................ 2

1.2.1 A. Matrix .................................................................................................................... 2

1.2.2 B. REINFORCEMENT FOR FERROCEMENT .................................................................... 5

1.2.3 C. PROPERTIES OF FERROCEMNT COMPOSITE .......................................................... 10

1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ferrocement ............................................................... 11

1.4 Construction Methods ..................................................................................................... 12

1.5 APPLICATIONS OF FERROCEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION ...................................................... 16

1.6 Ferrocement Usage .......................................................................................................... 22

1.6.1 Bhalerao bungalow, Bhugaon near Pune .................................................................. 22

1.6.2 House in Jabalpur: .................................................................................................... 25

1.6.3 Foot bridges in Sri Lanka ........................................................................................... 26

1.6.4 FORMATIONS SECONDARY ROOFING SLABS ............................................................. 26

2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY ............................................................................................................... 29

3 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................ 29

3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 29

3.2 STUDIES FROM ASIA......................................................................................................... 31

3.3 STUDIES FROM EUROPE ................................................................................................... 40

3.4 STUDIES FROM USA ......................................................................................................... 41

3.5 Summary of the literature review .................................................................................... 44

4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FERROCEMENT ......................................................................... 46

4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 46

4.2 Behaviour in compression ................................................................................................ 46

4.3 Behaviour in tension ........................................................................................................ 47

4.4 Elastic Range .................................................................................................................... 47

4.5 Cracked range .................................................................................................................. 47

4.6 Yeild range ....................................................................................................................... 48

4.7 Behaviour in various stages .............................................................................................. 48

4.8 Cracking behaviour .......................................................................................................... 49

4.9 BEHAVIOUR IN FLEXURE................................................................................................... 50

4.10 Pre-cracking or elastic range ............................................................................................ 51

4.11 Post tracking Range.......................................................................................................... 53

4.12 Simplified equations ........................................................................................................ 55

4.13 PREDICTION OF CRACK WIDTH ......................................................................................... 55

4.13.1 Uniaxial tensile members ......................................................................................... 55

4.13.2 Flexural members..................................................................................................... 56

4.14 IMPACT AND FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR .................................................................................. 57

5 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 58

5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 58

5.2 MATERIAL USED, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION ............................................................... 58

5.3 SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS ......................................................................................... 61

5.4 LOADING PATERN AND PARAMETER STUDY ..................................................................... 62

6 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................... 70

7 REFRENCES .............................................................................................................................. 72

LST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Reinforcing mesh ...................................................................................................6

Figure 2. Hexagonal wire mesh .............................................................................................7

Figure 3. Welded wire mesh ..................................................................................................8

Figure 4. Woven mesh ...........................................................................................................9

Figure 5. Press fill method used on circular tank .................................................................. 14

Figure 6. Lay-up technique .................................................................................................. 15

Figure 7.Bhalerao bungalow, Bhugaon near Pune ................................................................ 24

Figure 8. House in Jabalpur ................................................................................................. 25

Figure 9. Ferrocement secondary roofing slab ..................................................................... 27

Figure 10. Distribution of strains, stressed and forces for the uncracked section of the beam51

Figure 11. Distribution of strains, stress and forces for the cracked section of the beam ....... 53

Figure 12. Properties and types of constituents materials used in ferrocement construction .. 60

Figure 13. Constant load of 10KN varying slab thickness with varying mesh reinforcement 63



Figure 16. Varying load on constant thickness on the slab - 25 mm ..................................... 66




LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Loading Pattern and Parameter Study……………………………………………...62

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1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction

Plain concrete has low tensile strength, ductility and resistance to crack

propagation. Before applying any load, the material contains micro cracks

because of the inherent microstructure and volumetric changes during its

fabrication. These defects result in a brittle failure of the material under pressure,

compared to its compressive strength. In reinforced concretes, the concrete

suffers from extensive rupture, although the failure of the composite is due to the

elastic nature of the reinforcement. In the past, work pressure was relatively low.

As a result, the cracks in reinforced concrete members are small and therefore

very small. The current trend toward more economic models, however, has been

pressured for higher work pressures. Due to the high crack width and deflection

that can damage the appearance of the structure, the steel corrosion weakens the

member and damages the non-structural members. Service efficiency standards

are more important than strength considerations. Concrete technician has faced

the problem of improving the inherent weakening properties of concrete to meet

the needs of the designer. Repair improves the performance and performance of

good structures, restores and enhances its strength, provides water tightness and

prevents aggressive environments for steel surface durability. Corrosion of

reinforced concrete cement structures mainly occurs in reinforcement in slabs,

beams and strips, where the cover is not well supplied. Good quality materials

should be found to overcome such problem. Promoting the discovery of new

materials in place of partially reinforced concrete. It is under such circumstances

that fermentation, among other things, emerges. The reinforcement of the

ferrocement consists of several layers of relatively fine wire mesh filled with or

without steel bars in the center. Cement mortar is used to fill gaps between

meshes and provide reinforcement cover.

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Ferrocement is a major use in developing countries, where successful field

applications have been seen with excellent physical properties and low theoretical

basis. The robust mechanism in ferrocement improves many engineering

properties of brittle mortars, such as brittle, tensile and flexible strength, ductility

and impact resistance, but also benefits in terms of manufacturing products and

components. Ferrocement uses a thin structural element and a great cement

mortar with a thickness of 10-25mm; Coarse aggregates cannot be used; And the

reinforcement consists of one or more layers of steel wire weld mesh with

continuous short diameter. It does not require skilled labor for casting and works

only with little or no formwork. In ferrocement, the cement matrix does not

detonate because the cracking force is carried to the surface by wire mesh

reinforcement. Subsequently, it is not surprising that the field of ferrocement

applications and the study of its properties have received widespread attention.

1.2 FERROCEMENT INGRADIENTS

1.2.1 A. Matrix

Ferrocement matrix is usually a cement mortar, consisting of cement, sand, water

and additives. Depending on the structure used in the matrix, high compressive

strength, defectiveness and hardness, resistance to chemical attack, low

shrinkage, and work efficiency, the following requirements must be met. Most of

the features available in relation to the properties of mortar used in ferrocement

are based on the observation and practical evaluation of ferrocement applications,

with some help from solid technology knowledge. From a concrete technology

perspective, the main factors that affect the properties of mortar are:

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1. Water / Cement Ratio

2. Sand / cement ratio.

3. Graduation, size, and maximum size of aggregates.

4. Quality, age and type of cement.

5. Admixtures

6. Curing condition.

7. Mixing, placing and compaction of Mortar.

Limitations of the above factors are influenced by the mortar requirements, which

depend on the use of fermentation. In marine structures, civil engineering

structures usually require more restrictions. In most applications, high strength

and low shrinkage are required and therefore low water: cement ratio, between

0.35 and 0.55, should be used. The work capacity should be high and therefore a

sufficient compromise should be made to increase the amount of water to take

into account the decrease in strength. Rich cement mortar is required to give

compressive strength between 35 and 50 N / mm2

1.Cement

Typical Portland cement is used in the manufacture of mortar. Cement should be

fresh and free of stains.

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2. Aggregates

A common-weight fine is the most commonly used in total ferrocement. The

gravels consist of fine graded fine aggregates that pass through a 2.34 mm sieve;

And a salt-free source is recommended, and should be chosen from river-beds,

and free from organic or other harmful substances, and relatively free from silt

and soil. To ensure proper penetration (ACI Committee 549R-97) good stability

and compaction is achieved using well-graded, rounded, natural sand. The

moisture content of the aggregate should be considered in the calculation of water

required.

3. Water

The mixture should be fresh, clean and drinkable.

4. Matrix Mix Proportions

The composite ratio of mortar for fermentation is weight-to-sand / cement ratio,

weight 1 and 2.5 and water-cement ratio, 0.30 to 0.5. The amount of water used

should be less favorable for compatibility. This is usually accomplished using a

well-graded, rounded, natural sand with a maximum top size of one-third of the

smallest openings in the reinforcement system to ensure optimal entry. Sand

travel through a 1.16 mm sieve has yielded satisfactory results in many practical

applications. If the mixture does not prevent the complete entry of the mesh, the

mixture should be as solid as possible. Generally, the slope of a fresh mortar

should not exceed 2 inches (50 mm). For most applications, the compressive

strength of a 75-by-28-day cylinder with a 150-mm wet-cylinder should not be

less than 35 MPa.

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1.2.2 B. REINFORCEMENT FOR FERROCEMENT

Different types of meshes are available in almost every country in the world. Two

important reinforcement parameters are commonly used in classifying

ferrocement and the volume of reinforcement is defined differently; This is the

amount of reinforcement per unit volume of ferrocement. The specific surface of

the reinforcement is the total bonded area of the reinforcement per composite unit

volume. The following are the main types of wire mesh currently used: hexagonal

wire mesh, welded wire mesh, woven wire mesh, extended metal mesh, and

three-dimensional mesh.

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1. REINFORCING MESH

Wire mesh is an essential component of Ferrocement. Different types of wire

mesh are available. These generally consist of thin wires either woven or welded

into a mesh, but the main requirement is that it must be easily handled and if

necessary, flexible enough to bent around sharp corners. The function of the wire

mesh and the reinforcing rods in the first instance is to act as a lath providing the

form and to support the mortar in its green state. In the hardened state its function

is to absorb the tensile stresses on the structure which the mortar, on its own,

would not have been able to withstand. The mechanical behavior of Ferrocement

is highly dependent upon the type, quality, orientation, and strength properties of

the mesh.

Figure 1. Reinforcing Mesh

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2. HEXAGONAL WIRE MESH

This mesh is commonly known as chicken wire mesh and is fabricated from cold

drawn wire which is generally woven into hexagonal patterns. The diameter of

the wire is 0.5 mm to 1 mm. the mesh openings vary from 10 mm to 25mm.

standard galvanized meshes, galvanized after weaving are adequate.

Figure 2. Hexagonal Wire Mesh

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3. WELDED WIRE MESH

Eighteen- or nineteen-gauge wire, spaced half an inch apart are normally used in

this mesh. These wires are made of low to medium tensile strength steel and are

much stiffer than hexagonal wire mesh. However, in welded mesh the possibility

of weak spots at intersections resulting from inadequate welding during the

manufacture of mesh may occur.

Figure 3. Welded Wire Mesh

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4. WOVEN MESH

In this type of mesh shown in fig, the wires are simply woven into the desired

grid size and have no welding at the intersections. The mesh wires are not

perfectly straight and a certain amount of waviness exits. One of the difficulties

encountered is that it is difficult to hold in position but when stretched, it readily

conforms to the desired curves.

Figure 4. Woven Mesh

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5. EXPANDED METAL MESH

It is formed by cutting a thin sheet of expanding metal to produce diamond shape

openings. The manufacturing process is less labor intensive than the method used

for manufacturing hexagonal wire mesh or welded mesh.

6. SKELETEL STEEL

Skeletal steel as the name implies is generally used for making the frame work

of the structure upon which layers of mesh are laid. It is generally desirable to

provide skeletal steel to take care of tensile forces and provide wire mesh

reinforcement to ensure crack control. As Ferrocement elements are generally

cast in thin sections of about 15 to 30 mm thick, the size of the bars should be

around 6 to 10 mm.

1.2.3 C. PROPERTIES OF FERROCEMNT COMPOSITE

1. The wire diameter is 0.5 to 2 millimeters.

2. The mesh size is 6 to 35 millimeters open.

3. Maximum 8% volume fraction in both directions.

4. The thickness is 6 to 50 millimeters.

5. Mesh covers 1.5 to 5 millimeters.

6. Ultimate tensile strength up to 34 MPa.

7. Allowable tensile strength up to 10 MPa.

8. Breakdown modulus up to 55 MPa.

9. Compressive strength from 28 to 69 MPa.

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1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ferrocement

Advantages of Ferrocement:

It has got a higher ratio of tensile strength to weight and superior cracking

behavior compared to R.C.C. They comprise of thin elements and light

structures hence; they are lighter in weight.

Can be casted in any desired shape and size for wide ranges of uses.

It provides better resistance to fire, earthquake, and corrosion than

traditional materials, such as wood, adobe and stone masonry in residential

construction.

The materials are relatively inexpensive, and can usually be obtained

locally.

Only a few simple hand tools are needed to build uncomplicated structures.

Repairs in Ferrocement structure are usually easy and inexpensive which

means it has low maintenance cost.

It is easy to handle.

Ferrocement saves 20% cost and materials.

There’s reduction in cost economy and speed, both can be achieved.

It has less thermal conductivity as compared to RCC.

Raw materials are available in most of the countries.

Labor is not required to be very experienced.

Precast members can be suitably manufactured by using this type of

concrete

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Disadvantages of Ferrocement:

Excessive shrinkage occurs due to higher cement content. Thus, it requires

constant curing for a

It is prone to corrosion of wire mesh due to incomplete coverage of steel

by mortar

Ferrocement is labor intensive and hence not a good choice where the labor

costs are high.

As Ferrocement construction are usually thin structures, buckling is

another factor that needs to be

Being thin Ferrocement members, they have poor impact resistance.

Structures made of by Ferrocement can be punctured by forceful collision

with pointed objects.

They have low shear strength and low ductility.

Ferrocement are susceptible to stress rupture failure.

It is hard to do welding, drilling, nailing, screwing etc. properly in

Ferrocement construction.

1.4 Construction Methods

The preparation process is important for the manufacture of ferrocement. Since

the iron elements are very thin on the order of 10-25 mm, care is taken to keep

the cover to a minimum of 3 mm.

Construction Methods and Applications: Construction process is important for

Ferrocement construction. Since the Ferrocement elements are very thin in the

order of 10-25 mm; considerable care is to be taken.

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1. ARMATURE SYSTEM

The armature system is a framework of tied reinforcing bars to which layers of

reinforcing mesh is attached on each side. Mortar is then applied from one side

and forced through the mesh layers towards the other side. The skeletal steel can

assume any shape. Diameter of the steel bars depend on the size of the structure.

Skeletal steel is cut to specified lengths, bent to the proper profile, and tied in

proper sequence. The required numbers of layers of mesh are tied to each side

of the skeletal steel frame.

2. CLOSED MOLD SYSTEM

The mortar is applied from one side through several layers of mesh or mesh and

rod combinations that have been stapled or otherwise held in position against the

surface of a closed mold. The mold may remain as a permanent part of the

finished Ferrocement structure. If removed, treatment with release agents may be

needed. The use of the closed-mold system represented it tends to eliminate the

use of rods or bars.

3. PRESS FILLS METHOD

In Ferrocement construction, mortar plastering and penetration on to the mesh

plays a crucial role. The mortar is usually applying in the mesh reinforcement

either by hand or shot through a spray gun device in order to get a homogeneous

mixture of ingredients and produce almost a fabric of mesh coated and well

packed with mortar.

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Figure 5. Press Fill Method used on Circular Tank

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4. LAY- UP TECHNIQUE

Lay-up technique which involves placing the mesh in the mortar rather than the

mortar in the mesh; and successive layers of mesh are placed in layers of freshly

sprayed, or manually placed, mortar. To assure that mesh layers do not pop out,

a thin mortar cover layer is placed first and allowed to set, but not dry completely,

prior to application of a second mortar layer and the first mesh layers. This first

layer of mortar cover is generally about 3 mm. A major advantage of the lay-up

technique is that each layer of mesh is placed under full visual contact any gap in

the mortar is immediately apparent and instantly corrected.

Figure 6. Lay-up Technique

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1.5 APPLICATIONS OF FERROCEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION

1. Housing and other Industrial and commercial.

Low cost dwelling house

Strengthening reinforced concrete element.

Strengthening masonry element.

2. Marine

3. Agricultural

4. Anti-corrosive Membrane treatment

5. Tank container & silos

6. Floor & Roof

7. Waterproofing

8. Manhole cover

9. Wall cupboard

10. Ferrocement duct

11. Chemical resistant treatment

12. Rural Application

13. Elevation Treatment

14. Soil stabilization

15. Pipes

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16. Sewer lines

17. Bridge

18. Foot Bridge

19. Sulphate resistant cement saving

20. Precast Ferrocement structure

21. Fire resistant structure

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1. HOUSING:

a. Low cost dwelling house

b. The good properties of Ferrocement e.g. high tensile strength/ weight ratio,

unskilled worker requirement, roofs with less dead lead make it an interesting

solution for a housing propose.

c. There are good properties of Ferrocement against.

Cyclic loading

Lateral displacement

Resistance to earthquake loading.

d. Strengthening of structural element

e. Ferrocement is a best alternative for retrofit recent studies use this material

as a retrofit for beams, column, beam column connection and give better result.

f. Strengthening reinforced concrete element

Ferrocement is applicable to provide extra confinement to achieve good axial

capacity of column without considering the grade of concrete.

g. Strengthening masonry element.

h. On other hand Ferro cement is also applicable for strengthening masonry

column with Ferrocement jacketing same as above mentioned in RCC column,

in masonry column by using Ferrocement also improve the crack behavior and

compressive strength of masonry column.

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2. MARINE:

Marine structure such as Boat, trawler, Barges, floating docs can be constructed

with a help of Ferrocement and give better result than steel and wood and a good

resistance of atmosphere.

3. AGRICULTURAL:

The plates that are construct with a help of Ferrocement can be used for:

Construction of canal.

Gates over dam

Cross-drainage work

Aqua-duct

Penstocks etc.

Ferrocement lining is good against abrasion.

4. ANTI CORROSIVE MEMBRANE TREATMENT:

A Ferro cement consist anti-corrosive membrane treatment hence no other

treatment is required for protection against corrosion.

5. TANK CONTAINER AND SILOS:

Every type of tank e.g. overhead, underground or at ground level can be

manufactured with the help of Ferrocement and give a satisfactory service.

6. FLOOR AND ROOF:

We can construct floor & roof various type of building e.g. residence, factories,

office, sheds etc.

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7. WATER PROFFING:

By using Ferrocement membrane technique we can construct water proofing.

8. MANHOLE COVER:

Heavy duty and light duty manhole cover be constructed and are superior and

durable than conventional once.

9. WALL CUPBOARD:

It consists no. of small holes in rectangular form with or without shutter used to

store office record, factory material etc.

10. FERROCEMENT DUCT:

Ferro Cement ducts are suitable for circulation of cool or hot air.

11. CHEMICAL RESISTANT TREATMENT:

An overly of epoxy, bitumen, polyurethane, chlorinated rubber, lead lining and

glass fiber will be an ideal chemical resistant treatment

12. RURAL APPLICATION:

Ferrocement is applicable in rural areas for construction of cattle sheds, silos for

storage of food grains. Low costs houses, community centers, well lining, goober

gas plant, lavatory block, water storage tank etc.

13. ELEVATION TREATMENT:

Elevation treatment e.g. fins, projection curved, folded and hollow, sun shed to

the building have been provided with advantages.

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14.FIRE RESISTANT STRUCTURE:

It can resist fire upon 7500 for a period of 48 hours.

15. SOIL STABLIZATION:

Ferrocement can be used for increase bearing capacity of soil for foundation of

building, bridge, dams etc.

16.PIPES:

There is corrosion problem using steel and iron pipes instead of these wire

Ferrocement pipes overcome the problem of corrosion.

17. SEWER LINES:

Ferrocement in sewer line is necessary same as pipes.

18. BRIDGE:

As per know Ferro cement is crack resistance and corrosion resistance and

applicable to make girder plates.

19. FOOT BRIDGE:

Foot bridge with Ferrocement girder, decking, railing and roof is better than RCC

and steel

20. SULPHATE RESISTANT CEMENT SAVING:

During conventional concrete curing by using sulphate resistant Ferrocement

lining very cost effective and structure is safe against sulphate attack.

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21. PRE-CAST FERROCEMENT STRUCTURE:

Pre-cast Ferrocement structure are in light weight as compared with RCC and

sometime pre stressed concrete structure, considerably reduce the cost hence

Ferrocement is most appropriate in pre-cast industry.

1.6 Ferrocement Usage

1.6.1 Bhalerao bungalow, Bhugaon near Pune

Owner Mr. Bhalerao decided to construct a Farm House at Bhugaon near Pune.

Its plan was made by the Architects. It is designed as single storied house with

sloping roof. The roof area is totally about 500 m2. In Plan the walls are either

radial lines or arcs of the circles of different diameters and canters. Ridge line of

sloping roof is also an arc. Steel Structure or RCC structure proved to be costlier

and also more difficult. The Only best solution for the roof worked out as with

Ferrocement. Roof and also walls were designed and are being done with double

layer and Thermopolis layer in between. (Courtesy: Ferrocement Society, Pune)

Initial Design:

a) RCC Alternative: In the Plan the building is a segment of a circle. Initially

it was thought to be done in RCC. However, cost of shuttering for roof was going

too high due to its circular shape and slopes. Due to slopes and curvature it would

have been very difficult to provide shuttering in exact form. It is practically

impossible to make line of the shuttering. Normally concreting of the sloping slab

is difficult as vibrating the concrete is difficult. So many times such slab leaks if

proper water-proofing treatment is not provided. So this idea was discarded.

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b) Structural Steel Alternative: Then it was thought to be done with steel

structure. For steel structure it was possible to bend the sections with exact radius

on bending machines. Then fabrication and erection works could have been done.

However, this would require bending machines on site with sufficient Electric

Supply which is only possible with Gen set of more capacity. Cost of this whole

thing was going high. Besides roofing with Precoated or similar sheeting was not

possible. So it was thought to be done with Bison Panels (Saw dust and Cement

composite). Then these panels were to be covered with decorative Shingles. This

system has certain short comings. Obviously costing was one of them and also

water proofing was main concern. Repairing if needed would have been a big

headache. Also this would require false ceiling work from bottom to have soffit

plain.

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c) Ferrocement Alternative: Project Consultant was well aware of

Ferrocement technology. So, he suggested and convinced the Owners and

Architects about use of Ferrocement. Then the Ferrocement alternative was

considered. It can overcome all the problems that were coming in RCC or steel

structure. It was simpler, maintaining shape and dimensions was possible, leak-

proof structure was easily possible, it is light weight than RCC, decorating the

roof was with tiles etc. is easily possible, making changes during construction is

also possible. Then it was decided to go for Ferrocement Structure

Figure 7.Bhalerao bungalow, Bhugaon near Pune

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1.6.2 House in Jabalpur:

Project details:

Name of the project: ‘Sumati Greens’

Location of project: Village Nigri – 25 kms. From Jabalpur on NH.7

Built up area: Ground floor: 120 m2 and First floor: 145 m2

Year of completion: December 2012

This farmhouse building as shown in fig rises up like a flower and attracts hordes

of travelers who cannot stop themselves from pausing in their tracks curiously to

have a closer look at this building

Figure 8. House in Jabalpur

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1.6.3 Foot bridges in Sri Lanka

National Engineering Research and Development Centre of Sri Lanka have built

footbridges and tested also. This research was focused on the application and

development of Ferrocement technology to construct cost effective foot bridges.

The first phase of the study focused up to 20’.0” clear spans foot bridges for the

pedestrians. The T-shaped section was selected for the bridge members. Section

and the steel members and mesh layers were optimized by using FEM analysis.

Also, the Model Code of Ferro Cement Design was referred. In the second phase

of the study clear span extended up to 30’.0” and for three wheels and motorcycle

users. Pre-stressed Ferrocement made 30’.0” long beam was designed as bridge

member. T-shape section was selected using FEM analysis as done in the first

phase of the study. Load tests were carried out for bridge beams to check the

strength in longitudinal and lateral directions. Pilot projects were done in both

cases to check the performance.

1.6.4 FORMATIONS SECONDARY ROOFING SLABS

In tropical countries, secondary roofing slabs are installed on the roof top of the

buildings to insulate against intense heat. In Singapore these slabs consist

typically of 1500 mm x 600 mm x 50 mm precast cellular concrete slabs

containing a centrally placed layer of galvanized welded wire mesh of 50 mm

square grid and 3.25 mm diameter. The slabs were assembled side by side; each

being supported on 150 mm x 150 mm x 225 mm precast hollow blocks placed

on the top of the structural roof to provide as air gap of 225 mm. The cellular

concrete mix has a sand: cement ratio of 2.2 with a density of about 1500 kg/m3.

These slabs pose a problem of severe cracking even before they are transported

and erected in place. Although the presence of cracks may not be critical with

respect to strength requirements, they are undesirable from a durability point of

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view. Consequently, there is a need to replace such slabs at least once every 10

years.

A study was carried out at National University of Singapore to examine the

current design with the intention of improving durability of the slabs. A

Ferrocement design of 30 mm thickness with two layers of galvanized fine wire

mesh of 25 mm square grid and 1.6 mm wire diameter separated by a layer of

skeletal steel of galvanized welded wire mesh of 150 mm square grid and 3.3 mm

diameter, as shown in the given figure, was found to be adequate. Because of the

reduced thickness, the dead weight of the Ferrocement slabs remains

approximately the same as that of the cellular concrete slabs

Figure 9. Ferrocement Secondary Roofing Slab

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The functionality of such slabs was investigated by carrying out flexural tests,

patch load tests and shrinkage measurements on specimens. It was found that the

slabs could be subjected to design service load of 1.8kN patch load, two days

after casting without cracking. The slabs also registered low long-term shrinkage

of about 400 microns. The effects of weathering and thermal fluctuations were

also studied. Slabs subjected to alternate wetting and drying test don not show

any deterioration in first scarce or ultimate strengths. Cyclic compression test to

simulate the effect of thermal stresses due to heating in the day and cooling at

night did not affect the strength significantly. Comparison in terms of production

costs shows the Ferrocement slabs to be slightly more expensive than the cellular

slabs. However, it is expected that with Ferrocement slabs the frequency of

replacements will be reduced. The cost can be reduced through increasing

productivity by demolding them in the shortest possible time, minimizing the

controlled curing period and installation on site at the earliest time with less

number of spoils during transportation and erection. The reliability study

indicates that the Ferrocement slabs used were safe against ultimate failure one

day after casting when subjected to both dead and live loads and in the case of

first cracks with respect to dead load alone. In another study the durability of the

Ferrocement secondary rooting slabs was investigated with respect to service life-

cycle in relation to the actual load range that a typical slab would experience. The

results show that the slabs have good fatigue properties within the stress range

considered.

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2 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

1. Study includes investigation of Ferrocement panel by varying different

thickness and different layers of reinforcement for the constant application

of loading.

2. Effective of number of mesh layers on the flexural strength of slab panels.

3. To examine the effective span to depth ratio.

4. Effective deflection to reinforcement ratio.

3 LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Ferrocement is a highly versatile reinforced composite material made of cement

mortar and wire mesh membranes, forming a rigid structural structure with high

strength to weight ratio. (ACI 549R-97, 1997), as defined by the ACI Committee,

is a type of "thin-walled reinforced concrete, usually reinforced with hydraulic

cement mortar continuous and layers of small diameter wire mesh". Due to its

excellent strength, fracture resistance and impact resistance, ferrocement has

been used as a roofing or floor element for housing units to build boats, water

tanks, marine structures and grain silos. Most of this strength arises from

curvature and rebellion. Size can, therefore, travel long distances with low-cost

support.

Unlike other sophisticated structures, ferrocement construction requires less

skilled labor and the use of available local materials. Proper care must be taken

to control the quality of construction; Otherwise, thin shell fermentation can

disrupt the manufacturing purpose. To utilize the potential of ferrocement as a

building material, a proper understanding of the material behavior under different

conditions is required. (Paramasivam et al., 2004).

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The most important advantages of ferrocement are that it can be fabricated into

almost any desired shape to meet the need of the user. It is being extensively used

in developing countries like India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka for (a) Housing

applications (b) Marine application (c) Agricultural application (d) Rural energy

application (e) Water and Sanitation application and (f) Repair and maintenance

applications (Mansur et al. 1987, Paramasivam et al. 1990, Ganesan , 1994 ).

For high-pressure structures such as boats, barrages, steel bars with wire mesh

are considered part of the reinforcement, providing structural strength and

rigidity, but wire mesh is the main reinforcement in most earthquake structures.

Is considered as. The reinforcement network must be securely welded or fastened

so that it stays in its original position during the application of the mortar (ACI

549R-97 1997, Swamy 1984). In highly reinforced structures, the steel rod and

mesh must be fitted with sufficient penetration of the mortar, leading to zero free

dense material.

In order to obtain good quality hardened mortar, mortar must be placed and

deposited by proper curing in the appropriate environment during the early stages

of rough weather (Andal et al., 2003). The purpose of curing is to keep the mortar

saturated with the hydration products of the cement until enough water is filled

in the fresh cement paste.

Ferrocement is ideally suited for thin-walled structures. In addition, many other

uses of ferrocement are used worldwide as a building material. These include

sunscreen and sandwich wall panels for high-rise buildings (Mansour 1987,

Paramasivam 1990). Ferrocement has been widely used in the repair and

maintenance of a recent building (Romualdi 1987, Lorns 1987).

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3.2 STUDIES FROM ASIA

In the early 1940s, Pier Luigi Nervi (ACI 549R-97, 1997) revived the concept of

the original Ferrocement. After World War I, Nervy demonstrated the use of

fermentation as a boat building material. The International Fermentation

Information Center (IFIC) at the Asian Institute of Technology was established

in 1976 in Bangkok, Thailand. Ferrocement is now widely used in the production

of structural elements in repair and maintenance work (Romualdi, 1987).

Mansur and Paramasivam (1986) conducted experimental and analytical

research on the flexural behaviour of the Ferrocement element to study the

behavior and ultimate strength of the tube. A method based on the concept of

plastic analysis that predicts the last moment potential of Ferrocement is

proposed and is in good agreement with experimental values. From the study, it

was determined that the moment of first cracking and the first moment were

increased with an increase in the matrix grade and volume fraction of the steel.

They conclude that the higher volume fraction of steel provides more effective

control over the width of the crack.

Walkus (1986) attempted to determine the parameters for testing the material of

ferrocement to define the characteristics of the structure and type of equipment

used to test and measure equipment for determining deformation and fracture.

Atsushi Shirai and Yoshihiko Obama (1988) conducted an experimental study

to investigate the flexible behavior and effectiveness of ferrocement through the

use of polymer. From their study, they found that the first crack load, the final

load and the crack resistance increased, and the increase in the number of

fractures and the increase in the number of fractures were largely controlled by

the addition of polymers. Effective resistance is also increased by the use of

polymer modified mortar.

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Karunakar Rao and Jagannadha Rao (1988) proposed a theory for calculating

the final moment of Ferrocement structural elements based on the experimental

evidence of crack patterns, fractures and propagation.

Desai et al. (1988) proposed a bilateral method for estimating deflection and one

and two methods for crack formation and the final moments of ferrocement

elements. These methods are found to give a satisfactory agreement with the test

data.

Ganesan and Suresh Kumar (1988) conducted an experimental study to study

the effect of discrete small steel fibers on the strength and behavior of

Ferrocement structural elements of channel cross-section. The results indicate

that the addition of steel fiber increases the strength and energy absorption

efficiency of Ferrocement elements.

Desai and Desai (1988) have developed and tested various forms of Ferrocement

roofing elements to examine the compatibility and load-carrying capacity of low-

cost homes. The study concluded that in all embodiments, the folded shape

Ferrocement elements exhibit high viscosity and last minute efficiency.

Furthermore, the Ferrocement fold-plate element is proven to cost 15 to 25% less

than the asbestos cement sheet.

Lohtia et al. (1988) conducted an experimental study on the linear behavior of

ferrous slabs. They observed that the cracks of the Ferrocement slab were very

different than those of the RCC slab. In Ferrocement slabs, the fractures are very

fine and distributed over a larger area than in the case of RCC slabs. In addition,

the Ferrocement slab has been found to have greater expansion and higher reserve

strength than the RCC slab.

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Rao and Rao (1988) conducted a research to develop an acceptable and rational

method for calculating the last moment of resistivity of Ferrocement channel

units. Their study indicated that the analysis of the crack pattern and deflection

gave an insight into the dynamics of the moment of resistance of the Ferrocement

channel unit.

Ganeshan et al. (1988) conducted an experimental study on the development

and proof testing of ferrocement roofing systems. Development and evidence

testing of the composite roof I floor system consists of partially pre-fabricated

ferrocement trough units and in situ concrete toppings. The purpose of the tests

is to study the simple behavior of a partially pre-fabricated ferrous trough unit as

an individual element and as a composite element in site concrete. The results

showed that the structural behavior of the ferrocement trough units, as well as the

composite units, was very satisfactory.

Naman (1989) conducted a study on the different levels of technology used in

ferrocement housing products. The study indicated that the typical household

needs were filled with approximately fifteen standard panel configurations. Box-

shaped panels for walls and lintels were considered, while U-shaped panels were

considered for floors and ceilings.

Vijay Raj (1990) conducted an experimental and theoretical study to assess the

structural behavior of large span bamboo ferrocement elements for floor and

ceiling purposes. The study concluded that large span bamboo ferrocement slabs

should have a thickness of 40mm to meet the requirements of the roof and floor

elements of reinforced buildings. Further, he concludes that the cost of bamboo

ferrocement slabs is only 70% of ferrocement slabs.

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Mathews et al. (1991) conducted an analytical and experimental investigation of

cracking loading, ultimate load, deflection, crack spacing, and crack width of a

bolo ferrocement roofing system. Test results confirm that the system has

sufficient strength, rigidity, and other service efficiency requirements for

residential applications. The estimated theoretical values are in good agreement

with the experimental values.

Desai et al. (1992) conducted an experimental study to study the first crack

strength and the breakdown modulus of light fiber reinforced ferrocement. From

the study, they found that the volume fraction of the steel fiber controls the

modulus of the rupture and the first crack strength of the ferrocement elements.

He also developed an equation for estimating the first crack strength and slit

modulus.

Well AI-Rifi and Arslan Hassan (1994) conducted an experimental and

theoretical study on the behavior of ferrocement one-way bending elements.

Elements of different sizes and widths were selected to study their relative

feasibility for adoption on small-sized residential roofs. As a result of the

investigation, it is believed that the unilateral bending element undergoes large

deflection before failure and is the main cause of reinforcement. Additionally,

they found that as the flange width increases, the final load capacity decreases,

but the ratio of the final load capacity of the first tube load increases as the pulsing

length increases.

Mathews et al. (1994) conducted a study on the planning aspects of ribbed

ferrocement elements for low-cost homes, taking into account the principles of

modular coordination. The study concludes that the manufacturing process can

be simplified by using modular coordination and a general manufacturing plant;

Massive production for elements is easily achieved.

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Ganeshan and Suresh Kumar (1994) conducted an experimental investigation

on the moment probability of fibrous ferrocement members. The main objective

of this study was to determine the effect of randomly oriented microfluidic steel

fibers on the strength and behavior of ferrocement elements. The results indicate

that the addition of steel fiber greatly enhances the moment efficiency of

ferrocement flexural elements. In this study a method for estimating the moment

capacity of an element is proposed.

Hossain et al. (1997) conducted a study to develop an analytical model for the

flexibility and tensile behavior of ferrocement plates in the pre- and post-cracking

stages. From the study, they established that two-way ferrocement slabs can carry

10% -30% more weight than one-way slabs.

Mansur et al. (2000) conducted flexural tests to rapidly evaluate the flexural

strength on thin-walled ferrocement structural T, transverse T and symmetric I-

sections and accelerate the design charts for structural sections. They developed

specific design maps and suggested the existence of considerable flexibility for

thin-walled pandas, stating that rigorous plastic analysis must be applied to assess

their last-minute capabilities.

AI-Kubaisy and Mohd Zamin Jumaat (2000) conducted a study on the flexible

behavior of reinforced concrete slabs with ferrous tension zone covers. The

percentage of wire mesh reinforcement in the ferrocement cover layer, the

thickness of the ferrocement layer and the type of connection between the

fibrocement layer and the RCC slab. The results showed that the use of

ferrocement cover increases the final flexural load and first crack load and

reduces the width and spacing of the crack.

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Shesu (2000) conducted an experimental study on fermented limited reinforced

concrete beams. Their study concluded that imprisonment by the ferrocement

shell improves the moment-carrying capacity by about 9 to 15% and also

increases the moment of the first crack.

Ratish Kumar and Rao (2000) conducted an experimental study to study the

stress-strain behavior of ferrocement confined reinforced = concrete (FCRC)

under axial compression by changing the specific surface factor and constraint

index. The study concluded that the improvement of ductility for a given restraint

index is proportional to the specific surface factor of ferrocement

Mansur et al. (2001) conducted an investigation to find the shear strength of the

ferrocement structural section. The study concluded that flexural fractures occur

initially despite span / depth ratio but cracking and ultimate load decrease when

the span / depth ratio decreases.

Imam et al. (2002) conducted a study to simulate the deflection and stress

behavior of different types of roofing elements through finite element methods.

From the investigation, they conclude that the numerical results match the

experimental results. The main stress sections are low in the shell element and it

is the most economical shape as the roofing element.

Vijaya and Hedge (2003) conducted an experimental study on the ferrocement

of concrete beams made of brick butt and recycled concrete aggregates. Their

study has shown that ferrocement leads to a significant increase in beam stiffness,

strength and ductility.

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Andal et al. (2003) conducted a study on the ductility and impact resistance of

cured ferrocement samples in seawater and normal water. They found that

seawater samples showed reduced strength in ductility and effectiveness due to

the infiltration of seawater into ferrocement elements.

Jagannathan et al. (2003) studied the suitability of polymeric nets as a substitute

for reinforcement in ferrocement flexural elements. The four-layered polymeric

mesh reinforcement ferrocement element meets the IS requirements as the

number of mesh layers increases with lower deflection, higher youth modulus,

comparable flexural strength and crack width.

Veerappa Reddy (2003) conducted a study on the industrial production of new

ferrocement elements. The industrial production of ferrocement elements, such

as ferrous and septic tanks, pre-designed modular community toilets and

undersized length classes emphasized for longer periods are described in this

study.

Ramesh et al. (2003) conducted experimental research on the behavior of hybrid

ferro-fiber concrete under axial compression. A variety of parameters reinforce

the specification of a specific surface factor, fiber reinforced concrete. The results

indicated that the combined strength of ferrocement and fiber improved the final

strength, the stress of the final strength and the ductility of the reinforced

concrete. The correction is proportional to the specific surface of the

reinforcement.

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Jagannathan and Sundararajan (2004) conducted an experimental and

theoretical research to study the simple behavior of reinforced ferrocement slabs

with 3-5-layer polymer mesh as an alternative form of reinforcement. From the

study, it has been observed that polymer mesh reinforced ferrocement slabs

exhibit the same linear elastic behavior up to the first crack load.

Paramasivam et al. (2004) conducted detailed research on the origin, suitability

and application of ferrocement mixtures. The authors discuss the R&D work done

on ferrocement element and sunscreen, secondary roof slabs, water tanks, and

repair equipment in the construction industry. The key features of the design,

fabrication, and performance of some applications of ferrocement structural

elements are highlighted.

Bhaskar Desai et al (2004) conducted an experimental investigation on the

flexible behavior of a super plasticizer which partially replaced the silica fume

ferrocement elements in the cement, variable with the depth ratio and the number

of shear layers. 10% silica fume can be taken as the optimal dosage form to give

maximum compressive strength in place of cement, dividing the modulus of

tensile strength and elasticity. It is also found that the ultimate flexural strength

increases with shear span / depth (A / 0) ratio and the silica fume increases by

10% for the number of wire mesh layers.

Hago et al. (2005) conducted an experimental study on the final and service

behavior of ferrocement roof slab panels. The objective of the study was to

determine the final and service behavior of the ferrocement roof slab panels. The

use of monolithic shallow edge ferrocement beams with panels has significantly

improved the serviceability and final behavior of the panels, regardless of the

number of steel fibers.

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Andal et al. (2005) conducted an experimental study on the behavior of

ferrocement flexural members with polymer-modified mortars. The main

objective of this study was to determine the flexural strength of ferrocement

element of size I 000mm x 200 mm x 25 mm with cement sand mortar 1: 1 and

water-cement ratio 0.3. The variants used in the study were different volume

fraction of reinforcement, different percentage of SBR polymer, and different

percentage of recon 3S fiber. This study gave 12.5% SBR latex and 3% volume

fraction high fall overhead by cement weight.

Prem Paul Bansal and others. (2006) conducted an experimental study on the

effect of various bonding agents on the strength of retrofitted beams using

ferrocement laminates. A study was conducted to determine the retrofitting effect

of the beam using ferrocement laminates bonded with cement solution, epoxy

and shear connectors. The study concluded that there was a significant increase

in the third point loading crack width, increased crack spacing, large deflection

and ductility ratio at all samples.

Prakash and Patil (2007) conducted an experimental study on the effect of silica

fume addition on the strength properties of fibrous ferrocement using round steel

fibers. The study shows that fibrous ferrocement is a combination of ferrocement

n and fiber reinforced concrete, which shows significant improvements in

mechanical properties such as toughness and impact resistance. It also exhibits

overall high compressive, tensile, and impact strength

Prem Pal Bansal et al (2007) conducted a study on shear reduction, in which the

RC beam was initially stressed at the pre-set percentage of the retrofitted secure

load using ferrocement. To increase the strength of the beam in both shear and

flexibility, the wire mesh is placed at an angle of 45 45 from the longitudinal axis

of the beam. The study concluded that the safe load bearing capacity of

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rectangular RC elements made of ferrocement laminate increases significantly

with the mesh at 45 at.

Patil and Prakash (2007) conducted experimental research on the inclusion of

silica smoke on the strength properties of fibrous ferrocement using round steel

fibers. The addition of round steel fibers in the ferrocement mixture has shown

significant improvements in some mechanical properties, such as toughness and

impact resistance.

Liegood Atual et al. (2007) studied microstructural analysis with different

combinations of wire mesh reinforcement. Panels of different combinations were

tested for flexibility under identical distributed loads, and its deflection and

fracture patterns were studied

3.3 STUDIES FROM EUROPE

Ferrocement as a roof has been used successfully for many years European and

South American countries. Large ferrocement roofs were built in Italy.

Onet and Maguire (1993) attempted to study the linear behavior of ferrocement

beams under long-term loading. Their results suggest that long-term deflections

affect the behavior of the beam more than instantaneously.

Maton (1995) conducted a study on the design and testing of the ferrocement

roof element. This study proposes operational steps for the development of

common roofing element and equipment required for small-scale production.

Gurdev Singh and Guang Jing Jiang (1995) conducted a study on the rational

evaluation of flexible fatigue properties of ferrocement for reliable design. A

study based on the stress-life (S-N) plot and a new method based on the

likelihood-stress-life (P-SN) for the design of flexible fatigue properties of

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ferrocement. The study concluded that the rectangular pressure distribution is

relatively more reliable and economical for estimating stress when designing

ferrocement against fatigue using the P - S - N relation of the air tested wire.

Ramesh and Vickridge (1996) attempted to develop a computer program FA

OFFERS to predict the last moment of ferrocement in elasticity. The study

demonstrates that the FA Offers program is in good agreement with the

experimental values and is easy to use.

Nedwell and Nakasa (1999) conducted an experimental study of high-

performance ferrocement. The results show that stainless steel and silica fume

improve the first crack load, increase the number of cracks and reduce the width

of the crack m in addition to cost-effectiveness.

Pankaj et al. (2007) conducted a study on the mechanical behavior of

ferrocement composite-numerical simulations. The authors propose an

anisotropic elastoplastic model to simulate the mechanical behavior of the

ferrocement plates. The study shows that the mortar ferrocement layer model

works best with orthotropic ferrous layer. It was also determined that the same

set of physical properties could be used to simulate the behavior of the

ferrocement plates outside the aircraft load as well as the loading on the aircraft.

3.4 STUDIES FROM USA

Naumann and Homerich (1986) proposed a general methodology for the

analysis and design of ferrocement flexural elements. The proposed method and

the developed design chart are very simple and can be used to estimate the

flexible resistance of the ferrocement element.

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Balaguru et al. (1990) proposed an analytical model to study the flexibility of

the ferrocement flexural element. The study concluded that the type of

reinforcement distribution and the ratio of reinforcement to some extent affect

not only plasticity but also increased flexibility in the thin section. The literature

suggests that ferrocement elements of various shapes can be used as roofs in

developing countries.

Honey et al. (2004) conducted experimental and analytical research on the

composite beams of ferrocement concrete. Different types of beams with

different types of mesh are tested for failure in the two-point loading system. The

study concluded that the proposed composite beam has good ductility, cracking

strength and ultimate efficiency.

In this thesis, an attempt has been made to obtain a proper ferrocement

component. Hence a brief review of optimization techniques. The following is a

literature review of studies conducted on the optimization of ferrocement

elements and reinforced cement concrete elements:

There have been many investigations into various optimization techniques to

optimize the fabrication cost of different sizes of ferrocement elements and the

design of reinforced concrete structures (Rajeev et al., 1998).

Goldberg (1989) introduces the genetic algorithm (GO) approach to engineering

optimization. It has important applications in structural optimization problems.

This approach has been used by many researchers to optimize the shape and

cross-section of structural elements.

Rajeev and Krishnamurthy (1992) extend the application of GA in discrete

design variables to optimize the minimum weight of steel trusses as buckling

strength in the form of deflection and deflection.

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Shyam Prakash, Rajiv and Mathews (1995) conducted an analytical study to

obtain the optimal design method for Ribbed ferrocement Roof / Floor Elements

using GA. The variables to be considered are cross-sectional shape and

descriptions of reinforcement.

The study concluded that the GA-based design optimization method provides

methods for real-time modeling that leads to rational solutions.

Kalyanimay Deb (2004) published a book on the introduction of genetic

algorithms. The author recognizes that the simplest genetic algorithm is an

optimization technique that relies on analogy with nature, and a simple analogy

can be made with the mathematical problem, which consists of several

parameters. These parameters can replace the chromosome in the mathematical

similarity of a real chemical sequence. The author suggests the steps and

operation of simple genetic algorithms.

Govindaraj and Ramasamy (2006) published a paper on the optimal design of

reinforced concrete rectangular columns using genetic algorithms. Their study

concludes that the optimal design model using GA provides practical practical

design considerations such as width and depth of column sections, such as

predefined discrete variations, detail and reinforcement bar detail. He proposed a

new optimization method that is less complex in mathematics.

Pranab Agarwal and Anne M. Raich (2006) conducted a study on the design

and optimization of steel trusses using GA parallel computing and human-

computer interactions. The authors conducted a study on hybrid structural design

and optimization method, which combines the strength of GA to develop optimal

truss systems. GA’s application for the design and optimization of the truss

system supports conceptual

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Castillo and Lima (2007) performed an analytical study on the cost optimization

of lattice reinforced joist slabs using genetic algorithms with fixed variables. The

results indicate that the GA method is a viable optimization tool for solving the

cost optimization problem for lattice reinforced joist slabs.

3.5 Summary of the literature review

From the review of the literature, the following points have been identified,

1. There have been a large number of studies in the past on the strength and

behavior of Ferrocement elements subject to stress, compression and flexibility.

2. In most of these studies, small-scale sampling models have been used in

research. Only a few attempts on large scale or prototype elements have been

considered. However, it can be observed that it is appropriate to consider the

structural elements of the model to demonstrate the actual behavior of the

structural elements.

3. An attempt has been made to obtain the relationship between the final load

and the specific surface of the ferrocement with variables such as strength

parameters such as first crack load and volume load.

4. In all previous research the fine aggregates used for making Ferrocement

mortar are simple river sand. However, as river sand becomes more scarce,

alternatives to river sand can be explored for the optimal cost of ferrocement

elements.

5. In the past, an attempt has been made to rely entirely on the laboratory

facilities, strength, and rigidity of the total dimensions of the Ferrocement

flexural elements.

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6. No attempt has been made to obtain the optimum cross-sectional shape of

the Ferrocement elements with respect to (a) flexibility (b). strength (b) deflection

(c) cracking and (d) cost.

7. Previous efforts have been limited to studies on the power and behavior of

individual subjects. However, investigations into the joint action of the elements

have not been reported. It would have made more sense if it had been studied. On

the strength and behavior of a roof or floor structure consisting of several

elements.

8. The matrix of Ferrocement n consists of cement, fine aggregates and

water. No attempt has been made to improve the properties of ordinary cement

mortars through a special process such as polymerization, which improves the

overall properties of many engineering properties such as tensile strength,

fracture toughness and tensile strength.

9. In previous studies, the combined effects of optimum cross-section and

polymer modification on prototype ferrocement elements have not been

maintained

From the comments above, that effort can be observed

1. Optimization of Ferrocement structural elements

2. Effect of polymer modification on the strength, hardness, fracture behavior

and ductility of Ferrocement elements

3. There is no mixed effect on the above.

There is therefore a gap in current knowledge that suggests there is research to

fill the above gap.

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4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

FERROCEMENT 4.1 Introduction

During the late sixties and seventies, considerable amount of research has been

conducted on the mechanical properties of ferrocement the information presented

in this section is based on these extensive studies the discussion primarily deals

with ferrocement reinforced with welded or woven square

4.2 Behavior in compression

It is reasonable to expect that the behavior in compression will be generally

similar to that of cement mortar modified by the presence of reinforcement

increases in the ultimate strain due to confining effect and increase the

compressive strength are possible.

On the basis of the test of Atcheson and Alexander, Sabnis and naaman concluded

that whereas welded wire mesh increases the compressive strength hexagonal or

expanded metal may not be very effective due to possible longitudinal spreading

of the composite. the experimental results of pama showed that under

compression, the ultimate compressive strength is lower than that of an

equivalent pure mortar.

Desayi and Joshi investigated the ultimate strength in compression of

ferrocement wall elements. They found that some of the conventional formula

for reinforced concrete gave good predictions.

While the role of the reinforcement in modifying the compression characteristics

of ferrocement cannot be underestimated in view of several variables related to

the reinforcement, it might be provincial to adopt a lower bound approach foe

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design and analysis, considering the characteristics of the plain mortar and by

considering the peak and ultimate strains to be 3.5 x 10^-3 respectively.

4.3 Behavior in tension

Ideally, ferrocement acts as a homogeneous material in the elastic range and the

stress of the composite material is obtained from the laws of the mixture when a

ferrocement specimen is subjected to increasing tensile load, three stages of

behavior are observed these stages are classified according to the width of cracks

as described by walkus and are shown in table experimental studies on the

behavior of ferrocement specimens in tension show a typical stress strain curve

as shown. A brief description of the stress strain curve of ferrocement at different

stress levels are described as follows.

4.4 Elastic Range

The stress curve is essentially linear in this stage there is no evidence of any crack

formation even when observed under magnificent the limit of elasticity o

ferrocement is also higher than that of the unreinforced concrete.

With a further increase in stress, ferrocement becomes quasi elastic the micro

cracks are invisible to the naked eye and are difficult to observe even when

optical instruments are used these two stages linearly elastic and quasi elastic

constitute the practical elastic working range of ferrocement

4.5 Cracked range

These stage can be termed as the multiple cracking stage. theoretically, these

stages start with the occurrence of the first crack in the matrix and continuous up

to the point where the wire meshes starts to yield in the range of loading, the

number of cracks keeps increasing with an increase in tensile stress of strain.

However, the crack width increases with very small amount the increase in strain

48 | P a g e

which occur under larger load is distributed through a greater number of cracks,

instead of widening the existing cracks. The cracks are very fine in the stage and

it has been observed to a function of the specific surface of the reinforcement.

4.6 Yield range

As a load increased, the process of crack winding continuous at a uniform rate

the maximum number of cracks that are going to develop have already developed

before this stage increases in mortar strain is caused by increases in width of

cracks. Composite action between the mortar and reinforcement concrete

continuous up to the attainment of crack width about 100 microns and thereafter,

the reinforcement carries all the tensile forces.

4.7 Behavior in various stages

In the elastic stage, the stress strain relationship can be defined using a single

elastic constant, namely the young’s modulus of the ferrocement composite. The

modulus of the ferrocement, which will be the function of the module of mortar

and reinforcement and their relative volume fractions can be expressed as

During the multiple cracking stage, the contribution of mortar to the stiffness of

the composite decreases progressively hence, the stiffness of the composite and

the slope of the stress strain curve, decrease from an upper bond value represented

by equation to a lower bound value in which the contribution from mortar

becomes zero the lower bound value of modulus of elasticity can be obtained by

simple substituting zero for Em in equation

49 | P a g e

4.8 Cracking behavior

It has been observed that everything else the higher the volume of reinforcement

and smaller the diameter of wires, the larger the extent of multiple cracking stage

the larger the number of the cracks developed in the same gaugage length the

smaller the final crack spacing and the smaller the crack width a parameter which

is found critical in determining the cracking behavior is a specific surface of

reinforcement which is defined as the lateral surface of the reinforcement per unit

volume of the composite. It shows the plot of composite stress at first crack verus

the specific surface of reinforcement. It can be seen from the composite stress at

first cracking increase with increasing value of specific surface. naaman has

proposed an empirical formula for the first cracking strength

In the multiple cracking stages, with the increase of load more cracks will be

formed and the crack spacing will decrease till a limiting stage is reached after

which no further cracks will appear. Naaman and shah observed that the average

cracks spacing at failure, decreased with the increasing specific surface of the

reinforcement for ferrocement with woven and welded square meshes.

In their tests on ferrocement pipes, geuerra et al observed that for the same stress

in the reinforcement, average crack width in ferrocement is considerably smaller

than the crack widths in reinforced concrete.

The high value of the specific surface for ferrocement (which typically 10 times

that for reinforced concrete), and the close spacing of the transverse

reinforcements results in closer spacing of the cracks.

50 | P a g e

4.9 BEHAVIOUR IN FLEXURE

The behavior of ferrocement in flexure can be studied using a typical load-

deflection curve. As in the case of tension behavior, the load-deflection curve can

be divided into three regions or stages, post-cracking stage and post-yielding

stage. The entire discussion presented in this section is based on the following

assumptions.

1) Plane sections remain plane and perpendicular to the neutral axis strains in

mortar and reinforcement or directly proportional to their distances from the

neutral axis.

2) The behaviour of reinforcement is elastic-perfectly plastic

3) Tensile strength of mortar is neglected in flexural strength calculations of

cracked beams

4) Maximum usable compression fibre strain is 0.003mm/mm.

5) For the strength calculation at ultimate load, and parabolic stress strain

distribution of mortar can be approximated to a rectangular distribution using the

procedure given by ACI code

51 | P a g e

4.10 Pre-cracking or elastic range

Ferrocement has the highest stiffness in the stage. In this stage mortar contribute

to both compressive and tensile resistance of the ferrocement composite. The

strength and stiffness of the beam can be calculated using the classical bending

theory.

Figure 10. Distribution of strains, stressed and forces for the uncracked section

of the beam

Referring to Fig. 5, the resisting moment of the cross section, can be written as.

M=1

6𝑏ℎ2𝑓𝑟 + ∑ 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑗𝑑𝑖

𝑚𝑖=1

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Where Cm is the total compressive force in mortar

Tm is the total tensile force in mortar

h is the thickness.

Asi is the total area of the i-th layer of reinforcement.

fsi in the stress in the i-th layer of reinforcement.

Jdi is the lever arm of the ith layer of reinforcement, measured from neutral axis

m is the number of layers of reinforcement.

Cm=1

4𝑏ℎ𝑓𝑚

where is the width of beam is the mortar stress in the extreme compression or

tension fibre Substituting equation.

M=1


𝑚𝑖=1

Equation (7) can be used to calculate the moment of resistance of the section up

to the where find tensile crack occurs.

For calculating the moment at first cracking, Mcr substitute for fin equation where

is the modulus of rupture of mortar.

M=1


𝑚𝑖=1

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4.11 Post tracking Range.

This range starts with the occurrence of first crack and extends up to the point

where the extreme tension fibre of reinforcement starts yielding.

After cracking, the tensile force contribution of mortar is negligible compared to

the contribution of reinforcement and hence Tm can be assumed to be zero.

Figure 11. Distribution of strains, stress and forces for the cracked section of the beam

Referring to Fig (6), the neutral axis depth (c), of the cracked section can be

calculated by using the force equilibrium equation,

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𝑏𝑐

2𝑓𝑚 = ∑ 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑠𝑖

We have,

𝑓𝑚 = 𝐸𝑚𝜀𝑒

𝑓𝑠 = 𝐸𝑅𝜀𝑠𝑖

𝑠𝑐

𝑠𝑠𝑖=

𝑒

(𝑑𝑖−𝑒) n=

𝐸𝑟

𝐸𝑚

using the above equation, equation (8) can be rewritten as,

𝑏𝑐

2𝑓𝑚 = 𝑛 ∑ 𝐴𝑠𝑖(𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐)

The resisting moment M is,

𝑀 =𝑏𝑐2

3𝑓𝑚 + ∑ 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑠𝑖(𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐)2

Equation (10) can also be written in a form convenient to calculate the stresses in

mortar and reinforcement as follows:

𝑓𝑚 =𝑀

𝐼𝑐𝑟𝑐

𝑓𝑠𝑖 =𝑚

𝐼𝑐𝑟

(𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐)𝑛

where equation is the moment of inertia of the cracked section, calculated using

the following

𝐼𝑐𝑟 =𝑏𝑐2

3+ ∑ 𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖 (𝑑𝑖 − 𝑐)2

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The above equations (9) to (13) are useful in the design calculations in the post

cracking, pro yielding stage of loading.

4.12 Simplified equations

The equation (7a) can be simplified as follows:

Assuming that the wire meshes are continuously distributed throughout the

sections, Volume fraction,

𝑉𝑅𝐿 =∑ 𝐴𝑠𝑖

𝑏ℎ

Then 𝑀𝑐𝑟 given by equation (7) can be written as,

𝑀𝑐𝑟 =1

6𝑏ℎ2𝑓𝑟[1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑉𝑅𝐿

where n is the modulus ratio 𝐸𝑅/𝐸𝑛.

Also moment of inertia of the uncracked section, can be written as.

𝐼𝑔 =1

12𝑏ℎ2[1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑉𝑅𝐿

4.13 PREDICTION OF CRACK WIDTH

4.13.1 Uniaxial tensile members

Based on the experimental results, the following empirical formula equations

were proposed by Naaman for predicting the width of the crack.

When stress in steel 𝑓𝑠 is less than yield strength and in any case less than

400Mpa,he considered two situations.

(1) 𝑓𝑠 < 345𝑆𝑅𝐿

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𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 =3500

𝐸𝑅

Where 𝑓𝑠 is in Mpa,

𝑆𝑅𝐿 is in c𝑚2/𝑐𝑚3

𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 mm 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝐸𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑝𝑎

(2)for 𝑓𝑠 > 345𝑆𝑅𝐿

𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 =20

𝐸𝑅[175 + 3.169(𝑓𝑠 − 345𝑆𝑅𝐿)]

4.13.2 Flexural members

The average width of the cracks was expressed as a function of strain at the

tension face and the spacing of transverse wires.

𝑊𝑎𝑣 = 𝑠𝛽𝜀𝑠

where

E, is the strain in the outermost layer of steel.

s is the mesh opening size.

where c is the depth of neutral axis calculation using elastic crack section

analysis d'mart is the depth measured to the extreme tension Iayer.

𝑓𝑠 =𝑀

𝐼𝑐𝑟

(𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑐)

𝜖𝑠 =𝑓𝑠

𝐸𝑟

57 | P a g e

4.14 IMPACT AND FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR

In comparison with unreinforced mortar, ferrocement has a high impact

absorption capacity. Studies on the behaviour of ferrocement subjected to impact

loading have been reported by Shah and Key [10]. They found that impact

behaviour of ferrocement was considerably influenced by the reinforcement

characteristics. Impact resistance and reduction in impact damage improved with

increasing specific surface and ultimate strength of reinforcement. For the same

volume of reinforcement, increase in specific surface increases the impact

strength.

For equal value of reinforcement percentage, welded-wire meshes offer the

highest impact resistance. In comparison, the specimens reinforced with chicken

wire mesh off the lowest impact resistance. Woven mesh reinforcements provide

impact strength lugha than the chicken wire meshes but lower than welded wire

meshes.

Fatigue failure of ferrocement flexural specimens is governed by the tensile

fatigue properties of the mesh, just as for reinforced and pre stressed concrete

beams. Based on regression analysis of the experimental data, proposed the

following aqua relating the fatigue failure with the stress in steel.

𝑓𝑠𝑟 = 1051 − 137𝑙𝑜𝑔10𝑁𝑓

where fu-stress range in the outermost layer of steel in MPa.

N- number of cycles to failure.

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5 METHODOLOGY 5.1 Introduction

In this study the ferrocement panel will be studied for varying thickness of about

25mm, 30mm, 35mm and 40mm and maintain a constant loading of 10KN, 15KN

and 20KN we studied the defecation parameter for performance analysis for each

ferrocement slab panels.

5.2 MATERIAL USED, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The properties and types of constituent material used in ferrocement construction

are shown in table 1. Although meshes of glass and vegetable fibers have been

used, the most common form involved steel and it is this type that is described in

this paper. The cement mortar matrix should be designed for appropriate strength

and maximum denseness and impermeability, with sufficient workability to

minimize voids. The use of sharp fine grade sand as aggregate together with

ordinary Portland cement is generally adequate, despite the low covers employed.

This is due to the comparatively high cement content in the mortar matrix.

The strength of the ferrocement composite made with varying steel content, types

of mesh, wire size, mesh size and number of layers have been investigated and

reported previously. Design guidelines, adequate for most applications, have

been published. These include recommendations concerning surface area per unit

volume of mesh reinforcement, cover, ultimate strength in flexure and

serviceability requirements of cracking. However, no particular deflection

limitations are recommended as most ferrocement members and structures are

thin and very flexible and their design is very likely to be controlled by design

criteria rather than deflection. Stresses in flexural members may also be checked

at service loads.

59 | P a g e

Several means are used in the construction of ferrocement but all methods seek

to achieve the complete infiltration of several layers of reinforcing mesh by a

well compacted mortar matrix with a minimum of entrapped air. The choice of

the most appropriate construction technique depends on the nature of the

particular ferrocement applications, the availability of mixing, handling and

placing machinery, and the skill and cost of available labor. After compaction,

proper curing is essential to develop the desired properties of the mortar matrix.

60 | P a g e

Figure 12. PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF CONSTITUENTS MATERIALS

USED IN FERROCEMENT CONSTRUCTION

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5.3 SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS

We have assumed the following,

Slab dimensions

Length – 1000millimetre

Breath – 1000millimetre

Thickness – 25 to 40millimetre

Mesh diameter: 1.5mm

Square mesh will be used as reinforcement

Volume factor = 6%

Yield strength = 400 N/mm2

Ultimate tensile strength = 500 N/mm2

Skeleton/Steel Bar

Diameter = 6mm

Void size = 150mm

Yield strength = 30 N/mm2

Compressive strength of mortar is 30 N/mm2

Ultimate tensile strength = 500 N/mm2

Mortar Composition

Cement- OPC = 43 grade cement

Sand = 1:3 by weight

W/C ratio = 0.5 by weight

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5.4 LOADING PATERN AND PARAMETER STUDY

LOAD APPLIED 10 KN

Thickness of

Slab (mm)

One Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

Two Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

Three Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

25mm 39.2 mm 31.2 mm 22.2 mm

30mm 42.6 mm 32.8 mm 26.4 mm

35mm 46.2 mm 33.4 mm 28.9 mm

40mm 47.1 mm 34.45 mm 30.12 mm

LOAD APPLIED 15 KN

Thickness of

Slab (mm)

One Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

Two Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

Three Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

25mm 41.2 mm 32.3 mm 24.6 mm

30mm 43.6 mm 34.2 mm 26.4 mm

35mm 47.2 mm 36.2 mm 28.6 mm

40mm 49.25 mm 34.4 mm 32.1 mm

LOAD APPLIED 20 KN

Thickness of

Slab (mm)

One Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

Two Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

Three Layer of

Mesh

Reinforcement

25mm 42.6 mm 33.4 mm 26.1 mm

30mm 44.5 mm 35.6 mm 29.4 mm

35mm 48.6 mm 37.3 mm 31.12 mm

40mm 50.08 mm 35.41 mm 34.6 mm

Table 1. LOADING PATTERN AND PARAMETER STUDY

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Figure 13. CONSTAL LOAD OF 10KN VARYING SLAB THICKNESS WITH VARYING MESH REINFORCEMENT

A constant load of 10KN is been applied on a Ferrocement slab with slab

thickness being 25 mm, 30 mm, 35 mm and 40 mm, along with varying meshes

used as reinforcement in single, double and three layers and the when the load

was applied the slab was found to have the deflections as above shown on the

graph.

39.2

42.6

46.247.1

31.2

32.8 33.434.42

22.2

26.4

28.930.12

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

20 25 30 35 40 45

DE

FL

EC

TIO

N

FO

R P

OIN

T L

OA

D A

PP

LIE

D

THICKNESS OF SLAB

CONSTAL LOAD OF 10KN VARYING SLAB THICKNESS WITH

VARYING MESH REINFORCEMENT

SINGLE LAYER OF MESH REINFORCEMENT DOUBLE LAYER OF MESH REINFORCEMENT

THREE LAYER OF MESH REINFORCEMENT

64 | P a g e






graph.

41.2

43.6

47.249.25

32.334.2

36.234.4

24.6

28.6 27.78 32.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

20 25 30 35 40 45

DE

FL

EC

TIO

N

FO

R P

OIN

T L

OA

D A

PP

LIE

D

THICKNESS OF SLAB





65 | P a g e






graph.

42.6

44.5

48.650.08

33.4

35.637.3

35.41

26.1

29.431.12

34.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

20 25 30 35 40 45

DE

FL

EC

TIO

N

FO

R P

OIN

T L

OA

D A

PP

LIE

D

THICKNESS OF SLAB





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Figure 16. VARYING LOAD ON CONSTANT THICKNESS ON THE SLAB - 25 mm

When the thickness of the slab was kept as constant about 25mm with varying

loads of 10KN, 15KN and 20KN along with varying meshes used as

reinforcement in single, double and three layers and when the load was applied

the slab was found to have deflections as above shown on the graph.

39.2

41.242.6

31.232.3

33.4

22.2

24.6

26.1

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

0 5 10 15 20 25DE

FL

EC

TIO

N

FO

R

PO

INT

LO

AD

AP

PL

IED

VARYING LOAD

VARYING LOAD ON CONSTANT THICKNESS ON THE SLAB - 25mm

SINGLE LAYER MESH REINFORCEMENT OF 25 MM THICKNESS

DOUBLE LAYER MESH REINFORCEMENT OF 25 MM THICKNESS

TRIPLE LAYER MESH REINFORCEMENT OF 25 MM THICKNESS

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42.643.6

44.5

32.834.2

35.6

26.4

28.629.4

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

5 10 15 20 25

DE

FL

EC

TIO

N

FO

R P

OIN

T L

OA

D A

PP

LIE

D

VARYING LOAD


SINGLE LAYER MESH REINFORCEMENT OF 30MM THICKNESS

DOUBLE LAYER MESH REINFORCEMENT OF 30MM THICKNESS


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46.247.2

48.6

33.4

36.237.3

28.9 29.7831.12

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

5 10 15 20 25

DE

FL

EC

TIO

N

FO

R P

OIN

T L

OA

D A

PP

LIE

D

VARYING LOAD


SINGLE LAYER MESH REINFORCEMENT OF 35MM THICKNESS



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47.1

49.2550.08

34.42 34.435.41

30.12

32.1

34.6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

5 10 15 20 25

DE

FL

EC

TIO

N

FO

R P

OIN

T L

OA

D A

PP

LIE

D

VARYING LOAD


SINGLE LAYER MESH REINFORCEMENT OF 40 MM THICKNESS


TRIPLE LAYER MESH REINFORCEMENT OF 40MM THICKNESS

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6 CONCLUSION

For 25mm thickness ferrocement slab panel of constant loading of 10KN

if the layer of reinforcement if increased from one layer to two layers then

deflection is decreased about 20.4% and when increased from two layer to

three layer the deflection is decreased about 28.84%



deflection is decreased about 23% and when increased from two layer to

three layer the deflection is decreased about 19.51%



deflection is decreased about 27.70% and when increased from two layer

to three layer the deflection is decreased about 13.47%



deflection is decreased about 26.85% and when increased from two layer

to three layer the deflection is decreased about 12.5%

The load is being increased in in an increment of 5% from 10KN and an

increment of 33.33% from 15KN and we have seen the deflection is

decreased in the increase in the layer of mesh reinforcement.

In India, Ferrocement is often used because the structures made from it are

more resistant to earthquakes. It has many uses, including sculpture and

prefabricated building blocks.

Ferrocement has been widely used for the past two decades and is still in

its infancy.

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Adequate design information is available and sufficient field experience is

obtained to enable the safe design and construction of Ferrocement

structures.

Whether or not it can compete economically with alternative materials

depends on the type and location of the application.

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7 REFRENCES 1. Nathan, G.K. and Paramasivam, P., (1974). Mechanical Properties of

Ferrocement Proc. First Australian Conference on Engineering Materials,

Sydney, 309-331.

2. Paramasivam, P. and Sri Ravindrarajah, R. (1988) Effects of Arrangements

of Reinforcements on Mechanical Properties of Ferrocement. ACI

Structural Journal 85: 1, 3-11.

3. Ong, K.C.G., Paramasivam, P. and Lim, C.T.E. (1992). Flexural

Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Ferrocement

Laminates. Journal of Ferrocement 22:4, 331-342

4. Lee, S.L., Tam, C.T., Paramasivam, P., Das Gupta, N.C., Sri

Ravindrarajah, R. and Mansur, M.A (1988). Ferrocement: Ideas Tested at

the University of Singapore. Concrete International: Design and

Construction 5:11, 12-14.

5. Naaman, A.E and Shah, S.P. Evaluation of ferrocement in some structural

applications Proceedings IAHS Symposium, Atlanta, 1976, n. 1069-1085.

6. Desayi, P and Ganesan N. Performance of the ferrocement roof an

Experimental low-cost House, proceedings of the Asia-Pacific

symposium, University of Roorkee, April 23-25.

7. ACI Committee. 549, State of the Art-report on Ferrocement, Concrete

International. August, 1982, pp.13-38.

8. New Reinforced Concrete, Ed. R.N. Swamy, VOL2, Concrete Technology

and Design, Surrey University Press, London

9. Paul, BX and Pama, R.P. Ferrocement, IFIC, ALT, Bangkok, Thailand.

10. Nervi, P. Ferrocement Structure F, W. Dodge Corporation, New York,

1956, pp.50-62.

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11. K.C.G., Paramasivam, P., and Lim, C.T.E., "Flexural Strengthening of

Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Ferrocement Laminate". Journal of

Ferrocement, Vol. No. 4, Oct 1992, pp. 331-342

12. Paramasivam, P. Ong. K.C.G., and Lim, C.T.E. "Ferrocement laminates

for strengthening RC T-beams", Cement and Concrete Composite Journal,

Vol. 16, 1994, 143-152

13. Paramasivam, P., Ong. K.C.G., and Lim, C.T.E., "Repair of damage RC

beams using ferrocement laminates". Proc Fourth Int'l Conf. on Structural

Failure, Durability and Retrofitting. Singapore, July 1993, pp. 613-620.

14. Ong, K.C.G., Paramasivam, P, and Lim, CTE. "Ferrocement laminate

repair damaged RC beams under static and cyclic loading". submitted to

ACI Structural Journal for possible publication

15. Aurellado, P.G. Jr, "Performance of Repaired Reinforced Concrete T-

beams". M.Sc. Dissertation, National University of Singapore, 1994103

pp.

16. British Standards Institution (BS5400: Part 5:1979), Steel, Concrete and

Composite bridges, London, 1979, 34p.

17. British Standards Institution (BS8110: Part 2:1985), The Structural Use of

Concrete Special Circumstances, London, 1985, p 3/7.

18. Nathan, G.K. and Paramasivam, P. "Mechanical Properties of

FeRRocement Materials". Proc. First Australian Conf on Engineering

Materials. Univ. of New South Wales, 1974, pp. 309-331.

19. Naaman, A. E, Ferrocement and Laminated Cementitious Composites,

Techno Press 3000, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA, 2000.

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