FIVE

HUNDRED

YEARS OF

NAUTICAL

SCIENCE

1400-1900

Proceedings of the Third International Reunion for the History of Nautical Science and Hydrography held at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich 24 - 28 September 1979

Edited by Derek Howse Keeper of Navigation and Astronomy, National Maritime Museum

©Crown copyright 1981 ISBN 0 905555 55 4 National Maritime Museum Greenwich, London

Gunter SCHILDER The Netherlands

THE NORTH HOLLAND CARTOGRAPHIC SCHOOL. A NEW CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE OLDEST DUTCH PORTOLAN CHARTS

In the late 16th and early 17th centuries there existed in North Holland an extremely important school of cartographers, who were occupied with the production of world maps and sailing charts. The centres of the car- tographic school were the towns of Edam and Enkhuizen, which at that time were important ports and thus an ideal location for the development of a cartographic workshop for the production of sailing charts. In addition to the famous Lucas Jansz Waghenaer, who can be described as the "father" of this school, various map-makers, known as "caartschrijvers" were working in these two ports, among whom we may mention Cornelis Doetsz, Evert Gijsbertsz, Jan Dircksz Rijkemans, Claes Pietersz, Joris Carolus and the brothers Harmen and Marten Jansz. While sufficient information is available about the cartographic work of Waghenaer, our knowledge of the life and work of the other "caartschrijvers" is unfortunately fragmentary. However, although the research has not yet been completed, it is now possible to give a better picture of the activities of this North Holland cartographic school. Before we turn to the hitherto less well-known representatives of this school, however, let us first briefly review the influential role played by Lucas Jansz Waghenaer in the field of navigation.

Lucas Jansz Waghenaer (1534/35 - 1606) from Enkhuizen was responsible for the outstanding Spieghel der Zeevaerdt, which represents a milestone in the development of western European navigation and exerted a decisive influ- ence on his contemporaries and on posterity. He obtained his material from various manuscript and printed sources, supplemented by his own extensive observations. He was probably already entertaining the idea of compiling a new-style pilot-book during his career as an active seaman. Instead of the usual small-format rutters with crude woodcuts, Waghenaer offered his readers a folio format in which the text was set in the best typography of the Leiden printing works by Christoffel Plantijn. The first volume appeared in 1584, followed the next year by the second. Waghenaer first gives a general review of the art of navigation, illustrated by numerous woodcuts. After this come the charts with descriptions and instructions for navigating the section of the coast shown on each chart. Each of the two volumes contains 23 charts, showing the coasts from the North Cape to the Canaries. Estuaries and ports are drawn on a larger scale, which indicates that these charts were used particularly for navigating entry to and departure from ports and rivers. A particular innovation in the Spieghel der Zeevaerdt was the combined drawing of the coast profile with the line of the coast on the chart. In this field Waghenaer was a pioneer with no external influences. This pilot-book, which was a spectacular achievement for its time, appeared in many subsequent editions in Dutch, French and Latin. An unauthorized English edition appeared in England in 1588 with the title The Mariners Mirrour. The translation was by Anthony Ashley. The title page and charts were produced by various en- gravers, including Theodor de Bry and Jodocus Hondius.

In 1592 Waghenaer published his second pilot-book with the title Thresoor der Zeevaert. He had reached the conclusion that the folio format used for the Spieghel was too large for seamen and returned to the more suitable oblong

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format. Since the publication of his Spieghel Waghenaer had assiduously collected new hydrographic material about bodies of water which were not described in the Spieghel. He must have received this evidence from Dutch navigators, a fact which clearly illustrates the expansion in the Dutch fishing and trading areas after 1580. The Thresoor is the earliest Dutch publication to contain charts and navigational instructions for the north of Scotland and the groups of islands situated to the north of that country and also for the south of Ireland, parts of the White Sea and the Baltic. There is also a chapter with sailing instructions and coast profiles (but no charts) for the Mediterranean coasts as far as Venice. Waghenaer did not confine himself to European waters by any means, but also for the first time included a summary on navigation to the Indies and China by Dirck Gerritsz Pomp, who also carne from Enkhuizen. The Thresoor was published in many new and updated editions until 1608, two years after Waghenaer's death. This pilot-book occupies an important position in Dutch navigation and also had a major influence on the work of Willem Jansz Blaeu, who modelled his Het Licht der Zeevaert, published in 1608, on the Thresoor, copying both the format and the overall arrangement and design of the charts. Finally one should also mention Waghenaer's Enchuyser Zeecaertboeck, which was published by Cornelis Claesz in 1598. With this work Waghenaer wanted to give the simple seaman who could not afford his other pilot-books, de- tailed information about European navigation for a moderate price. For this pilot-guide Waghenaer returned to the original form of the rutter and the two smaller charts provided with it (Zuyder Zee and Enckhuizen) were added more in honour of his home town of Enkhuizen than as aids to navigators.

Lucas Jansz Waghenaer's guides for mariners finally established Dutch marine cartography in the dominant position it was to maintain on the European market until the late 17th century.

Let us now turn to the other less well-known representatives of the North Holland cartographic school. Although no manuscript charts by Waghenaer are known and his contributions in the field of navigation have survived only in printed form, the situation was different for the other "caartschrijvers" from Edam and Enkhuizen. Only a part of their cartographic work has been printed, while the greater part consists of manuscript maps on vellum. Unfortunately only a few charts are now in Dutch collections, the remainder, as we shall see, have been dispersed throughout the world. Taken as a whole the work can be divided into two categories. First we may mention the charts which were of a functional nature and were actually used as sailing charts by Dutch seamen on board ship. Secondly there are the "office charts", dis- tinguished by their decorative design and colouring, which because of their beauty were hung in the offices of shipowners and wealthy merchants as a wall decoration and source of information. A few of them have found their way into collections and have thus been preserved. The charts of the latter category with the miniature paintings which appear on them are among the most beautiful portolan charts produced in the Golden Age. A further char- acteristic of these "caartschrijvers" is the geographical region shown on their portolan charts. Whereas Waghenaer confined himself to navigation along the coasts of Europe - with minor exceptions in the later editions of his Thresoor - the charts drawn by the other map-makers generally show an entire continent or an ocean with the coasts which border on it.

Cornelis Doetsz (Doedis, Doeds, died 1613) of Edam was one of the most pro- lific representatives of this cartographic school. Among his earliest works is a hitherto unknown navigation manual published by the well-known Amsterdam publisher Cornelis Claesz with the title Graetboeck nae den ouden stijl... ouersien ende perfect bevonden van C.D. (Cornelis Doetsz). This small book contains not only declination tables and tide tables but also a complete "lees-

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kaart" (rutter) of the courses and distances in the eastern and western navigable waters.

The earliest known chart by Cornelis Doetsz was also published by Cornelis Claesz. This is the Pascaerte Inhoudende dat gheheele Oostersche en Noortsche vaerwater, which was of great importance for navigation in the Baltic and the White Sea. The only known copy is in the British Library, London, bound in Waghenaer's Den Nieuwen Spieghel der Zeevaert....1596. This portolan chart depicts the latest state of Dutch cartographic knowledge of northern Europe. In the northern region the map extends further to the east than on the chart of Europe of 1583 provided by Lucas Jansz Waghenaer in the Spieghel der Zeevaerdt.

Adriaen Veen, the inventor of "gebulten paskaarten" (spherical charts), was also the author of the work Napasser van den Westersche ende Oostersche Zeevaert in which he provides a digest of the geographical latitudes, courses and distances in miles from the most important rutters and portolan charts on the market at the time. Among the material used by Adriaen Veen reference is made in the tables to Cornelis Doetsz' Graetboeck and portolan chart of 1589.

After the death of Cornelis Claesz in 1609 the copperplates for Cornelis Doetsz' chart carne into the hands of Claes Jansz Visscher, who published a new edition of the chart the following year. From this it may be concluded that Cornelis Doetsz' special chart was greatly valued by the Dutch shipowners.

The earliest surviving manuscript chart of Europe by Cornelis Doetsz is in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Florence. This parchment chart reaches only just north of Trondheim in northern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean basin is not shown.

A similar chart by Cornelis Doetsz may have been used by Willem Jansz (Blaeu) for his first printed chart of Europe of 1605. The only known copy, which is in a very poor condition, is in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. On this chart of Europe, which is printed on vellum, Willem Jansz states that it "van nieus in alle plaetsen met groote neersticheyt oversien ende seer verbetert (is) door Cornelis Doedsz. van Edam" (has been revised with great precision in all places and much improved. By Cornelis Doedsz of Edam). We can see that in addition to Cornelis Claesz who was the most important Amsterdam publisher in the field of navigation, cartography, geography and voyages of discovery around the turn of century, Willem Jansz also endeavoured to obtain and publish the best available manuscript material.

A unique cartographic document relating to Dutch trade at the turn of the 16th/17th. century is a chart of Europe by Cornelis Doetsz which was dis- covered only a few years ago in the Badische Landesbibliothek in Karlsruhe. This chart which was engraved by Jodocus Hondius in 1602 and printed on vellum by Cornelis Claesz gives an amazing view of the commercial development and rapid progress in Dutch navigation. It covers the sphere of Dutch trading interests from the North Cape and Iceland as far as the Canary Islands on the one hand, while the western and eastern boundaries are formed by the Azores and the Adriatic respectively. The trading function of this chart is expressed particularly by the cartouches listing the commodities which could be obtained in the various countries. The chart was not, however, intended only for the merchant, for whom it provided important information about the commodities traded by the various countries, but also and primarily for the mariner. It was for the latter that the 25 views of ports were provided around the edges of the chart in order to simplify entry to and departure from

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Cornelis Doetsz, Chart of Europe,

1602. Printed on vellum, 54 x 70,5 cm,

(Badische Landesbibliothek,Karlsruhe)

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those ports. In addition two detailed legends in Europe and North Africa deal with the methods which could be used to determine the distance between ports.

During a systematic search for Dutch portolan charts in British collections I discovered a chart of Europe by Cornelis Doetsz printed on vellum and published in 1606 by Willem Jansz (Blaeu) in the collection of the Royal Geographical Society, London. It bears no title, but the chart is described in detail in the publisher's dedication to the reader: "Willem Ianszoon to the willing reader. On this sea chart (willing spectator) you have all the seacoasts of the whole of Europe, drawn with great perfection by Cornelis Doedszoon of Edam...". To the west of the coast of Novaya Zemlya is printed a shortened version of the privilege granted by the States General for this chart of Europe. Since Willem Jansz also wished to include the coast of the Levant on the chart, this is drawn inside the mainland of North Africa.

The esteem in which the chart of Europe published in 1606 by Willem Jansz was held is indicated by the publication of a second edition. In the mean- time Cornelis Doetsz had died in 1613, so that Willem Jansz alone was re- sponsible for this revised chart. Three copies of this second edition are known at present, all of which are printed on vellum. The 1606 copperplate has been corrected in two places. The most striking correction by comparison with the original edition is the omission of the west coast of Novaya Zemlya and the privilege of 1606 printed next to it, in place of which there is now a small insert map of Spitsbergen. A further addition is the inclusion of Jan Mayen Island. The fact that these specific corrections were made to the second edition is not surprising, since these two countries were the two most important bases for Dutch whaling after the foundation of the Noordsche Compagnie in 1614.

The chart of Europe of 1606 in the collection of the Royal Geographical Society also shows a marked similarity to another chart of Europe by Cornelis Doetsz, which was printed by the Amsterdam publisher Dirck Pietersz Pers. The cartographic contents of these two charts correspond so closely that there is no doubt that the chart of 1606 served as a model for the first edition of the chart published by Dirck Pietersz Pers. Unfortunately we do not know the first edition of this chart of 1610, since both the copy in Brussels and that in Bergen show Jan Mayen Island and Spitsbergen (with later names), which means that these must be a later edition. The insert map of Spitsbergen was engraved by the famous cartographer Hessel Gerritsz.

So far we have discussed only Doetsz' charts of Europe, but this "caartschrij- ver" from Edam also drew sailing charts for other parts of the world. The oldest dated manuscript chart by Cornelis Doetsz which has been preserved is in the National Museum in Tokyo. Together with two other parchment sheets, this sea chart recalls the first Dutch contact with Japan. These three parchment charts were most probably part of the equipment for the ship De Liefde, the only vessel from the fleet of Mahu and De Cordes to reach Japan. While two sheets are anonymous, but undoubtedly of Dutch origin, the third sheet was drawn by Cornelis Doetsz. The chart covers the region between the uncharted southern continent in the south and Japan and Korea in the north. In the top left-hand corner it is signed by Cornelis Doetsz and dated 18th February, 1598. The chart is based entirely on Portuguese sources. As his main source Cornelis Doetsz used the work of Jan Huygen van Linschoten, whose Itinerario published in 1596 summarized Portuguese knowledge of these regions.

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The same applies to his chart of the Indian Ocean in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Florence. In this case the chart by Petrus Plancius based on Portuguese material and the chart of the Indian Ocean in the Itinerario served as models. While the nomenclature on the chart is therefore entirely Portuguese, Cornelis Doetsz recalls the sighting of Mauritius by Wijbrant van Warwijk during the second Dutch voyage to the Indies in 1598 ("Do Cirne of Mauritiuslant").

The only portolan chart by Cornelis Doetsz which has been preserved in a Dutch collection is in the Bodel Nijenhuis collection in Leiden. This is a manus- cript chart of the Atlantic Ocean on vellum dated 1600. Thirty years later such outline charts of the Atlantic with the coasts of America in the west and the west coasts of Europe and Africa in the east were known as "West- Indische Paskaarten" (West Indies portolan charts). These "overzeilers" were intended in particular for the longer voyages to the regions in Africa and America. Once the coast was in sight navigation could be continued with the aid of sailing instruction and other manuscript detail charts.

The chart by Cornelis Doetsz is one of the earliest Dutch outline charts of its kind; there is only one by another representative of the North Holland cartographic school which is dated one year earlier. Jan Dircksz Rijckemans drew an outline chart of the northern Atlantic in 1599. This vellum chart in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris is the only cartographic evidence of this "caartschrijver" from Edam. Such "overzeilers" must have acted as a guide to the Dutch mariners on their early voyages across the Atlantic.

Of the work of Claes Pietersz, a "caartschrijver" in Warder, a small village between Edam and Hoorn, only one manuscript chart of the Atlantic dated 1607 has been preserved (Biblioteca Nazionale, Florence). The coastlines of the mainland and the islands have been drawn in a very similar manner and with the same care as the other charts produced by the North Holland cartographic school. We must undoubtedly assume that for the cartographic content of these outline charts of the Atlantic the various representatives of the North Holland school of cartographers drew largely on Spanish and Portuguese prototypes, but included as new elements the results of Dutch exploration. The nomencla- ture along the east coast of South America between Amazonas and Trinidad on the chart by Claes Pietersz provides clear evidence of knowledge. provided by the Dutch voyages of exploration around 1600.

Of the five manuscript charts on vellum which have been preserved put of the work of Evert Gijsbertsz, another "caartschrijver" of Edam, four are so richly drawn and finely coloured that they must be included in the decorative category of the charts produced hy the North Holland cartographic school. In the manuscript section of the Koninklijke Bibliotheek in The. Hague I dis- covered two anonymous manuscript charts on vellum, which must without doubt be attributed to Evert Gijsbertsz. Both charts have a Latin title, are drawn in the same style and are based exclusively on Spanish and Portuguese sources. From the content of the charts both must have been drawn before. 1596. The only indication that the charts are of Dutch origin is the Dutch legend in the cartouche showing the scale. The first chart covers the New World to the south of Newfoundland as far as the Strait of Magellan. The cities of Mexico and Cuzco are represented in two insert maps. The second chart shows the western part of the Indian Ocean. The cartouche with the compasses drawn in the bottom left-hand corner of the chart is identical to that on the chart of the Indian Ocean of 1599, signed by Evert Gijsbertsz, which is: in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. This is one of the reasons for attributing the two anonymous charts in the Koninklijke Bibliotheek to Evert Gijsbertsz.

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Fig.2 Claes Pietersz, Chart of the Atlantic

Ocean, l6O7.Ma on vellum, 82 x 103 cm

(Biblioteca Nazionale, Firenze)

It can be seen from a glance at Evert Gijsbertsz' chart of the Indian Ocean and the Far East of 1599, now in the Library of New South Wales in Sydney, that it was not really intended for navigation on board ship, but fulfilled a decorative function with its superabundance of illustrations. In this chart Evert Gijsbertsz achieved a masterpiece of decorative effect. The geo- graphical contents of the chart are based entirely on Portuguese sources. While Van Linschoten's Itinerario of 1596 was the main influence on the drawing of the coastlines of the Indian Ocean (four out of the five groups of figures on the insert maps are also copied from the Itinerario), for his representation of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Philippines Evert Gijs- bertsz turned to the work of the Portuguese cartographer Vaz Dourado of 1580.

The chart of the Indian Ocean and the Far East in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, which was also drawn by Evert Gijsbertsz in 1599, is entirely dif- ferent in character from that in Sydney. The Paris chart is a true sailing chart, on which the ornamentation is of minor importance. This portolan chart by Evert Gijsbertsz is one of the earliest Dutch outline charts from the Cape of Good Hope as far as Japan. The drawing of the coastlines on the Evert Gijsbertsz charts in Sydney and Paris is almost identical, with the exception of certain details in the Indonesian Archipelago and in particular the totally different representation of the Philippine archipelago, where instead of the manuscript chart by Vaz Dourado he has followed the much more correct model of the engraved chart of the Indonesian archipelago and the Far East in the Itinerario.

The latest chart produced by Evert Gijsbertsz is the magnificent manuscript chart of the North Sea dated 1601 in the Biblioteca Nazionale, Florence. This vellum chart, which is surrounded by a wide, decorative border of garlands, is one of the most beautiful known Dutch portolan charts. The sea harbours a number of curious miniatures, such as Neptune, sea monsters, compass roses, etc. In the top left-hand corner is the English coat of arms, in the bottom left-hand corner that of Denmark. There are also two small paintings; in the - region of Holland is a harvest scene and in Norway a bear hunt. But the de- tailed drawing of the coastlines shows that the Dutch were very familiar with the regions as a result of their cargocarrying activities. We do not know what Evert Gijsbertsz used as a model or whether this is his own design.

Two further representatives of the North Holland cartographic school are the brothers Marten and Harmen Jansz, whose known works include both decorative charts and functional sailing charts. In the former category is the manuscript chart of the world in four sheets in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, which was drawn on vellum by the brothers in 1610. Unfortunately the original beauty of the chart has been lost through damage by water. It is an important document not only for cartography but also for Dutch miniature painting. The cartographic source from which the two brothers from Edam obtained their information has recently been discovered. It is the map of the world on Mercator's projection by Willem Jansz, which was published in Amsterdam in 1607. Harmen and Marten Jansz slavishly copied the coastlines, names and legends from the Willem Jansz map.

In the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich are three fragments of a manuscript chart of the world on vellum, which was also drawn by the brothers Harmen and Marten Jansz. One of the fragments still bears the address of the two "caart- schrijvers". The unusual shape of the other two fragments indicates a possi— bility that the missing sections of the chart were used as a covering for a drum. Of a completely different character is the sailing chart of the Atlantic (Biblioteca Nazionale, Florence) drawn by Harmen Jansz in 1604. This vellum chart is another example of the "overzeiler" type we have mentioned before. On land there is a view of Fernando de Coronha, in front of which are passing four ships flying the Dutch flag.

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Fig.3 Evert Gijsbertsz, Çhart of the North

Sea, 1601.Ms on vellum, 78 x 92.5

cm. (Biblioteca Nazionale,Firenze)l.

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Evidence of the regular interchange between Amsterdam and the representatives of the North Holland cartographic school is provided by the fact that the chart of Europe by the brothers Harmen and Marten Jansz was published in 1621 by the Amsterdam publisher Jan Evertsz Cloppenburg. A copy printed on vellum is to be found in the Nordenskiöld Collection in Helsinki. Cloppenburg appar- ently met the brisk demand for such outline charts by a new edition in 1631. A copy of this later edition is located in the Kongelige Biblioteket in Copenhagen.

Finally a few words should be devoted to the very active career of Joris Carolus, a "caartschrijver" and "leermeester in de stuurmanskunst" (teacher of the art of navigation) from Enkhuizen. In the service of the Noordsche Compagnie Carolus undertook several voyages of exploration in northern waters. Two of his surviving manuscript charts reflect the results of these voyages. His richly ornamented manuscript chart of 1614 in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris documents the expansion of Dutch navigation in the northern polar region. The chart shows the results of the expedition with the vessels Gulden Cath and Orangienboom under the command of the pilot Joris Carolus. The north coast of Spitsbergen is drawn in as far as Hinlopen Strait, which was sighted for the first time by Carolus. Jan Mayen Island bears the name "Mr. Ioris eyland" after Joris Carolus, since he believed he was the first to discover that island.

On his polar chart drawn in 1626 and now in the Algemeen Rijksarchief, The Hague, Joris Carolus reports that he had himself navigated the regions shown three times: " Beschreven ende byeen vergadert en driemal selfs beseylt door Meester Ioris Carolus Stuyrman ende Caertschrijver tot Enchuysen: In den Iare Anno 1626".

At a more advanced age, after a varied career as a pilot, Joris Carolus pub- lished a pilot-book in 1634 with the title Nieuw vermeerde Licht ende Vierighe Colom des grooten Zeevaerts. In this he declares that all the soundings, surveys and drawings of the European coasts contained in this pilot-book were compiled not from the reports of others but from his own observations and presence: "niet uyt het verhaal van andere, maer uyt syn eyghen observatien ende byweesen".

Summing up this brief introduction to the various representatives of the North Holland cartographic school, two factors must be added to the characteristics of these cartographic workshops described at the beginning. Two categories of "caartschrijvers" can be distinguished. First there are those who compiled their material largely during their own career as mariners (Waghenaer, Carolus). The larger category, however, is that of the "armchair scholars" (Doetsz, Gijsbertsz, the brothers Harmen and Marten Jansz, etc), who produced their charts with the aid of other men's material. They drew some of their knowledge direct from Spanish and Portuguese sources, or from the work of Dutch scholars (Plancius, Van Linschoten), who in turn used Portuguese material as a basis. In their charts, however, the "caartschrijvers" also incorporated the results of the more recent Dutch trading and exploration voyages to all parts of the globe, so that they were able to offer an entirely up to date geographical picture. A further factor was the close cooperation between the North Holland cartographic school and the Amsterdam publishers. In the brief description of the charts we have repeatedly mentioned the names of the publishers Cornelis Claesz, Willem Jansz, Dirck Pietersz and Cloppenburg. This indicates a fruitful cooperation. In a sales catalogue of 1609, which was discovered a few years ago, Cornelis Claesz, for example, mentiones several loose sailing charts produced by the North Holland cartographic school:

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'Pascaerten van Oost en West middelsoorte van Cornelis Doetsen met de Havens op parkement ghedruct ende wel afgheset ende vergult'....50.-

(Portolan charts of east and west, medium size, by Cornelis Doetsz with the ports, printed on vellum, coloured and gilded)

'Pascaerte van Cornelis Doetsen van Oost ende West, met de Havens, middelbaer soorte op parckement ghecleeft, afgheset'..................25.-

(Portolan chart of east and west by Cornelis Doetsz, with the ports, médium size, pasted on vellum, coloured)

'Pascaert van Cornelis Doetsen op parckement ghecleeft van 't Oostervater, alleen afgheset'......................................................15.-

(Portolan chart by Cornelis Doetsz, pasted on vellum, of the eastern water, only coloured)

'Pascaert van Lucas Lansz, Waghenaer van Oost en West, met de Getijden ende Graet-boeck op parckement ghecleeft afgheset'..................25.-

(Portolan chart of east and west by Lucas Jansz Waghenaer, with the tides and chart book pasted on vellum, coloured)

'Pascaert van Lucas lansz. Waghenaer op parckement Oostwater alleen afgheset'....................................................15.-

(Portolan chart of the eastern water by Lucas Jansz Waghenaer, on vellum, only coloured)

'Pascaert van Lucas Jansz. Waghenaer, West-water alleen op parckement ghecleeft, afgheset'...............................................25.-

(Portolan chart by Lucas Jansz Waghenaer of western water only pasted on vellum, coloured)

'....Noch heb ick te coop met de Penne getrocken Pascaerten, van alle soorten van Oost-Indien, van West-Indien, van Gunea, van Terneuf, van de beste Caert-schrijvers gemaackt.' (I also have for sale portolan charts drawn with the pen of all sizes of the East Indies, the West Indies, Guinea, Newfoundland, made by the best map-makers).

There is no doubt that the knowledge of the North Holland cartographic school which has been obtained in recent years has given us a better idea of the early development of Dutch portolan charts, before Amsterdam took over the monopoly of this branch of cartography.

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