Hull college research 1

Adult Learner Research

2013

An exploration in to the multi-

dimensionality of participatory

behaviour; and what motivates

adults to return to education.

B814950X Garrie Steels Adult learning research

Contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………….p. 2

Research philosophy……………………………………………………p. 3 - 6

Research Design………………………………………………………..p. 6

Historical background…………………………………………………..p. 7

Multimodal Heuristics…………………………………………………..p. 8 - 9

Theory development……………………………………………………p. 10 - 13

Instrument Design……………………………………………………...p. 14 - 15

Phase 1………………………………………………………………….p. 15

Theme Summaries……………………………………………………..p. 15 - 17

Phase 2: Narrative of Qualitative data……………………………….p. 18 - 22

Discussion, implications and conclusions……………………………p. 23 - 24

References……………………………………………………………...p. 24 – 31

Bibliography…………………………………………………………….p. 31

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An exploration in to the multi-dimensionality of participatory

behaviour; and what motivates adults to return to education.

The research question that was initially formulated aimed to

inductively generate a theory (Rothchild 2006; Cohen et al., 2000).

Unfortunately, the initial question became subject to ethical

challenges; and within a framework that would demonstrate rigour,

validity and reliability, unsurprisingly; it was far better too

approach/explore the multi-dimensionality of participatory

behaviour; and what motivates adults to return to education. An

enquiry designed around this approach has a better fit to a

pragmatic framework (Armitage and Keeble-Allen, 2007; Bryman, 2007)

and the BERA ethical directives. Furthermore, this should help

bolster the totality of coherence; or as Moss et al., (2009) would

suggest as; ‘a chain of reasoning and logic’.

Similarly, individual agency and how the experiences of adult

learners’ are co/re-constructed (Clark 2011; Flowers 2009; p. 3)

needed a greater relationship to an interpretivist epistemology

(E891 Part 2: Action 2.9; Gage 1989). As the researcher primarily

overlooked these factors that, in turn, determine what is seen as

valid and invalid knowledge; then [those] factors would have been

overlooked when inferences were made during the research process

reducing the quality and internal - and possibly external -

validity. Obviously, this incommensurability will be addressed

before the researcher analyses any data generated (Bryman, 2007; p.

19).

With these approaches better placed the researcher could demonstrate

that - generally - social and cognitive phenomena are simultaneously

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quantitative and qualitative (Ercikan and Roth, 2006; p.16) and

participatory behaviour is an outcome of the ‘meaning-made’ (Clark

2011) i.e. social-cognitive collocation. This would then show that

cognition is co-constructed (Clark 2011) and re-constructed by

experience resulting in the multiple interpretations that create the

social realities in which people act (Flowers 2009; p. 3).

It could be suggested that the initial ‘meaning-made’ is a primary

motivator which persists until the time the learner feels satisfied

(Park and Choi 2009), or, has achieved ‘what they set out to

achieve’ (Gustafsson & Mouwitz, 2008). This also implies that

‘meaning-made’ is mutable (Gibbons Bylsma 1984) and subject to

further co/re-construction; adjustment; or complete abandonment.

Research philosophy

After extensive ‘Adult learner’ research and talking with

tutors that instruct adult learners’ highlighted a distinct

difference in the approaches from which children (Pedagogy –

teaching method) and adults (Andragogy – teach how to learn) are

taught. The implementation of informal learning methods, however,

appears to have dominance in the adult education field (Gibbons

Bylsma 1984). Therefore, in order to shape and advance the theory,

research design and instrument/s required conducting a focussed

literature review of several learning theories (see fig 1); namely,

Knowles’s Andragogy Theory (Houde 2006), Cross’s Characteristics of

Adult Learners (CAL) (Kohl-Frey and Schmid-Ruhe 2007; Crittenton

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Women’s Union 2012), Margin (Gibbons Bylsma, 1984) and Proficiency

Theory (Gustafsson & Mouwitz, 2008).

Fig. 1 is showing the associated theories that characterize adult learners’

What becomes problematic is; adult learning has not been researched

as vigorously as others areas of education, so the real challenge

will be – as Hodkinson and Macleod (2010) encountered - to anchor

the line of enquiry in a combined paradigmatic harbor. In contrast

to Hodkinson and Macleod (2010), the upcoming report will be

combining the aforementioned theories with the following paradigms’

as they display a distinct homogeneity. Specifically, social (E891

Part 2: Action 2.5), and cognitive constructionism (De Abreu 2000),

Interpretivism (E891 Part 2: Action 2.4; Gage 1989) with

quantitative and qualitative data collection i.e. mixed methodology.

A critical review of the initial report by Street (2013) and Holmes

(2013) exemplified the scarcity of knowledge and understanding some

had on the associated theories. Both commented on differing aspects

of the line of enquiry, but these were conceptual in nature. Street

(2013) illustrated that the researcher must remain aware of the

macro/micro societal effect that the learning environment has on the

adult's lived/shared experience and Holmes (2013) suggested that

there needed to be a better fit to the realities of the adult

learner. With this in mind I re-conceptualized the report and

reflected more specifically on the feedback and guidance.

Therefore, in order to steer the paradigms so that they pull in the

same direction, the aforementioned theories naturally occurring and

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Andragogy Theory

Margin Theory

Characteristics of Adult Learners (CAL) Theory

Proficiency Theory


overlapping dimensions will be grouped (i.e. constant comparison

method; Cohen et al., 2000; p. 151) by their substantive statements

(i.e. content analysis; Gillham, 2000; p. 137) and used to engender

questions. This process generated four themes that naturally

expanded upon their shared features.

Social contact and Relationships

Goal and relevancy orientated

External expectations

Internal expectations

In order to check for consistencies/inconsistencies (Denscombe,

1999; p. 217-8) between the questionnaires i.e. Phase 1 and Phase 2

and interview responses both datasets will be triangulated to assess

the overall motivation/s toward participatory behaviour i.e. cross-

sectional design (Bryman, 2006; p. 104). This ‘Mutual’ approach

(Armitage and Keeble-Allen, 2007) will be implemented during the

adult learners’ regular session/s, which should (1) reduce bias

(Nederhof, 1985) and attrition (Torgerson 2009), (2) be more

pragmatic than experimental research (Torgerson 2009), (3) increase

internal validity, reliability and research quality, (4) support

external validity and (5) decrease demand characteristics due to any

researcher effects.

Research enquiries can be polarized into qualitative and

quantitative classifications based on how phenomena are represented

(Ercikan and Roth, 2006). But, the researcher firmly believes; if

representative qualitative and quantitative data have shared aspects

that are dependent on their counterpart for completeness (Ercikan

and Roth, 2006; p.16; Bryman, 2006; Bryman, 2007), then the

incorporation of cross-validation is warranted to best serve this

enquiry.

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This strategy should ensure internal validity; especially when

considering using complementary methods (Armitage and Keeble-Allen,

2007). Moreover, as these quantitative and qualitative counterparts

contain a fundamental element of the interactive dependency that is

shared, and required, for individual understanding i.e. the

connectivity of interactivity and the influence on representative

individuality then the research must be aware to consider that both

methods have shared and conflicting elements.

Consequently, when considering multidisciplinary approaches,

mixed methods i.e. quantitative and qualitative and triangulation

one must be aware that incommensurability can exist between them.

Brannen (2005) suggests that some methods become more feasible

than others and deemed a better ‘fit’ as [they] provide more

sensitivity when investigating complex social phenomena. Hence,

certain methods, used in conjunction can become less than

complimentary with the other.

Additionally, Yin (2006) suggests that the ability to tighten the

use of mixed methods so that they do in fact occur as part of a

single study requires integration. The claim is that, the more that

a single study integrates mixed methods, the more that mixed methods

research, as opposed to multiple studies, is taking place (Yin,

2006).

Furthermore, Houghton et al., (2010) highlight one of the ethical

challenges, which have important implications for qualitative

research, practical examples and solutions. The unpredictability of

qualitative research means that an a priori prescription for ethical

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conduct is not always possible. Therefore, the researcher must be

constantly mindful of the on-going impact that the research might

have on those involved, while simultaneously being ethically

sensitive and morally competent

Although, mixing methods does provide an inferential narrative to

the statistical outputs from quantitative analysis, it might not

sufficiently negate the qualitative and quantitative dichotomy (Yin,

2006), or, necessarily produce the expected scholarly standard for presenting credible evidence (Maclure, 2005). These qualitative and quantitative complements are noticeably - even arguably - intrinsic

facets of social/cognitive interaction/functioning; hence, the

methods used to collect data in this enquiry will be trying to

procure what happens when the internal interact/s with an external

influence/s (Yin, 2006).

This illustration provides a start for thinking about yet other

types of mixed method research. The point is, if a relationship is

completely absent— particularly where two or more methods address

wholly different dependent, independent, or descriptive variables—

the mixed methods are likely to form separate studies, not a single

study (Yin, 2006).

All these influences are important and relevant, but they are only

some of the processes that, together, comprise a complex social

world and unfortunately; understanding that the relevance and value

assigned to learning by adults’ highlights the importance induced,

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does not necessarily liberate them (Hacking 1999; p. 2) from any

disenfranchisement they could feel. Likewise, the researcher

understands that the aforementioned factors are not the only

variables that are existent; however, the researcher is of the

opinion that those factors (see fig. 3 + 4) are the most prominent

from the observations made and literature review conducted.

Research Design

Fig. 2 is illustrating the design and flow of data analysis that establishes the

internal validity, reliability and quality of the research enquiry.

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Adult Learning

Constant Comparison

Content Analysis

Data Collection

Phase 1 + 2

Narrative of

Statistically

Triangulati

Triangulati Seeking links between the social/cognitive collocations, the impact of each on each and whether the data produced are congruent withthe Adult Learning


Historical background

Considering participation in adult learning since 1996 we see

it has remained around 40% for those of working age (16 – 69) for

seventeen years. These were either currently participating, or had

recently participated in the last three years. Of those that did

participate, there is an equivalent amount that has not participated

since leaving full time education. Although, 80% of students’

currently participating intend on continuing in further education

after they have completed the present course (see Tab.1).

Whilst participating in Further Education and Lifelong Learning I

observed a possible explanation for the existence of these variances

(that being relevance and value). A possible explanation for the

disordinal interaction (percentages decrease in the ‘Likely to learn

in the future’ group whilst percentages for ‘Unlikely to learn in

the future’ group increase) demonstrated in table 1 could be; the

further in years an adult moves away from education the less

relevance and value they attribute to returning to it. Or, is it as

Siraj-Blatchford (2010) may suggest; that the adults are

overscheduled and more committed to sustaining the home environment

and maintaining a career with ‘on the job’ training.

Future intentions tolearn – by learning

status, 2012

Currently

Learning%

RecentLearnin

g%

PastLearnin

g%

Not sinceleaving full

time education%

Likely to learn in the future

80 64 31 17

Unlikely to learn in the future

17 34 67 79

Table.1 NIACE and NALS statistic for adults’ future intentions to learn (UK and England sample 9,647); Datataken from Thomson, A. (2012) ‘Participation: a pre-condition for adult access’ NIACE and NALS, pp. 1 – 17

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[online] http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/events/Documents/2012/AlastairThomsonPresentation.pdf (accessed02/05/2013)

Multimodal Heuristics

Informal learning is seemingly multimodal i.e. being valuable

and relevant to the matter at hand and socially constructed through

long/short term interactions (GTC 2006). The informal learning

mechanisms that mediate influence shapes learning environments’

(Evans, et al., 2010; p. 6), cognitive processes and our social

interactions (Evans, et al., 2010; p. 6). ‘Meaning’ then, is co/re-

constructed by experience resulting in the multiple interpretations

that create the social reality in which people act (Flowers 2009; p.

3). And as Vygotsky would state; context affects cognitive - and by

way of - behavioural activities (De Abreu, 2000; p. 3)

Bruner’s suppositional framework suggests that learners form new

ideas or theories based upon what they already know (GTC 2006). His

theory of learning, not only, related to the way children's thinking

developed, but it could also be applied to adults learning new and

unfamiliar material (GTC 2006).

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http://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/events/Documents/2012/AlastairThomsonPresentation.pdf


Learners, as Bruner proposes, are creators and thinkers through the

use of inquiry (GTC 2006). The process of which how learners

dynamically construct knowledge is heavily in focus: implying the

transformation of information, which suggests that Bruner’s theory

of Constructivism falls into a cognitive domain (GTC 2006). Learners

are provided with opportunities to construct new knowledge and new

meaning from authentic experiences (Brockmann 2011). As a result,

this exposes the pivotal role Multimodal Heuristics start to have

when adults’ decide to return to education.

For instance, a parent can reassure a frightened child that ‘shadow

monsters do not exist!’ Although, a sibling can suggest leaving the

light on to scare the monsters’ away. This indicates that informal

learning can alter our worldview (e.g. ‘When did you stop believing

in Santa?’) if it is seen to offer a plausible solution.

This supports the concept of how informal learning can contribute to

our understanding, cognitive processes (De Abreu 2000), social

interactions, and the associated behaviours (Schwartz 1995; p. 5).

These multimodal components; not only determine the level of

commitment and motivation (Park & Choi 2009) that is ascribed to the

retention of relevant and valuable information (Gibbons Bylsma,

1984; p. 23), but also contributes to the ease of transfer and

retrieval of that information (Ekey 2012).

The characteristically pragmatic nature of adult learners’

(Abdullah, et al., 2008; Kohl-Frey and Schmid-Ruhe 2007; Crittenton

Women’s Union 2012) also demonstrates this need/requirement for

information to have applicability to their life. This is determined

by the perceived applicability it has to their future experiences

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and interaction. The internal dimensions of meaning-making are also

multimodal (Clark 2011) and seemingly derived from the combination

of the value and relevance (or Multimodal Heuristics - adults’

decide, through cognitive appraisal, their own level of involvement)

assigned by the adult to measure applicability.

Consequently, we could suggest that this is an ad hoc contribution to

our social cognition (Aronson et al., 2005; p.57 – 64; De Abreu

2000; p. 4), our availability heuristics (Rules of thumb; Aronson et

al., 2005; p. 74 - 75) and the associated behavior and schemas

(Aronson et al., 2005; p. 59 - 61), which then assist navigation of

social environments’.

Unfortunately, understanding that the relevance and value assigned

to learning by adults’ highlights the importance induced, does not

necessarily liberate adults’ (Hacking 1999; p. 2) from the

disenfranchisement they could feel in institutions where learning is

delivered primarily from a traditionally pedagogical approach.

Similarly, these interactions are situational and experienced

directly by participation, so it will be difficult to generalize the

results further than adult learning.

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Theory development

Essentially, humans tend to seek out information that confirms

what they think/believe to be most relevant or true to their

experiences and/or future interactions; a relative

cost-benefit/means-end (Evans, et al., 2010; p. 6) cognitive

appraisal that enables Multimodal Heuristic co/re-construction

(Clark 2011). This process begins to filter out information that is

considered worthless. The cost-benefit (Primary appraisal) and

means-end analyses (Secondary appraisal), along with the personal

value and relevance adults’ assign to learning (‘rule of thumb’

Gustafsson, L., & Mouwitz, L. (2008); p. 5) appear to be

hierarchical and Maslowian in nature.

Additionally, an adult must consider, through means-end analysis,

the benefit of actively participating and building upon their

knowledge and experience, throughout their participation in

learning. Ultimately mediating their need for satisfaction i.e.

Socio-emotional negotiation and selectivity (Houde 2006). As a

result, for the adult to consider participation Multimodal

Heuristics must negotiate support for expectation and assess the

benefit knowledge, learning and education have in recompense for

reorganizing multiple obligations, and competing priorities (Evans,

et al., 2010; p. 12).

Therefore, is socio-emotional negotiation and selectivity a process

of fragmenting information so that it creates a heuristic

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commensurability with an individual’s normative social and cognitive

functioning, which therefore, influences behaviour i.e. influential

connectivity of socio-cognitive interactivity affecting the

potentials for action?

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Primary appraisal

Perception of Value

Perception of Relevance

Motivated to

Socio-emotional negotiation and selectivity

Cost-benefit analysis

Mean-ends analysis

Availability heuristics – Rule of thumb

Freedom to participate

Access to learning

Secondary appraisal


Fig. 3 is showing the internal framework of the decision making, and meaning-making, mechanisms that helpgenerate mental constructs of multimodal heuristics.

To some degree, we can compare the assessment of value and relevance

to Gustafsson & Mouwitz (2008) description of Proficiency Theory,

and, means-end and cost-benefit analyses to McClusky’s Margin Theory

(1974, as quoted in Gibbons Bylsma 1984). These theories emphasize a

need to be competent at tasks’ whilst being realistic about certain

physical, mental and social capabilities. If there is conflict

between primary and secondary appraisals this could be seen as a

violation of expectation (Deffenbacher 1993), which may account for

drop-out rates, serial signers’, absenteeism, non-participation in

task relevant activities, specific course popularity, the cost-

benefit/means-end analysis (Evans, et al., 2010; p. 6; Geertz 1993;

p. 4 - 5) for staying the course and societal perception of lifelong

learning (Tab. 1).

For instance, after asking my students’ (12 in total) if they had

any questions about what had been learnt, they responded with “what

would I do if…?” and “When would I use…?” As there were only subtle

variations in discourse, in regards to relevance and value, I feel

this highlights (1) what comprises Multimodal Heuristic co-

construction, and (2) what is required from information when it is

presented outside of their interpretation of it. Moreover, adults

maintain autonomy (Gibbons Bylsma 1984) by performing a cost-benefit

analysis to justify their participation; being that peripheral or

full (Swan 2005; p. 5).

Firstly this, amongst others mentioned, will form the basis of ‘what

counts as value and relevance evidence’, and, from which,

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Associated


quantitative data will be collected (questionnaire). Lastly, the

quantitative data will be qualitatively complemented with a semi-

structured interview to produce a rich narrative and attain thick

descriptions (Geertz 1993). The semi-structured interview will be

conducted with a subset of the surveyed group and will represent a

cross-section of the adult learners’ in that group i.e. single

parent, co-parent and a single male/female with no dependants.

And as Denscombe (1999) and Brockmann (2011) found; interaction is

situational and experienced directly by participation, making it

essential to respect [their] views, with, further recognition given

to the possibility that [their] priorities may not reflect the

general consensus view or official theory.

For example, Gustafsson & Mouwitz (2008) have reported; what is

valued and encouraged in formal learning environments lacks to

varying degrees explicit relevance in the workplace. Therefore,

adults must demand a greater degree of relevance, value and

satisfaction when deciding to return to, and participating in,

education (Abdullah, et. al. 2008; Houde 2006).

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Secondary appraisal

Satisfaction/

Continued/discontinued motivation for participate

Appraisal of Value

Appraisal of Relevance

Associated


Fig. 4 is showing the internal framework of secondary appraisal that aims tojustify the decision made and validate the perception of learning by paralleling

meaning-made with the realities of the study.

Illustrating, not only that the individual agency of these

interpretations of relevance and value are co/re-constructed (Clark

2011) cognitively (GTC 2006) and socially (Hacking 1999), but also

that adults’ apply this form of Heuristic Multimodality when seeking

satisfaction from having their expectations fulfilled.

Park & Choi (2009) have reported that relevance and satisfaction,

being sub-dimensions of motivation, are known to be interrelated

with various course-related issues. Even though the societal

influences mentioned in this report can modify (1) the assessment of

relevance and (2) affect the personal satisfaction adults cultivate

(Park & Choi, 2009) they can also mediate and reinforce

participatory behavior (Park & Choi, 2009) by enhancing the

importance adults’ induce when deciding an academic and/or social

level of involvement (Gibbons Bylsma 1984).

Furthermore, students’ have asserted that relevance is a significant

mediator in their assignment of value. Many students’ have commented

that relevance paralleled the value assigned to learning and their

specific choice of subject(s). These statements were observed over

time and place using a relative constant comparison method (Cohen et

al., 2000; p. 151). Their comments demonstrated the application of a

cost-benefit and means-end analysis e.g. “How relevant is…in the big

scheme of things?”, “When would I use…?” and “I don’t see the

relevance? Evidently, the use of Multimodal Heuristics acts as a

mechanism that could also increase commitment, dedication and

motivation (Park & Choi 2009).

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In constant comparison data are compared across a range of

situations, times, groups of people, and through a range of methods

(Cohen et al., 2000; p. 151 - 2). The process resonates with the

methodological notion of triangulation. The constant comparison

method involves four stages:

Comparing incidents and data that are applicable to each category,

comparing them with previous incidents in the same category and with

other data that are in the same category

Integrating these categories and their properties

Bounding the theory

Setting out the theory

The subjective ontological/epistemological view, research design and

methodology exhibited in this report is sufficient and necessary to

explore this direction of enquiry, if it were absent, it would prove

problematic supporting a theory with an accompanying objective

approach that advocates detachment (Flowers 2009; E891 Part 2:

Action 2.2; Gage 1989; E891 Part 2: Action 2.5), when, in this case,

it is more advantageous to explore the subjectivity of individual

agency, participatory behaviour and situational experiences,

motivation, and, the personal value and relevance assigned to

learning, as these are closer to the truth.

Instrument Design

There will be two distinct phases to data generation; firstly,

questions will be formulated from each of the four themes that CAL,

Andragogy and Margin and Proficiency theories appear to create and

then randomly assigned (Nederhof, 1985) to a questionnaire. A

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descriptive analysis of each question will be conducted to address

whether the aforementioned multi-dimensionalities of adult learners’

are being considered. The strength of the trend in the

agreement/disagreement should build a picture of the shared

experiences.

These questions will then be relocated back to the themes that

created them, scored (Likert Scale; the higher the score the more

relevance and value is attributed) and compared with the descriptive

analysis to, not only generate a semi-structured small group

interview schedule (Gillham, 2000), but also to get a sense of what

is personally valuable and relevant about learning. This is an

attempt to demonstrate; how meeting these multi-dimensionalities may

be instrumental in maintaining learner participation (Park and Choi

2009). Furthermore, by mapping these realities, establish whether

they support the general consensus view of these adult learning

theories.

An opportunity sampled group (16 – 35+) will be surveyed using this

questionnaire (13 in total) with a small group interview being

administered to a subset of the surveyed group (5 in total).

Ideally, this subset should be representative of the adult learners’

in that educational facility. Even though the whole group will be

opportunistically surveyed; in phase 2 every effort will be made to

be more purposive.

In order to support internal validity and ensure the reduction of

any bias the incorporation of a ‘social desirability’ measure

(Nederhof, 1985; SDR) will be added to the questionnaire. Certain

questions will be cross referenced with one another to assess

whether the adult learners’ are responding in a socially desirable

way. This local blocking technique should increase the internal

validity of the questionnaire, enhance the internal consistency of 19 | P a g e


the small group interview questions, reduce bias and maintain rigour

when all the data is analysed. This should also allow individual

agency (E891 Part 2: Action 2.4; Gage 1989; Denscombe 1999), shared

experience and the personal value and relevance attributed to

learning to be highlighted.

Due to the amount of data that could have been reported the

evaluation will be specifically limited to the triangulation

narratives of the ‘Theme Summaries’, interview data i.e. content and

descriptive analysis (Clark, 2011). The researcher firstly

formulated questions from these naturally occurring themes and

searched for consistencies and inconsistencies (Denscombe, 1999)

between the summary narratives (Gillham, 2000) and statistical

outputs from the descriptive analyses (Bryman, 2007).

Phase 1

As there were 30 questions generated from the four themes the

in-depth analysis of each question will be triangulated and

presented in the theme summaries. In an attempt to expose any

consistencies/inconsistencies (Denscombe, 1999; p. 217-8) in the

responses the data will be compared against the learning theories

that created them: ensuring validity.

Consequently, due to the amount of quantitative data generated from

the in-depth analysis of the individual questions, this report will

only include the second stage of Phase 1 i.e. descriptive analysis

and theme summary triangulation. The interview responses from Phase

2 will be further triangulated with these summaries and content

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analysed to highlight the adult learners’ realities and ascertain

what influences their decisions and motivates them to return too

education i.e. by constant comparison method.

Theme Summaries

Social contact and Relationships - Q1, Q2, Q6, Q7, Q17 Q19 and Q30

The adult learners’ appear to value social interaction and

feelings of reciprocal respect whilst participating in learning,

which demonstrates that the adult learners’ value a sense of

‘belonging’ (16/21). However, there is a small percentage that does

not see ‘belonging’ as being of value. Therefore, the feelings of

reciprocal respect and support cannot be generalised as influencing

their decision to continue in learning.

Internal expectations - Q10, Q13, Q14, Q15, Q18, Q22, Q26, Q28 and

Q29

This theme relates to the adult learners satisfaction.

Satisfaction, being a sub-dimension of motivation, is something that

must be regarded as paramount in the adult learning experience. The

consistent attendance of the adult learners’ at the session/s is

testament to their satisfaction with the course and the delivery

thereof (18/27). In essence, if the adult learner considers that

the potential learning opportunity is not transferable to the

workplace, is not satisfied, or perceives it as inadequate at

providing improvement to their problem solving capabilities could

ultimately diminish their motivation to participate.

Goal and relevancy orientation - Q3, Q4, Q5, Q9, Q11, Q16, Q20, Q23,

Q25 and Q27

External expectations - Q8, Q12, Q21 and Q24

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As these last two dimensions, respectively and comparatively,

share a greater degree of similarity they will be interpretatively

combined and presented together.

Looking at these from a political perspective; the demand for

lifelong learning to have greater prevalence in society sets an

industry standard that demands conformity to it. Subsequently, this

appears to facilitate the re/co-construction of self-directedness

and the personal interests of adult learners’ so that they begin to

mirror ‘what is required of them’; which is indicative of a cost-

benefit/mean-ends analysis. Therefore, some adult learners’ might be

so focussed or motivated on getting the qualification that they

adjust their sense of self-direction in order to reorganise their

lives and satisfy what is required of them i.e. Mutability for the

betterment of self.

It could also be suggested that the pressure too have certain

qualifications encourages participatory behaviour in some adult

learners’ and determines the relative conformity to industry demands

and learning the required skills i.e. something they adapt to rather

than adapted for them (Q8, Q9 and Q10). Conformity, in this sense,

would then act as a pre-determinant to achievement; the perception

of economic sustainability and upward mobility and what value, and

relevance, learning has.

Not surprisingly, this could be one reason why thousands of people

leave their jobs: they only took the job because it is what was

demanded of them, which is in direct conflict with their personal

interests, self-directedness and life goals. Which also illustrates

that cognition can be influenced by social interaction and be co/re-

constructed by experience and meaning-made.

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The questionnaire included items that let the participant assess the

value and relevance they attribute to learning as an adult. The

overall strength of this agreement was guided by their experiences

as an adult learner. However, some of the diagnostic questions

seemed to be complex and ask two things of the participant. As this

is a major source of error (Hammersley et al., 2003) the validity of

those questions will be scrutinised as the participants may have

weighted one aspects of the complex question more important than the

other aspect, hence, an adumbrated response i.e. a decrease in

validity.

However, all of the responses were reduced to one mean average for

that individual question, and as these were pooled from the four

themes that characterise adult learners’ it reduced sampling error

and bias. Furthermore, as there was a two stage analysis in phase

one the validity of the research instrument is strengthened;

especially when we factor in the use of the SDR measure to control

for bias (Nederhof, 1985) and the encouragement of omission

(Hammersley et al., 2003) when the participant had no opinion.

What we cannot suggest at this stage of the analysis, however, is

that the shared experience led to a shared meaning. As Denscombe

(1999) ascertained; the perceptions of the individual are not always

consistent with the general consensus view (Brockmann, 2011) of the

group as a whole. This extends to the meaning-made and the

individual nature of the meaning-making process. The surveyed group

cultivated differing levels of relevance and value from their shared

experiences. But, this was seemingly determined by the level of

relevance and value that was extrapolated from their continued

23 | P a g e


participation. Hence, the individual agency of meaning-making is an

outcome of the level of value and relevance attributed to the shared

experiences of learning as an adult, the level of satisfaction and a

sense of mutability for the betterment of self.

Phase 2: Narrative of Qualitative data

Before the triangulation, constant comparison and content

analysis the researcher must point out that (1) this was a small

scale study, (2) the interviews was held in a small group so full

disclosure by each participant was not always possible and (3) the

results should not be over generalised to other adult learning

situations. All that is being sought is an insight in to the

connectivity of socio-cognitive interactivity and the subsequent

24 | P a g e


influence on representative individuality; the multidimensionality

of participatory behaviour and what the adults felt their

motivations for returning to education were and still are.

This should (1) map the external/internal influences on the adult

learner; (2) expose the dimensions behind this seeming connectivity

of socio-cognitive interactivity that create the potential/s for

designated types of action i.e. Multimodal Heuristics and (3) if the

analysis supports the researcher’s theory and the adult learning

theories that feature in this enquiry.

Some of the interviewee’s shared a meaning to one degree, but

had a different meaning-making process before reaching that

decision; the salient feature was a shared-meaning in a shared-goal

in reaching university or attending a higher level course from the

successful completion of the current course of study. This gave them

a common ground on which to build upon ‘what learning means’ to them

on an individual basis whilst allowing the shared-meaning element

distinguish and define their individual social relationships in the

class; whom they sought clarification from; what level of

involvement they chose and what comparative judgements they begin to

make on others in the session/s.

Walter: “Well I think if you do… I think if you do…like, we are social people,

things…we are social and that’s that, that’s what we are…we are designed to be

social people, if we exclude ourselves we do not, you know, we lose all basic human

function, it’s like the guy at the front, you know he doesn’t … he can exclude himself,

he doesn’t do anything, he doesn’t enjoy being here, doesn’t have any excitement

about coming and learning…if you exclude yourself from everyone else you’ll

probably not learn!”

25 | P a g e


Serena: “I like learning with a group but then it’s dependent on what I do with that

information…but when it’s writing things down or posters and stuff I can’t have other

people touching.”

This illustrates that the need to feel self-directed and sometimes

being free from outside interference is just one of the

commonalities we start to see in the participants responses.

Although, some of the interviewee’s do highlight that;

Sally: “I came because I needed to do it, but now I quite, I’ve more motivation to

do it because I enjoy it.”

Therefore, the individual agency of meaning-making is, not only an

outcome of the level of value and relevance attributed to the shared

experiences of learning as an adult, the level of satisfaction and a

sense of mutability for the betterment of self, but also the

means/ends-cost/benefit interconnectivity seen in their decision-

making process i.e. motivated to do it and their continued

participation in the session/s that seemingly contributes further to

the mutability for the betterment of self in these adult learners.

The individual meaning-made is a product of these connective

interactivities varying – and individually decided - high/low levels

of cost/benefit the course has and what perceived means/end reward

the course provides for successful completion i.e. the multimodal

heuristic factors that led to participatory behaviour and

satisfaction.

The shared-meaning is an accidental affinity that becomes

synchronous with other people that are pursuing a similar goal as

them. This suggests that they share similar educational values and

relevancies due to their common or shared goals. The shared-meaning

dimensions presumably start to mediate the differing high/low

26 | P a g e


connective interactivity level in the cost/benefit and means/end

analyses. Furthermore, this also starts to define and distinguish

individual social relationships; who we seek advice and

clarification from; what level of involvement we chose and what

comparative judgements we make on others i.e. asynchronous affinity

with others.

The comments from these interviewee’s also highlights the need

to feel proficient and competent about the material in the course

and where they culture this confidence. It seems the more confident

the adult learner gets about understanding the material and being

able to discuss, question and seek clarification on their

understanding the more proficient and competent they feel.

This bolsters their feelings of satisfaction and adds to their

motivation to continue through reducing the physical and mental

sense of effort i.e. cost and/or means and increasing the perception

of benefit cultured from continuation in the session/s. e.g.

internal expectations and social relationships. This could be

defined as a beneficial compromise for the betterment of self being

the mediation of the perceived value social contact offers in

raising confidence, increasing feelings of proficiency and reducing

our fear of incompetency.

The commentaries also point toward Margin theory (Gibbons Bylsma,

1984) in the manner of how ‘power’ and ‘load’ i.e. the amount we can

manage is balanced with the effort we can assign to it and

‘expansive’ and ‘restrictive’ perceptions of future time i.e. the

older you are the more urgent something becomes also contributes to

the motivations of the adult learner (Gibbons Bylsma, 1984). So, is

motivation the product of a restrictive ‘future time’ perspective

creating a behaviourally urgent response to the realisation of your

current educational inequities; therefore, adding to the perception 27 | P a g e


of the reduction in opportunities for sustaining economic upward

mobility?

For example the following conversation illustrates the reasoning

behind this question;

Researcher: ‘so does anyone find, you know, that helps them decide to do a course, or, was it a combination of both things were like valuable and relevant to youas well?’

Walter: ‘Yeah, yeah…that’s the reason I’m here, you know you can’t get a well-paid job without English and Maths!’

Leroy: …’and without those I can’t precede on to university’

Researcher: ‘So you can see the as an industry standard kind of then?’

Walter: ‘Yeah, this is the industry standard’

Researcher: ‘So to actually progress you need these things to progress?’

Walter: ‘Yeah…yeah…’

Leroy: ‘Like to myself, like to have this qualification would make me feel better about it…but,’

Researcher: ‘Yeah…’

Leroy: ‘…it’s a requirement’

Researcher: ‘yeah like a stepping stone’

Leroy: ‘yeah.’

Therefore, these adult learners’ may just see the benefit of having

the qualification to progress beyond where they are now. This could

also suggest that these adults’ are fully aware that the ‘real

world’ applicability of certain subjects are determined by the

industry demand for that subject, making a qualification

economically more relevant and valuable to these adult learners’.

28 | P a g e


We could theorise that society has a shared understanding about what

industry requires of the workforce and how this requirement places a

demand on the learner to rearrange their lives in order to

participate in learning. Therefore, shared meaning in society could

be facilitated by a shared understanding of what it demands of

society, which supports the theory that adult learners’ must assign

more personal relevance, value and expectations of satisfaction to

learning before there is the motivation to return to education i.e.

is there a beneficial compromise between what I want and what they

require.

And as can be seen in the descriptive analysis of Q20, Q21 and

Q22.These questions relate to social influence and societies

perception of value and relevance assigned to learning. The adult

learner agrees that the decision to attend a course of study was

suggested to them (Q20) and that this social influence/encouragement

essentially provides the persuasive reinforcement to their implicit

understanding that; learning increases an adult’s chances of

employment (Q21). The adult learners’ also feel that the support

they receive from the different sources of this social

influence/encouragement is at a level which permits their

participation on the course of study.

We could again theorise that an individual knows what is demanded of

them in the employment market, but they seek confirmation on what

they already know. This suggests that ‘meaning’ is socially co/re-

constructed by the individual seeking confirmation on their present

understanding in order to reinforce their decision, and by way of,

increase motivation to return to learning. Furthermore, the adult

learners’ do not feel they have to make allowances to attend a

course, as long as the scheduled session/s is at a convenient time

for them to attend i.e. the conscious effort to avoid the conflicts

29 | P a g e


between personal obligations and scheduled session/s. Moreover,

showing that, for these adult learners’, the course of study has

value and is personally and economically relevant to them.

And as it was outlined in the ‘Theory Development’ section of this

report; we can compare the assessment of value and relevance to

Gustafsson & Mouwitz (2008) description of Proficiency Theory, and,

means-end and cost-benefit analyses to McClusky’s Margin Theory

(1974, as quoted in Gibbons Bylsma 1984). These theories emphasize a

need to be competent at tasks’ whilst being realistic about certain

physical, mental and social capabilities.

Moreover, because the theories that were used in this study have

overlapping dimensions (e.g. Q3, Q4 and Q12 overlap Social contact

and Relationships; Goal and Relevancy orientation and External

Expectations) with each dimension seemingly providing a piece to the

decisional mélange that affects the internal expectations i.e.

individual agency of the adult learner. We could therefore suggest

that Multimodal Heuristics and co/re-constructive social influence,

not only becomes more evident when motivation towards participation

is being established and/or maintained, but may also be one of the

key components in the processes that assist the transformation of

identity.

Hence, as a sense of belonging, competency, proficiency and

satisfaction are valued and relevant to the adult learner and evolve

as they evolve; as do their identities. Equally, in a sociocultural

ontology progress in learning is viewed along trajectories of

30 | P a g e


participation and growth of identity, so both competency and

belonging matter in understanding learning. It is for these reasons

that a sociocultural ontology describes learning as a transformation

of identity.

And as the report is looking at the macro and micro-structural

influences on the adult learner and how that comes to mediate and

motivate them toward participation we can suggest quite firmly that

identity transformation is closely tied to multimodal heuristics

which is apparently mediated by a co/re-construction between the

connectivity of social/cognitive interactivity thus having an impact

on the identity formation of the adult learner. So the relevancy and

value that is selected from external sources is fragmentally

factored from differing micro and macro-structural influences and

negotiated in to cognitive constructs i.e. internally mediated hence

facilitating the decisional components that create the motivation

for, and support continued participation towards, designated types

of action.

Discussion, implications and conclusions

31 | P a g e


So, are social contact and relationships the result of

synchronous affinities? Is the use of multimodal heuristics an

actual contributor to identity transformation? All that can be

suggested is that the results support the theory of multimodal

heuristics and the connectivity of interactivity and imply that

motivation is established through the individual deliberately, and

sometimes vicariously, extracting information from these proximal

and distal influences. Hence, social/cognitive collocation comes to,

not only reinforce their decision to participate in designated types

of action, but also – to a greater or lesser extent - impacts upon

the transformation of identity. But, we must keep in mind that this

is paralleled with a balance between the beneficial compromises for

the betterment of self and the perceived value social contact i.e.

belonging offers in raising confidence, increasing feelings of

proficiency and reducing the fear of incompetency.

The real implication of these results is the noticeable benefit of

informal conversations being used to reinforce learnt knowledge. The

participants suggest that more time for reflection and confirmation

would go some way to aiding the retention of new information, how

the information actually relates to their personal circumstances and

how this also contributes to feelings of belonging, proficiency,

competency and feelings of increased confidence. For example;

Walter : “…if you have a conversation with someone, say after this class, you’ll

remember that conversation better than you would, you know than someone

standing at the front of the class going ‘this guy wrote this poem about this”

And like the small child that is afraid of ‘shadow monsters’ and

leaves the light on; the sessions could benefit from the

incorporation of small group/whole class learning reinforcement

dyads of informal conversations. This would then start to determine

the level of commitment and motivation (Park & Choi 2009) that is 32 | P a g e


ascribed to the retention of relevant and valuable information

(Gibbons Bylsma, 1984; p. 23), and further contribute to the ease of

transfer/retrieval of the current learning material/s and any new

information (Ekey 2012).

In conclusion, if adults are autonomous, self-directed and pursue

their personal interests and goals then; when an adult decides to

return to education the course of study must display a greater

degree of relevance to the adults. If the course of study is

perceived as having relevance, it (1) fulfils their need for feeling

autonomous, (2) allows the adult to make an informed decision as to

the value it has, (3) contributes to the continuation of feelings of

self-directedness and (4) also contributes to their perceptions of

being closer to achieving their goals’; thus adding value.

Especially when we factor in that adult learners’ are complying with

requirements’ laid down by someone else and may need to reorganise

multiple obligations and competing priorities in order to

participate. Another reason that these adult learners’ generally

value the social interaction, support and reciprocal respect they

receive whilst attending a course of study. Hence, the sense of

belonging would be enhanced if there were more opportunities for

interaction. Therefore, creating more opportunities for reflection

between learners’ could, not only, reinforce learning, but also

support the feelings of belonging through increasing the

opportunities for discussion on how the material covered in that

session/s contextually relates to them. Moreover, focussing on

enhancing feelings of proficiency by allowing the adult learner to

co/re-construct their current understanding through reflecting upon

it with learners’ that share the same learning experience and

synchronous and asynchronous affinities.

33 | P a g e


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