Human Behavior and the Social Human Behavior and the Social Environment, Macro Level: Environment, Macro Level: Groups, Communities, and Groups, Communities, and

OrganizationsOrganizations(second edition)(second edition)

Katherine van Wormer Katherine van WormerFred H. BesthornFred H. Besthorn

Copyright 2010, Oxford University Press. For classroom use Copyright 2010, Oxford University Press. For classroom use only; all other reproduction or circulation is prohibited.only; all other reproduction or circulation is prohibited.

Chapter 1Chapter 1Theoretical PerspectivesTheoretical Perspectives

A new theme for a new edition: A new theme for a new edition: sustainability!sustainability!

Study of human behavior at the macro levelStudy of human behavior at the macro level—seeking the pattern in things—seeking the pattern in things

Use of Use of ourour s social workocial work imagination imagination required for required for macro-level generalist practicemacro-level generalist practice

From an empowerment perspective, HBSE to From an empowerment perspective, HBSE to study ecosystems of life in their study ecosystems of life in their interconnectednessinterconnectedness

HBSE-Macro LevelHBSE-Macro Level From an empowerment From an empowerment perspective, HBSE to study perspective, HBSE to study ecosystems of life in their ecosystems of life in their interconnectednessinterconnectedness

metaphor of the holonmetaphor of the holonenvironment-in-the-person as environment-in-the-person as well as person-in-the-well as person-in-the-environmentenvironment

Theory ConstructionTheory Construction

Theories offer explanations about human Theories offer explanations about human behavior and aspects of human behavior.behavior and aspects of human behavior.

Term Term theorytheory can be used in a formal or can be used in a formal or informal sense.informal sense.

Theories can be classified in terms of Theories can be classified in terms of scope:scope: Small range, middle range, grand theorySmall range, middle range, grand theory

Theories can be classified in terms of Theories can be classified in terms of ideology:ideology: order or consensus perspectiveorder or consensus perspective conflict perspectiveconflict perspective

Critical Thinking at the Macro Critical Thinking at the Macro LevelLevel

Two key aspects of critical Two key aspects of critical thinking: (Keefe)thinking: (Keefe) (1)(1) empathyempathy – the ability to put oneself – the ability to put oneself in the place of another, at macro level in the place of another, at macro level relates to a culture or population;relates to a culture or population;

profound empathy profound empathy relates torelates to empathy withempathy with nature.nature.(2)(2) critical consciousness critical consciousness – understanding – understanding encompassingencompassing the the social and economic social and economic context of human problems (from Freire, context of human problems (from Freire, Brazilian philosopher and activist)Brazilian philosopher and activist)

Paradigm ShiftsParadigm Shifts The Great Enlightenment – 18The Great Enlightenment – 18thth Century Century ushered in a paradigm shift—a scientific ushered in a paradigm shift—a scientific revolution or new worldview (Kuhn, 1962, revolution or new worldview (Kuhn, 1962, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions)The Structure of Scientific Revolutions)

To Schriver (2004), paradigm shift To Schriver (2004), paradigm shift represents a revolutionary break with represents a revolutionary break with past ways of viewing reality.past ways of viewing reality. May be brought about through actions taken May be brought about through actions taken by a dissatisfied segment of the community by a dissatisfied segment of the community or crisis such as war, economic depression, or crisis such as war, economic depression, or even a great plague.or even a great plague.

Paradigm Shifts in Paradigm Shifts in HistoryHistory

Pendulum swings between two opposite poles, may Pendulum swings between two opposite poles, may between right wing and left wing, conservatism and between right wing and left wing, conservatism and compassion for the poor—social reformcompassion for the poor—social reform

Progressive Era—1900-1914Progressive Era—1900-1914 World War I—conservativeWorld War I—conservative Great Depression—social reformGreat Depression—social reform World War II and the ’50sWorld War II and the ’50s 1960s1960s Reaganism—trickle down theory Reaganism—trickle down theory From the Bushes to Obama—attempts to address the From the Bushes to Obama—attempts to address the plight of the poorplight of the poor

Disillusionment today with capitalism and big banks Disillusionment today with capitalism and big banks and big business as a result of economic crisis of and big business as a result of economic crisis of 20082008

Macro-Level ResearchMacro-Level Research NASW Code of Ethics (1996) social workers to NASW Code of Ethics (1996) social workers to promote research and look toward social changepromote research and look toward social change

Macro level research rarely funded by the Macro level research rarely funded by the government.government.

Evidence-based practice research in demand and Evidence-based practice research in demand and vital for social change.vital for social change.

Watch for research biases: researcher’s agenda, Watch for research biases: researcher’s agenda, selection of variables studied, choice of selection of variables studied, choice of sample and manner in which data are collected.sample and manner in which data are collected.

Statistical data available at: Statistical data available at: www.warresisters.org , , www.amnestyusa.org , , www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs , , www.jointogether.org , , www.vpc.org , , www.drugpolicy.org

Research DesignResearch Design Knowledge of research techniques and Knowledge of research techniques and interpretations enhance critical interpretations enhance critical thinkingthinking

Social workers need accurate and Social workers need accurate and reliable data at hand to refute false reliable data at hand to refute false claims and to lobby the legislature for claims and to lobby the legislature for reformreform

Participatory research design—language Participatory research design—language from the people being studiedfrom the people being studied

Ethics of industry-funded research and Ethics of industry-funded research and the influence of funding source on the the influence of funding source on the findingsfindings

Introduction to Macro TheoryIntroduction to Macro Theory

Theoretical perspectives are ideologically Theoretical perspectives are ideologically based, especially macro theory which based, especially macro theory which pertains to the social structure.pertains to the social structure.

They reflect cultural and personal biases of They reflect cultural and personal biases of the theorist and the period. the theorist and the period.

Theories continually grow and change.Theories continually grow and change. Theoretical models in this chapter include: Theoretical models in this chapter include: ecosystems frameworks, sociological theories ecosystems frameworks, sociological theories of structural-functionalism, conflict and of structural-functionalism, conflict and structural, and newer approaches--feminist, structural, and newer approaches--feminist, empowerment and anti-oppression.empowerment and anti-oppression.

Each has strengths and weaknesses. Each has strengths and weaknesses.

Macro Level Social Work Social work concerned with sustainability today, given economic and environmental crises

Social work as in between socialism and capitalism

Social workers link with social welfare programming for the benefit of their clients; their effectiveness depends on external financial support.

Ecosystems ModelEcosystems Model

A combination of systems concepts A combination of systems concepts and ecological frameworkand ecological framework

Systems approach a reaction against Systems approach a reaction against dominance of Freudian theorydominance of Freudian theory Holistic; focused on interaction Holistic; focused on interaction among parts to make up a whole among parts to make up a whole

Brought to scientific prominence in Brought to scientific prominence in the 1960s through work of von the 1960s through work of von Bertalanffy, a biologistBertalanffy, a biologist

Theory to serve as a bridge between Theory to serve as a bridge between professionals from different fieldsprofessionals from different fields

Basic Assumptions of Systems Basic Assumptions of Systems ModelModel

The whole is more than sum of its parts.The whole is more than sum of its parts. Open and closed systems: Open and closed systems:

An open system conducts a steady state of An open system conducts a steady state of exchange with the environment. exchange with the environment.

A closed system is shut off from its A closed system is shut off from its environment.environment.

Increasing differentiation and Increasing differentiation and specialization from single cell to entire specialization from single cell to entire organismorganism

Boundaries of the system: firm yet Boundaries of the system: firm yet flexibleflexible

Causality is non-linear, interactiveCausality is non-linear, interactive

Evaluation of Systems ModelEvaluation of Systems Model How to verify? How to verify?

Cannot be proved or disproved by Cannot be proved or disproved by conventional methodological conventional methodological techniquestechniques

Does the theory incorporate Does the theory incorporate diversity and diversity and oppression?oppression?Focus is more on order than disorder, Focus is more on order than disorder, little emphasis on diversity or little emphasis on diversity or oppressionoppressionSystem said to return to equilibrium, System said to return to equilibrium, no allowance for social changeno allowance for social change

Contributions of Systems ModelContributions of Systems Model

Virginia Satir (1972) highly Virginia Satir (1972) highly influential family therapist, taught influential family therapist, taught therapists to look for family patterns, therapists to look for family patterns, saw roles as interconnected.saw roles as interconnected.

Family therapists such as Bowen focused Family therapists such as Bowen focused on need for firm family boundaries and on need for firm family boundaries and healthy family communication patterns.healthy family communication patterns.

Provides scope and flexibility which Provides scope and flexibility which may be used at any level.may be used at any level.

Offers a process for the organization Offers a process for the organization of knowledge in social work.of knowledge in social work.

Criticisms of Systems ModelCriticisms of Systems Model Negative criticism: Negative criticism:

Lacks a prescription for assessment or Lacks a prescription for assessment or intervention in social work.intervention in social work.

As “order theory,” it fails to deal with As “order theory,” it fails to deal with variables such as class, race, gender or power variables such as class, race, gender or power relations and conflicts.relations and conflicts.

Positive criticism:Positive criticism: Offers for human behavior a macro perspective, Offers for human behavior a macro perspective, attention to roles and role playing within the attention to roles and role playing within the family, work, societyfamily, work, society

Provides a focus on feedback and system Provides a focus on feedback and system boundariesboundaries

Shows how parts of the whole fit together and Shows how parts of the whole fit together and are mutually reinforcingare mutually reinforcing

EcosystemsEcosystems Framework Framework Ecological approach—popularized in the “life Ecological approach—popularized in the “life model” of Germain and Gitterman (1980,1996). model” of Germain and Gitterman (1980,1996). Notion of adaptation of organism to the Notion of adaptation of organism to the environment.environment.

Systems model focuses on roles; ecology focuses Systems model focuses on roles; ecology focuses on the setting or habitat. on the setting or habitat.

Combination of systems theory and an Combination of systems theory and an ecological, interactive perspectiveecological, interactive perspective

A hybrid model for describing human A hybrid model for describing human interaction--views organisms in constant interaction--views organisms in constant interaction and as interdependent with each interaction and as interdependent with each other and the environment.other and the environment.

Environment Environment in ecosystems terms refers to the in ecosystems terms refers to the neighborhood in which one lives and the schools neighborhood in which one lives and the schools one attends and, in this book, the natural one attends and, in this book, the natural realm.realm.

Basic Assumptions and Basic Assumptions and ConceptsConcepts

Film: Film: America’s Lost LandscapeAmerica’s Lost Landscape (2005) shows (2005) shows how life on the prairie is circular how life on the prairie is circular as are the seasons; anything that was as are the seasons; anything that was at one time will be again.at one time will be again.

Balance not equilibrium—earth in Balance not equilibrium—earth in balancebalance

InteractionismInteractionism:: Force exerted by the organism affects the Force exerted by the organism affects the environment environment

Organism Organism adaptsadapts, partially adapts or fails , partially adapts or fails to adapt to stress from the environmentto adapt to stress from the environment

Organisms work together to form a Organisms work together to form a systemsystem

Other Key Ecological ConceptsOther Key Ecological Concepts Niche Niche : a particular place suitable to the : a particular place suitable to the growth and development of the organismgrowth and development of the organism

Transactions :Transactions : interactions between people interactions between people and others in their environmentand others in their environment

Energy Energy : borrowed from systems theory, : borrowed from systems theory, refers to the power which springs forth refers to the power which springs forth and takes the form of input or output and takes the form of input or output depending on the direction of the energydepending on the direction of the energy

Targets of change Targets of change : the source of the social : the source of the social work intervention-- can be individuals, work intervention-- can be individuals, groups, or whole communitiesgroups, or whole communities

SustainabilitySustainability Important concept added to ecosystems in this Important concept added to ecosystems in this text, a means of assessment of a policy of text, a means of assessment of a policy of practicepractice

Definition—meeting present needs without Definition—meeting present needs without destroying resources for future generationsdestroying resources for future generations

Are present environmental practices Are present environmental practices sustainablesustainable

(for example, deep sea oil drilling)?(for example, deep sea oil drilling)? Nancy Mary—we need to a sustainability-first Nancy Mary—we need to a sustainability-first not markets-first scenario, social work focus not markets-first scenario, social work focus

Environmental sustainability is also Environmental sustainability is also economically sustainable in preserving economically sustainable in preserving resourcesresources

Criticism of Ecosystems ApproachCriticism of Ecosystems Approach

Seen as overly inclusive, non-Seen as overly inclusive, non-prescriptive, and it doesn’t explain prescriptive, and it doesn’t explain anything anything

Non-verifiable in its broadest formulationNon-verifiable in its broadest formulation But built on truths that can be validated But built on truths that can be validated such as the impact of pollution on the such as the impact of pollution on the earth and all living thingsearth and all living things

Does it incorporate issues of diversity Does it incorporate issues of diversity and oppression?and oppression? Yes; it can examine cultural environments and Yes; it can examine cultural environments and how organizations adapt to cultural diversity how organizations adapt to cultural diversity

Oppression can be addressed from an empowerment Oppression can be addressed from an empowerment perspective as we do in this text.perspective as we do in this text.

Contributions to Social WorkContributions to Social Work Important idea that person and the environment Important idea that person and the environment are in constant and dynamic interaction, a are in constant and dynamic interaction, a non-linear viewnon-linear view

Family therapy borrows from ecology; roles Family therapy borrows from ecology; roles individuals play in a family are seen as individuals play in a family are seen as complementary and interactive. This insight is complementary and interactive. This insight is relevant also to group work. relevant also to group work.

Advantages: provides the ability to analyze Advantages: provides the ability to analyze circular connections between worker and circular connections between worker and client, value in assessment, integration of client, value in assessment, integration of other social work theoriesother social work theories

More representative than general systems More representative than general systems theory of reality, adaptable to all levels of theory of reality, adaptable to all levels of intervention.intervention.

What Does the Theory Teach What Does the Theory Teach about Human Behavior?about Human Behavior?

The concept of The concept of adaptationadaptation in assessing in assessing the goodness of the goodness of person-environment fit person-environment fit or how or how well people cope with stressors in their well people cope with stressors in their surroundings.surroundings.

Can serve to locate points of oppression Can serve to locate points of oppression and the need for structural change to and the need for structural change to provide personal growth and development.provide personal growth and development.

Notion of sustainability provides Notion of sustainability provides insights and accountability for insights and accountability for policies.policies.

Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism

A theory from sociology—addresses A theory from sociology—addresses phenomena at the macro-macro levelphenomena at the macro-macro level

Views the social system as composed of Views the social system as composed of interdependent parts, each with positive interdependent parts, each with positive consequences or functions, working consequences or functions, working together to produce stability.together to produce stability.

Talcott Parsons, 1940s, wanted to Talcott Parsons, 1940s, wanted to construct a grand theory for all the construct a grand theory for all the social sciences:social sciences: SSocial system must have an adaptive function to ocial system must have an adaptive function to relate to other systems. There must be a relate to other systems. There must be a pattern pattern of maintenanceof maintenance and and tension managementtension management

Tendency for system to maintain equilibriumTendency for system to maintain equilibrium

Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism Merton (1957) contributed concepts of latent Merton (1957) contributed concepts of latent and manifest functionsand manifest functions

Manifest : stated, obvious reasons for an Manifest : stated, obvious reasons for an activityactivity

Latent: unintended or not initially Latent: unintended or not initially recognized reasonsrecognized reasons

Conflict can unite people against source of Conflict can unite people against source of conflict.conflict.

Gans (1995): used functional analysis from a Gans (1995): used functional analysis from a radical perspective to consider the functions radical perspective to consider the functions of poverty--Poverty has many latent functions of poverty--Poverty has many latent functions such as giving us people to feel superior to, such as giving us people to feel superior to, making jobs for social workers, etc.making jobs for social workers, etc.

Contribution to Social WorkContribution to Social Work No place for individuals in system, No place for individuals in system, only statuses and rolesonly statuses and roles

Relevance at the wider societal levelRelevance at the wider societal level Enables social workers to examine Enables social workers to examine social institutions from a broad-based social institutions from a broad-based perspectiveperspective

Major criticismsMajor criticisms Conservative bias of early sociologists Conservative bias of early sociologists due to focus on maintaining equilibriumdue to focus on maintaining equilibrium

Acceptance of the status quoAcceptance of the status quo Fails to focus on the nature and Fails to focus on the nature and meaning of the interaction among humans meaning of the interaction among humans

Is the Theory Verifiable?Is the Theory Verifiable? Society decides whether a custom or social Society decides whether a custom or social activity is functional or not.activity is functional or not.

Government statistics may show the good or Government statistics may show the good or harm of a certain practice such as organized harm of a certain practice such as organized crime, the death penalty or poverty.crime, the death penalty or poverty.Does the theory incorporate issues of Does the theory incorporate issues of

diversity and oppression?diversity and oppression? Structural functionalism tends to justify Structural functionalism tends to justify societal issues instead of social change to societal issues instead of social change to end oppression.end oppression.

Functional analysis may be used by radicals Functional analysis may be used by radicals in a creative way to explain oppression.in a creative way to explain oppression.

What Does It Teach about What Does It Teach about Human Behavior?Human Behavior?

Functional analysis can be used to Functional analysis can be used to handle why questions: why homophobia, handle why questions: why homophobia, poverty, or crime poverty, or crime

But theorists should also consider the But theorists should also consider the dysfunctions of homophobia, poverty, dysfunctions of homophobia, poverty, etc., in our societyetc., in our society

Especially important to consider are the Especially important to consider are the latent functions latent functions of an activity or custom of an activity or custom (for example, weddings and funerals) to (for example, weddings and funerals) to appreciate the unintended and hidden appreciate the unintended and hidden aspects of the activities and ritualsaspects of the activities and rituals

Conflict TheoryConflict Theory Also from sociology, reaction to functionalismAlso from sociology, reaction to functionalism Societies not seen in equilibrium here but as Societies not seen in equilibrium here but as in perpetual conflict– torn by constraint and in perpetual conflict– torn by constraint and struggles for power.struggles for power.

Assumptions and concepts:Assumptions and concepts: Karl Marx: Karl Marx: alienationalienation of people from the of people from the social system that exploits themsocial system that exploits them

C. Wright Mills: C. Wright Mills: thethe power elitepower elite and and thethe sociological imagination sociological imagination needed to see through needed to see through aims of the power structureaims of the power structure

Piven and Cloward: Elites in society can be Piven and Cloward: Elites in society can be counted on to provide only enough aid to counted on to provide only enough aid to prevent mass disorder and regulate the prevent mass disorder and regulate the poor. Welfare aid is stigmatized.poor. Welfare aid is stigmatized.

Conflict TheoryConflict Theory

OffersOffers structural structural explanations for social and many explanations for social and many personal problems.personal problems.

OppressionOppression of the people who are left out of the of the people who are left out of the power structure.power structure.

Social controlSocial control seen as a function of much of social seen as a function of much of social work.work.

Canadian theorist Bob Mullaly (1997): Canadian theorist Bob Mullaly (1997): structural structural social work –social work –focus on structure.focus on structure. Views one’s Views one’s circumstances and difficulties as connected to circumstances and difficulties as connected to one’s economic and social position in society. one’s economic and social position in society.

Conflict theory includes feminist, empowerment, Conflict theory includes feminist, empowerment, and anti-oppressive ideas.and anti-oppressive ideas.

ConsiderationsConsiderations

Is conflict theory verifiable?Is conflict theory verifiable? Mills’s (1956) concept of the power Mills’s (1956) concept of the power elite can be validated through the elite can be validated through the study of major contributors to study of major contributors to political campaigns. Who are the major political campaigns. Who are the major contributors? contributors?

Does the theory incorporate issues Does the theory incorporate issues of diversity and oppression?of diversity and oppression? It looks at the status quo in a critical It looks at the status quo in a critical light.light.

Oppression is a key element in these Oppression is a key element in these perspectives derived from Marxism.perspectives derived from Marxism.

What is the Influence on What is the Influence on Social Work?Social Work?

Impact of conflict theory seen in social work Impact of conflict theory seen in social work code of ethics which was revised to include code of ethics which was revised to include ethical responsibilities for social change (NASW, ethical responsibilities for social change (NASW, 1996).1996).

Seen in international social work’s revised Seen in international social work’s revised definition of social work to stress principles of definition of social work to stress principles of human rights and social justice (IFSW, 2004).human rights and social justice (IFSW, 2004).

Critiques of global capitalism borrow ideas from Critiques of global capitalism borrow ideas from conflict theory.conflict theory.

This view helps guide critical thinking about the This view helps guide critical thinking about the typical client’s position within the macro typical client’s position within the macro environment and how the system worksenvironment and how the system works

Impact on social work education, including HSBE Impact on social work education, including HSBE curriculum.curriculum.

Major Criticisms of Conflict Major Criticisms of Conflict TheoryTheory

Advocates collective action: weak in dealing Advocates collective action: weak in dealing with individuals with emotional problemswith individuals with emotional problems

Radical social workers faulted for failing Radical social workers faulted for failing to listen to the clients’ interpretations of to listen to the clients’ interpretations of their problems.their problems.

Conflict does not necessarily lead to change Conflict does not necessarily lead to change – may be viewed as a negative outlook.– may be viewed as a negative outlook.

View of clients as victimized is View of clients as victimized is disempowering.disempowering.

Highly ideological.Highly ideological.

What Does the Theory Teach What Does the Theory Teach about Human Behavior?about Human Behavior?

Guides students and practitioners to think Guides students and practitioners to think critically about power imbalances in society: critically about power imbalances in society: legislation, policies, oppression of the poor.legislation, policies, oppression of the poor.

Helps us understand power and why the rich are Helps us understand power and why the rich are getting richer and the poor, poorer getting richer and the poor, poorer

Shows how means-tested programs ultimately Shows how means-tested programs ultimately destroy the programsdestroy the programs

Shows how welfare practices regulate the poor, Shows how welfare practices regulate the poor, and establish social control.and establish social control.

Reveals tendencies in society toward greed and Reveals tendencies in society toward greed and punitiveness, the tendency to look down on punitiveness, the tendency to look down on others.others.

Feminist, Empowerment, and Anti-Feminist, Empowerment, and Anti-Oppressive PerspectivesOppressive Perspectives

Feminism as defined by Van den Bergh and Feminism as defined by Van den Bergh and Cooper (1995): “a conceptual framework and Cooper (1995): “a conceptual framework and mode of analysis that has analyzed the mode of analysis that has analyzed the status of women cross-culturally and status of women cross-culturally and historically to explain dynamics and historically to explain dynamics and conditions undergirding disparities in conditions undergirding disparities in socio-cultural status and power between socio-cultural status and power between majority and minority populations” majority and minority populations” (p.xii).(p.xii).

Term popularized with the women’s movement Term popularized with the women’s movement of early ’70sof early ’70s

““Women’s lib” was mocked in the media at Women’s lib” was mocked in the media at the time.the time.

Types of FeminismTypes of Feminism Liberal feminism – equality between men and women Liberal feminism – equality between men and women

through legislationthrough legislation Radical feminism-- focus on patriarchy, stresses Radical feminism-- focus on patriarchy, stresses

differences between men and womendifferences between men and women Socialist or Marxist feminism- oppression viewed as Socialist or Marxist feminism- oppression viewed as

part of the structural inequality within the class-part of the structural inequality within the class-based social systembased social system

Black feminism- racism and sexism, black experience Black feminism- racism and sexism, black experience compared to experience of white women. Term womanism compared to experience of white women. Term womanism often preferred.often preferred.

Latina feminism—unique history and culture, need for Latina feminism—unique history and culture, need for empowermentempowerment

Post-modern feminism- how society through language Post-modern feminism- how society through language creates social assumptions of how women are and how creates social assumptions of how women are and how they should be treated.they should be treated.

**Add to this list Ecofeminism – an environmental view **Add to this list Ecofeminism – an environmental view that the oppression of women and nature are that the oppression of women and nature are inextricably linked. Mother Earth.inextricably linked. Mother Earth.

Feminist PerspectiveFeminist Perspective Boxed reading: personal narrative— “Cries Boxed reading: personal narrative— “Cries from the Second Wave”—one woman’s awakening from the Second Wave”—one woman’s awakening during the ’70s during the ’70s

Third Wave Feminism: social change through Third Wave Feminism: social change through law and legislation rather than through law and legislation rather than through protestprotest

IntersectionalityIntersectionality Popular books for younger generation: Popular books for younger generation:

Feminism Is for EveryoneFeminism Is for Everyone (bell hooks, 2000) (bell hooks, 2000) ManifestaManifesta, Baumgardner and Richards(2000)—speak to , Baumgardner and Richards(2000)—speak to the younger generationthe younger generation

GirldriveGirldrive—recent book, interviews across America to —recent book, interviews across America to find why the term feminism is rejected by young find why the term feminism is rejected by young women.women.

Empowerment PerspectiveEmpowerment Perspective

(Note: feminism and anti-oppressive social work are both (Note: feminism and anti-oppressive social work are both empowerment approaches; here we are talking about empowerment approaches; here we are talking about social work’s empowerment perspective)social work’s empowerment perspective)

The term sprang out of the Civil Rights The term sprang out of the Civil Rights and feminist movements.and feminist movements.

Early work in the field:Early work in the field: Black Empowerment Black Empowerment by by Solomon (1976)Solomon (1976)

Focus on use of power to keep people downFocus on use of power to keep people down People encouraged to learn how to obtain People encouraged to learn how to obtain power and work for social changepower and work for social change

To be empowered, a person or group requires To be empowered, a person or group requires an environment that provides options.an environment that provides options.

Empowerment ascribes authority to the Empowerment ascribes authority to the individual to make choices.individual to make choices.

Anti-Oppressive ApproachAnti-Oppressive Approach

A more radical approach than the US social work A more radical approach than the US social work empowerment approachempowerment approach

Focus on oppressive system that needs to be Focus on oppressive system that needs to be drastically changeddrastically changed

Aim to minimize power differences in society and Aim to minimize power differences in society and in the professions, to maximize the rights to in the professions, to maximize the rights to which all people are entitledwhich all people are entitled

In In Anti-Oppressive Social Work Theory and PracticeAnti-Oppressive Social Work Theory and Practice, Dominelli , Dominelli (2002) advocates a human rights-based social work.(2002) advocates a human rights-based social work.

Widely used in U.K. and Canadian social workWidely used in U.K. and Canadian social work Views the capitalist social system as generally Views the capitalist social system as generally oppressiveoppressive

Focus on sweeping social change, has a structural, Focus on sweeping social change, has a structural, Marxist baseMarxist base

ConsiderationsConsiderationsCan these approaches be validated?Can these approaches be validated?

Verifiable in many of the claims through Verifiable in many of the claims through use of government statistical data and use of government statistical data and international sources – poverty, international sources – poverty, oppression and discrimination.oppression and discrimination.

Basic ideology convincing but hard to Basic ideology convincing but hard to prove.prove.

Does the theory incorporate issues of Does the theory incorporate issues of diversity and oppression?diversity and oppression?

The dynamics of oppression, exploitation, The dynamics of oppression, exploitation, social isolation, marginalization and social isolation, marginalization and backlash are the focus of this approach.backlash are the focus of this approach.

Contribution to Social WorkContribution to Social WorkFeminism has had the most tangible impact Feminism has had the most tangible impact of the three approaches on social work of the three approaches on social work and society: and society: Has led to a paradigm shift in women’s Has led to a paradigm shift in women’s awareness they deserved the same privileges awareness they deserved the same privileges and rights as men and rights as men

Has had a direct influence in the Has had a direct influence in the development of social work as a development of social work as a predominantly women’s profession.predominantly women’s profession.

Has caused a refocus on women’s needs and Has caused a refocus on women’s needs and safety rather than conformity to tradition.safety rather than conformity to tradition.

Recognition of the oppression of black women Recognition of the oppression of black women especially through writings of bell hooks.especially through writings of bell hooks.

Major Criticisms Major Criticisms Feminism: 2Feminism: 2ndnd wave leaders are criticized for— wave leaders are criticized for—

Focusing on the concerns of white middle class Focusing on the concerns of white middle class women women

Dividing “working” women and women who chose to Dividing “working” women and women who chose to work at home as housewives, work at home as housewives,

failing to include men in the movement.failing to include men in the movement. Empowerment: focuses exclusively on working Empowerment: focuses exclusively on working within the system to the neglect of the within the system to the neglect of the necessary changes required of the system as a necessary changes required of the system as a wholewhole

Anti-oppressive: many oppressed persons do Anti-oppressive: many oppressed persons do not accept the radical view of oppression and not accept the radical view of oppression and do not feel connected to other oppressed do not feel connected to other oppressed groupsgroups

What These Approaches Teach about What These Approaches Teach about Human Behavior Human Behavior

They show the reality of sexism, They show the reality of sexism, racism, ageism, heterosexism, racism, ageism, heterosexism, ethnocentrism, etc.ethnocentrism, etc.

They raise awareness of the nature They raise awareness of the nature of oppression and the need to use of of oppression and the need to use of power in positive ways through power in positive ways through raising public consciousness.raising public consciousness.

They show how with help, most people They show how with help, most people can gain power over their own lives can gain power over their own lives and take action against their own and take action against their own oppression.oppression.

Practice ImplicationsPractice Implications General systems theory broadens our perspectives.General systems theory broadens our perspectives. The ecosystems model adds an environmental focus The ecosystems model adds an environmental focus and reveals the interconnectedness off all life – and reveals the interconnectedness off all life – social, physical and spiritual.social, physical and spiritual.

Structural functionalism helps us understand the Structural functionalism helps us understand the functions of social institutions and their functions of social institutions and their implications.implications.

Conflict theory shows that group solidarity is Conflict theory shows that group solidarity is critical and necessary to influence state and critical and necessary to influence state and local policy.local policy.

Feminist theory guides practitioners in dealing Feminist theory guides practitioners in dealing with partner violence, gender identity, and child with partner violence, gender identity, and child rearing practices providing insights and rearing practices providing insights and enhancing critical analysis.enhancing critical analysis.

Chapter 2Chapter 2The Social Psychology of Group The Social Psychology of Group

BehaviorBehavior

This chapter studies human behavior This chapter studies human behavior in situations of social conformity in situations of social conformity and shows the influence of the group and shows the influence of the group on the individual in both normal and on the individual in both normal and extreme situations.extreme situations.

Classic StudiesClassic Studies Present day social psychologists rely on classic Present day social psychologists rely on classic

studies—most would not be approved by ethical boards studies—most would not be approved by ethical boards today. today.

These classic experiments teach us about human behaviorThese classic experiments teach us about human behavior—obedience and conformity.—obedience and conformity.

Kurt Lewin, 1940s, father of small group research Kurt Lewin, 1940s, father of small group research grew up as Jew in authoritarian Germanygrew up as Jew in authoritarian Germany interested in democratic forms of government interested in democratic forms of government Conducted group experimentation on the impact of styles of Conducted group experimentation on the impact of styles of

leadership (leadership (democratic, autocratic and laissez-faire) democratic, autocratic and laissez-faire) on boys’ on boys’ productivity.productivity.

Gisela Konopka, also a Jewish refugee from Germany Gisela Konopka, also a Jewish refugee from Germany A group worker, She returned to help rebuild the country.A group worker, She returned to help rebuild the country. Today considered the mother of social work in GermanyToday considered the mother of social work in Germany

Studies by sociologists such as Sutherland on Chicago Studies by sociologists such as Sutherland on Chicago street gang activitystreet gang activity

Studies of experiments on productivity of industrial Studies of experiments on productivity of industrial work groups.work groups.

Sherif’s Summer Camp Sherif’s Summer Camp ExperimentsExperiments

Muzafer Sherif, ‘40s and early Muzafer Sherif, ‘40s and early ‘50s ‘50s Student of LewinStudent of Lewin Conducted the Robber’s cave Conducted the Robber’s cave experiments on boys at campexperiments on boys at camp

His experiments showed how conflict His experiments showed how conflict and cooperation can be generatedand cooperation can be generated

Importance of sImportance of superordinate goals – uperordinate goals – cooperation in order to achieve cooperation in order to achieve objective.objective.

Festinger’s UFO StudyFestinger’s UFO Study Leon Festinger also studied under LewinLeon Festinger also studied under Lewin

Desire to study how people behave when the Desire to study how people behave when the facts contradict their beliefs, how they facts contradict their beliefs, how they reconcile thisreconcile this

When Prophecy Fails—When Prophecy Fails—participant observation participant observation Author joined a group of UFO religious Author joined a group of UFO religious fanaticsfanatics

Cognitive dissonance Cognitive dissonance when world didn’t endwhen world didn’t end Ethical issues of his researchEthical issues of his research

Cognitive dissonance related to war in Cognitive dissonance related to war in Iraq when weapons of mass destruction not Iraq when weapons of mass destruction not foundfound

Studies of Social conformityStudies of Social conformity Social psychologists say that social Social psychologists say that social conformity is maintained in informal conformity is maintained in informal groups because people value approval.groups because people value approval.

Classic experimental design of Classic experimental design of Solomon Asch (1951)—this one can be Solomon Asch (1951)—this one can be replicated today. replicated today.

Conformity is more prevalent in Conformity is more prevalent in collectivist societies such as Japan, collectivist societies such as Japan, Norway, and China than in Norway, and China than in individualistic societies like the individualistic societies like the United States and France.United States and France.

Social Psychology of the Jury Social Psychology of the Jury TrialTrial

Researchers must rely on mock trials or Researchers must rely on mock trials or witness accounts due to cameras and observers witness accounts due to cameras and observers not being allowed during jury deliberations.not being allowed during jury deliberations.

Success of use of jury is because of the Success of use of jury is because of the pressures to conform to group norms, a cross-pressures to conform to group norms, a cross-cultural trait.cultural trait.

Diversity in the jury pool is important to Diversity in the jury pool is important to reduce the chances of group think.reduce the chances of group think.

Movie: Movie: 12 Angry Men,12 Angry Men, 1957 showed the power of 1957 showed the power of conformity.conformity.

Michael Jackson trial – one juror later Michael Jackson trial – one juror later reported harassment including ageism to force reported harassment including ageism to force her to agree in not guilty verdict.her to agree in not guilty verdict.

Milgram’s Obedience StudyMilgram’s Obedience Study Stanley Milgram – conformity studies (early Stanley Milgram – conformity studies (early 1960s) at Yale University. 1960s) at Yale University. His research is probably the best remembered of the His research is probably the best remembered of the social psychological experimentssocial psychological experiments

Jewish background inspired his interest in obedience Jewish background inspired his interest in obedience to orders to inflict harmto orders to inflict harm

““Teaching” experiment—use of apparent shocks on the Teaching” experiment—use of apparent shocks on the learnerlearner

Most of the subjects complied with the orders.Most of the subjects complied with the orders. Parallels drawn today with Abu GhraibParallels drawn today with Abu Ghraib

Explanation by Tavris and Aronson—self-Explanation by Tavris and Aronson—self-justificationjustification When gradually led into violence or crime, have When gradually led into violence or crime, have invested in that, hard to go backinvested in that, hard to go back

Also works in therapy; take one small stepAlso works in therapy; take one small step

Erving Goffman’s Role Erving Goffman’s Role TheoryTheory

Presentation of Self in Everyday LifePresentation of Self in Everyday Life ““All the world’s a stage” All the world’s a stage” Concepts: front stage, back stage, Concepts: front stage, back stage, impression managementimpression management

roles in the home, hospital, factory work roles in the home, hospital, factory work place, restaurant, church, and at the party.place, restaurant, church, and at the party.

AsylumsAsylums Life in the total institutionLife in the total institution -- --prisons, the prisons, the military, the convent and mental military, the convent and mental institutions institutions

Social control functionSocial control function

Social Life of the Nursing Social Life of the Nursing HomeHome

Nursing homes are the familiar institutions of Nursing homes are the familiar institutions of today, as were the asylums of the past.today, as were the asylums of the past.

40 % of Americans over the age of 65 will spend 40 % of Americans over the age of 65 will spend time in a nursing home before they die.time in a nursing home before they die.

Patients at serious risk for health problems Patients at serious risk for health problems due to low number of nursing home workers.due to low number of nursing home workers.

Goffman’s “impression management” – this may Goffman’s “impression management” – this may involve renaming the thing (place or condition) involve renaming the thing (place or condition) that has taken on negative connotations.that has taken on negative connotations.

Nursing homes have been renamed assisted Nursing homes have been renamed assisted living centers or skilled care facilities and living centers or skilled care facilities and décor changed to resemble homelike atmosphere.décor changed to resemble homelike atmosphere.

StigmaStigma Goffman wrote Goffman wrote Stigma Stigma (1963) (1963) This book drew on social labeling theory – physical This book drew on social labeling theory – physical disabilities and official diagnoses come to take on disabilities and official diagnoses come to take on a life of their own.a life of their own.

Three categories of stigma:Three categories of stigma: 1. abominations of the body or physical 1. abominations of the body or physical deformities. deformities.

2. blemishes of the individual character , such 2. blemishes of the individual character , such as a as a

criminal record.criminal record. 3. tribal stigma of race, nation, and religion.3. tribal stigma of race, nation, and religion. “ “Turning Points”--Boxed reading by Rudolph Turning Points”--Boxed reading by Rudolph Alexander, Jr. shows how a juvenile sentenced to Alexander, Jr. shows how a juvenile sentenced to death row was able to overcome his label and stigmadeath row was able to overcome his label and stigma

Studies Involving ContextStudies Involving Context 1971- Stanford psychologist Philip 1971- Stanford psychologist Philip Zimbardo’s mock prison experiment Zimbardo’s mock prison experiment Some were guards; some were inmatesSome were guards; some were inmates Shocking results related to abuse of powerShocking results related to abuse of power Parallels drawn to Abu GhraibParallels drawn to Abu Ghraib

Psychological processes of Psychological processes of dehumanizationdehumanization and and deindividuationdeindividuation, or a state of lessened , or a state of lessened self-awarenessself-awareness

Aronson (2004) had female students Aronson (2004) had female students administer electric shocks to another administer electric shocks to another student.student.

MobMob behavior described inbehavior described in To Kill a To Kill a MockingbirdMockingbird (Lee, 1961) (Lee, 1961)

The stabbing of Kitty GenoveseThe stabbing of Kitty Genovese

PrejudicePrejudice A learned phenomenon, transmitted from A learned phenomenon, transmitted from generation to generation through generation to generation through socialization processessocialization processes

An attitude of negative prejudgment on the An attitude of negative prejudgment on the basis of a defined characteristic such as basis of a defined characteristic such as race, ethnicity, religion, or genderrace, ethnicity, religion, or gender

Use of fear approaches by government leads Use of fear approaches by government leads people to support military and to vote people to support military and to vote conservativeconservative

Conservatives tend to see more in black Conservatives tend to see more in black and white, harsher punishments (in study and white, harsher punishments (in study of political literature)of political literature)

DiscriminationDiscrimination

Involves a physical act such as refusing to Involves a physical act such as refusing to hire a person because they are African hire a person because they are African American or Latino or a woman.American or Latino or a woman.

May arise from unofficial or official May arise from unofficial or official policypolicy

Note: the person who carries out the policy Note: the person who carries out the policy may discriminate without being prejudiced may discriminate without being prejudiced and conversely, the person may harbor and conversely, the person may harbor prejudices but refuse to discriminate based prejudices but refuse to discriminate based on government regulations.on government regulations.

StereotypingStereotyping Assigning identical Assigning identical characteristics to any person in characteristics to any person in a group, regardless of the actual a group, regardless of the actual variation among members of that variation among members of that group.group.

May arise from past experience May arise from past experience with one or more members of a with one or more members of a group; that experience is then group; that experience is then generalized to all group members.generalized to all group members.

Psychological ExplanationsPsychological Explanations Social workers need to have some general Social workers need to have some general understanding of the nature of prejudice—understanding of the nature of prejudice—will see it in their work with clientswill see it in their work with clients

Allport, Allport, The Nature of PrejudiceThe Nature of Prejudice (1954)- (1954)- outgroup prejudiceoutgroup prejudice

Anti-Semitism studyAnti-Semitism study Adorno devised an F-Scale to measure fascist Adorno devised an F-Scale to measure fascist or authoritarian tendencies.or authoritarian tendencies.

child-rearing practices found to be related child-rearing practices found to be related to prejudiceto prejudice

A recent study used statistical methods A recent study used statistical methods to detect personality patterns in to detect personality patterns in politically conservative persons and politically conservative persons and found them authoritarian.found them authoritarian.

Psychological Explanations Psychological Explanations for Prejudicefor Prejudice

ProjectionProjection of negative traits onto others of negative traits onto others (Freud) (Freud)

Reaction formationReaction formation Adams, Wright and Lohr (1996)—a Adams, Wright and Lohr (1996)—a University of Georgia study on the University of Georgia study on the relationship between homophobia and relationship between homophobia and latent homosexualitylatent homosexuality

Cases of Matthew Shepard and Jason Gage, Cases of Matthew Shepard and Jason Gage, openly gay, savagely beaten to deathopenly gay, savagely beaten to death

Picketing of their funerals by hate group Picketing of their funerals by hate group led by Reverend Fred Phelps of Topeka, led by Reverend Fred Phelps of Topeka, Kansas—see photograph in the textKansas—see photograph in the text

Psychological Factors in Psychological Factors in Prejudice ContinuedPrejudice Continued

Lack of empathy often goes with Lack of empathy often goes with a distorted self-imagea distorted self-image

Empathy-training activities Empathy-training activities with children show reduction in with children show reduction in aggression toward others.aggression toward others.

Aronson’s Aronson’s jigsaw techniquejigsaw technique Xenophobia, Xenophobia, term derived from the term derived from the Greek word for stranger, used Greek word for stranger, used in modern English to refer to a in modern English to refer to a fear and dislike of foreigners fear and dislike of foreigners

Sociological ExplanationsSociological Explanations Herbert Blumer (1958) viewed racial prejudice Herbert Blumer (1958) viewed racial prejudice from a sociological lens. Feelings of perceived from a sociological lens. Feelings of perceived threat by the dominant racial group.threat by the dominant racial group.

Bobo (1999) considered feelings of alienation by Bobo (1999) considered feelings of alienation by members of racial minority groups—resentment of members of racial minority groups—resentment of recently arrived minority groups who would have recently arrived minority groups who would have lower expectations and feel less alienatedlower expectations and feel less alienated

Social functions of prejudice: solidifies the Social functions of prejudice: solidifies the group, encourages internal bonding, the elite group, encourages internal bonding, the elite can shield themselves from opposition to their can shield themselves from opposition to their policies, hiring practices have economic impact.policies, hiring practices have economic impact.

Devah Pager (2005) research design – ex-convicts Devah Pager (2005) research design – ex-convicts seeking jobs seeking jobs

Scapegoat theories Scapegoat theories BullyingBullying

……Sociological ExplanationsSociological Explanations Blaming the victimBlaming the victim Lerner (1981) Lerner (1981) Belief in a Just World, Belief in a Just World, describes how describes how people turn away from a loser. people turn away from a loser.

The Bell Curve The Bell Curve co-authored by Charlesco-authored by Charles Murray Murray (1994)(1994) argued the safety net of welfare was the cause of argued the safety net of welfare was the cause of poverty poverty

welfare aid should be removed for the betterment welfare aid should be removed for the betterment allall

Boxed reading: Hurricane Katrina and Human Boxed reading: Hurricane Katrina and Human Behavior Behavior At first, officials blamed the victims for not At first, officials blamed the victims for not leaving the cityleaving the city

Discusses how people were affected biologically, Discusses how people were affected biologically, psychologically, socially and spiritually. psychologically, socially and spiritually.

Positive Aspects of Positive Aspects of Collective BehaviorCollective Behavior Evolutionary perspective of group behavior, a Evolutionary perspective of group behavior, a

sense of onenesssense of oneness Raging Grannies as a positive example of protest Raging Grannies as a positive example of protest with humorwith humor

Two social movements: Environmental movement and Two social movements: Environmental movement and the Kensington Action Alliance.the Kensington Action Alliance.

Ecofeminism – term links the twin oppressions of Ecofeminism – term links the twin oppressions of women and nature within the dominance structure women and nature within the dominance structure of patriarchal social conventionsof patriarchal social conventions

Kensington Welfare Rights Union (KWRU) to end Kensington Welfare Rights Union (KWRU) to end povertypoverty

Boxed reading—macro practice with homeless Boxed reading—macro practice with homeless personspersons

““New Freedom Bus Ride”New Freedom Bus Ride” Social Welfare Action Alliance – Radical social Social Welfare Action Alliance – Radical social work organizationwork organization

Poor People’s Economic Human Rights campaign--Poor People’s Economic Human Rights campaign--photosphotos

Practice ImplicationsPractice Implications

Social work is about helping people Social work is about helping people turn their lives around, social turn their lives around, social justice and social change.justice and social change.

Social psychology offers Social psychology offers multidimensional understanding of how multidimensional understanding of how people behave in certain situations.people behave in certain situations. Provides knowledge about the impact of Provides knowledge about the impact of group cohesiongroup cohesion

Teaches about the strength in social Teaches about the strength in social movementsmovements

Chapter 3Chapter 3The Small Group as a Social The Small Group as a Social

SystemSystemThis chapter describes the This chapter describes the group process as it relates to group process as it relates to social group practice including social group practice including leading task groups and therapy leading task groups and therapy groups.groups.

Why Study the Small Group?Why Study the Small Group?

CClients are often treated in group lients are often treated in group settings, especially substance abuse settings, especially substance abuse clients.clients.

Insights about the client can be gained by Insights about the client can be gained by observing the client’s behavior in group observing the client’s behavior in group settingsetting

Group therapy, a device for effecting Group therapy, a device for effecting individual changeindividual change

A A PsychodynamicPsychodynamic Approach ApproachFrom Irvin Yalom, From Irvin Yalom, The Theory and Practice of Group The Theory and Practice of Group

PsychotherapyPsychotherapy Eleven primary elements in therapeutic change through Eleven primary elements in therapeutic change through

group therapy:group therapy:

Instillation of HopeInstillation of Hope Universality Universality Imparting informationImparting information AltruismAltruism Recapitulation of the primary family group (for Recapitulation of the primary family group (for

correction)correction) Imitative behaviorImitative behavior Interpersonal LearningInterpersonal Learning Group cohesivenessGroup cohesiveness CatharsisCatharsis Existential factorsExistential factors

Small Group Structure and ProcessSmall Group Structure and Process Hierarchy, equality, and democratic Hierarchy, equality, and democratic functioningfunctioning

Pat Conroy, Pat Conroy, My Losing Season My Losing Season (2002) relates a (2002) relates a boy’s turning point based on informal boy’s turning point based on informal leadershipleadership

George Homans (1950) internal and external George Homans (1950) internal and external systemssystems

External systemExternal system – sentiment, activity and – sentiment, activity and interaction aimed primarily at the interaction aimed primarily at the environment of the group that enables the environment of the group that enables the group to survive.group to survive.

Internal systemInternal system – sentiment the group – sentiment the group members develop toward one another in the members develop toward one another in the process of the group’s interactions.process of the group’s interactions.

Group norms arise in the groupGroup norms arise in the group

Empowering Group PracticeEmpowering Group Practice Boxed reading on empowering Boxed reading on empowering practice shows how an individual practice shows how an individual group member advances through group member advances through stages of empowerment, joining stages of empowerment, joining in consciousness raising as the in consciousness raising as the group takes collective action to group takes collective action to overcome oppression. overcome oppression.

Note that reflection is important Note that reflection is important throughout the process and after throughout the process and after the action has been taken.the action has been taken.

Group Group ProcessesProcesses TransferenceTransference: (Freud, Yalom) --seeing : (Freud, Yalom) --seeing traits of a family member in a person traits of a family member in a person within the group.within the group.

Acting outActing out by group members by group members ScapegoatsScapegoats as targets of rage as targets of rage New members and status changes as New members and status changes as members adaptmembers adapt

Open groups-Open groups--constantly changing such as -constantly changing such as groups for substance abuse groups for substance abuse

Closed groupsClosed groups– as some AA meetings that do – as some AA meetings that do not have a quick turnover and may have a not have a quick turnover and may have a strong cohesiveness and sense of safetystrong cohesiveness and sense of safety

GroupthinkGroupthink Janis (1982)—groupthink stems from mindless Janis (1982)—groupthink stems from mindless conformityconformity

CharacteristicsCharacteristics Belief in the group’s moral superiorityBelief in the group’s moral superiority Sharing stereotypesSharing stereotypes Refusal to examine alternativesRefusal to examine alternatives Protecting group from negative views or informationProtecting group from negative views or information The illusion of invulnerabilityThe illusion of invulnerability

Critical thinking: See if these traits relate to Critical thinking: See if these traits relate to U.S. foreign policyU.S. foreign policy

Leader can prevent groupthink by encouraging Leader can prevent groupthink by encouraging diverse opinions and alternative views to those diverse opinions and alternative views to those expressed.expressed.

Boxed reading-- “My Life at End Time Religious Boxed reading-- “My Life at End Time Religious Camp”Camp”

Stages of Group DevelopmentStages of Group Development Stage One: Stage One: Orientation StageOrientation Stage – initial – initial gathering, casual questioning about mutual gathering, casual questioning about mutual interestsinterests

Stage Two: Stage Two: Mutuality Stage-Mutuality Stage- patterns of patterns of communication, alliances and subgroups communication, alliances and subgroups emerge, as do roles and responsibilitiesemerge, as do roles and responsibilities

Stage Three: Stage Three: Drama StageDrama Stage – testing of old – testing of old patterns of behavior – human proclivities patterns of behavior – human proclivities emergeemerge

Stage Four: Stage Four: Love Ties Love Ties – acceptance despite – acceptance despite shortcomingsshortcomings

Stage Five: Stage Five: Blossoming Blossoming – change and growth– change and growth

Group LeadershipGroup Leadership Early social workers used small groups to Early social workers used small groups to effect social goals for the mutual benefit of effect social goals for the mutual benefit of their members.their members.

Diversity Issues – Diversity Issues – Racial composition—blacks are more comfortable when Racial composition—blacks are more comfortable when ratio of white to black is 50-50 than are whites who ratio of white to black is 50-50 than are whites who prefer 80-20 ratioprefer 80-20 ratio

Prepare to hear slurs, bigoted remarks by group membersPrepare to hear slurs, bigoted remarks by group members Layout of room--arranging chairs in a circular Layout of room--arranging chairs in a circular patternpattern

Counseling skills--going around the circle, Counseling skills--going around the circle, ensure privacy and sense of safety, gatekeeping ensure privacy and sense of safety, gatekeeping function, summarizing progress, anticipating function, summarizing progress, anticipating future meetingsfuture meetings

Small Group, Social Decisions and Small Group, Social Decisions and ActionAction

The Tipping Point,The Tipping Point, Gladwell (2002) – traces growth of Gladwell (2002) – traces growth of social movement through small groups with real social movement through small groups with real social power.social power.

Power and empowerment: primary role of the social Power and empowerment: primary role of the social worker is to help the client become empoweredworker is to help the client become empowered

Empowerment-based community work: Five major sources Empowerment-based community work: Five major sources of power: access to wealth and resources, media, of power: access to wealth and resources, media, prestige, community’s shared values, and choice of prestige, community’s shared values, and choice of effective strategieseffective strategies

For social change, need to politicize and educate For social change, need to politicize and educate consumers as well as social workers to the value and consumers as well as social workers to the value and political use of power.political use of power.

Amish or counterculture groups—they seek autonomy Amish or counterculture groups—they seek autonomy and peaceful lifestyles.and peaceful lifestyles.

Values and Group WorkValues and Group Work Groups form value setsGroups form value sets Helen Northen (2004) Global ethical Helen Northen (2004) Global ethical principles:principles: Professional relationshipProfessional relationship Multiculturalism—respect for diversityMulticulturalism—respect for diversity EmpowermentEmpowerment Confidentiality and privacyConfidentiality and privacy Self-determinationSelf-determination Professional competenceProfessional competence

Focus GroupsFocus Groups Research technique to gather qualitative dataResearch technique to gather qualitative data Small discussion groups on special topic such Small discussion groups on special topic such as health careas health care

Groups are used by marketers to learn what Groups are used by marketers to learn what sales pitch to use.sales pitch to use.

In social work, may be used to learn how to In social work, may be used to learn how to approach a culturally diverse group, to study approach a culturally diverse group, to study attitudesattitudes

Example from Appalachia—goal of disease Example from Appalachia—goal of disease preventionprevention researchers learned of gender rolesresearchers learned of gender roles need to focus health messages on the whole family need to focus health messages on the whole family one-on-one counseling was most effective for some one-on-one counseling was most effective for some women who were fatalistic about their healthwomen who were fatalistic about their health

Innovative Group Work in Women’s Innovative Group Work in Women’s PrisonsPrisons

Personal empowerment through self-Personal empowerment through self-expression.expression.

Innovative programs: Innovative programs: Canada’s art therapy at Kingston prison Canada’s art therapy at Kingston prison New Zealand’s Sycamore Tree project which New Zealand’s Sycamore Tree project which follows the principle of restorative justice follows the principle of restorative justice

English women’s prison who have a bereavement English women’s prison who have a bereavement and loss groupand loss group

The social worker’s role should be that of The social worker’s role should be that of a consultant and facilitator rather than a consultant and facilitator rather than instructor in order to raise the women’s instructor in order to raise the women’s sense of empowermentsense of empowerment

Competency in a skill, and positive social Competency in a skill, and positive social interaction empower the women to succeed interaction empower the women to succeed both in prison and when they leaveboth in prison and when they leave

Self-Help GroupsSelf-Help Groups Yalom-- groups help build confidence through Yalom-- groups help build confidence through risking new behaviors that can carry over into risking new behaviors that can carry over into their social environment. their social environment.

Self-help groups offer the same benefits--major Self-help groups offer the same benefits--major advantages advantages freedom to come and go when members wish freedom to come and go when members wish no red tape or expenseno red tape or expense

Typical format of AA group: Typical format of AA group: confession by members to the group of a chronic problem confession by members to the group of a chronic problem testimonials by members of the group recounting the testimonials by members of the group recounting the past and their plan to take one day at a time, and past and their plan to take one day at a time, and group support given.group support given.

Many addiction-related groups include a spiritual Many addiction-related groups include a spiritual aspect to their recovery.aspect to their recovery.

Boxed reading describes a student’s visit to an Boxed reading describes a student’s visit to an AA meeting. AA meeting.

……Self-HelpSelf-Help Groups Groups

Narrative framework – storytellersNarrative framework – storytellers Some groups advocate for the rights Some groups advocate for the rights and acceptance of people society and acceptance of people society views as differentviews as different

such as persons with mental illness.such as persons with mental illness. PFLAG – PFLAG –

Parents, Families, and Friends of Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays Lesbians and Gays www.pflag.org

Sample dialogue from an Iowa PFLAG Sample dialogue from an Iowa PFLAG meetingmeeting

Chapter 4Chapter 4The Family in SocietyThe Family in Society

Murray Bowen (wrote in 1970s) pioneer of general Murray Bowen (wrote in 1970s) pioneer of general systems theory regarding the family as a unit; systems theory regarding the family as a unit; they revolutionized psychotherapy.they revolutionized psychotherapy.

We can examine the family as an ecosystem within We can examine the family as an ecosystem within an ecosystems framework: an ecosystems framework: Four fundamental concepts: interactionism, stress, Four fundamental concepts: interactionism, stress, coping, and adaptation coping, and adaptation

Germain (1991) provides a framework to view family Germain (1991) provides a framework to view family dynamicsdynamics

Boxed reading: “Growing up Deaf”—what are the Boxed reading: “Growing up Deaf”—what are the strengths of this family?strengths of this family?

Eco-map Figure 4.3Eco-map Figure 4.3 Can serve as assessment tool pointing to areas in need of Can serve as assessment tool pointing to areas in need of attentionattention

Provides a framework for action, here-and-now Provides a framework for action, here-and-now interactions of individuals and familiesinteractions of individuals and families

Ethnic Family Patterns—Bosnian Ethnic Family Patterns—Bosnian MuslimsMuslims

Description of Bosnian Muslim refugee Description of Bosnian Muslim refugee familiesfamilies They adhere to traditional gender roles. They adhere to traditional gender roles. Stigma attached to the sexual violation of Stigma attached to the sexual violation of women.women.

Positive family identity.Positive family identity. Until the 70’s common for adult children to live Until the 70’s common for adult children to live with parents for multiple generations with parents for multiple generations

Customs-- removing shoes at the door, Customs-- removing shoes at the door, neighborliness, drink strong coffee, sharing of neighborliness, drink strong coffee, sharing of food, good conversation, traditional music and food, good conversation, traditional music and dances dances

Strong family ties foster resiliency and Strong family ties foster resiliency and lead to healthy outcomes for such immigrant lead to healthy outcomes for such immigrant families.families.

United States should aim to be a cultural United States should aim to be a cultural mosaic instead of a melting pot.mosaic instead of a melting pot.

American Indian FamiliesAmerican Indian Families Strong emphasis on Strong emphasis on beingbeing not doing not doing Cooperation over competition, group focus Cooperation over competition, group focus Work only to meet needs, non-materialism, flexible Work only to meet needs, non-materialism, flexible sense of timesense of time

Right-brain orientationRight-brain orientation Importance of extended family, individual freedomImportance of extended family, individual freedom Living in harmony with nature, pervasive sense of Living in harmony with nature, pervasive sense of spirituality spirituality

Children reared to pursue their own interests and Children reared to pursue their own interests and make their own decisions; learning comes through make their own decisions; learning comes through their own observations, and reliance on nonverbal their own observations, and reliance on nonverbal rather than verbal cues and matriarchal normsrather than verbal cues and matriarchal norms

Berdache Berdache custom allows for feminine gay men and custom allows for feminine gay men and masculine-acting women to follow their innate masculine-acting women to follow their innate proclivitiesproclivities

Two Spirit Two Spirit is a term preferred by many First Nations is a term preferred by many First Nations people for gays and lesbians who were honored for people for gays and lesbians who were honored for having both masculine and feminine tendencies.having both masculine and feminine tendencies.

African American Family PatternsAfrican American Family Patterns

Strong religious orientation; church provides family Strong religious orientation; church provides family supportsupport

Flexible family roles, extended family networks, and Flexible family roles, extended family networks, and informal adoption processes informal adoption processes

High status of females High status of females College enrollment up 95% for women and 35% for menCollege enrollment up 95% for women and 35% for men 68.4 % births to unmarried women, low marriage rate68.4 % births to unmarried women, low marriage rate High mortality rate for men, 12 % of young males are High mortality rate for men, 12 % of young males are

behind bars. behind bars. Blacks comprise 59% of those convicted of drug Blacks comprise 59% of those convicted of drug

offences.offences. Boxed reading “A Nine-Year Old Boy’s Story”—note Boxed reading “A Nine-Year Old Boy’s Story”—note

this child’s resilience under difficult this child’s resilience under difficult circumstances.circumstances.

Latino Family PatternsLatino Family Patterns In 2000, Latino families replaced African Americans In 2000, Latino families replaced African Americans

as the largest minority in the U.S. as the largest minority in the U.S. Term Latino refers to various diverse populationsTerm Latino refers to various diverse populations More than ¼ live in families with more than 5 More than ¼ live in families with more than 5

members, members, Most are Roman Catholic, close family ties, Most are Roman Catholic, close family ties,

traditional sex roles, care and respect for the traditional sex roles, care and respect for the elderly, elderly,

Infant mortality lowInfant mortality low—epidemiological paradox—epidemiological paradox FamilismoFamilismo --term used to refer to the central role of --term used to refer to the central role of

the family in Latino communities: this includes the family in Latino communities: this includes immediate, extended, co-parents and godparentsimmediate, extended, co-parents and godparents

High school drop out rate extremely high, risk for High school drop out rate extremely high, risk for alcoholism, the more oppressed they feel, the alcoholism, the more oppressed they feel, the greater risk for addiction and violence in the homegreater risk for addiction and violence in the home

Some negative impacts of assimilation--note the Some negative impacts of assimilation--note the statistics for the 2statistics for the 2ndnd generation. generation.

Family therapy easily accepted by this group.Family therapy easily accepted by this group.

Asian Family PatternsAsian Family Patterns Much diversity within this group—Chinese, Japanese, Much diversity within this group—Chinese, Japanese,

Koreans, Hmong peopleKoreans, Hmong people 4.2 % of the total United States population. (23.8 % from China)4.2 % of the total United States population. (23.8 % from China) Collectively, Asian families exceed the national average Collectively, Asian families exceed the national average

on all positive categories: education, income and on all positive categories: education, income and longevity. longevity. Divorce rate ½ national average, income level above national Divorce rate ½ national average, income level above national

averageaverage Rate of single mother births is lowest of any racial ethnic Rate of single mother births is lowest of any racial ethnic

group group Values--bring no shame to family, personal ambitions Values--bring no shame to family, personal ambitions

sacrificed for needs of the family – (sacrificed for needs of the family – (kenshin)kenshin) Family is multigenerational, male responsibility for familyFamily is multigenerational, male responsibility for family Males more highly valued than females, females absorbed into Males more highly valued than females, females absorbed into

husband’s families husband’s families Mother is the nurturer and caretaker Mother is the nurturer and caretaker Cooperation and sharing among siblings expected Cooperation and sharing among siblings expected Mother-son bond especially strong Mother-son bond especially strong Care and respect for the elderlyCare and respect for the elderly

Identity is “we” rather than “I”Identity is “we” rather than “I” Social workers should take care to recognize differences Social workers should take care to recognize differences

among these groups. among these groups. Family pride often means not sharing personal information.Family pride often means not sharing personal information.

Multicultural Families 5% of population in 2009 census Largest group is white-Hispanic, common among Asian Americans

Boxed reading: Mixed Latina woman

Boxed reading: “Not Black Enough”

Gay and Lesbian FamiliesGay and Lesbian Families Census 2000 : 594,391 same-sex couples in the United States. ¼ Census 2000 : 594,391 same-sex couples in the United States. ¼

are raising children, and one in ten couples includes a senior are raising children, and one in ten couples includes a senior aged 65 or older.aged 65 or older.

Learning a child is gay or lesbian can be a shock for the Learning a child is gay or lesbian can be a shock for the parent--religious beliefs, societal stigma, desire for parent--religious beliefs, societal stigma, desire for grandchildren, stereotyping.grandchildren, stereotyping.

PFLAG ( Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays), PFLAG ( Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays), www.pflag.org

Same sex-marriage legal in Netherlands, Belgium, Canada, Same sex-marriage legal in Netherlands, Belgium, Canada, Scandinavia, Spain, Britain and South Africa and 8 states and Scandinavia, Spain, Britain and South Africa and 8 states and Washington, DC legal or recognized Washington, DC legal or recognized

Study showed of gays and lesbians who see themselves as marriedStudy showed of gays and lesbians who see themselves as married More likely to be lesbianMore likely to be lesbian More likely to have childrenMore likely to have children

Gay foster parentsGay foster parents Boxed reading: “Family Adventure”—note the strengths in this Boxed reading: “Family Adventure”—note the strengths in this

lesbian-headed family.lesbian-headed family. Research shows children of same-sex couples compared to general Research shows children of same-sex couples compared to general

populationpopulation No more emotional problems, tend to be popular at schoolNo more emotional problems, tend to be popular at school More flexible in gender roles; girls more apt to aim for professional More flexible in gender roles; girls more apt to aim for professional

careerscareers

Macro Policy IssuesMacro Policy Issues Family – the backbone of society, Family – the backbone of society, provides a number of functionsprovides a number of functions

Government policies influence family Government policies influence family functioning. The United States has functioning. The United States has fallen to the 13fallen to the 13thth position (UN position (UN annual human development report) annual human development report)

Leading countries are Norway, Leading countries are Norway, Australia, Iceland, Canada, IrelandAustralia, Iceland, Canada, Ireland

The Impact of Globalization The Impact of Globalization WorldwideWorldwide

Positive and negative aspects of Positive and negative aspects of globalization—pressures from global globalization—pressures from global competition and communications revolution competition and communications revolution

Plight of women refugees, emigration of Plight of women refugees, emigration of refugees escaping violence refugees escaping violence

Sex traffickingSex trafficking Economic impact of world bank requirements Economic impact of world bank requirements for reduction of social services--far for reduction of social services--far reaching impacts on all of societyreaching impacts on all of society

Global market – agency consolidation and Global market – agency consolidation and corporate management resulting in men corporate management resulting in men displacing women managersdisplacing women managers

Impact of New Economics on the Impact of New Economics on the FamilyFamily

Poor communities disproportionately experience stressPoor communities disproportionately experience stress 2008 recession: 34% of young adult black males unemployed2008 recession: 34% of young adult black males unemployed Low-wages, decline in manufacturing, rising housing Low-wages, decline in manufacturing, rising housing

costs, families with children are the fastest growing costs, families with children are the fastest growing homeless population – 42% of the 700,000 persons found to homeless population – 42% of the 700,000 persons found to be homeless are families (HUD, 2005). Has increased in be homeless are families (HUD, 2005). Has increased in 2008 recession. 2008 recession.

Bait and Switch: The (Futile) Pursuit of the AmericanBait and Switch: The (Futile) Pursuit of the American DreamDream, Ehrenreich , Ehrenreich (2005) and (2005) and Nickel and DimedNickel and Dimed (2002)—participant observation (2002)—participant observation studiesstudies

Japan – very strong work ethic— “Karoshi” Japan – very strong work ethic— “Karoshi” – – means dropping means dropping dead at your desk.dead at your desk.

Mexico City – children may be left alone while parents Mexico City – children may be left alone while parents work or taken to the jobsite due to lack of childcare.work or taken to the jobsite due to lack of childcare.

Scandinavian contrast: Scandinavian contrast: business guidelines for Americans—expect long vacations, business guidelines for Americans—expect long vacations,

short work days, multiple benefits, relaxed attitude toward short work days, multiple benefits, relaxed attitude toward workwork

van Wormer’s experience working at a Norwegian alcoholism van Wormer’s experience working at a Norwegian alcoholism treatment centertreatment center

Family Violence in Global Family Violence in Global PerspectivePerspective

Economic globalization has important human Economic globalization has important human rights implications--policies require that non-rights implications--policies require that non-industrialized nations reduce their indebtedness industrialized nations reduce their indebtedness to the world bans by reducing social welfare to the world bans by reducing social welfare spending.spending.

Women perform two-thirds of the world’s work but Women perform two-thirds of the world’s work but only earn one-tenth of all the income and own only earn one-tenth of all the income and own less than one-tenth of the world’s property.less than one-tenth of the world’s property.

Economic destitution makes young women ripe for Economic destitution makes young women ripe for sexual exploitation.sexual exploitation.

Human rights violations occur at three levels: Human rights violations occur at three levels: those done by the family, the community and the those done by the family, the community and the state.state.

Sex traffickingSex trafficking Over one million women and children are trafficked each Over one million women and children are trafficked each yearyear

Sex slavery, dowry deaths, death by stoning, genital Sex slavery, dowry deaths, death by stoning, genital mutilation, rape mutilation, rape www.amnestyusa.org

Domestic AbuseDomestic Abuse World Health Report (based on 48 surveys from World Health Report (based on 48 surveys from around the world) found between 10-69 % of around the world) found between 10-69 % of women report having been physically assaulted women report having been physically assaulted by a partner.by a partner.

United States, 22 % of wives report domestic United States, 22 % of wives report domestic violence.violence.

Wife beating is considered a man’s right in Wife beating is considered a man’s right in many societies and the women interviewed many societies and the women interviewed agreed some beatings were justified- agreed some beatings were justified- including burning dinner.including burning dinner.

Low rates in Japan-- 15% to over 60% in Peru, Low rates in Japan-- 15% to over 60% in Peru, Ethiopia and Bangladesh.Ethiopia and Bangladesh.

Story of Dr. Shazia, 32 year old Pakistani Story of Dr. Shazia, 32 year old Pakistani physician raped by intruderphysician raped by intruder

Suicide common of rape victims in many Suicide common of rape victims in many countriescountries

Honor killings Honor killings and acid attacksand acid attacks

Immigration and Domestic ViolenceImmigration and Domestic Violence Immigration status used as a Immigration status used as a weapon of abuseweapon of abuse

Divorce in many immigrant Divorce in many immigrant families brings shame on the families brings shame on the family from both the family and family from both the family and the community.the community.

Bui (2003) study of Vietnamese Bui (2003) study of Vietnamese immigrants—downward mobility immigrants—downward mobility especially hard on menespecially hard on men

Abuse of “military brides”Abuse of “military brides”

Legacy of the Legacy of the Iraq/Afghanistan WarIraq/Afghanistan War

Military socialization Post-traumatic stress disorder High suicide rate when soldiers return

www.warresisters.org

Promising InitiativesPromising Initiatives Kinship careKinship care – fastest growing child – fastest growing child placement program in the United States. placement program in the United States. Advantages:Advantages: stabilizing effect of the extended family and stabilizing effect of the extended family and child’s own racial or ethnic communities child’s own racial or ethnic communities

relative permanence relative permanence familiarity of the child with the relatives and familiarity of the child with the relatives and communitycommunity

Shared family careShared family care – established in Colorado – established in Colorado Springs. Entire family moves in with a mentor Springs. Entire family moves in with a mentor family. Available in 10 states.family. Available in 10 states.

Other empowering approachesOther empowering approaches – mutual aid associations and group/community approaches, “Generations of Hope” house, Healthy Start

Family Group Conferencing Family Group Conferencing Form of restorative justice used in child welfareForm of restorative justice used in child welfare Involves the extended family in a solution-focused, Involves the extended family in a solution-focused,

strengths-based approach to solving problems related strengths-based approach to solving problems related to child neglect and abuseto child neglect and abuse

Adapted from the Maori people and social service Adapted from the Maori people and social service authorities of New Zealandauthorities of New Zealand

Informal “around the table” non-adversarial process, Informal “around the table” non-adversarial process, includes a trained facilitator, involves the victim- includes a trained facilitator, involves the victim- their family and the community their family and the community

In criminal cases, family group conferencingIn criminal cases, family group conferencing stresses offenders’ awareness of the human impact of stresses offenders’ awareness of the human impact of

their behavior their behavior provides offender the opportunity to take full provides offender the opportunity to take full

responsibilityresponsibility uses a narrative approach, uses a narrative approach, engages the offender’s family members and support systemengages the offender’s family members and support system solicits the families’ support in the process of the solicits the families’ support in the process of the

offender’s making amendsoffender’s making amends www.restorativejustice.org

Chapter 5Chapter 5Culture and SocietyCulture and Society

Culture – the sum total of social patterns Culture – the sum total of social patterns passed from generation to generation. passed from generation to generation. Knowledge of culture and cultural history Knowledge of culture and cultural history provides important perspectives for provides important perspectives for understanding human behavior.understanding human behavior.

Language (even accent) can be used to Language (even accent) can be used to construct and maintain oppression of a construct and maintain oppression of a subordinate group.subordinate group.

America is a pluralistic, multicultural America is a pluralistic, multicultural society. Hispanic and Asian populations society. Hispanic and Asian populations growing 10 times the pace of whites who growing 10 times the pace of whites who are not Hispanic, U.S. Census Bureau are not Hispanic, U.S. Census Bureau (2005).(2005).

Culturally focused prevention necessary Culturally focused prevention necessary for at risk populations.for at risk populations.

Cultural competenceCultural competence Cultural competence – knowledge of client’s Cultural competence – knowledge of client’s culture and customs from diverse cultural culture and customs from diverse cultural backgrounds. Avoid color-blind and gender-backgrounds. Avoid color-blind and gender-blind approaches. blind approaches.

Three aspects of cultural competence: Three aspects of cultural competence: need to understand and take responsibility for our need to understand and take responsibility for our own beliefs and attitudes own beliefs and attitudes

need to learn about and expand multicultural need to learn about and expand multicultural experiences experiences

use our knowledge to become proponents of use our knowledge to become proponents of multiculturalismmulticulturalism

Know the resources for intervention.Know the resources for intervention. Ethnicity and Family Therapy, Ethnicity and Family Therapy, McGoldrick et al. (2005) McGoldrick et al. (2005) – spells out norms and folkways, differences – spells out norms and folkways, differences in communication styles for dozens of cultural in communication styles for dozens of cultural groups.groups.

NASW (1996) NASW (1996) Code of EthicsCode of Ethics – includes special – includes special section on cultural competence and social section on cultural competence and social diversity.diversity.

EthnocentrismEthnocentrism EthnocentrismEthnocentrism is the paradox that as we learn is the paradox that as we learn to take pride in our culture, we come to to take pride in our culture, we come to think that our culture is superior to those think that our culture is superior to those of other groups.of other groups.

Cultural imperialism Cultural imperialism occurs when the dominant occurs when the dominant group universalizes its experience and group universalizes its experience and culture and uses them as the norm.culture and uses them as the norm.

Immigration and war heighten the sense of Immigration and war heighten the sense of ethnocentrism in a community.ethnocentrism in a community.

Karen Armstrong (1993) Karen Armstrong (1993) A History of God A History of God speaks speaks of fundamentalismof fundamentalism

War in Iraq – notion of sacred deaths by War in Iraq – notion of sacred deaths by terrorists.terrorists.

Pew Global Attitudes Project (2005)—Pew Global Attitudes Project (2005)—negative image of the U.S. in international negative image of the U.S. in international surveys surveys www.pewglobal.org

Culture as Macro-SystemCulture as Macro-System Blackberry WinterBlackberry Winter (1972), Margaret Mead’s (1972), Margaret Mead’s autobiography, tells how to unravel the autobiography, tells how to unravel the intricacies of a new cultureintricacies of a new culture

Four leaf clover metaphorFour leaf clover metaphor Culture has form and pattern, structural Culture has form and pattern, structural inequalities and social class hierarchy.inequalities and social class hierarchy.

Dual perspective provides an alternative lens.Dual perspective provides an alternative lens.Cultural ValuesCultural Values

Make for cohesion and solidarity that help Make for cohesion and solidarity that help ensure the continuity of group lifeensure the continuity of group life

Behavior or belief can only be correctly Behavior or belief can only be correctly evaluated in the light of its meaning to the evaluated in the light of its meaning to the people who practice it—rarely spelled outpeople who practice it—rarely spelled out

Western versus Eastern cultural values Western versus Eastern cultural values

U.S. Cultural Continuum U.S. Cultural Continuum Work vs. leisureWork vs. leisure Equal opportunity vs. equalityEqual opportunity vs. equality Mobility vs. stabilityMobility vs. stability Competition vs. cooperationCompetition vs. cooperation Individualism vs. collectivismIndividualism vs. collectivism Independence vs. interconnectednessIndependence vs. interconnectedness Materialism vs. SpiritualityMaterialism vs. Spirituality Nuclear family vs. extended familyNuclear family vs. extended family Moralism vs. compassionMoralism vs. compassion

Work vs. LeisureWork vs. Leisure America values a strong work ethicAmerica values a strong work ethic Max Weber, Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit

of Capitalismof Capitalism Martin Luther, John CalvinMartin Luther, John Calvin United States work 2,000 hours United States work 2,000 hours average per year, Germany 1,444 and average per year, Germany 1,444 and France 1,545France 1,545

Leisure time : U.S. 10 days, Japanese Leisure time : U.S. 10 days, Japanese 18, Chinese 15, British and 18, Chinese 15, British and Australian 25, German and Spanish 30.Australian 25, German and Spanish 30.

Korean work ethicKorean work ethic – – high suicide ratehigh suicide rate

Equal Opportunity vs. EqualityEqual Opportunity vs. Equality In U.S., stress on opportunity- counterpart of In U.S., stress on opportunity- counterpart of inequalityinequality

Road to upward mobility is to “play by the rules”Road to upward mobility is to “play by the rules” Early education a key factor in successEarly education a key factor in success Some achieve enormous success – others fail Some achieve enormous success – others fail miserably.miserably.

The Other AmericaThe Other America, Michael Harrington (1962), Michael Harrington (1962) Equality – means sharing the wealth between the haves Equality – means sharing the wealth between the haves and the have-nots.and the have-nots.

U.S. system of equality--mass education, informal U.S. system of equality--mass education, informal language and dress, absence of aristocracy or titles. language and dress, absence of aristocracy or titles.

Admiration of a “self made man”, ideology of “rags to Admiration of a “self made man”, ideology of “rags to riches”riches”

U.S.-- richest 1% own 1/3 of nation’s wealth. Bottom U.S.-- richest 1% own 1/3 of nation’s wealth. Bottom 80% have just 16 %. About 31% of black households 80% have just 16 %. About 31% of black households have zero wealth.have zero wealth.

InstitutionallyInstitutionally based vs based vs residually residually based (safety net) based (safety net) society.society.

Means-tested programs become stigmatized programs.Means-tested programs become stigmatized programs. Scandinavian value of equalityScandinavian value of equality

Mobility vs. StabilityMobility vs. Stability

American ideology promotes a belief American ideology promotes a belief in progress – up the corporate in progress – up the corporate ladder.ladder.

deTocqueville(1835) -- saw a nation deTocqueville(1835) -- saw a nation in constant motion, every change in constant motion, every change seeming an improvementseeming an improvement

Americans as seen by foreigners-- Americans as seen by foreigners-- “brash and risk-takers”“brash and risk-takers”

In recession less mobility; more In recession less mobility; more families doubling up; unemployed families doubling up; unemployed youths living at homeyouths living at home

Competition vs. cooperationCompetition vs. cooperation Americans taught from childhood to compete.Americans taught from childhood to compete. Pupil competition as spur to learn and to Pupil competition as spur to learn and to perpetuate the beliefs of market economy.perpetuate the beliefs of market economy.

Arabic principal: “taarradhin” means “ I Arabic principal: “taarradhin” means “ I win, you win”win, you win”

Chinese – no equivalent word for Chinese – no equivalent word for personality. The concept of self is personality. The concept of self is virtually unknown in most Asian cultures.virtually unknown in most Asian cultures.

Norway and other Scandinavian countries – Norway and other Scandinavian countries – egalitarianism, horizontally oriented. egalitarianism, horizontally oriented. “Samarbeid”“Samarbeid” in Norwegianin Norwegian literally meaning literally meaning “to work together,” permeates every aspect “to work together,” permeates every aspect of their culture.of their culture.

U.S. – vertically oriented.U.S. – vertically oriented.

Individualism vs. collectivism Individualism vs. collectivism Individualism—one of the most sacred Individualism—one of the most sacred American philosophies.American philosophies.

Post WWII era favored strong Post WWII era favored strong government intervention.government intervention.

African American values on the African American values on the collectivist end of the scalecollectivist end of the scale

Progressive periods in the U.S. Progressive periods in the U.S. compared to today’s conservative times compared to today’s conservative times

Collectivism as the norm in Norway and Collectivism as the norm in Norway and JapanJapan

Independence vs. Independence vs. interconnectednessinterconnectedness

Independence closely relates to Independence closely relates to individualism in the United States.individualism in the United States.

Codependency as a major flawCodependency as a major flaw U.S. leads or “goes it alone” U.S. leads or “goes it alone” globallyglobally

Interconnectedness and indigenous Interconnectedness and indigenous cultureculture

First Nations Peoples in North First Nations Peoples in North America—role of elders in the America—role of elders in the communitycommunity

Materialism vs. spiritualityMaterialism vs. spirituality Materialism—consider marketing and Materialism—consider marketing and consumer spendingconsumer spending

Alternative value of spiritualityAlternative value of spirituality Salvation: Black People and Love Salvation: Black People and Love by bell hooks by bell hooks (2001) tells of obsession with material (2001) tells of obsession with material gain that has affected the black family.gain that has affected the black family.

Strong religious character in America, Strong religious character in America, noted in various studies comparing U.S. noted in various studies comparing U.S. and European attitudes.and European attitudes.

U.S. Gallup poll survey – 85% said U.S. Gallup poll survey – 85% said religion important, 2/3 reported religion important, 2/3 reported membership, 1/3 attend weekly services.membership, 1/3 attend weekly services.

Nuclear Family vs. Extended Nuclear Family vs. Extended FamilyFamily

Geographical mobility breaks up Geographical mobility breaks up extended ties.extended ties.

Kinship arrangements very Kinship arrangements very different in the non- different in the non- industrialized world.industrialized world.

Various cultural aspects—Various cultural aspects—description of Mexican description of Mexican attitudesattitudes

Moralism vs. CompassionMoralism vs. Compassion Moralism is the tendency to be Moralism is the tendency to be judgmental about affairs and events.judgmental about affairs and events.

International comparisons on several International comparisons on several issues: issues: www.worldvaluessurvey.org. .

British view—strange in America that British view—strange in America that gun control, stem cell research, seen gun control, stem cell research, seen as moral issues.as moral issues.

Retribution rather than Retribution rather than rehabilitation – shown in highest rehabilitation – shown in highest imprisonment rates in the world in imprisonment rates in the world in the U.S.the U.S.

Rural Cultural ValuesRural Cultural Values What’s the matter with Kansas? How ConservativesWhat’s the matter with Kansas? How Conservatives Won theWon the Heart Heart

of Americaof America, Thomas Frank (2004)—explains how rural , Thomas Frank (2004)—explains how rural people were tricked into voting on moral rather people were tricked into voting on moral rather than economic grounds by Republicansthan economic grounds by Republicans

Boxed reading“Appalachia: A Study in Contrasts”Boxed reading“Appalachia: A Study in Contrasts” study in cultural traumastudy in cultural trauma Effects of attitude of defeatism and also Effects of attitude of defeatism and also resilience of mountain people shown in PBS resilience of mountain people shown in PBS series, series, Country BoysCountry Boys

Highlander Research and Education Center—home of Highlander Research and Education Center—home of activism in the South activism in the South www.highlandercenter.org

““Stress Pushes Rural Iowans to Brink” headline in Stress Pushes Rural Iowans to Brink” headline in TheThe Des Moines RegisterDes Moines Register

Chapter 6Chapter 6Community and Community DevelopmentCommunity and Community Development

Theme of this chapter--Is the sense of Theme of this chapter--Is the sense of community alive or dead? This chapter community alive or dead? This chapter looks at arguments pro and conlooks at arguments pro and con

Community – defined in the Community – defined in the Social Work DictionarySocial Work Dictionary as “a as “a group of individuals or families that share certain group of individuals or families that share certain values, services, institutions, interests, or values, services, institutions, interests, or geographic proximity”geographic proximity”

Really two types of community—Really two types of community— as a sense of oneness and shared identity as a sense of oneness and shared identity referring to location or place referring to location or place

Maslow – importance of belongingness, 3Maslow – importance of belongingness, 3rdrd level in level in his hierarchy of needs.his hierarchy of needs.

Theories of Community BreakdownTheories of Community Breakdown Durkheim (1897) coined the term Durkheim (1897) coined the term anomie anomie or or normlessness normlessness He predicted and showed that industrialized He predicted and showed that industrialized nations would have a higher suicide rate than nations would have a higher suicide rate than non-industrialized nations.non-industrialized nations.

This relationship holds true today.This relationship holds true today. Bowling AloneBowling Alone, Robert Putnam (2001), used , Robert Putnam (2001), used team bowling as a metaphor for community team bowling as a metaphor for community togetherness togetherness

Interpersonal divide: The Search for Community in aInterpersonal divide: The Search for Community in a Technological Age—Technological Age—titletitle of aof a recentrecent book that book that argues the global village has been argues the global village has been replaced by a global shopping mall.replaced by a global shopping mall.

Modern technology has transformed the way Modern technology has transformed the way people relate to each other – radio, people relate to each other – radio, television, cell phones, Internet.television, cell phones, Internet.

The Impact of Globalization on The Impact of Globalization on CommunityCommunity

Globalization is defined by the Globalization is defined by the International Federation of Social Worker International Federation of Social Worker (IFSW, 2005), as “the process by which all (IFSW, 2005), as “the process by which all peoples and communities come to experience peoples and communities come to experience an increasingly common economic, social, an increasingly common economic, social, and cultural environment” and cultural environment” www.ifsw.org

Threats to community through the world Threats to community through the world banking requirements imposed on poor banking requirements imposed on poor nations – South Africa, Latin American nations – South Africa, Latin American nations forced to make “structural nations forced to make “structural adjustments”.adjustments”.

War and violence related to conquest and War and violence related to conquest and greed—and divisiveness of ethnic groupsgreed—and divisiveness of ethnic groups

The Corporation and CommunityThe Corporation and Community The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of ProfitThe Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit andand PowerPower by Bakan (2004), records the history of the by Bakan (2004), records the history of the corporation as originally set up to provide a corporation as originally set up to provide a public service.public service.

Corporation exists for profit, not the common Corporation exists for profit, not the common good.good.

Tax structure favors big business and building Tax structure favors big business and building construction.construction.

Three key terms: privatization, intensified Three key terms: privatization, intensified productivity levels, and the technological productivity levels, and the technological revolution.revolution.

Shops, restaurants, and stores less likely to Shops, restaurants, and stores less likely to be family owned, but corporate – Wal-Mart and be family owned, but corporate – Wal-Mart and Target.Target.

Trends in Transportation Trends in Transportation Since 1970, the US population has increased Since 1970, the US population has increased 37%, but the distance traveled by the nation’s 37%, but the distance traveled by the nation’s fleet of personal automobiles and motorcycles fleet of personal automobiles and motorcycles increased 143%.increased 143%.

From 1982 to 2000, the annual hours of highway From 1982 to 2000, the annual hours of highway traffic delay per person in urban areas traffic delay per person in urban areas increased from 16 hours to 62 hours per yearincreased from 16 hours to 62 hours per year

The effects to communities of loss of mass The effects to communities of loss of mass transportation>reliance on automobile>in 1950s transportation>reliance on automobile>in 1950s move to the suburbsmove to the suburbs

Consolidation of public schools>busing Consolidation of public schools>busing Absence of sidewalks in suburbs >impact on Absence of sidewalks in suburbs >impact on sense of communitysense of community

Trends in EducationTrends in Education School districts sought lower land costs, closing School districts sought lower land costs, closing small rural schools small rural schools

Impact of the mega schoolImpact of the mega school Busing now necessaryBusing now necessary Increased rates of obesityIncreased rates of obesity Larger classrooms, less individual attention to students Larger classrooms, less individual attention to students School consolidation to save moneySchool consolidation to save money

Small school advantages—intimacy, lower drug use Small school advantages—intimacy, lower drug use rates, trust, lower dropout rates, children can rates, trust, lower dropout rates, children can stay after school, more chances for children to stay after school, more chances for children to excel in sports, theatre, etc.excel in sports, theatre, etc.

Small school grants from the Bill and Melinda Small school grants from the Bill and Melinda Gates FoundationGates Foundation

Appalachian schools – central to community and Appalachian schools – central to community and pride, school plays bring the community togetherpride, school plays bring the community together

Arguments that the Community Is Alive Arguments that the Community Is Alive and Welland Well

The Virtual CommunityThe Virtual Community

Influence of google, email, facebook, Influence of google, email, facebook, and other technology in communication and other technology in communication globallyglobally

Reunions due to facebookReunions due to facebook (mass organizing such as at (mass organizing such as at www.MoveOn.org for an example in the for an example in the election; also street demonstrations election; also street demonstrations for environmental protests) for environmental protests)

……Arguments Community Alive Arguments Community Alive and Welland Well

Bonding in rural communities emerges from Bonding in rural communities emerges from togetherness and mutual need.togetherness and mutual need.

Tonnies (1887), divided rural and urban areas Tonnies (1887), divided rural and urban areas into ideal types:into ideal types: GGemeinchaft : emeinchaft : shared experiences, traditions shared experiences, traditions and sense of mutual responsibility andand sense of mutual responsibility and

GGesellschaftesellschaft : exchange of goods, money or : exchange of goods, money or services – urban communities.services – urban communities.

U.S. Census Bureau-- just under 20% of the U.S. Census Bureau-- just under 20% of the population is rural. 80% of farmland in Iowa is population is rural. 80% of farmland in Iowa is owned by people who live in the state.owned by people who live in the state.

However, problems from industrial competition However, problems from industrial competition leading to factory outsourcing and small farm leading to factory outsourcing and small farm economic devastation.economic devastation.

Strengths of Racial and Ethnic Strengths of Racial and Ethnic CommunitiesCommunities

Each ethnic community is a system with a Each ethnic community is a system with a character of its own.character of its own.

Outsiders accuse minority groups of being Outsiders accuse minority groups of being unfriendly or “always hanging around together.”unfriendly or “always hanging around together.”

African heritage, traditions, customs and values African heritage, traditions, customs and values unite African American families, communities and unite African American families, communities and organizations. Strong church and family mutual organizations. Strong church and family mutual interrelatedness.interrelatedness.

Native Americans, strong family bonds, Medicine Native Americans, strong family bonds, Medicine Wheel, placing good of the group above individual Wheel, placing good of the group above individual

Japanese society “sekentei” means society and Japanese society “sekentei” means society and reputation. Constant concern about others’ reputation. Constant concern about others’ evaluations of one’s behavior.evaluations of one’s behavior.

Latin American subgroups – Mexican, Puerto Latin American subgroups – Mexican, Puerto Ricans, Cubans often live in the same Ricans, Cubans often live in the same neighborhoods and community bonds are strong.neighborhoods and community bonds are strong.

Postville, Iowa A community of German American farmers when a Kosher meatpacking plant moved in

Hassidic Jews recruited Guatemalan and Mexican workers, many undocumented

Mass immigrant raid broke up families; almost 400 arrested and deported

Plant owner in prison; plant under new management

Pride in the Gay/Lesbian Pride in the Gay/Lesbian CommunityCommunity

June is the unofficial month for gay June is the unofficial month for gay pride.pride.

Rainbow- colored symbols symbolize Rainbow- colored symbols symbolize diversity and bonding.diversity and bonding.

Accessline: Iowa’s Gay Newspaper, Accessline: Iowa’s Gay Newspaper, published bi-published bi-monthly provides relevant news and monthly provides relevant news and community announcements. Distributed free community announcements. Distributed free of charge.of charge.

The Deaf CommunityThe Deaf Community Members of the deaf community define Members of the deaf community define deafness as a cultural rather than an deafness as a cultural rather than an audiological phenomenon. audiological phenomenon.

Common language, shared experiences.Common language, shared experiences. Refer to earlier boxed reading on growing Refer to earlier boxed reading on growing up deaf in chapter 4.up deaf in chapter 4.

Religious CommunitiesReligious Communities More Americans will attend a church More Americans will attend a church service each week than all the service each week than all the Americans who attend sporting events Americans who attend sporting events over the entire year, Rick Warren over the entire year, Rick Warren (2002).(2002).

Have both positive and negative Have both positive and negative aspects aspects

Provide strengths—faith and meaning, Provide strengths—faith and meaning, community, and a shared value systemcommunity, and a shared value system

Provide help for members of the church Provide help for members of the church and community outreach to the poor.and community outreach to the poor.

Building Community BondsBuilding Community Bonds Social action directed at the source of Social action directed at the source of a problem – grass-roots activity:a problem – grass-roots activity: Black Hawk County, Iowa. 13 women never gave Black Hawk County, Iowa. 13 women never gave up the fight against poor management of up the fight against poor management of local women’s shelter. Set up alternative local women’s shelter. Set up alternative service-- Seeds of Hope outreach, which was service-- Seeds of Hope outreach, which was awarded the entire annual grant of $200,000.awarded the entire annual grant of $200,000.

Policy reform at the Iowa state level- Policy reform at the Iowa state level- African American community and state African American community and state legislatures restored voting rights to over legislatures restored voting rights to over 50,000 disenfranchised persons convicted of 50,000 disenfranchised persons convicted of a felony upon completion of their terms.a felony upon completion of their terms.

Tupelo, Mississippi – Tupelo, Mississippi – communitarianism. communitarianism. Grew to Grew to become an internationally recognized magnet become an internationally recognized magnet for industrial investment.for industrial investment.

Sustainable Community

Greensburg, Kansas—after tornado to be greenest town in America

Sustainability—open, health preserving, need for green space,

Public transportation

Restorative Justice as Community Restorative Justice as Community JusticeJustice

Standard criminal justice process can Standard criminal justice process can exacerbates community divisions. exacerbates community divisions.

Restorative justice rooted in indigenous Restorative justice rooted in indigenous rituals and Mennonite philosophy rituals and Mennonite philosophy

Works in conjunction with established Works in conjunction with established correctional institutions from the correctional institutions from the standpoint of the victim of the crime.standpoint of the victim of the crime.

Major goal is to repair the harm done to the Major goal is to repair the harm done to the victim and the community, make the wrongdoer victim and the community, make the wrongdoer accountable to the victim and the communityaccountable to the victim and the community

Types most relevant to community bondingTypes most relevant to community bonding Victim-offender conferencingVictim-offender conferencing Community reparationsCommunity reparations

Boxed Reading: “Restorative Justice: A Model Boxed Reading: “Restorative Justice: A Model of Healing”—relates restorative justice to of Healing”—relates restorative justice to social work valuessocial work values

Practice ImplicationsPractice Implications Social workers play a key role in Social workers play a key role in their local communitiestheir local communities advocate for social service programs advocate for social service programs engage as community members in working engage as community members in working toward social economic development and toward social economic development and political lobbying for social justicepolitical lobbying for social justice

Need to understand the community as an Need to understand the community as an ecosystemecosystem

Boxed reading, “Community Development Boxed reading, “Community Development in Moldova”in Moldova” by young social worker in by young social worker in the peace corps describes her work as the peace corps describes her work as advocate, initiator, and brokeradvocate, initiator, and broker

Chapter 7Chapter 7Human Behavior and the Organizational Human Behavior and the Organizational

Environment: The Community Working TogetherEnvironment: The Community Working Together

Organization – structure, Organization – structure, hierarchy, channels of hierarchy, channels of communication, a working communication, a working environment environment

Organizational culture – Organizational culture – “shared norms, beliefs, values, “shared norms, beliefs, values, symbols, and rituals” that symbols, and rituals” that guide the social behavior guide the social behavior

Organizational ClimateOrganizational Climate Students having difficulty reconciling theory Students having difficulty reconciling theory and the realities of practiceand the realities of practice

Positive climatePositive climate Openness and camaraderieOpenness and camaraderie Democratic decision makingDemocratic decision making Shared sense of missionShared sense of mission

Negative atmosphereNegative atmosphere Climate of competition and jealousy among Climate of competition and jealousy among workersworkers

Climate of almost religious loyalty to Climate of almost religious loyalty to organizational principlesorganizational principles

Conflict at upper levelsConflict at upper levels Hierarchy built on favoritismHierarchy built on favoritism

Adopting a Critical PerspectiveAdopting a Critical Perspective

Question all forms of oppression in Question all forms of oppression in organization.organization.

Consider what makes organization sustainable—Consider what makes organization sustainable—treatment of the worker, need for external treatment of the worker, need for external financial supportfinancial support

Draw on our social work imaginations.Draw on our social work imaginations. Historical overview: Max Weber on bureaucracyHistorical overview: Max Weber on bureaucracy

Specified qualifications of workersSpecified qualifications of workers Detached impersonal approachDetached impersonal approach Formal written communicationFormal written communication Rewards in salary, pensions, seniorityRewards in salary, pensions, seniority

Leadership in Organizational Leadership in Organizational SettingsSettings

New developments in leadership theory-New developments in leadership theory-focus on meeting spiritual needsfocus on meeting spiritual needs

In interest of social justice, flexibility In interest of social justice, flexibility of leader to perform many tasksof leader to perform many tasks

Traditional leadership theories: Traditional leadership theories: Trait theory – Trait theory – great mangreat man or or greatgreat personperson Positional theory – Leaders are not born, but Positional theory – Leaders are not born, but created by virtue of the positions they hold.created by virtue of the positions they hold.

Situational theory – Leadership is a function Situational theory – Leadership is a function of the leader’s behavior in relationship to of the leader’s behavior in relationship to the behaviors of the followers.the behaviors of the followers.

Style theory – various styles that Style theory – various styles that characterize certain leaders. Authoritarian, characterize certain leaders. Authoritarian, laissez-faire, democratic.laissez-faire, democratic.

Leadership StylesLeadership Styles

Theory X- assumes people don’t like to Theory X- assumes people don’t like to work and need to be coerced, directed work and need to be coerced, directed and threatened. and threatened.

Theory Y- assumes people want Theory Y- assumes people want responsibility and are willing to responsibility and are willing to learn Democratic Leadership – based on learn Democratic Leadership – based on a paradigm of mutuality and a paradigm of mutuality and interrelationshipsinterrelationships

Theory Z- focuses on how to apply Theory Z- focuses on how to apply humanistic and collectivist management humanistic and collectivist management philosophies such as used in Japanphilosophies such as used in Japan

Democratic Leadership Democratic leader— atmosphere of Democratic leader— atmosphere of empowerment empowerment Determines Determines howhow the members the members will go about the process of thinking will go about the process of thinking and deciding, not and deciding, not what what the member will the member will think or decide.think or decide.

Hartmann—threats to U.S. democracy Influence of military industrial complex Lobbyists influence Trillion dollar war budget

• John McCain for campaign finance reformJohn McCain for campaign finance reform

The Classic Bureaucratic ModelThe Classic Bureaucratic Model Mid 19Mid 19thth century – heavy industry and century – heavy industry and manufacturing in full swing. Belief in manufacturing in full swing. Belief in and reliance upon mechanical systems. and reliance upon mechanical systems.

Bureaucracy--very hierarchical – like Bureaucracy--very hierarchical – like a pyramid. Boss, middle management and a pyramid. Boss, middle management and workers at the bottom.workers at the bottom.

Principles of scientific management Principles of scientific management were adopted in early 20were adopted in early 20thth century, century, new stress on efficiency, productivitynew stress on efficiency, productivity

Merit pay criticized by feminists, Merit pay criticized by feminists, reinforces competitive normsreinforces competitive norms

Human Relations ModelHuman Relations Model Great Depression-- early 1930s, Great Depression-- early 1930s, affected rich and poor alike.affected rich and poor alike.

Human relations model—a reaction Human relations model—a reaction against scientific management, stress against scientific management, stress on human relations in workon human relations in work

The Hawthorne effectThe Hawthorne effect – at the Western – at the Western Electric Company, found organizations Electric Company, found organizations function best when managers pay function best when managers pay positive attention to workers and honor positive attention to workers and honor the interests of the informal networks.the interests of the informal networks.

Organizations began to be open systems, Organizations began to be open systems, adaptable, growing, and evolving.adaptable, growing, and evolving.

General Systems ModelsGeneral Systems Models 1960s and ‘70’s-- new technologies and growth1960s and ‘70’s-- new technologies and growth General systems theories used to construct General systems theories used to construct models and conduct research on complex models and conduct research on complex organizations and it’s interaction with the organizations and it’s interaction with the environment.environment.

Contingency School Contingency School – organizations are in constant – organizations are in constant movement and contingent on a number of factors movement and contingent on a number of factors such as structure, leadership. No best way to such as structure, leadership. No best way to run an organization.run an organization.

Characteristics of contingent systems: Characteristics of contingent systems: importation of energy, throughput (producing importation of energy, throughput (producing products), output, systems as cycles of events, products), output, systems as cycles of events, entropy, information input, steady state and entropy, information input, steady state and homeostasis, differentiation. and equifinality.homeostasis, differentiation. and equifinality.

Non-Hierarchical or Non-Hierarchical or Consensual ModelsConsensual Models

Control rests with the members-employee-Control rests with the members-employee-owners.owners.

Primary goal to prevent or minimize Primary goal to prevent or minimize alienation of workers by the larger, complex, alienation of workers by the larger, complex, hierarchical organizationshierarchical organizations

Characteristics:Characteristics: decisions made after discussion by members decisions made after discussion by members minimal rules minimal rules personal rather than formal relationships among personal rather than formal relationships among membersmembers

leadership based on election, with rotations of leadership based on election, with rotations of leadershipleadership

non financial reward for leadership roles, and no non financial reward for leadership roles, and no winners or losers in decision making.winners or losers in decision making.

Non-HierarchalNon-HierarchalOrganizations--JapanOrganizations--Japan

Japanese organization Japanese organization – value cooperation and – value cooperation and collective decision makingcollective decision making

Differences between formal organization in Differences between formal organization in Japan and the U.S. :Japan and the U.S. : Hiring and advancementHiring and advancement Lifetime securityLifetime security Holistic involvementHolistic involvement Broad-based trainingBroad-based training Collective decision makingCollective decision making

The CorporationThe Corporation

Corporate influence ties in with Corporate influence ties in with government policy.government policy.

2003 Canadian documentary, 2003 Canadian documentary, The Corporation, The Corporation, charts the development of the corporation charts the development of the corporation as a legal entity.as a legal entity.

The corporate media--advertisers exert The corporate media--advertisers exert pressure on media coverage of the news pressure on media coverage of the news and criticisms of products. and criticisms of products.

Boycott of Boycott of The Los Angeles TimesThe Los Angeles Times by General by General Motors.Motors.

Media molds public opinion.Media molds public opinion.

Corporation continued The corporate work model- downsizing, The corporate work model- downsizing, outsourcing, wage flexibility, cost-outsourcing, wage flexibility, cost-efficiency, accountability, efficiency, accountability, productivity.productivity.

Robert Greenwald’s documentary Robert Greenwald’s documentary Wal-Mart: Wal-Mart: The High Cost of Low Price.The High Cost of Low Price. Employs 1.4 million peopleEmploys 1.4 million people Rallies by workers cheer the companyRallies by workers cheer the company High pressured workHigh pressured work

The McDonaldization of Society, The McDonaldization of Society, by Ritzer by Ritzer shows how standardization of the shows how standardization of the product and interchangeablity of product and interchangeablity of workers is the modern way.workers is the modern way.

Impact of the Market Economy on Impact of the Market Economy on Social WorkSocial Work

Privatization – subcontracting out of services Privatization – subcontracting out of services as cost-cutting measuresas cost-cutting measures

Intensified productivity – maximum worker Intensified productivity – maximum worker output is measured in terms of speed and output is measured in terms of speed and profitability with the fewest number of workersprofitability with the fewest number of workers

Less time for clients, more time on paperwork Less time for clients, more time on paperwork to prove accountabilityto prove accountability

Technological revolution- accountants in India Technological revolution- accountants in India can check the income tax form for the IRScan check the income tax form for the IRS

Human service operations – practitioners Human service operations – practitioners instructed to use computer technology not only instructed to use computer technology not only to store data but to retrieve professional to store data but to retrieve professional papers, medical and technical information and papers, medical and technical information and educationeducation

Exploitation by managers - surveillance of Exploitation by managers - surveillance of workers, lack of trust workers, lack of trust

Classic View of AlienationClassic View of Alienation Alienation is defined in various ways: as Alienation is defined in various ways: as powerlessness, meaninglessness, powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation and self normlessness, isolation and self estrangement. estrangement.

Marx said alienation changes a society as Marx said alienation changes a society as the society industrializes the society industrializes

Durkhem believed it was the result of Durkhem believed it was the result of isolation in a disintegrating society.isolation in a disintegrating society.

Material sources—workers seldom own their Material sources—workers seldom own their own tools or control working conditions own tools or control working conditions

Creation of new markets—the nature of Creation of new markets—the nature of capitalismcapitalism

Organizations that EmpowerOrganizations that Empower Boxed reading by prison social worker-teacher tells Boxed reading by prison social worker-teacher tells how she helped her students become empowered in their how she helped her students become empowered in their learning experience in a disempowering setting—the learning experience in a disempowering setting—the prisonprison

Attention is paid to staff development and education.Attention is paid to staff development and education. Must look beyond the status quo to alternative Must look beyond the status quo to alternative models.models.

Change efforts start with data gathering, supporters Change efforts start with data gathering, supporters and presentation of a proposal for change at a staff and presentation of a proposal for change at a staff meeting.meeting.

Strengths-based assessment of the agency Strengths-based assessment of the agency Advice for change agents: introduce ideas one at a Advice for change agents: introduce ideas one at a time, be flexible, open to suggestions and do not time, be flexible, open to suggestions and do not invest too much power in one individualinvest too much power in one individual

Social worker might feel alienated when goals of Social worker might feel alienated when goals of organization conflict with social work values; organization conflict with social work values; clients do not come first; pressures external to the clients do not come first; pressures external to the agency hinder creativity.agency hinder creativity.

Chapter 8Chapter 8Human Behavior and the Natural Human Behavior and the Natural

Environment:Environment:The Community of the EarthThe Community of the Earth

Chapter is concerned with the Chapter is concerned with the biobio part part of the bio-psycho-social-spiritual of the bio-psycho-social-spiritual study of human behavior.study of human behavior.

Biology of this chapter is at the macro Biology of this chapter is at the macro level, oflevel, of

relevance to macro social welfare and relevance to macro social welfare and social worksocial work

Key question: Are present policies Key question: Are present policies sustainable?sustainable?

Ecological Disaster and Ecological Disaster and Decline: Global Decline: Global Challenges:Challenges:

World Watch Institute(2004) documents World Watch Institute(2004) documents ecological decline.ecological decline.

Population:Population: Annual growth rate of 1.5 percent; world adds Annual growth rate of 1.5 percent; world adds 85 to 100 million new people each year 85 to 100 million new people each year

Every three years more people are added than Every three years more people are added than currently live in the entire United States. currently live in the entire United States. U.S. around 300 million.U.S. around 300 million.

By 2025, over 3 billion people worldwide By 2025, over 3 billion people worldwide will be living in countries with depleted will be living in countries with depleted water resources, cropland, forests, and water resources, cropland, forests, and biodiversity.biodiversity.

Sustainability Mosher ( 2009 ) defines sustainability as “building and maintaining institutions, communities, economies, and societies that can coexist in harmony with the natural world and each other far into the future”

Concept sustainability teaches there are limits to earth’s resources

Four forms: cultural, ecological, economic, political

Respect for human and non-human life and the natural environment

Sustainability continued NASW stresses importance of environmental justice

Need for sustainable population growth to preserve resources

Global warming linked to problems of overpopulation, loss of arable land, will shrink freshwater life and other resources

The Loss of BiodiversityThe Loss of Biodiversity

Prince Charles’s article: economy depends on preserving Prince Charles’s article: economy depends on preserving naturenature

BiodiversityBiodiversity:--the variability among living organisms that :--the variability among living organisms that maintains the health of living things on the earthmaintains the health of living things on the earth

Silent SpringSilent Spring, Rachel Carson (1962) documented chemical , Rachel Carson (1962) documented chemical pollutionpollution

Land Institute's prairie in Salina, Kansas—goal to restore Land Institute's prairie in Salina, Kansas—goal to restore natural ecosystem, plants, insects, and animals in balance, natural ecosystem, plants, insects, and animals in balance, restore biodiversity to the earthrestore biodiversity to the earth

www.LandInstitute.org Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), funded in part by Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), funded in part by

UN, showed humans have radically altered our ecosystemsUN, showed humans have radically altered our ecosystems Contamination of water from fertilizer pollutionContamination of water from fertilizer pollution 20% of coral reefs were lost in last 20 years20% of coral reefs were lost in last 20 years

Human societies can ease the strain on nature through Human societies can ease the strain on nature through changes in consumption patterns, education, technologies, changes in consumption patterns, education, technologies, reduction in fertilizers and pesticides, and higher prices reduction in fertilizers and pesticides, and higher prices placed on industry and agriculture for exploiting practices.placed on industry and agriculture for exploiting practices.

War and the EnvironmentWar and the Environment Invasion of Panama in 1989—uprooted people Invasion of Panama in 1989—uprooted people turned to the land turned to the land

Gulf War—Gulf War— Millions of barrels of oil dumped into the seaMillions of barrels of oil dumped into the sea Depleted uranium used to destroy tanks—probable Depleted uranium used to destroy tanks—probable cause of Gulf War syndromecause of Gulf War syndrome

Afghanistan—landmines threaten humansAfghanistan—landmines threaten humans Palestine—water system affected by toxic Palestine—water system affected by toxic weaponsweapons

Depleted uranium tipped warheads used Depleted uranium tipped warheads used against Iraq against Iraq

National Gulf War Resource Center National Gulf War Resource Center www.ngwrc.org

The Sierra Club The Sierra Club www.sierraclub.org

Environmental RacismEnvironmental Racism Women, people of color, children, and the poor Women, people of color, children, and the poor disproportionately affected by pollution disproportionately affected by pollution

Indian Reservations – toxic dump cites Indian Reservations – toxic dump cites Louisiana's “Cancer Alley”—in poor black Louisiana's “Cancer Alley”—in poor black neighborhoodsneighborhoods

Title 6 Civil Rights Act guarantees equal Title 6 Civil Rights Act guarantees equal protection under the lawprotection under the law

Anniston, Alabama--Monsanto law suit settled Anniston, Alabama--Monsanto law suit settled $42.8 million (Environmental Justice Resource $42.8 million (Environmental Justice Resource Center, 2001) cancer causing PCBs polluted Center, 2001) cancer causing PCBs polluted waterways and fish that low income, waterways and fish that low income, predominantly black citizens ate.predominantly black citizens ate.

Box by social worker permanently injured by Box by social worker permanently injured by pesticide spraypesticide spray

Monsanto Facts presented in film, Food, Inc. and news reports

Monsanto criticized for production of genetically altered crops that are engineered to produce their own insecticides

Monsanto has monopoly on both the seeds and herbicides

The chemicals are dangerous to human and nonhumanlife

Side effect of developing resistance in the insects they are designed to target

ConsumerismConsumerism Buy and Be Happy--Buy and Be Happy--The American Dream The American Dream global capitalism—creates desire for products for global capitalism—creates desire for products for which there is no need; natural things turned which there is no need; natural things turned into commoditiesinto commodities

materialism and consumer-driven economymaterialism and consumer-driven economy Material accumulation detracts from personal Material accumulation detracts from personal well-beingwell-being

Over-consumption Over-consumption a threat to the physical, emotional, and social health a threat to the physical, emotional, and social health of humans of humans

is the single largest danger to the earth’s ecosystems.is the single largest danger to the earth’s ecosystems. The U.S. consumes 25% of the world’s energy while The U.S. consumes 25% of the world’s energy while constituting only 5% of the world’s population.constituting only 5% of the world’s population.

Industrial countries comprise only ¼ of the Industrial countries comprise only ¼ of the world's population while consuming 40-86% of the world's population while consuming 40-86% of the earth’s various natural resources.earth’s various natural resources.

Global WarmingGlobal Warming

Shift in public consciousness concerning natural disasters Shift in public consciousness concerning natural disasters and the genuine threat to their safety and personal and the genuine threat to their safety and personal security and the link to global warmingsecurity and the link to global warming

Documentation provided in Al Gore’s film, “An Inconvenient Documentation provided in Al Gore’s film, “An Inconvenient Truth”Truth”

Carbon dioxide filling our atmosphere-- the greenhouse Carbon dioxide filling our atmosphere-- the greenhouse effect.effect.

Effect of climate change on food production, human health, Effect of climate change on food production, human health, immigration patterns and climate related problemsimmigration patterns and climate related problems

The International Panel on Climate Change predicts the The International Panel on Climate Change predicts the average global temperature will increase from 2 to 10 average global temperature will increase from 2 to 10 degrees F over the next 100 yrs.degrees F over the next 100 yrs.

Rapid acceleration in the rise of sea levels. At the Rapid acceleration in the rise of sea levels. At the current rate, levels could rise as much as 20 feet within current rate, levels could rise as much as 20 feet within the next 100 years swamping low lying estuarial areas the next 100 years swamping low lying estuarial areas around the world.around the world.

Recently another 10,000-year old ice shelf on the Recently another 10,000-year old ice shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula melted in just 3 weeks (Environmental Antarctic Peninsula melted in just 3 weeks (Environmental News Service, 2005).News Service, 2005).

Conventional Ideas of Community and Conventional Ideas of Community and Environment in Social WorkEnvironment in Social Work

The Progressive Era – late 19The Progressive Era – late 19thth century shaped century shaped the identity and purposes of the emerging the identity and purposes of the emerging profession of social work. Shift in public profession of social work. Shift in public thinking away from blaming the individual for thinking away from blaming the individual for poverty to seeking out the structural causes.poverty to seeking out the structural causes.

Belief in the environment as a force shaping Belief in the environment as a force shaping human development, but attention exclusively to human development, but attention exclusively to social not natural environmentsocial not natural environment

John Muir (1838-1914), wrote of nature John Muir (1838-1914), wrote of nature consciousness – stressed the deeper aspects of consciousness – stressed the deeper aspects of naturenature

Gifford Pinchot, in contrast, considered only Gifford Pinchot, in contrast, considered only the practical side of conservation of natural the practical side of conservation of natural resources for use by future resources for use by future generations.Dominance of the modernist viewpoint generations.Dominance of the modernist viewpoint of Pinchotof Pinchot

The Social Work Profession The Social Work Profession EmergesEmerges

Evolution of two organizational Evolution of two organizational movements:movements: Charity Organization Societies--Charity Organization Societies--

Effort to coordinate relief on a community-wide Effort to coordinate relief on a community-wide basisbasis

Friendly visitors investigated worthy poor. Friendly visitors investigated worthy poor. The poor were seen to be morally responsible for The poor were seen to be morally responsible for their own circumstances.their own circumstances.

Mary Richmond associated with this approachMary Richmond associated with this approach Settlement HousesSettlement Houses – –

Established in immigrant neighborhoods Established in immigrant neighborhoods Educated women moved into these areas to live Educated women moved into these areas to live among the people in need of help.among the people in need of help.

City environment was the locus of change – not City environment was the locus of change – not the individual.the individual.

Jane Addams associated with this approach.Jane Addams associated with this approach.

Views of Person and EnvironmentViews of Person and Environment World War I – culture shift, war fever, faith World War I – culture shift, war fever, faith in capitalism and science. Nature to be in capitalism and science. Nature to be controlled.controlled.

Social work driven to professionalize, Social work driven to professionalize, renewed interest in science, took the first renewed interest in science, took the first steps towards an individual-oriented, steps towards an individual-oriented, therapeutic model of practice.therapeutic model of practice.

Conventional IdeasConventional Ideas: 1960-1980 multiple : 1960-1980 multiple historic markers—racial and social upheavalhistoric markers—racial and social upheaval

Systems and ecological approaches in social Systems and ecological approaches in social work; still little attention to natural realmwork; still little attention to natural realm

New environmental movement – Rachel Carson New environmental movement – Rachel Carson (1962) (1962) Silent Spring. Silent Spring. SawSaw nature itself as under nature itself as under attackattack

Link of Person and EnvironmentLink of Person and Environment

Influence of Carol Germain and Influence of Carol Germain and Alex Gitterman (1976,1980)-- Alex Gitterman (1976,1980)-- problems a result of stress due problems a result of stress due to and inadequate fit between to and inadequate fit between people and their environments.people and their environments.

Person in environment: social Person in environment: social work still maintained the work still maintained the status quo viewstatus quo view

Alternative Perspectives on Alternative Perspectives on Person and EnvironmentPerson and Environment

Deep ecology – term coined by Arne Naess of Deep ecology – term coined by Arne Naess of NorwayNorway

Deep ecologyDeep ecology Includes all human and non human beings, Includes all human and non human beings, processes, things and systems in the total processes, things and systems in the total planetary ecology planetary ecology

Emphasizes understanding of systems in a Emphasizes understanding of systems in a holistic wayholistic way

Concerned with equality and eco-justice in Concerned with equality and eco-justice in humanities relationship with nature humanities relationship with nature

In contrast, In contrast, shallow ecologyshallow ecology Concerned with ecological problems only Concerned with ecological problems only because of their impact on humansbecause of their impact on humans

Emphasis on privileged classes and societiesEmphasis on privileged classes and societies Human beings are not the prime center of Human beings are not the prime center of importance in the universe. importance in the universe.

Humans aren’t Humans aren’t inin the environment, but the environment, but withwith the the environment. Notion of environment. Notion of an ecological self.an ecological self.

… … Deep EcologyDeep Ecology Deep questioning can lead to a shift Deep questioning can lead to a shift of consciousness. of consciousness.

We can know other beings through We can know other beings through deep deep empathy.empathy.

Deep ecology is about unity with Deep ecology is about unity with other people and with the earth other people and with the earth itselfitself

Gives human/nature relationship Gives human/nature relationship central importance.central importance.

Implications for social work—need to Implications for social work—need to address problems that arise from address problems that arise from destructive interference with naturedestructive interference with nature

Norway and Deep EcologyNorway and Deep Ecology Boxed reading: “Insights on Deep Ecology from Boxed reading: “Insights on Deep Ecology from Norway” by Fred BesthornNorway” by Fred Besthorn Norway ranked number one in human Norway ranked number one in human developmentdevelopment

Landscape of deep fjords and high mountainsLandscape of deep fjords and high mountains Natural environment as a spiritual Natural environment as a spiritual sanctuarysanctuary

Belief in land as open to all; public can Belief in land as open to all; public can roam freely on open countrysideroam freely on open countryside

Skiing, biking, walking for all; Skiing, biking, walking for all; nonmotorized recreationnonmotorized recreation

Note from van Wormer who experienced this Note from van Wormer who experienced this sense of nature in living and working in sense of nature in living and working in NorwayNorway

Alternative Perspectives on Alternative Perspectives on Person and EnvironmentPerson and Environment

EcofeminismEcofeminism (Francoise d’Eaubonne, 1994) (Francoise d’Eaubonne, 1994) illustrates the potential of women for illustrates the potential of women for bringing about an ecological revolution to bringing about an ecological revolution to guarantee human survival. guarantee human survival.

Rejects dominance, competition, materialism Rejects dominance, competition, materialism and techno- scientific exploitation and and techno- scientific exploitation and competitive aspects of social systems.competitive aspects of social systems.

Major conceptual themes: Major conceptual themes: Image of nurturing mother caring for her Image of nurturing mother caring for her children children

Relationships and all forms of social Relationships and all forms of social domination are feminist concernsdomination are feminist concerns

Interconnectedness of everything.Interconnectedness of everything. Ecofeminism rejects the reductionist Ecofeminism rejects the reductionist tendencies and emphasizes the organic tendencies and emphasizes the organic wholeness of the universe. wholeness of the universe.

A New Ecological Model for Social A New Ecological Model for Social WorkWork

Social work must return to its progressive activist Social work must return to its progressive activist roots, to:roots, to: political action, policy formation and attention to global political action, policy formation and attention to global

issues issues practice the value of material equalitypractice the value of material equality advocate for an alternative vision of the good lifeadvocate for an alternative vision of the good life criticize modern economic theorycriticize modern economic theory confront the illusion of consumer happinessconfront the illusion of consumer happiness We recommend a reorientation of social work perspective from We recommend a reorientation of social work perspective from

being in environment (social) to being in nature (as a being in environment (social) to being in nature (as a totality).totality).

Educational setting should operate in environmentally Educational setting should operate in environmentally sound mannersound manner

and encourage social activism to confront oppression.and encourage social activism to confront oppression. In short, this book offers a new vision of community, In short, this book offers a new vision of community,

return to joy in the simpler life, pleasure in nature, return to joy in the simpler life, pleasure in nature, conversations, spiritual rituals, neighborhood conversations, spiritual rituals, neighborhood gatherings, family outings, artistic pursuits, music, gatherings, family outings, artistic pursuits, music, dance, literature, and experiencing nature.dance, literature, and experiencing nature.

Chapter 9Chapter 9Human Behavior and the Religious/Spiritual Human Behavior and the Religious/Spiritual

Environment: The Community of FaithEnvironment: The Community of Faith

This chapter is concerned with This chapter is concerned with spirituality and religion – both may be a spirituality and religion – both may be a search for the sacred. Models of spiritual search for the sacred. Models of spiritual growth across the life span are explored growth across the life span are explored as is the social work interest in as is the social work interest in spiritual and religious expression.spiritual and religious expression.

American Religious Identification Survey

Survey shows 1 in 5 identify as nones—non-believers

Decline in mainline church attendance

34% identify as born again Christians

70% believe in God Most “nones” among Irish Americans, Asian Americans, and Jews

Social Work’s Treatment of Social Work’s Treatment of Religion and SpiritualityReligion and Spirituality

Laura Praglin, social work scholar (2004), delineated four Laura Praglin, social work scholar (2004), delineated four typical ways the social work has responded to the concepts typical ways the social work has responded to the concepts of religion and spirituality: of religion and spirituality: 1) resistance or avoidance of a dialogue on the subject;1) resistance or avoidance of a dialogue on the subject; 2) an overly generalized acceptance of the spiritual nature of 2) an overly generalized acceptance of the spiritual nature of

practice , minimizing conflict;practice , minimizing conflict; 3) a radical separation of the terms spirituality and religion 3) a radical separation of the terms spirituality and religion

for ideological reasons; has led to feeling of rejection by for ideological reasons; has led to feeling of rejection by evangelical Christians; evangelical Christians;

4) a sincere interdisciplinary engagement of the two 4) a sincere interdisciplinary engagement of the two constructs.constructs.

Holistic Model – views spirituality as one aspect of what Holistic Model – views spirituality as one aspect of what it means to be human; as providing a sense of wholeness.it means to be human; as providing a sense of wholeness.

Boxed reading, “Earth as Source of Spirit” (Michael Boxed reading, “Earth as Source of Spirit” (Michael Sheridan)—healing powers of the earth shown in case Sheridan)—healing powers of the earth shown in case studies of social work with male inmates, urban studies of social work with male inmates, urban adolescents, and women in substance abuse treatment. Their adolescents, and women in substance abuse treatment. Their images of nature made them feel peaceful and connected.images of nature made them feel peaceful and connected.

Kwanzaa Based on African celebration of the harvest

Kwanzaa means “first fruits” Ritual that includes singing hymns about the harvest celebrated in America around Christmas time

Celebration of African heritage Principles of unity, collective work, purpose, self-determination, creativity, and faith

Social Work’s Early Religious Social Work’s Early Religious HeritageHeritage

Mainstream Protestantism Mainstream Protestantism Pre-Civil War period– Protestantism, Pre-Civil War period– Protestantism, the dominant religious force, the dominant religious force, brought unity, but poverty viewed in brought unity, but poverty viewed in terms of personal flaws terms of personal flaws

Post-Civil War—tendency toward Post-Civil War—tendency toward disunity, anti-Catholicismdisunity, anti-Catholicism

Mainstream Protestantism failed to Mainstream Protestantism failed to meet the challenges of the meet the challenges of the industrial revolution.industrial revolution.

The Social Gospel MovementThe Social Gospel Movement The Social Gospel- new form of The Social Gospel- new form of Protestant Christianity --liberal Protestant Christianity --liberal Protestantism’s response to the Protestantism’s response to the unregulated capitalism and the unregulated capitalism and the environmental circumstances of human environmental circumstances of human misery.misery.

Institutional churches or religious Institutional churches or religious settlements – it was the environment, settlements – it was the environment, not the individual that formed the not the individual that formed the locus of change.locus of change.

Reform oriented—focus on living as Reform oriented—focus on living as Jesus lived rather than on doctrineJesus lived rather than on doctrine

Cross-fertilization of ideas with Cross-fertilization of ideas with social worksocial work

Protestant FundamentalismProtestant Fundamentalism Responsible for the following institutions: Responsible for the following institutions:

The YMCA, private philanthropic agencies, The YMCA, private philanthropic agencies, denominational hospitals, city missions, the denominational hospitals, city missions, the temperance movement, the Salvation Army temperance movement, the Salvation Army

Anecdotal claims that social work faculty have Anecdotal claims that social work faculty have an anti-evangelical bias and discriminate—claim an anti-evangelical bias and discriminate—claim is exaggeratedis exaggerated

Striking characteristic of modern Striking characteristic of modern fundamentalists is the involvement in fundamentalists is the involvement in politicspolitics

Younger evangelicals are especially Younger evangelicals are especially concerned about environmental concerned about environmental sustainability.sustainability.

Theoretical Perspectives on Theoretical Perspectives on SpiritualitySpirituality

These perspectives provide social workers with a These perspectives provide social workers with a general framework for how people understand and general framework for how people understand and incorporate constructs into their lives.incorporate constructs into their lives.

Gordon Allport – Model of Religious Sentiments Gordon Allport – Model of Religious Sentiments (1950)--one’s religiosity was very different from (1950)--one’s religiosity was very different from that which was experience in childhood. Three that which was experience in childhood. Three stages:stages:

1) 1) raw credulity-raw credulity- young to middle childhood children young to middle childhood children believe what their told. believe what their told.

2) 2) satisfying rationalismsatisfying rationalism- adolescence when teens start - adolescence when teens start to question beliefs from childhood to question beliefs from childhood

3) 3) religious maturityreligious maturity- adult religious development - adult religious development characterized by ability to have religion while characterized by ability to have religion while also being able to critically reflect and also being able to critically reflect and questionquestion

Fowler’s Model of Spiritual Fowler’s Model of Spiritual DevelopmentDevelopment

James Fowler (1981) influenced by Erikson, Piaget and James Fowler (1981) influenced by Erikson, Piaget and Kohlberg. Relied on intensive interview with subjects aged Kohlberg. Relied on intensive interview with subjects aged 3-84.His six stages:3-84.His six stages:

(pre-stage period) primal faith(pre-stage period) primal faith 1- intuitive-projective faith – children – symbols, 1- intuitive-projective faith – children – symbols,

dreams and imagination.dreams and imagination. 2 - mythic-literal faith stage – children separate 2 - mythic-literal faith stage – children separate

fantasy from reality. God in human terms, father, ruler.fantasy from reality. God in human terms, father, ruler. 3 - synthetic-conventional faith – adolescent – self-3 - synthetic-conventional faith – adolescent – self-

reflective. God seen with personal qualities of love, reflective. God seen with personal qualities of love, acceptance and understanding.acceptance and understanding.

4 - individuative-reflective faith- transition from late 4 - individuative-reflective faith- transition from late adolescence to responsibility for one’s own beliefs and adolescence to responsibility for one’s own beliefs and lifestyle.lifestyle.

5 - conjunctive faith- mid-life, recognize God is both 5 - conjunctive faith- mid-life, recognize God is both personal and abstract. Either/or debates become both/and personal and abstract. Either/or debates become both/and resolutions.resolutions.

6 – universalizing faith – pinnacle of faith development, 6 – universalizing faith – pinnacle of faith development, deep recognition of the oneness of all experiences and deep recognition of the oneness of all experiences and phenomenon. Only 3 out of every 1,000 people reach this phenomenon. Only 3 out of every 1,000 people reach this stage. Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Mother stage. Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa.Teresa.

Wilber’s Model of Wilber’s Model of ConsciousnessConsciousness

Ken Wilber (1980) Ken Wilber (1980) full-spectrum model of consciousness--full-spectrum model of consciousness-- a a complex system that focuses on both individual and complex system that focuses on both individual and collective aspects.collective aspects.

Influenced by psychoanalytical theoryInfluenced by psychoanalytical theory View of the separateness of things as an illusion View of the separateness of things as an illusion

and not a realityand not a reality Insight can occur by virtue of an evolutionary Insight can occur by virtue of an evolutionary

ascent to a higher stage of consciousness that ascent to a higher stage of consciousness that integrates all the previous stages and represents a integrates all the previous stages and represents a transpersonaltranspersonal level of awareness. level of awareness.

Holon – composed of whole/partsHolon – composed of whole/parts 10 basic stages of psycho-spiritual development 10 basic stages of psycho-spiritual development

occur in three general phases of development:occur in three general phases of development: Stages 0-3 Stages 0-3 prepersonalprepersonal or or preegoic phasepreegoic phase.. Stages 4-6 Stages 4-6 personalpersonal or or egoic phase.egoic phase. Stages 7-9 Stages 7-9 transpersonaltranspersonal or or trans-egoic phasetrans-egoic phase.. Achievement of strong ego development and self-Achievement of strong ego development and self-

actualization is not the highest goal but rather actualization is not the highest goal but rather the “spirit” level – beyond ego or self to self-the “spirit” level – beyond ego or self to self-transcendence and unity with the ultimate reality.transcendence and unity with the ultimate reality.

Concluding RemarksConcluding Remarks No perfect theoretical models of religious and/or No perfect theoretical models of religious and/or spiritual development.spiritual development.

Inherently biased toward Western belief systemsInherently biased toward Western belief systems Challenge to social work is to rediscover Challenge to social work is to rediscover linkages among spirituality and religion, and linkages among spirituality and religion, and social work theory and practicesocial work theory and practice

Conclusion to the book—Conclusion to the book—we have come full circle, we have come full circle, from study of human behavior in the group, from study of human behavior in the group, family, culture, community, organizations to ever family, culture, community, organizations to ever higher levels of abstraction—the natural higher levels of abstraction—the natural environment and spiritual realms. Image of holon environment and spiritual realms. Image of holon to show that each part is both a whole and a part to show that each part is both a whole and a part of another whole.of another whole.