PROCESSING MANUAL

Drying of fruit and vegetables and fruit juice extraction

Indicative Process Flow Diagram for Fruit Juice Production

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Raw Material

from

Suppliers

Final Processing

Flow

Quality Inspection

and

Receiving

Q u a r a n t i n e

Flow

Receipt Administration

Quality Inspection

and

Receiving

Storage

S t o r a g e

P a c k a g i n g ,

I n g r e d i e n t s ,

C h e m i c a l s

Flow

Flow

Fruit – Vegetables

from

Supplier

Flow

Flow

Pre processing

Dispatch StorageFlow

Quality Control

Quality AssuranceSecondary Packaging

Dispatch Documentation Completed

Flow

S t o r a g e

F r u i t

V e g e t a b l e sFlo

w

Dispatch Administration

Flow

Cleaning

& WashingSorting

Processing

Treatment

& RinsingBlending

Pulping

Pre-heating

Peeling &

Crushing

Flow

Flow

Interface

Pasteur-

izingFilling Sealing

Labeling

Tony Swetman, Olivier Van Buynder and Rob Moss

Prepared for GIZ Ghana

September 2011

2

Drying of fruit and vegetables and fruit juice extraction

Drying principles

Renewable energy dryers

Business planning

Factory management

Quality and hygiene

Relationships with farmers and ensuring a supply-base

Certification requirements for farm and factory

Tony Swetman, Olivier Van Buynder and Rob Moss

Prepared for GIZ Ghana

December 2010

3

Table of content

Foreword ................................................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 1: Introduction and Background .................................................................................. 8

Establishment of MOAP processing activities ...................................................... 9

Chapter 2: Market perspectives .............................................................................................. 10

Availability of dried fruit and vegetables in Ghana ............................................. 10

European market for dried fruit ........................................................................... 10

The juice market .................................................................................................. 11

Chapter 3: Ensuring a supply-base for fruit processing .......................................................... 12

Introduction – why worry about the supply-base? ............................................... 12

Types of supply base ............................................................................................ 13

Passive supply ...................................................................................................... 13

Managed outgrower schemes ............................................................................... 14

Contract farming with agri-businesses................................................................. 15

Own production ................................................................................................... 15

Planning and locating a factory............................................................................ 16

Information on areas of production ...................................................................... 17

Roles & responsibilities of the processing company when sourcing from farms 21

Farmers‟ responsibilities to processors and side-selling ...................................... 22

Establishing demonstration farms ........................................................................ 23

Out-grower selection ............................................................................................ 23

Technical and support services ............................................................................ 24

Financial services ................................................................................................. 25

Out-grower associations....................................................................................... 26

The cost of managing a supply base .................................................................... 27

Business management............................................................................................................. 29

Business plan ....................................................................................................... 29

Outline of the business plan ................................................................................. 29

Marketing Strategy............................................................................................... 30

Financial Plan....................................................................................................... 31

Staff grading - Paterson grading system.................................................................................. 35

Job evaluation or job grading involves the following:......................................... 35

How to apply the Paterson system ....................................................................... 36

Example of staff structure for a fruit-processing plant ........................................................... 37

Record keeping ........................................................................................................................ 38

4

Chapter 4 Fruit drying.............................................................................................................. 42

Basic principles of food drying ............................................................................ 42

Climatic conditions in Ghana............................................................................... 47

Mango harvesting season in Ghana ..................................................................... 49

Introduction of drying equipment in Ghana......................................................... 50

Solar Drying ......................................................................................................... 50

Equipment specifications for dried fruit processing ............................................................... 53

Cabinet dryer ........................................................................................................ 61

Process flow of a drying plant ............................................................................. 68

HACCP process for drying fruits .............................................................................................. 69

Post harvest handling and receiving of fresh fruit .................................................................. 76

Harvesting ............................................................................................................ 76

Pre processing fruit preparation ........................................................................... 77

Food hygiene management .................................................................................. 79

Good Manufacturing Practices - GMP ..................................................................................... 79

Dried fruit quality .................................................................................................................... 91

Chapter 5: Fruit juice production ............................................................................................ 95

Principles of Pasteurization ..................................................................................................... 97

Treatment of primary packaging material .......................................................... 101

HACCP process for fruit juice................................................................................................. 102

Chapter 6: Hygiene and control ............................................................................................ 109

Food factory hygiene and operation .................................................................. 109

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point system (HACCP) ......................... 109

HACCP Principles ................................................................................................................... 111

Hygiene in fruit juice and drying processing and products handling ................ 112

HACCP Auditing ..................................................................................................................... 114

Internal Audit by Department – Whole Production Line ...................................................... 114

Standard Operational Procedures (SOP) ............................................................................... 119

Chapter 7: Certification ......................................................................................................... 121

Farm certification: why is it necessary, what is it for? ...................................... 121

The complexities of certification: a brief overview ........................................... 121

Certification Standards .......................................................................................................... 123

5

Principals and criteria ........................................................................................ 124

The Inspection .................................................................................................... 126

Group Certification and Internal Control Systems ............................................ 127

Types of certification in West Africa................................................................. 131

Retail and supermarket agricultural good practice assurance standards ............ 131

Environmental impact and footprinting (e.g. Carbon and water footprinting) .................... 132

Fairtrade, social and ethical performance standards .......................................... 133

Organic, bio or biological certification .............................................................. 135

Voluntary sustainability standards (e.g. Rainforest Alliance) ........................... 137

Annex 1 Directory of certification standards ........................................................................ 138

Annex 2: List of supplier for parts to construct and repair the Solar 4 and TOBY dryers. .... 145

Annex 3: Material list for solar dryer .................................................................................... 146

Annex 4 Material list for TOBY cabinet dryer ........................................................................ 149

Annex 5 Standard operating procedures (SOP)..................................................................... 151

Standard operating procedures for receiving (deliv. by supplier or collection) 151

Standard operating procedures for receiving & storage .................................... 151

Standard operating procedures for pre - processing and handling of fruit ........ 152

Standard operating procedure for peeling and slicing ....................................... 152

Standard operating procedure for packing drying trays and drying ................. 153

Standard operating procedures packaging/storage and dispatch. ...................... 153

Standard operating procedures for receiving (delivery by supplier/collection) . 154

Standard operating procedures for receiving ..................................................... 154

Standard operating procedures for pre - processing and handling of fruit. ....... 155

Standard operating procedure for pulping ......................................................... 155

Standard operating procedure for filling, capping sealing ................................. 156

Standard operating procedures for packaging/storage and dispatch. ................. 156

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 157

6

Foreword

This handbook is from the field - for the field! It‟s content is based on demand,

encountered shortcomings and hands-on experience in developing agricultural value

chains in Ghana. Food processing was grossly underdeveloped and underrated in

policy approaches when we started in 2004 and still is by any international standards.

The dearth of data on the volumes of food processing in Ghana alone is testimony to

that. But in the new agricultural policies agro processing and value-chain approaches

feature prominently.

In fact food processing plays a crucial role in the development of agricultural value

chains and therefore in rural development and poverty alleviation. It became clear

very soon that access to markets is of course a key problem for rural producers. But

“access” is a summary formula for so many different problems or challenges. Still the

right quality, quantity and time of supply is a problem. And to get this right you have

to start on the field with the farmers and then follow through the chain to the end-user.

Linking so many actors and harmonising so many interests is indeed a great challenge

and on the way often key issues get lost. Chain facilitation is an important role to be

played. Ideally it should be played by a private sector representative who is in the

middle of the chain and has an interest to cover a greater segment of the chain.

Therefore processors are usually well situated to get engaged in chain facilitation.

Processors have a central position in an agricultural value chain since they are the

culmination point or nexus that links market demands and farmers‟ production

capacities. They not only provide a market to farmers, but to be successful, as this

manual shows, they also need to care about their supply base and provide services to

their farmers. At the same time they link to diverse markets and must understand

market forces and consumer demands. Because of these multiple functions they are so

important for value chain development and well deserve special attention of policy

makers and development agents.

But value chain actors tend to look either only on their own business disregarding the

forward and backward linkages or they look more on what others are doing and how

they could benefit from intruding into their business rather than to concentrate on

their part. But this is key: know you position in the value chain and play your role

well. Make sure you and your product meet all the demands. Don‟t even think of

expanding into other activities before you have your part absolutely under control and

right.

Quality is at the heart of matters and at the heart of quality is sound technical

knowledge and diligent management. It is here that this manual comes in. It provides

some of the technical details that are required to produce quality in food processing. It

enlightens on the meaning of quality management in processing. Quality management

covers the flow of processing activities but it extends beyond that. If the raw material

is not good your product will not be good. So you need to worry abut what farmers

deliver and what they are doing on the field because it affects the quality of the

processed product.

Yet another principle of quality management that we find neglected is: what is not

documented does not exist. There is no successful business without proper record

7

keeping. Record keeping is the basis for quality management but also for cost analysis

and cost control. In most cases you have little control over your selling price, i.e. the

market price, but you can control your costs. And more, quality control is linked to

cost control. It is usually the same points where things go wrong. So analysing your

process flow in detail by proper record keeping provides a lot insight for improvement

of the business.

But our experience is that processors grossly underestimate the efforts it takes to

ensure a quality supply of raw material at the right time. So this manual covers these

aspects too: linking to farmers, supporting group formation and quality assurance

trough certification processes. This is vital for successful processing operations and

requires considerable investments and attention. This manual probably provides a

unique overview of the challenges and costs of organising a good supply base.

This book covers some of the most important segments of the value chain and it pays

special tribute to the processors as providing a significant leverage for value chain

development.

There is a lot of different and detailed information in the manual. We do not suggest

to read this book cover to cover, but to study the table of content well and find what is

of interest to you.

In Ghana we say there is no easy enterprise – so true. We hope this book will help!

Lothar Diehl Rüdiger Behrens

Program manager Extension specialist and

MOAP chief editor of the manual

2004-2010 MOAP

8

Chapter 1: Introduction and Background

This manual is a product of the Market-Orientated Agriculture Programme (MOAP);

a programme of German Development Cooperation financed by the Federal Ministry

for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and jointly implemented by

Ghana‟s Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), the German Technical

Cooperation (GTZ), and the German Development Service (DED). Since January

2011 the German Technical Cooperation organisations have been merged to form the

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit or German International

Cooperation (GIZ).

MOAP aims to strengthen the agricultural sector‟s competitiveness on domestic and

foreign markets by capitalizing on the country‟s agricultural potential to generate

significant income for the rural population.

MOAP has used a three-component approach:

Component 1: Promotion of Value Chains

The value-chain concept views agriculture as agro-based business comprising:

Input provision

Primary production

Transformation and processing

Marketing and trade

Consumption

Commodities being supported are pineapple, mango, chilli-pepper, grasscutter,

guinea-fowl and fish and since the start of the second phase in 2010 also maize.

Typical MOAP activities are:

Value-chain and stakeholder analyses

Market studies

Increasing market power and access

Establishment of improved linkages along the value-chain

Development and introduction of good agricultural practices and quality

assurance

Development of nurseries

Introduction of small-scale processing technologies

Support of services along the value-chain

Providing guidance for business managers

Component 2: Improvement of service delivery from the public sector

Activities include mainstreaming trade regulatory and policy issues, supporting donor

co-ordination and providing policy advice

9

Component 3: Strengthening of agribusiness and their membership organizations

and institutions

Typical MOAP activities are:

Strengthening associations through institutional and organizational

development

Business and legal advice including advertising and promotion

Joint marketing and investment aid

Process facilitation

Market research and Information provision

Introduction of quality standards

Strengthening linkages between public and private sectors

Establishment of MOAP processing activities

More value can be added if the whole chain is more efficient and this is the premise

when MOAP entered into discussions with stakeholders along a particular value-

chain. For processed fruit products, for example, having more processors putting a

wider range of products on the market adds value to the sector as a whole.

Within the fruit sector in Ghana there are juice producers processing juice from

pineapple, mango and citrus. Some businesses are considering fruit pulp production

and others are keen to produce dried fruit. The production of dried pepper (chilli) is

also common within Ghana on a small scale. MOAP has worked with the range of

commodities and has looked at domestic, regional and international markets for

processors and helped develop production capacity and formulate recommendations

for interventions and support.

The authors of this manual have provided inputs to the MOAP since 2006. They have

helped to build up the programme in support of the processing industry. Through their

extensive experience of cooperation with many processors they have identified many

common bottlenecks and problems and have conducted training courses as well

individual support for some of the processing industries. Through this they brought

together information on local manufacture of processing procedures and equipment

mainly for fruit and vegetable drying and juice extraction. The collection of

information includes:

Organizing a raw material supply-base

Description of equipment

Factory layout

Product quality

Good manufacturing practice and markets

Workshop drawings

Other topics related to processing

This publication draws all these themes together to provide a source of information

for those entering agro processing businesses. The manual also covers the supply base

providing the raw materials from farms to a factory. The issue of obtaining the

minimum quality and quantity of raw materials for a factory to operate profitably is a

major problem encountered during MOAP‟s interaction with businesses in the

processing sector.

10

Chapter 2: Market perspectives

Availability of dried fruit and vegetables in Ghana

Many dried products are sold in markets in Ghana, including

whole and powdered dried red chilli,

dried powdered okra,

dried sorrel (whole hibiscus flowers),

dried powdered leaves.

Dried fruits, however, are not seen in street markets other than fry-dried plantain and

cocoyam, which are sold on the streets and in supermarkets and shops as snack food

items.

Dried mango, pineapple, banana, guava, papaya, and coconut strips have only recently

started to be produced and sold and, at the time of writing, are only marketed by three

or four companies. These are mainly packaged in either 100g sealed plastic bowls or

200g sachets. Other dried fruits found in shops are imported from South Africa or

South East Asia.

European market for dried fruit

Raisins (dried grapes), prunes (dried plums) and dates make up the majority of dried

fruits available in Europe. Other important dried fruits include apples, apricots,

bananas, cranberries, figs, mangoes, papaya, peaches, pineapples and tomatoes. Water

is usually removed by evaporation (air drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying) or

by freeze-drying. Dried fruit has a long shelf life and can therefore provide a good

alternative to fresh fruit. Dried fruit is often added to baking mixes and breakfast

cereals and is valued for its intense flavour.

In 2008, a total of 2.65 million metric tonnes (mt) of dried fruit and vegetables with a

value of €3.1 billion were imported by EU countries – see table below. Around one-

third of this is from other EU countries. 47% is imported from Developing Countries

(DCs) and this share of imports is increasing.

EU Imports of dried fruit and vegetables 2004-2008,

value in € millions, volume in thousand mt

2004 2006 2008

Aver. Annual

Change % Value volume Value volume value volume in value

Total EU, 2,406 3,700 2,728 3,715 3,092 2,651 6.48% of which from Intra-EU 900 1,273 1,018 1,158 1,084 890 4.76% Extra-EU excl.

DC* 503 1,309 502 1,275 544 633 1.98%

DC* 1,003 1,118 1,208 1,281 1,464 1,128 9.93%

Source: Eurostat 2008 and 2009

*Developing Countries

11

The increase in imports of edible nuts and dried fruit and vegetables and the strong

position of DCs in this trade can be explained by a number of factors. First, EU

countries cannot produce much fruit and nuts cheaply themselves, so they are

imported. Secondly, consumption of dried fruits and exotic nuts is increasing due to a

number of trends including growing demand for luxury and convenience products and

growing markets in new member states. In addition it is also cheaper to import some

products, such as hazelnuts, walnuts and various dried fruit. Outsourcing is also a

trend, with European companies starting to invest in producing companies in other

countries (for instance Turkey), and then exporting the produce to the EU.

Dried fruit is used in consumer or food service packing, mainly consumed as a snack

and ingredient for breakfast cereals, healthy ready-to-eat snacks and desserts.

Bakeries and companies who prepare mixed breakfast cereals are two of the largest

end users of dried fruit.

The products are mostly imported in bulk to Europe, where they are packed - often

along with other dried fruit and nuts - as consumer products, or are sold as ingredients

for the processing industry.

The UK is the largest importer of dried fruit and vegetables in the EU, accounting for

19% of imports by value and by volume. Germany is the second largest importer;

France and Italy are the other main importers of vegetables. The four largest

importing countries account for 57% of the total import value. Import growth rates in

many new EU member states are higher than in older EU countries.

The above information is taken from CBI Market Survey – The Edible Nuts and Dried

Fruit and Vegetables Market in the EU (September 2009) compiled for CBI by

Mercado - http://www.cbi.eu/marketinfo

The juice market

The international market for juice is well researched and information can be obtained

from the web, e.g. http://www.macmap.org/ No attempt is made to reproduce this fast

changing market information here.

The juice market in Ghana unfortunately is not researched at all and very little to no

information is available. All we know is that juice is imported in considerable

quantities and that the production at the same time is slowly increasing. MOAP

conducted some market studies to test saleability of products and packaging. These

studies are not representative in any way, but they indicated that there is considerable

and growing demand for fresh juices particularly from the fast growing urban middle

income population. Hence MOAP felt safe to encourage juice processing. Obviously

those who invested in juice production in the recent past at considerable scale came to

the same conclusion.

However this manual is not about market opportunities but about specific aspects of

processing through juice manufacture and drying.

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Chapter 3: Ensuring a supply-base for fruit processing

Introduction – why worry about the supply-base?

Some fruit processors have their own farms and produce their own raw materials, but

others rely partly or wholly on the fruit they buy. Whatever the supply strategy, the

supply of fruit is critical to the success of a processing company. Fruit needs to be

available to a processor in the Quantity, Quality and at the Time (QQT) the factory

needs in order to operate at a capacity that allows it to make a profit. It clearly would

be a bad business decision to put a factory where the cost of fruit is too high, even if

the QQT is good. Processing businesses need cheap raw materials, but factory-gate

prices must be high enough so that everyone, farmers, middlemen, truckers, the

factory and clients can all make money. Unless QQT+Cost are all within boundaries

that make it possible for all the actors in the value chain to make profit, the business is

not viable. This section is about the raw material supply issues that need to be

considered in planning a fruit processing business

What are the goals for a supply base?

A predictable supply of fruit in terms of meeting minimum quality requirements.

A predictable quantity that allows the factory to operate above its break-even

threshold for capacity utilization and allows it to meet orders from clients,

Supplies that are well organized to arrive at the factory in a steady and predicable

rate so that the factory does not get overwhelmed and nothing gets spoiled

unnecessarily; while at the same time avoiding days when the factory is fully

staffed but there is nothing to process.

The cost for fruit delivered at a fair price (so low enough for the factory to make

its profit but high enough for farmers supplying the fruit to make their profit).

The supply base should be able to expand if the processing company grows.

Farms and factory should have an interlocking relationship so that both benefit

from each other‟s success. Both sides should be able to continually improve

performance. This means farms can improve QQT and reduce costs of production

and factory can operate more efficiently and so be able to pay farmers adequately.

Both farms and factories operate without causing environmental damage or

engaging in unethical business practice so that future growth and long term

business sustainability is possible.

13

Types of supply base

There are four types of supply-base for a processing business

Passive Supply

Managed outgrower schemes

Contract Farming

Own Production

Type Characteristics Advantages Suitability

Passive

supply

Opportunistic buying,

where a processor

waits for fruit to be

become available.

Low investment. Works

well when there is a

surplus and fruit is

available and cheap.

Good for small processors with limited capital cost or

staff costs that can operate intermittently and at low

overall capacity without jeopardizing the business.

Managed

outgrower

schemes

Farmers in groups or

cooperatives

collaborating with a

processor to supply a

factory.

Capable of supplying

according to QQT

requirements; but with

some flexibility over

time

Suitable for many businesses that have clear QQT

requirements for fruit supply and the ability to manage

a scheme. Useful in places where land availability is

poor, or tenure arrangements uncertain so companies

cannot easily acquire their own farms. These schemes

can grow with the businesses they supply. Many oil-

palm processing factories have outgrower schemes.

Contract

farming

There are various ways

contract farming can be

managed. It depends on

the farmer being able

to manage their own

affairs and keep to a

contract

More formal and

generally more

potential for

professionalization than

cooperatives of small

farmers. Stronger and

more legally binding

relationship

Most common where farms are run as professional

agribusinesses. Suitable for processors that want to

have a small number of professionally managed farms

supplying them. High performance farm management

can be achieved more easily and farms are more likely

to make capital investments (e.g. in irrigation systems,

tractors etc) to reduce production costs, in order to

supply a factory.

Own

Production

Growing fruit on

company farms or on

leased land or in share-

cropping arrangements

Gives direct control of

the supply base.

Suitable for many processing businesses, especially

those with strong contractual commitments to their

markets as well as high QQT requirements. A company

must have the resources and technical expertise to do

this well. Even if the majority of raw material comes

from out-growers or contract farmers, a company may

still want its own farm for demonstration, training and

research purposes.

As processing businesses grow and they demand more supply and better performance

from their suppliers they will tend to move from passive supply towards a mixture of

the other options.

Passive supply

A processor waits for farmers to have fruit available at an affordable price, but does

not get directly involved in encouraging farmers to increase production or to produce

in one way or another. This approach is cheap, not needing any significant

investment, but with the disadvantage of the processor have little or no control. When

fruit is abundant, and therefore probably cheap, this works well as fruit is obtained at

a low cost. If the processing business is consistent and always buys fruit from the

same farmers, and pays promptly, then over time farmers will gain confidence and

loyal farmers will become reliable and regular suppliers to a factory. However, unless

the factory pays above market prices, or pays farmers promptly, or invests into the

14

farms then farmers will always look for the highest price and have no reason to

remain loyal to one buyer.

This approach is suitable for small processing operations that have limited investment

in equipment, for example, small family businesses selling small volumes of fresh

fruit juice. If such a small type of business stops operating for a few weeks or months,

or operates at low capacity then the survival of the business may not be jeopardized. If

fruit becomes too expensive, they simply wait for supply to increase and prices to

reduce. Big factories with a lot of capital equipment and overhead costs can only use

this approach to obtain relatively small amounts of their raw-material. They would

need to have the majority supplied by more certain and secure sources. This works

best for crops that are non perishable and which are produced throughout the year. A

good example is coconut. There are many coconut processing factories in South East

Asia processing coconut, and these often have relatively simple equipment. They do

not have out-grower schemes but rely on middle-men to bring fruit from farmers. For

a factory processing highly perishable fruits with a short season this can be a risky

strategy in years when supply is low and competition and prices high.

Managed outgrower schemes

A processor takes fruit from farmers with which the processor has a buyer/supplier

relationship. Normally outgrowers are grouped into outgrower associations set up by

the processor. Sometimes processors take fruit from pre-existing cooperatives or

associations; in the case of working with a cooperative the processor is not obliged to

take fruit from every member, they can choose which they would like to work with

within its outgrower scheme. Whatever the arrangement, an outgrower system should

deal with the farmers in a uniform way using the farmer organisation as a common

intermediary.

These schemes work best when the processor is actively involved in helping farmers

manage their production through advice, credit and other support, for this it is

necessary for the processor to have expertise and resources. The best known examples

come from the oil palm industry especially in South East Asia but also in West Africa

where processing mills supply farmers in schemes with seedlings, with technical

advice and provide inputs and training on credit, and may also handle harvesting and

transport of fruit from the farms. These schemes work well but are highly complex

and need a lot of expertise to manage.

A problem for many such schemes whether in West Africa or South East Asia is

„side-selling‟. This is where farmers take credit and technical support from one

processor, with whom they have a contract or some form of agreement, and then they

sell the fruit to someone else. Often this is done to avoid repaying the credit (which is

normally deducted from payments), but it may also be to get a higher purchase price

or faster payment. If this is common then it can make it impossible to recover money

invested in credit and technical support to farmers and is a common cause of collapse

for outgrower schemes set up by processors.

15

Contract farming with agri-businesses

It is an agreement between a farmer and a buyer. Contract farmers are not necessarily

supported by the factory; they should be competent to run their farms efficiently and

manage financing and technical issues themselves. Generally this applies to bigger

farms, but medium and small farms could also be contracted to supply a factory if

they are able to deliver according to the conditions of business–to-business contracts

competently. So for contract farming to work, the level of competence and business

skills of the two parties must be such that they can trust each other to stick to the

terms of their agreement.

Own production

The processor has control of its own farm and production system. This can include

forms of sharecropping arrangement where a farmer provides the land and labour but

the processing company has control of management and inputs. The key characteristic

is that the processing factory controls farm management decisions.

This approach gives a good level of control but is has some advantages and

disadvantages:

If land is hard to acquire then it may be hard to expand production.

The farm must good enough expertise in agronomic production. Most processors

lack sufficient expertise; so mush hire-in farm managers who really know how to

grow crops with low costs of production is difficult. Good farm managers with

real expertise and experience are often expensive and hard to find and recruit.

The processing company has to bear all costs of infrastructure and investment,

which may coincide with the peak of investment in the factory.

For some crops it takes a long time from starting a farm to getting large volumes

of fruit into the factory, so cash-flow calculations need to be realistic.

With a poor set-up and the wrong approach to farm management it may happen that

the production cost of the factory owned farm might be too high for the factory to

make a profit. There are several examples from West Africa where processing

factories have set up farms without checking that they can keep production costs low,

and so have lost money. However, a well managed farm can assure basic volumes to a

factory. If there is any doubt about expertise, technical performance or cost, then it is

best to plant only an acre or two and carefully measure costs and do trials and so build

experience slowly but surely. The key message for anyone interested in investing in a

processing business is: “If you do not know how to manage fruit production or do

not have partners who do, then you should probably stay out of fruit

processing.” Some factory owned farms produce enough fruit to supply a large percentage of the

factory‟s requirement. However processing businesses often have small farms that

only supply a small volume of the fruit the factory needs. However, these farms are

usually established for other purposes:

Having your own farm means you have first hand information about production

costs and about problems in managing QQT in the production system. This is very

useful when negotiating with farmers on prices and QQT issues.

16

All farm businesses need to continuously improve and test new techniques and be

able to tackle problems that arise (e.g. if a new pest or disease appears). Having

your own farm makes it possible to test new techniques and then pass on

information to the farmers who supply your factory.

The farm can be used for training your own technical field staff and also training

farmers from your outgrower scheme or for training any contract farmers.

Your own farm should be as close to your factory as possible, preferably adjacent

to it. When favourably located the farm can be used to recycle waste from the

factory. This not only solves a waste disposal problem cheaply, but may mean the

farm will not need to spend money on fertilizer. When the farm is right next to the

factory then careful spreading of waste direct onto land so that it causes no

problems can be cheaper than making compost (which is expensive to make).

A well managed farm that is profitable and generating good information for the

processor and for its suppliers projects an image of a competent and well managed

enterprise to the farmers that supply it, as well as to all other actors in the value

chain.

Planning and locating a factory

When considering the location of a new processing operation, the potential location of

the supply-base should be a key factor; as profitable factory operation is only possible

if raw material is available with the right cost and transport is a key component of the

cost at the factory gate.

It is surprisingly common to see processing operations located in urban areas. This

has a number of advantages, but it is generally much better to be as close to the

production of the raw material as possible. This has three main advantages:

1) The most important issue is that the cost of transport of fruit from farm to

factory is as low as possible; if this is too high it can change the balance

between a processing business being profitable or unprofitable.

2) The closer the processor is to its farmers, the easier it is to provide support and

supervision services. The cost and time for liaison staff getting to and from the

farms on a regular basis will be lower.

3) Production costs can be reduced through recycling factory waste back to farms

as bio-fertilizer and reduces the processor‟s waste disposal costs.

Finding a site near to an existing production zone will mean that farmer expertise in

the product to be processed; input supply and other requirements are likely to be

already available. But on the other hand there will be competition from the existing

market outlets of the farms. A new operator needs to assess the situation and decide

which one of the following options is appropriate:

establish where there is already fruit available and markets with buyers, but find

out if the farms can expand production on their own or invest money and expertise

into farms so that they can expand production through expanding their fields or

improving productivity

search for a new area where there is less competition and find farmers who want

to start producing and invest in their farms and/or set up company farms.

17

The importance of location: a comparison of two factories A fruit processing factory in Southern Africa processes 80,000 mt of fruit per year. The majority of fruit is produced close to the factory with the furthest fields 12 kilometers away. The area is flat and the road system almost perfect. The factory operates continuously and has been there since the mid 1950s. Fruit waste is sold to livestock farmers. The factory is by far the biggest employer in the area. A fruit factory in West Africa is located in the main city. Fruit has to be transported from farms to the factory from between 50 to 150 kilometers. Roads in and around the city are often congested and in rural areas where the fruit comes from, roads are poor. The cost of fruit transport adds nearly 20% to the cost of production. Disposing of the waste (50% of volume) is expensive in an urban environment. The factory was set up in the 1990s and has struggled to be consistently profitable and is often shut down. Managers blame the cost of raw material and QQT problems as the main cause of under performance of the business and employees are often paid late.

Information on areas of production

There are several examples in West Africa of factories being built to benefit from an

apparent surplus of underutilized fruit. Once the factory has been built, it turned out

that the volume of the surplus was overestimated, or that it only occurs in an

exceptional year. In Ghana for example, during the citrus harvest period buyers from

nearby countries such as Togo or Ivory Coast come into the country to buy, these

buyers are supplying very large markets so that there is seldom a crop that is so big

that it cannot be sold at all. One potential businessman planning a processing factory

was told that there are at times “thousands of tonnes of fruit rotting on the ground”.

While there may be some waste, these accounts are often exaggerated. Large amounts

of fallen fruit can be seen in all fruit producing areas of the world, but this is often

fruit dislodged by wind, and fruit that is diseased or insect-infested.

Judgment of the potential of an area also depends on understanding the crop and the

production potential. The table below shows the typical farm performance and the

potential production when farms have irrigation, use fertilizer, trees are properly

pruned and flower induction is used. Data from Brazil, a major competitor in the

mango market, show what is possible when farms are set up and managed using best

practice.

Yields of export mango

Current farmer

practice in

Mali

Improved

farms in Mali

Well-managed

farms in Brazil

Hi-tech farm

in South

Africa or Peru

Total yield

(mt/Ha/year)

3-5 12-15 25 Up to 40

Export quality 30% export

quality

70% export

quality

75% export

quality

75% export

quality

Personal communication 2010: Adama Zongo, Fruiteq, Burkina Faso.

18

Small farmers in Mali might be able to increase production from existing orchards but

this is expensive. Irrigation via a borehole with a pump and other infrastructure

requires an investment of $10-20,000. However, this can only be economic where

mango orchards are big enough to justify the investment. Therefore there are only a

limited number of places where there are enough orchards in the right place to justify

this improvement. This means that estimations of potential production can be made

only by understanding the costs and mapping the position of orchards and comparing

this with information on opportunities for installing boreholes.

Processors should be able to understand the basics of fruit production, even if they are

not intending to grow fruits themselves. They must know the investment and recurrent

costs and the risks that farmers face with their production. Only then they will be able

to know what is necessary in terms improvements to expand fruit production for a

reliable supply for their business.

Many orchards may be located in rural areas with poor roads a long way from a

proposed factory. Farms are often small and scattered. In addition many orchards may

be far away from the roadside. In the case of citrus in Ghana, the cost of moving fruit

to the roadside (usually by labourers „head-loading‟ the fruit) is a major cost for the

farmer and therefore for the value chain as a whole. Even if fruit is at the roadside, the

cost of sending a truck to pick up a small quantity can also be very high. For planning

a business, it is important to check the real cost of moving fruit from the tree to the

factory, as this may be much higher than expected and become a logistical nightmare

that the processing company will have to manage.

How cost-calculations can go wrong A company recently set up a small, but high quality oil palm mill in West Africa. They had worked out that the area had enough farmers with good quality palms to supply the factory. However, they had not considered that many of these fields were a long way from the road and this meant that the cost of harvesting had to include manually carrying the fruit to the nearest road for vehicle-transportation. This made harvesting over three times more expensive than for a large scale plantation. Harvesting is normally considered one of the biggest costs in production from mature palms. Not understanding the real situation meant that the calculations for the whole business were wrong. The mill was operated for less than a year before it had to be closed.

19

What happens if there is no secure supply-base? A West African business making dried fruit did not have a supply-base of raw material that it controlled and so it bought fruit opportunistically without any contracts from farmers. The business was located a long way from most of the farms supplying it so transport was an additional cost. Despite this it was able to calculate its expected cost-price and worked out that it could sell its products with a good profit margin. It sent samples and a quote for supplying fruit to a European importer who agreed to take an agreed monthly quantity at the quoted price. However, the processing business had trouble sourcing enough fruit at stable prices. Fruit could only be processed slowly in small batches that had to be transported from further and further away. The sale price should have left a 30% margin, but the cost of production ended up being much higher than the sale price. The importer agreed to raise the sale price to give its new business partner a chance. But the second time the European buyer was asked to do this, when deliveries were already behind schedule, they cancelled the order.

Mango and pineapple production in Ghana

This table shows estimates of actual pineapple production in Ghana

Real production (tonnes) 2006 2007 2008 2009

Total Ghana exports by sea and air 51,000 40,000 35,134 31,567

Sea-freight Pineapple Exporters of Ghana

(SPEG) exports 30,992 28,396 23,064 24,844

Number of SPEG farms exporting 22 21 15 15

This shows declining production. However, in 2006 it was predicted in a publication

that set out to showcase the growing pineapple industry that production of pineapple

in Ghana by 2009 and 2010 would have reached 116,000 tonnes and 126,000 tonnes

respectively. These data show how estimates, though prepared with good intentions,

can often be very wrong. In 2006 it looked as if the pineapple industry was going to

continue expanding rapidly. However, what actually happened was a fall in export.

Only the biggest and most professional farms survived. Large numbers of small and

medium farms stopped producing pineapple. Anyone who had used estimations of

future production in 2006 to plan a processing business would have found their

factory with little fruit to process (source: TIPCEE (USAID) 2006. Export data:

SPEG 2010).

Mapping of mango planted in Ghana provided data allowing an estimate of mango

production of 7,189mt in 2006. This figure was estimated to rise to over 57,000mt in

2010 as shown in the table below. With a projected incremental annual rise for mango

export, it was estimated that around 37,000mt mango would be available for

processing in 2010. While these data may have over-estimated production, the fact

that mango is a permanent tree crop means that processors can at least identify areas

where fruit will be produced. However, in the case of mango, relatively little has been

available for processing because of the strength of demand for fresh fruit consumption

from the local market (which has kept prices up) combined with poor farm practices

not allowing achieving optimal (high) yields.

20

Mango production estimated in 2006

(metric tonnes) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Volta: Hohoe & Sogakope area 2,248 3,540 6,743 12,587 17,981

Eastern: Yilo, Manya & Asougyaman 2,351 3,703 7,053 13,166 18,808

Greater Accra: Dangme West 1,287 2,027 3,861 7,207 10,295

Brong Ahafo: Kintampo 290 457 870 1,624 2,320

Brong Ahafo: Atebubu 50 79 150 280 400

Brong Ahafo: Wenchi 38 60 114 213 304

Brong Ahafo: Techiman 25 39 75 140 200

Northern: Savelugu/Nanton 403 635 1,209 2,257 3,224

Northern: Integrated Tamale Fruit Company 900 1,418 2,700 5,040 7,200

Total 7,189 11,322 21,566 40,256 57,508

Available for local sale or processing 6,470 9,624 17,252 28,179 37,380

This is a second example of how data that appears to show that should be a lot of fruit

available as a raw material for processing can be misleading.

Managing a supply base from out-growers and contract farmers

New businesses must be prepared to work in partnership with farmers, either to help

them increase yields from existing orchards, or to establish new plantations. The

processing business will have to share in the investment cost if large amounts of fruit

are needed. If this is not done, there is a risk that the factory will have a weak supply

base with the following characteristics:

An uneven and insecure supply of raw material

Often running below break-even capacity

Constantly competing with other buyers for fruit, and so prices and costs fluctuate

widely and are uncertain.

Purchasing is unplanned and opportunistic.

Any savings made in paying a low price to farmers may be offset by the additional

cost of transporting small loads often over long distance and from having the

factory operating below capacity.

Reduced potential for gaining efficiencies by recycling waste to local contract

farms or out-growers or through improving farm production efficiency.

This results in a situation where neither the farms nor the factory can operate

optimally. When this happens, the cost of products ends up being too expensive and

unable to compete on either local or export markets. So it is necessary to plan and

make investments into the supply-base so that fruit is supplied to the factory with

QQT and cost profile that allows profitable operation. This section looks at how this

is done typically by businesses buying fruit from out-grower schemes or contract

farmers once the location of the factory has been decided.

21

A step-by-step approach to setting up a supply-base An oil palm business was set up in West Africa some years ago. It started by acquiring land and planting oil palms. It built a small ‘pilot’ factory after the first palm trees had started bearing. Two years later all the new palms were in full production the pilot factory was operating almost 24 hours per day seven days per week during the peak harvesting season. From the beginning of the project the company had started working with local farmers and by the time the pilot factory was being overwhelmed with too much fruit, the palms of the out-growers were also starting to bear. It was at this moment that the main factory was built and took over processing from the pilot factory. This meant that the main factory was not built until six years into the project. The disadvantage of having the cost of building two factories was more than compensated for by delaying the cost of building the main factory until a large enough supply-base was available to justify the investment. Now the pilot factory is still used as a back-up to take excess fruit in exceptional years during the peak months and is also used when the main factory is closed in the low season for maintenance.

Roles and responsibilities of the processing company when sourcing

from farms

Full commitment to a partnership relation with farmers is a prerequisite to a good

supply base. Many farmers in West Africa are suspicious about promises made to

them by new businesses coming into their areas. Under these circumstances it is better

to under-promise but over-deliver in what is agreed with farmers. New businesses

should be aware that it can take years of positive interaction to build a relationship

based on mutual trust.

Processors intending to buy fruit from farmers should be clear about expectations on

quality and quality parameters (what is acceptable and what is not acceptable) and

how prices will be calculated and how they will be paid. Messages on these matters

should be clear, consistent and put in writing (as well as communicated verbally).

It is strongly recommended that agreements with farmers, when these include farmers

who have little education and weak literacy skills, should be made and formalized in

writing with (literate) representatives of farmer organizations of the producers

present. These should also be explained verbally at farmer meetings in an open and

transparent way.

In many schemes the processor provides services that help farmers manage their land.

The services often involve the following:

Training and technical assistance in crop agronomy

Supplying planting material (e.g. tree seedlings etc) of the right variety and high

quality.

Field selection, soil sampling, laying out plots (for example a processor may want

to discourage farmers from establishing orchards where there is no road access

and where land is too steep).

On-farm support at planting by company technicians to ensure that

recommendations are followed

Supply of inputs, either for cash or credit.

22

Credit schemes usually linked to fruit purchasing contracts.

Monitoring visits and advisory services to farms on a regular basis.

Managing a training and demonstration farm

Scouting and checking on fruit availability and quality (e.g. helping with „D-leaf‟

weighing and de-greening in the case of pineapple).

Organizing (and sometimes paying for) harvesting teams.

Transport from the farm to the factory

Recycling of factory waste as fertilizer to the farms, sometimes through a compost

factory.

Organizing and paying for farm certification.

Coordinating support for the farmers from government agencies (e.g. for research

or extension) or from NGOs or internationally funded projects.

Helping farmers with their own business planning and cost assessment and

profit/loss calculations

Support to strengthen the capability of the farmers‟ producer associations.

Experience has shown that farmers who are provided with some services are more

reliable and more able to deliver fruit to a factory according to its needs. In ideal cases

both farmer and factory have a mutually beneficial relationship.

There should be agreements in place between each of the individual farmers and the

processor and a collective agreement between the farmer association representing

farmers and the company. Both types of agreements should be consistent with each

other and should be prepared at the same time in discussion with the farmer

association. All expected procedures and processes should be explained in detail and

any grievance procedures in the case of dispute should be formalized.

Things to avoid

Do not make promises that cannot be kept

Do not offer to buy fruit from any farmer

Do not offer to pay for transport of all fruit if you don‟t know where the

orchards are or what the real cost of transporting small volumes will be.

Do not put your own staff in positions of responsibility where they could have

conflicts of interest.

In the early years avoid promising extra benefits, such as interest free loans for

consumption (e.g. in the form of rice or other foodstuffs), or setting up savings

schemes linked to the factory). These are open to all kinds of abuse and make

the relationship more complex and more confusing than necessary.

Farmers’ responsibilities to processors and side-selling

Typical smallholder systems may be very inefficient compared to other supply

systems. Where a processor is competing with international markets, farmers should

be made aware that a processor cannot pay raw material costs (factory gate prices)

that make the factory uncompetitive. However, many farmers know little about world

prices and think that the processor can always pay a price that ensures the farmers a

profit regardless of how inefficient they are.

Farmers need to understand that contracts should be respected. Contract systems need

to be respected and if they are not then enforcement procedures need to be

23

undertaken, although this may be hard. These issues, outcomes and consequences

should be made clear in all discussions.

Respecting the role of middlemen

Organizations representing farmers should be fully aware of the reality of how value-

chains work. Often people working with farmers (including representatives of

international NGOs) will defend the position of smallholder farmers in a value chain

without being aware of other issues which are connected to the market prices and

costs along the chain.

Middlemen or intermediaries often have an important role in supplying fruit and these

people often have a lot of risk and work with relatively low margins. However, they

are sometimes dismissed as being people who exploit farmers unfairly. It is wrong to

discount their potential contribution and to accuse them of being exploitative without

being fully aware of the facts about the business of the middleman or intermediary.

Middlemen often provide transport, technical information, and give credit as well as

being traders. They are often part of the community and have long lasting

relationships with farmers. Working with middlemen can be an efficient way of

improving a value-chain (see next text box on Fruiteq‟s experience with middlemen).

Side-selling is a major problem for out-grower schemes throughout the world. Side-

selling occurs where farmers take services and credit from a company, but then sell

some of the product for cash to another buyer. This is a way for farmers to avoid

paying back the value of credit or services they have agreed to pay for. This issue

needs to be discussed openly with farmers. If the company intends to take legal action

against farmers who do side-selling, this has to be spelled out verbally and explained

clearly in contracts.

Establishing demonstration farms

If the processor has an own farm, care should be taken to set it up in the best way. It

should serve as example and demonstration to outgrower farmers. However, a good

farm is not one that gets the highest yield, but is one that produces high quality fruit

with optimum labour and land productivity while respecting social and environmental

requirements. .

The farm should be set up to be fully compliant with all certification needs so

that it can be used as a demonstration of good practice.

The company farm should ideally be within a short distance to the factory.

Efforts should be made to ensure that a legal land title can be properly

obtained.

If there are farmers using the land, proper procedures for compensation and

land acquisition in line with national law and international conventions must

be followed.

Out-grower selection

A set of criteria to guide the selection of outgrowers is required. It is advisable to

24

include people who are active members in a smallholder organization and

demonstrate commitment to their farm and their organization in the selection process.

In some cases there are farmers who are never likely to be able to keep up with the

demands that good farm management requires; and normally the farmer association as

a whole can help filter out these candidates but it is important to be clear from the

beginning that not all farmers will be able to join a scheme. It should also be clear that

the company has the final word on who can supply the factory and that bad

performers will be excluded from the scheme.

One important criterion is farm size. If, for example, a processor wants to process

10000 mt per year bought from pineapple out growers, it is much easier to work with

20 farmers who supply 500 mt each than with 200 who supply 50 mt. This assumes

that with high levels of production and good husbandry each farmer would need to

have a minimum of 15 hectares of land to be sure of keeping the number of the farmer

group below 20

GPS mapping can be used to map farms of prospective out-growers. Mapping farms

can also be used to quantify the amount of land in an outgrower scheme and to

provide evidence about the amount of tractor time or fertilizer needed, if these inputs

are provided on credit. GPS can also be used to get accurate data on the distance from

each orchard to a road.

GPS mapping can be used to check on the proximity of watercourses, forest reserves,

soil type and land steepness if these are criteria needed are important for some

certification standards (see section on certification).

If out-growers are to supply fruit from a pre-existing tree crop, for example oranges, it

is important that a crop inventory is done to record the age of the trees, the variety, the

state and condition and current farming practice. An experienced field technician will

be able to estimate actual and potential yield (if farming practices are improved). The

state and potential productivity of orchards can be used as the basis for selecting

farmers.

Technical and support services

Extension services may be supplied by the government, a qualified private service

provider working under contract to the government or the processing company itself.

Government services are usually focused on major cash crops like cocoa or food

crops like maize and cassava and are less able to work with horticultural crops.

However, it is always important to meet the district agricultural officer as they can

help with introductions to farmers and farmer associations. In most countries there is a

network of agricultural research stations and it is sensible to make contact with the

research system managers, visit the research farms and to assess the extent that a

partnership might be organized to assist farm production that might support the

processing business consolidate its supply base.

When a company is establishing its supply-base it is seldom enough to rely on

government organisations to provide extension services. A company must have the

capability of providing some services itself, either alone or in partnership with service

providers (e.g. with a competent consultant company, or within an industry

association in collaboration with other processors). Adequate resources and an

efficient technical management are essential elements. A manager with a university

25

degree but with no experience will struggle to establish a service without making

mistakes. It is important to hire someone who is a strong leader with experience in

working with farmers, but also has a good technical background and competency

level. This person should have the support and backing of a team who are energetic,

bright and motivated. Hiring the right technical team is one of the most important

factors for successful supply-base development for a processing company.

For most high-value fruit and vegetables there is often a lack of detailed and up-to-

date technical manuals. In many parts of West Africa export crops are now being

grown that have not been grown on a large scale before and are considered „exotic‟,

this means that technical recommendations may have to be worked-out by the

companies agricultural technical team. So, in addition to a good farmer services

manager, it may also necessary to seek information and expertise on what is done as

standard practice in other parts of the world as well as to be able to manage research

trials. For this it is necessary to screen the published literature on crops grown in

comparable regions, but where there is more experience and expertise.

Where a company may need to take fruit from large numbers of farmers then there are

new methods of managing communication with farmers such as using SMS text

messaging (from a single computer) to send messages to farmers and for farmers to

respond with information about their crops. These are currently tested in Ghana and

elsewhere. Even without these modern approaches, the spread of mobile phones

makes setting-up an out-grower scheme, coordinating and providing services, much

easier than in the past. In Ghana there is a tax on mobile phones that is used to fund

masts in remote places. If you are working with farmers in a place where there is poor

phone reception it may be possible to get phone companies to erect extra masts using

this fund.

Initially extension services need to organize the supply-base, but as time goes on, the

companies‟ technical teams should focus on the development of the out-growers' own

capacity to manage their farms and for services to be provided through the farmer

associations, rather than to individuals.

Financial services

Banking services may be required to process payments made by the processor to

farmers and this may also extended to the repayment of credit. The banking services

that are available in a district where a processing factory is planned should be

assessed if a large number of transactions are expected. Handling transactions though

banks ensures that there is a proper paper record of money paid and reduces the risk

of theft; farmers often appreciate using formal banking services, as handling large

amounts of cash is a security problem in some parts of West Africa. Finding a bank

that has competent branches in the area of operation is an important part of the

process of setting up an out-grower scheme. There are alternatives to banks emerging

that might also be considered; such as mobile-phone money transfers and other forms

of „branchless banking‟.

It is the responsibility of a company to make sure that payment receipts to farmers

clearly explain how payments have been calculated. Any deductions (e.g. to pay for

transport of fruit, to repay credit for fertilizer, or deductions for not meeting quality

standards such as minimum Brix level) should be clearly explained on payment

sheets.

26

If a company pays farmers later than promised it builds up a lot of resentment.

Rumours can quickly circulate that the company is not trustworthy and does not meet

its obligations. If the company intends to pay farmers only with a guarantee of

payment within, for example, one month of receiving fruit, then this should be clearly

spelled out in contracts and agreements so that there are no grounds for farmers not to

be aware of payment conditions.

Though the processor may have the final word, it is important that his decisions

should be consistent from case to case and action taken should be fair. This approach

will build up trust over time.

Newcomers to a region should also be aware that the legal and judicial systems in

many countries makes it difficult to prosecute farmers who default on the conditions

of contract or who engage in side-selling, despite agreements and contracts being in

place.

Out-grower associations

Outgrowers can be grouped in a pre-existing associations or cooperatives or, if there

is none, then a new organization can be formed. The processing company should

check that the association is properly registered and that the association has a proper

structure. In many countries there are consultancy firms providing services that can

help with the registration, coaching and organizational set-up of a farmer group.

There is a need for training on technical and administrative aspects to establish viable

self-reliant smallholder organizations. This includes training on rights and obligations,

and ensuring that farmers understand the rationale of their rights on agreements and

obligations. Farmers need to have trust and confidence in the farmer organization for

an out-grower project to function well. This needs long term and continuous training.

In some countries out-grower schemes for farmers to supply a processor should meet

basic criteria for success (see also Goldthorpe, C. G. 1995).

Associations need to meet some minimum requirements. They should:

Have a chairman, treasurer and secretary

meet regularly (e.g. monthly).

Have a constitution that outlines its purpose, financial management, criteria for

membership, rights of members and other issues.

Have criteria for membership and maintain a list of members.

Have members responsible for certain specific functions; for example for financial

control or certification support.

Be able to manage the support and services they provide to the farmers in the

association.

Have a transparent system for exit and entry to the scheme and for the association.

This should also spell out what should happen if a farmer wants to leave while he

owes money to the processor or to the association. It should be part of the

agreement between the association and the processing company.

Have clear rules that spell out how should be dealt with grievances; whether these

are between individual farmers and the company or the farmer association and the

company.

27

Working with mango middlemen in Burkina Faso, Mali and Ivory Coast

In 2005 a mango exporter was exporting not much more than one container per week

during the 12 week mango season. In 2010 it exported over 80 containers, with even

more orders for 2011. When it first started operating, it bought fruit directly from

farmers with its own staff harvesting. As it got bigger, it needed to work through

independent middlemen. These middlemen manage harvesting teams, who bring fruit

to the pack-house. They are only paid for export quality fruit. The grading is very

strict and rejected fruit is immediately returned to the middleman who brought it to

the packhouse. Before working through middlemen the exporter used their own

harvesters; at that time the quality of harvesting was bad and the reject rate was 40%.

With the middlemen taking responsibility for harvesting the rate fell to 15% or less.

The middlemen are trained in quality management by the staff of the company while

the fruit is being graded; they also handle all transport to the packhouse.

The export company pre-finances all the operations of the middlemen, but in return

has agreements that they do not work with their competitors. The fruit comes from

organic, fair-trade and GlobalGAP certified farmer associations. The exporter pays

the certification costs. The middlemen are responsible to ensure that the fruit is

separated into batches according to the farms it came from, so that traceability

required by the certification organisations is ensured.

The most successful middleman brought in 500 tonnes of export quality fruit in the

2010 season and is believed to have made a profit of between 10-15,000 Euros in 12

weeks. However, it is difficult work; he had to manage and train a large team of

harvesters making sure that they understand how to select and handle the fruit. He had

to pay the farmers, hire trucks and organize logistics. This has to be done perfectly in

order to get a good margin. Many inefficient middlemen do not make money and drop

out of the business. The export company meets with the middlemen regularly through

the seasons to analyze prices and costs so that they can make sure that the middlemen

are able to make a profit. If this is not possible then exports are stopped. To meet the

conditions of FLO (fair-trade) certification, the price middlemen pay to farmers has to

be above a minimum floor price so the company and the middlemen and the farmers

representatives need to meet to discuss and agree prices so that FLO conditions are

met.

The cost of managing a supply base

Even if farmers are growing the fruit as contract farmers or out-growers, it is common

for the processor to be involved through providing credit or other services. This is an

aspect of a processing business that processors may underestimate.

The cost of field operations and inputs to grow variety MD2 pineapple for the fresh

export business can be between $5000 and $7500 per hectare. This should produce

60-90 mt of fruit, though the production cycle can take nearly two years if sucker

production and a fallow periods are included. This means that if an exporter wanted to

take 100 mt of fruit per week and was going to pre-finance contract farmers for all of

this then the company would have to invest around $9000 per week for 14 months

before the first fruit was received. This would mean investing $540,000 over this

period. This would only be possible if sufficient planting suckers are available. If

suckers have to be brought from other farms then costs will be higher. If new land is

being used that needs clearing and stumping, costs per hectare will increase further for

the first cycle.

28

A successful outgrower scheme A fruit processor in West Africa takes fruit from farmers in its own outgrower scheme. The business was set up 12 years ago, initially with only a small processing factory. To start, fruit was purchased from farmers without any formalized scheme but the managers moved quickly to develop a formal relationship with outgrowers. This was partly driven by the buyers overseas demanding that fruit for processing should be from GlobalGAP certified farms; so the factory had to limit procurement to farmers that had achieved certification. A bigger factory was set up only once the business, including its farmer supply base, was well established. The scheme started with over twenty farmers but after excluding ‘non-performers’, 18 remained. One criterion was that they should be able to supply a minimum of about three tonnes per week each to the factory. The cost of certification for very small farms was too expensive in comparison with potential volumes an individual farmer could supply. The company helped farmers in their scheme get GlobalGAP certification. They also provided credit in the form of inputs. Credit was also given as cash in the form of interest free loans for farm labour costs, which are paid back through deductions from payments for fruit delivered.

Certification of farms may need to be paid by the factory. These costs can be

substantial, for example, in 2010 a mango exporter bought fruit from 5 farmer

cooperatives. All five were organic and GlobalGAP certified. The cost of paying the

certification fees plus additional costs such as transport, accommodation for visiting

certifiers, training farmers etc came to €14000 per year. Certification costs would be

even higher in the first year if farmers need new safety and pesticide handling and

storage equipment and toilets and washing facilities have to be constructed.

The cost of a good experienced agronomist to lead a technical team to provide support

and services to farmers, along with two or three younger less experienced field

officers will be high. In addition transport must be provided for them to do their work.

The lowest estimate would amount to over $100,000 per year. Without this

investment it is unlikely that the team will be fully functional. During the start-up

period the technical team may need to take soil samples, check soil nutrient and

nematode levels involving additional costs. If the company decides to set up a

demonstration farm it will require another investment. In case of tree crops the return

to investment is quite slow as they start fruiting only after 5 or more years.

A good business plan has to include all these potential costs and adequate financing

must be secured. If those aspects are not considered, it might happen that the factory

is built but has no capital to get the supply-base established and fruit are not available

in sufficient quantities.

29

Business management

Business plan

A business plan defines your business, identifies your goals, and serves as your firm‟s

base information. Initially it will be written with the intention of convincing a lending

institution that the projected business is likely to be able to repay any loan according

to the lending conditions and on schedule. Because it provides specific and organized

information about your company and how you will repay borrowed money, a good

business plan is a crucial part of any loan application. The basic components include a

current and projected market analysis, an income statement, and a cash flow analysis.

It helps you allocate resources, handle unforeseen situations, and therefore is a tool to

enable appropriate business decisions to be made.

Additionally, it informs sales personnel, suppliers, and others about your operations

and goals. The importance of a comprehensive business plan cannot be

overemphasized since it will assist in securing outside funding and credit from

suppliers; guide management of your operation and finances and help in the

promotion and marketing of your business.

Before you begin writing your business plan, consider the following:

What is the purpose of the business?

Does it fill a need?

Who are the potential customers?

Why will they purchase from you?

How will you reach the customers?

Where will you get the financial resources to start the business?

Outline of the business plan

The cover of the business plan must include the company name, address, phone

number, e-mail, author and designation and should be dated.

Summary - overview of the business

Description of owner and business - guiding principles (e.g. product quality,

community focus, passion for the business)

Goal and objectives

Company structure – e.g. sole proprietorship, corporation, general partnership, limited

partnership

Target market - Who are the customers? Commercial, Government, Industrial, Local,

Overseas?

Outline of perceived opportunity - Why is the opportunity available to you?

Business projection - Limited time available or not?

Financial summary - Total amount of funds sought for venture; estimated start-up

costs; projected average monthly expenses; projected average monthly revenue.

30

Market Analysis – study of the industry, competitors and customer demographics

Description of market and future projection - What has this industry done in the last

several years, what is it doing today, and what do analysts or trade organizations

predict?

Description of competitors

Target Market - Is there enough of this target market for a successful business (e.g.

age, sex, income, education level, occupation, location, lifestyle, religion)

Entry Barriers – e.g. Are there permits or regulatory approvals required? Do you need

to gain or employ skills?

Marketing Strategy

Business and product description – e.g. quality, speed, service, product, price,

convenience, and location (demonstrate how you will tell customers what you will do

better than the competition)

Sales Strategy - Give a detailed description of your product or service including

photos

Promotion strategy - How will you promote your product/service to the customer?

(taking into account target market above)

Pricing Strategy – Compared to the competitors‟ price, what will your costs be and

can you get the same price or a premium over the competition?

How will this product compare with others on the market? – What are your core

competencies? Why do you think you will succeed? What will you do different than

the competitors? Superior service levels, exceptional quality, speed, better product,

better location?

Operations Plan - How the product is made and other core characteristics of your

business

Location – Full address

Operation – when the business will open, hours, seasonal?

Organization – sole proprietor etc

Employees - Number and type of employees needed (any special skills or knowledge,

their positions and responsibilities.

Building and location – space needed for employees and production

Capacity – how much product can you produce in a given time?

Suppliers

Financial system – will you need to employ an accountant?

Equipment - List everything you need to carry out the business

Permits and Licenses

Insurance – what insurance is needed and what cover does it provide?

Contracts – includes credit policy extended to suppliers and buyers.

31

Financial Plan

Product and Service Pricing - List all the products, how they will be priced and

projected quantities to be sold each month for the first year. Add these totals to your

cash flow projection.

Funding Source(s) - Explain where you intend to obtain funding and how much you

will receive from each source

Cash Flow Projection – add as an appendix

Appendices: Cash Flow Statement, Competitive Analysis, CV of key personnel

32

Simple yearly cash-flow projection (costs are indicative only and should not to be taken as current). Such a plan should be projected over 5 or

even 10 years with proposed equipment replacement and other expenses outlined to show how they would be paid for.

Locally-built cabinet drying 320kg fresh sliced mango per 24 hours (620kg fruits) 12-month loan@20% All costs in new cedis

Daily Fresh Mango cost (0.4cedis/kg - 620kg) 248

Daily Fuel cost (27kg gas @ 7.2 cedis per 9kg) 22

Daily Operator cost 2

Rent of building 100

Dried mango price/kg 9

Costs/income assuming 300kg processed per day

LOAN (as below) cedis over 1 year at 20% apr) Year 1 Month

Monthly costs (Cedis) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Loan repayment 495 495 495 495 495 495 495 495 495 495 495 495

Mango cost 7440 7440 7440 7440 7440 7440 7440 7440 7440 7440 7440 7440

Fuel cost 648 648 648 648 648 648 648 648 648 648 648 648

Building rent 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 400

Management labour cost (6000 cedis/yr) 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500

Opportunity cost of labour (10 persons @ 2 cedis per day) 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600

TOTAL MONTHLY COST 10083 10083 10083 10083 10083 10083 10083 10083 10083 10083 10083 10083

Income

Sale of dried mango 12890 12890 12890 12890 12890 12890 12890 12890 12890 12890 12890 12890

Margin 2807 2807 2807 2807 2807 2807 2807 2807 2807 2807 2807 2807

Monthly additive margin 2807 5614 8420 11227 14034 16841 19648 22454 25261 28068 30875 33682

Yearly margin 33682

33

Assumptions Cedis

+20%

interest

Loan cost per month

12 months

Loan cost per month

120 months

4950 (Loan 2100 cedis + 2850 for blower) Cost 4950 5940 495 50

Gas costs 7.2 cedis per 9 kg (3 cylinders)

3 gas cylinders of 9kg

Mango sells for 9 cedis per 1 kg Cost 35125

30 day month

320kg mango processed every day - 640kg fruit

All product can be sold every day

10kg prepared mango gives 0.77kg dried product

13kg fresh mango gives 1kg prepared

Therefore multiplier 10kg mango to 1 kg dried is 0.77

Diesel needs to measured but equivalent gas cost is 3 cylinders per 24 hours)

Pineapple Mango Banana Papaya Coconut

Raw/fresh 25kg 13kg 6kg 14kg 10 pieces

Slice/ cut 10kg 6.5kg 3kg 9kg

Waste 15kg 6.5kg 3kg 5kg

Dried 1kg 1kg 1kg 1kg 1kg

Dried to fresh raw fruit ratio (e.g. 1kg fresh mango

including skin and kernel compared with 1kg dried fruit)

0.040 0.077 0.167 0.071 0.100

Fresh cost/kg 0.20 0.40 0.40 0.20 0.15

Dried Organic ($/kg) 10 10 7 10 10

Dried conventional ($/kg) 9 9 6 9 9

Notes

200 kg of fresh Mango require 200 kWh as energy input. Of that around 90% are needed for heat (1 kg gas is equal to around 12 kWh) and around 10 % for covering the electrical needs.

1kg mango needs 1kwhr energy (90% heat, 10% electricity)

1kg gas equals 12kwhr

One gas bottle of 9kg will dry 108kg mango

12000kg mango requires 111 gas bottles

9kg gas costs 7.2 cedis

34

Appendix 1: Cash Flow Statement - insert cash flow statement

Appendix 2: Competitive Analysis

Examine your competitors and mark them on the suggested characteristics below.

Decide how you will make your business better by providing ratings for your

proposed business.

Factors Yourself Competitor

A

Competitor

B

Competitor

C

Competitor

D

Competitor

E

Products

Price

Quality

Product

selection

Customer

Service

Product

Service

Reliability

Services

Image

Location

Atmosphere

Appearance

Sales

Methods

Credit Policy

Availability

Management

Stability

Marketing

35

Staff grading - Paterson grading system

Most of the workers are paid according to a job evaluation system that has become

known as the Paterson system.

Job evaluation or job grading involves the following:

1. Describing a job in detail.

2. Grading that particular job in relation to other jobs within the same unit, branch,

or industry.

3. Laying down wages accordingly.

The Paterson system grades jobs according to how many decisions a worker has to

make in his or her job, and how important these decisions are in the running of the

overall unit, branch or industry.

The system has laid six levels of decisions making, which are called “bands”. Each

one of these he as linked to a certain position within the branch or industry.

These levels are:

Band A Defined decisions Unskilled workers

Band B Automatic decisions Semi-skilled workers

Band C Routine decision Skilled workers

Band D Interpretive decisions Middle management

Band E Programming decisions Senior management

Band F Policy making decisions Top management

Further grading

Apart from this broad grading system, there is further grading within each band.

1. Variety of task: the more tasks or more complicated the tasks within a job the

higher the sub-grade that the worker falls under.

2. Length of a task: if the task takes longer to do or if it involves any other

activities the worker is placed in a higher sub-grade.

3. Pressure of the work: the higher the mental or physical stress in a job the

higher the sub-grade that the worker falls under.

4. Tolerance or precision; jobs that require a high level of precision rank in a

higher sub-grade. The same goes for jobs where errors of workers would have

serious effects.

In short: sub-grading merely decides whether job X is more important than job Y.

36

How to apply the Paterson system

1. The human resources management team finds out what kinds of different jobs there

are.

2. Workers have to describe their jobs with assistance of the supervisors.

3. The supervisors write up the job descriptions and the managers screen the job

description for correctness.

4. Once the jobs have been described, the job description goes to an evaluation

(grading) committee under chairman ship of the CEO.

Band Decision Level Title Grades Definition of Grade

A Defined Unskilled 1

2

3

Cleaners, Laundry, Crate washers

Loading (on/off) Raw Materials

Security Guards

B Automatic Semi skilled 1

2

3

4

5

Fruit Washers

De-coring

Peelers, Slicers, Trimming

Sorters

Packers

C Routine Skilled 1

2

3

Machine Operators

Mechanics, Electricians

Overseers

D Interpretive Middle

Management

1

2

3

Line Managers

Store Manager, Utility Manager

QA assistants to Production

E Programming Senior

Management

1

2

3

4

5

Production Managers

Plant Engineer

R&D Manager

QA Manager

General Manager

F Policy making Top

Management

1

2

Managing Director, CEO

Board of Directors

37

Example of staff structure for a fruit-processing plant

Production Manager

GM

CEO

MD

QA Manager

Fruit Processing

Proposed Production Management Diagram

Line

Supervisor

Receiving

Pre-processing

Line

Supervisor

Fruit Processing

Line Supervisor

Filling &

Packaging

Process

Floor staff

Floor staff

Floor staff

38

Record keeping

Record keeping is essential for efficient Business Management

REASONS FOR RECORD-KEEPING

Details the history of your business

Provides an indication of the direction and speed of the business

Compares records over time - shows growth or stagnation

Indicates whether the business is running at a profit or loss

Demonstrates the success or failure of a particular business strategy

Can indicate where savings can be made

WHEN AND WHAT RECORDS TO KEEP

Continuously keep records

Record keeping should be the company culture

All key staff should know the importance of record keeping

Financial, operational, administrative, input/output and technical records

HOW TO KEEP RECORDS

Raw materials

Name of raw material

Date of purchase

Type of raw material (variety)

Source (s): name of vendor, location

Quantity (kg, pieces, bags, etc)

Maturity index

Condition

Cost

Transportation/fuel cost

Vehicle registration number

Production

Date

Product being processed (e.g. pineapple)

Batch number

Type of raw material (variety)

Fresh weight, waste weight, pulp/juice weight etc,

Processing start and end time (total processing hours)

Percentages: yield, waste/fresh, juice/fresh etc

Final product weight

Brix (sugar content) of batch (if producing juice)

Quality aspects

Staff on duty (names and total)

Process flow

Forms

Check points and controls

Signatures

39

Frequency

International standards, HACCP.

Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)

Internal Audit

External Audit

AREAS OF RECORD KEEPING

Raw materials

Processing

Finish product records

Quality Assurance/Control

Inventory: raw materials, finished products, logistics

Sales (local/export)

Customers (local/export

Suppliers

Energy costs

Utilities: Water, electricity, telephone, waste

Cleaning schedules

Transportation

Packaging: weight, quantity

Packaging materials: types, sizes, manufacturer

Banking

Cash flows (inward/outward)

Daily non-processing expenses

Food & entertainment, stationery etc

Invoices (sales, purchases)

Salaries/wages (casuals/permanent staff)

Registration/certification/HACCP

Quality records

Traceability

Operations

Inventory control

Sales and Marketing control

Finance

Operational costing

Sales accounting

STAFF WHO RECORD

CEO/GM

Production manager

Purchasing officer

QA manager

Research & development manager

Agronomist

Factory engineer

Export officer

Supervisors

40

Bookkeeper/accountant

Human recourse manager (if applicable)

BENEFITS OF RECORD KEEPING

Demonstrates Profit/Loss

Prevents wastage

Prevents and/or minimizes theft/pilfering

Reduces costs

Enhances product development

Indicates viability of business expansion

REASONS FOR PRODUCING REPORTS

Provides budgets

Details costs

Provides the comparison of actual spend to budget

Allows Material Resource Planning (MRP)

Gives statistical inventory control

Guides financial planning

Indicates company progress

Provides production performance details

Provides management performance details

Allows and guides decision making by the board of directors

WHEN TO PRODUCE REPORTS

From start of the business until the business ends

Every month as part of the management meeting agenda

Reporting must be a company culture

All senior managers should know and understand the importance of reporting

HOW TO DO REPORTS

Conveniently arranged and understandable

Giving an outline, synopsis, summary and account

WHAT TO REPORT

Production figures

Management programs

Results

Incident reports

Other as needed and/or specified by top management

Next steps and schedules

WHO REPORTS

CEO/GM

Production manager

Purchasing officer

QA manager

Research & development manager

Agronomist

41

Factory engineer

Export officer

Supervisors

Bookkeeper/accountant

Human resource manager

BENEFITS OF REPORTS

Information sharing

Open discussions on management/production

Debate facilitation

Feedback

Insure certainty and distinctness

Assist with forward planning

Integrated part of annual company report

42

Chapter 4 Fruit drying

Basic principles of food drying

For effective drying, air should be hot, dry and moving. These factors are inter-related

and it is important that each factor is correct (for example, cold moving air or hot, wet

moving air is unsatisfactory). The dryness of air is termed 'humidity' - the lower the

humidity, the drier the air. Relative Humidity – RH is the normal way of expressing

the moisture content of air and is the ratio of the water vapour in air, compared to air

which is fully saturated with water. So 0% RH is completely dry air and 100% RH is

air that is fully saturated with water vapour. Air with a relatively low RH must be

used for drying so that it has the capacity to pick up water vapour from the food and

remove it. If air with a high RH is used it quickly becomes saturated and cannot pick

up further water vapour from the food. The temperature of the air affects the relative

humidity (higher temperatures reduce the humidity and allow the air to carry more

water vapour). The relationship between temperature and RH is conveniently shown

on a psychrometric chart. The monthly average temperature and humidity data in

Ghana and its relevance to drying is discussed below.

Relative Humidity can be measured by taking the temperature of air using two

thermometers (termed dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers). The temperature of the

air, measured by a normal (mercury or alcohol filled) thermometer bulb, is termed the

dry-bulb temperature. If the thermometer bulb is surrounded by a wet cloth, heat is

removed by evaporation of the water from the cloth and the temperature falls (this is

termed the 'wet bulb' temperature). The difference between the two temperatures is

used to find the relative humidity of air using a psychrometric chart. The dew point is

the temperature at which air becomes saturated with moisture (100% RH) and any

further cooling from this point results in condensation of the water from the air. This

effect can be seen during night time when air often cools and water vapour forms as

dew on the ground. It is also the reason why rain occurs.

The above information can be read from modern, relatively cheap digital

thermometers programmed to produce readings of relative humidity and dew-point.

The stability of a dried food during storage depends on its moisture content and the

ease with which the food can pick up moisture from the air. Clearly the risk of

moisture pick up is greater in regions of high humidity. However, different foods pick

up moisture to different extents. Salt and sugar are able to inactivate water in

foodstuffs by binding with it. If the salt or sugar content are sufficiently high it can

entirely prevent mould growth. Even if the food has high moisture content, its “Water

Activity” – aW - is low and this prevents mould growth. Water activity is therefore a

more meaningful measure of whether a food will undergo spoilage. Low moisture

content is only an indication of food stability and not a guarantee. It is the availability

of moisture for microbial growth that is more important. Water Activity varies in

value from 0.00 to 1.00 and the lower the value the more difficult it is for micro-

organisms to grow on a food.

Examples of moisture contents and aW values for selected foods and their packaging

requirements are shown in the Tables below.

43

Table: Indicative food characteristics and packaging requirements

aW

range

Type of microbial proliferation at

each aW range

Foods in range

1.00-0.95 Bacillus, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia,

Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Shigella, some

yeasts

Fresh vegetable, fruit, meat, fish, milk bread and foods

containing up to about 40% sugar or 7% salt

0.95-0.91 Clostridium botulinum, Salmonella, Seratia,

Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Vibrio

parahaemolyticus, some molds and yeasts

(Rhodotorula, Pichia).

Cheddar and Swiss cheese, cured meats, foods containing

55% sugar or 12% salt.

0.91-0.87 Many yeasts (Candida, Torulopsis, Hansenula),

Micrococcus

Fermented sausage (salami), dry cheeses, margarine,

sponge cakes, and foods containing 65% sugar (saturated)

or 15% salt.

0.87-0.80 Staphylococcus aureus, most molds, mycotoxigenic

penicillia, most Saccharomycesbailii species,

Debaromyces

Fruit syrups, uncooked rice, flour, fruit cake, country ham,

fondant, high-ratio cakes.

0.80-0.75 Most halophilic bacteria, mycotoxigenic aspergilla Jam, marmelade, glace fruits, marzipan

0.75-0.65 Xerophilic molds; Aspergillus chevlieri, A. candidus,

Wallemia seb), Saccharomyces bisporus

Rolled oats, fudge, jelly, molasses, some dried fruits, nuts.

0.65-0.60 Osmophilic yeasts (Saccharomyces rouxil), few

moulds (Aspergillus echinulatus, Monascus bisporus)

Honey, caramels, dried fruits, fruits containing 15-20%

moisture.

0.60-0.20 no microbial proliferation Dried pasta, spices, whole egg powder, cookies, crackers,

whole milk powder, and dried vegetables.

Food Moisture

content %

Water

activity

Degree of protection

required

Fresh meat 70 0.96 Package to prevent moisture loss

Bread 40 0.96

Marmalade 35 0.86

Rice 15-17 0.80 Minimum protection or no packaging

Wheat flour 14.5 0.72 required

Raisins 27 0.60

Macaroni 10 0.45

Marzipan 15-17 0.75

Oats 10 0.65

Nuts 18 0.65

Toffee 8 0.60 Packaged to prevent moisture uptake

Cocoa powder 3.0 0.40

Boiled sweets 5.0 0.30

Biscuits 3.5 0.20

Milk powder 1.5 0.11

Potato crisps 5-8 0.08

Spices 5 0.50

Dried vegetables 5 0.20

Breakfast cereal 5 0.20

44

The rate of drying of foods depends upon:

Temperature, humidity, volume and velocity of air

Size of the pieces being dried

Physical structure and composition

Airflow patterns within the drying system

So heat alone is not the only factor that controls drying; it is the dryer, as well as the

nature and size of the material being dried that effects drying time. Air containing a

certain quantity of water at a low temperature will, when heated, have a greater

capacity to hold more water. The table below illustrates this point.

Table: Air temperature - effect on relative humidity Air temperature oC RH% Grams water per kg of air to reach 100% RH*

29 90 0.6

30 50 7.0

40 28 14.5

50 15 24.0

* i.e. the potential for the air to pick up moisture

This example shows that the air at 29C, when heated to 50C, will be able to absorb

23.4 extra grams of moisture per kilogram of air.

Food, when placed in a current of heated air, initially loses moisture from its surface.

This is the constant-rate drying period. As drying proceeds, moisture is then removed

from inside the food material, starting near the outside. Moisture removal becomes

more and more difficult as the moisture has to move further from deep inside the food

to the surface. This is known as the falling-rate period. Eventually no more moisture

can be removed and the food is in equilibrium with the drying air.

45

DRY AIRFLOW

COMING IN

Turbulent hot air taken up moist out of the fruit

WET AIRFLOW

GOING OUT

Fruit pieces on drying sieves blowing over and under by dry hot air

Drying Principles

During the falling-rate period, the rate of drying is largely controlled by the chemical

composition and structure of the food. Design of a dryer depends upon the drying rate

curve of the material to be dried but these curves are indicative only and depend upon

the factors mentioned above. A typical drying curve is shown below with moisture

content as % and time in hours.

46

Low air humidity coupled with a high temperature provides the greatest potential for

drying crops in a short time. However, “case hardening” should be avoided. This is

the effect of the outside of a crop being dried too fast forming a hard skin which

prevents moisture from the inside moving to the outside. If not detected, it can lead to

mould growth during subsequent storage. It is mostly caused by drying too quickly

during the initial (constant rate) period and can be prevented by using cooler drying

air.

47

Climatic conditions in Ghana

Accra

The relative humidity in Accra varies between morning and afternoon. It averages

around 95% in the mornings throughout the year and drops to around 68% during the

afternoon. Maximum rainfall occurs in May and June but it can rain during all

months. Temperature averages between 23 and 31oC.

The following bar chart for Accra, Ghana shows the years average weather condition

readings covering rain, average maximum daily temperature and average minimum

temperature.

.

Climatic conditions: Accra, Ghana

Month

Average

Sunlight

(hours)

Temperature

Average

Min Max

Humidity

level

Relative

humidity

am pm

Average

Precipitation

(mm)

Wet

Days

(>0.25

mm)

Jan 7 23 31 High 95 61 15 1

Feb 8 24 31 High 96 61 33 2

March 7 24 31 High 95 63 56 4

April 7 24 31 High 96 65 81 6

May 7 24 31 High 96 68 142 9

June 5 23 29 High 97 74 178 10

July 5 23 27 Medium 97 76 46 4

Aug 5 22 27 Medium 97 77 15 3

Sept 6 23 27 Medium 96 72 36 4

Oct 7 23 29 High 97 71 64 6

Nov 8 24 31 High 97 66 36 3

Dec 8 24 31 High 97 64 23 2

48

Tamale

From December to March the relative humidity is much lower than at other times of

the year. It ranges between 36 and 62% during these months in the mornings and is

lower in the afternoon at 20-37%. These months coincide with the times of lowest

rainfall and longest sunlight hours.

The following bar chart for Tamale, Ghana shows the years average weather

condition readings covering rain, average maximum daily temperature and average

minimum temperature.

Climatic conditions: Tamale, Ghana

Month

Average

Sunlight

(hours)

Temperature

Average

Min Max

Humidity

level

Relative

humidity

am pm

Average

Precipitation

(mm)

Wet

Days

(>0.25

mm)

Jan 8 21 36 Medium 36 20 3 0.6

Feb 9 23 37 High 56 33 3 0.4

March 8 24 37 High 62 37 53 0.4

April 8 24 36 Extreme 80 52 69 6

May 8 24 33 High 88 62 104 10

June 7 22 31 High 92 69 142 12

July 5 22 29 High 94 72 135 14

Aug 4 22 29 High 95 74 196 16

Sept 5 22 30 High 95 74 226 19

Oct 8 22 32 High 94 66 99 13

Nov 10 22 34 High 78 42 10 1

Dec 9 20 35 Medium 54 27 5 0.8

49

Climatic conditions in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

The relative humidity figure is lower for Ouagadougou than for Tamale and the

temperatures are generally higher. The following bar chart for Ouagadougou,

Burkina Faso shows the years average weather condition readings covering rain,

average maximum daily temperature and average minimum temperature.

Climatic conditions: Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

It is clear that drying operations carried out in Ouagadougou – where climatic

conditions produce drier air - would be more energy-efficient than in Tamale or Accra

where the atmosphere is more humid.

Mango harvesting season in Ghana

This refers to grafted mango of varieties that are suitable for the export market, high

quality processing or for fresh fruit for the high-value domestic market. The harvest

season for mango varies between regions and with some differences between early

and late varieties. In the south the major season runs from mid April to mid August

Month

Average

Sunlight

(hours)

Temperature

Average

Min Max

Humidity

level

Relative

humidity

am pm

Average

Precipitation

(mm)

Wet Days (>0.25 mm)

Jan 9 16 33 Medium 42 19 0 0.1

Feb 9 20 37 Medium 38 19 3 0.3

March 9 23 40 High 39 20 13 0.7

April 8 26 39 High 51 28 15 2

May 9 26 38 Extreme 65 40 84 6

June 8 24 36 High 73 49 122 9

July 7 23 33 High 78 62 203 12

Aug 6 22 31 High 81 67 277 14

Sept 7 23 32 High 79 60 145 11

Oct 9 23 35 High 72 44 33 3

Nov 9 22 36 High 58 30 0 0.2

Dec 8 17 35 Medium 46 23 0 0

50

with a minor season from mid December to mid March. The RH in April - August in

Accra is 80-90%. In December to March it is 70-80%.

In Tamale the season runs from March to July. Relative humidity levels at this time

are around 60-80% and this coincides with the months approaching the highest

rainfall.

Introduction of drying equipment in Ghana

Local climatic conditions (principally the high humidity experienced in many areas of

Ghana) were one of the key reasons to start a program for improving dryers and

drying practices by using renewable energy sources such as solar or biogas where

possible.

Many commercial dryers use electricity or butane gas as the energy source, which is a

major part of the cost of drying. So energy alternatives or supplements to fossil fuel

for drying were considered essential to reduce the cost of drying. Electricity is

expensive but is still necessary for running fans, pumps and essential electrical control

systems in a drying factory. Therefore a small generator is indispensible as a backup

power source for unannounced power-cuts.

Liquid propane gas (LPG) and diesel or kerosene can also be used as fuels in heater-

blowers which are also used as heat sources in drying operations.

Solar Drying

Solar tunnel dryers

To test the potential for solar drying, five solar tunnel dryers (Hohenheim-type) were

imported from Germany. These dryers use polythene as producing the greenhouse

effect. Ventilation fans - a key feature of dryer design - are fitted at the inlet of the

dryer- and are powered by small solar panels

The dryers were tested on chillies, mango, ginger and spices. The polythene sheeting

has to be rolled up to uncover the product for examination during drying as well as

loading and unloading product. The polythene was not considered robust enough and

was found to be easily torn unless great care was taken in handling it. After 2 years

use, all the dryers had torn or ragged polythene covers.

51

Consequently the project modified the equipment using a Perspex hard covering. An

additional feature was the addition of a small (20kW) diesel-fired heater-blower

which provided heat during the night. A photograph of the system under construction

is shown on the next page with the heater-blower attached.

Users of this dryer had provided feedback indicating that the original dryer was too

big, had to be imported, and so was costly and difficult to use. The MOAP

improvements had not been able to overcome these constraints and It was decided that

since materials such as plywood, perspex sheeting and galvanised sheeting can be

purchased in Ghana in standard 8 feet by 4 feet (2.4 X 1.2 metres) sizes, then it would

make sense to use these dimensions when designing a new version of a solar drying

unit.

The new MOAP designed dryer is called the Solar-4 dryer. It has the following

features:

A plywood base (1.2 metres by 2.4 metres).

A hinged cover is fitted with Perspex to allow sunlight onto the material being

dried; and also giving easy access to material being dried

Trays are made from galvanised steel mesh.

The ventilation system is provided by four fans powered by a 30 watt solar panel.

The system includes an additional 30 watt solar to charge a battery which allows

the ventilation system to be run at night.

The solar panels have sufficient power to allow four such dryers to be used

together which is why this Four -dryer unit is consequently known as the “Solar-

4” dryer.

52

This dryer was further adapted to incorporate a hot water system. A 50 litre boiler is

fired using either biomass (grass, wood etc) or LPG to heat water which is piped into

an overhead storage tank of 110 litres on a stand about 1.5 metres above the boiler.

The tank and pipework connections are lagged to prevent heat loss. The water is piped

to a system of 10 copper pipes (15mm outside diameter) which are laid within each of

the Solar4 drying units below the drying trays and act as radiators. A series of non-

return valves allows the hot water, using gravity only, to heat the radiators and return

to the boiler. The system allows the dryers to be used during cloudy days as well as

overnight.

The benefits of the supplementary heating system are reduction in drying time and the

prevention of dew forming inside the dryer as it cools in the evening. If dew is

allowed to form then the humidity can rise to levels where microorganisms can thrive

and even allow water droplets to form on the product. Such an environment will

produce a poor-quality product.

Below is a drawing of the dryer cabinet, the layout of the electrical system, the

arrangement of tubing within the dryers and the preferred arrangement of the 4 dryers

to optimize the amount of pipe work required. A table containing the parts required is

also provided.

53

Equipment specifications for dried fruit processing

Air Outlet

Screen

Legs

Dryer Lid

Perspex Sheet

Drying

Trays

Box

Frame

Dryer Lid Truss

Dryer Lid Truss

Guide Rail

Air Outlet

Closure

Dryer Lid lift

Handle

Dryer Lid Hinge

Dryer Fans

Collector

Area

DESCRIPTION

Solar Dryer Dimensions

DATE

08/06/2009

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar Dryer

PAGE

1 OF 14

GTZ Moap Solar 4 Dryer

2468.4 mm

2438.4 mm

1219.2

mm

12

0 m

m

15

0 m

m

73

6.6

mm

DESCRIPTION

Solar Dryer Dimensions

DATE

08/06/2009

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar Dryer

PAGE

2 OF 14

GTZ Moap Solar 4 Dryer

54

15

00

mm

1000 mm

40

0 m

m

400 mm

Solar Panels

Maintenance Door

Cable connector

DESCRIPTION

Panel Stand

DATE

08/06/2009

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar Dryer

PAGE

3 OF 14

GTZ Moap Solar 4 Dryer

Mode Switch

Switch over

Instruments Protecting Plate

1 % slope

Pilot lights

Air Outlet

Screen

Legs

Dryer Lid

Box

Frame

Dryer Lid Truss

Air Outlet

Closure

Dryer Lid lift

Handle

DESCRIPTION

Solar Dryer Details

DATE

29 October 2010

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar 4

PAGE

5 OF 14

Collector

AreaHeater pipes

Dryer Lid Hinge

Dryer Fan

Dryer Lid Truss

Guide Rail

Perspex Sheet

GTZ Moap Solar 4 Dryer

55

DESCRIPTION

Solar Dryer Details

DATE

29 October 2010

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar 4

PAGE

6 OF 14

11

0m

m

1933mm

11

0m

m

355mm

150mmHeater pipe

Copper 1/2" -15mm

Close – off Valve

Check/non-return

valve with air plug

GTZ Moap Solar 4 Dryer

DESCRIPTION

Solar 4 configuration

DATE

29 October 2010

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar 4

PAGE

7 OF 14

Solar 4 -2Solar 4 -4

So

lar 4

-1S

ola

r 4 -3

8m

Boiler

4m1m

Solar panel and

Controls

Electrical

connection

Hot

water line

Cold

water line

Dryer

loading

Dryer

loading

Dry

er

loa

din

g

Dry

er

loa

din

g

Blower

fans

GTZ Moap Solar 4 Dryer

56

DESCRIPTION

Solar 4 configuration

DATE

29 October 2010

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar 4

PAGE

8 OF 14

So

lar

4 -

4

So

lar

4 -

1

So

lar

4 -

2

So

lar

4 -

3

0.9m

Electrical

connection

Hot

water line

Cold

water line

Boiler

Solar 4 -1 Solar 4 -2 Solar 4 -3 Solar 4 -4

Boiler

Dry

er

loa

din

g

Blower

fans

Dryer

loading

Solar panel and

Controls

Solar panel

and

Controls

2m.

5m

3m

23m.

2m

.

27m.

0.9m

GTZ Moap Solar 4 Dryer

57

Hot Water Line Cold Water LineCooled Water Line

Solar Dryer Section 1

Solar Dryer Section 4

Solar Dryer Section 3

Solar Dryer Section 2

Chimney

Boiler

DESCRIPTION

Hot Water Umbrella System

DATE

08/06/2009

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar Dryer

PAGE

4 OF 14

Expansion tank

Close – off Valve

Check/non-return

valve

GTZ Moap Solar 4 Dryer

58

DESCRIPTION

Back – up Heat Source Solar Dryer

DATE

08/06/2009

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Solar Dryer

PAGE

8 OF 8

Solar Dryer

Boiler kettle

70

0

55

0

15

0

Fire box

Chimney

Expansion Tank

400

75

02

.5m

Hot Air Tubes

450

6m

Water capacity of the hot water boiler is +/- 70 lit

The boiler can be constructed out of an existing vessel, steel

pipes etc.

The expansion tank can be constructed out of an existing

vessel, steel pipes etc

Boiler, expansion tank and all piping need to be insulated

with a cladding finishing

Boiler connecting pipe to expansion tank 1 ¼” galvanized

pipe.

Feeding pipes to dryers ¾” galvanized pipe.

The 6 tubes used inside the boiler to transfer heat are

preferable steam size 1¼”

Exhaust need to be big enough to ensure a easy flow .

The fire box sealing plate need to be of heavy steel and

slightly curved to enlarge the heat transfer area.

The fire box can be fit according to used fuel, wood chips, dry

grass etc.

The length of the chimney must be high enough to create a

natural draught.

Boiler is mounted on stable legs with a ash drop from the fire-

box grid

Fire box feeding opening: 200mm x 400mm

Back-up boiler is designed to be fired by bio mass

150

Fire-box grid

Dryer pipe

Connector

Fittings

Expansion

Tank Feeding

Pipe

Expansion

Tank Pressure

Pipe Expansion

Tank Cold

Water Supply

Connection

Tripod support for

expansion tank

2.5

m

Cold water return

connections

20

0m

m

Filling

pipe/valve

Non-return valve

Boiler

drain valve

Non-return valve

Below is a plant-

layout scheme suitable

for a Solar 4 set up.

This particular layout

has included a cabinet

dryer and the

description of this

system developed by

MOAP follows.

59

Solar 4 with hot water system

fitted. The boiler is visible

with chimney and lagged hot-

water pipes. The re-designed

Hohenheim dryer is visible in

the background.

60

Building Specifications

Section Specifications

Outside Walls Al walls plastered bricks with paint finishing, free height in dryer section minimum

5.0m pending the final height of the dryer

Platforms Concrete with smooth finishing

Waste water drain system Plastered bricks, water proof finishing covered with steel grid with acid resistant

coating, piping & fittings 110mm PVC

Inside walls in processing areas Tiled up to 1 .8m and upper parts plastered with washable paint finishing

Roof Galvanised sheeting fitted on painted wooden trusses

Floor Concrete base tiled wall to wall

Open waste water drain Concrete pre-form waterproofed and tiled

Windows Standard size steel with paint finishing minimum area per unit 2.4m2 fit with standard

size mosquito net

Air vents Standard size fit with standard mosquito net

Doors Single, sliding and double standard steel with washable paint finishing and fit with

plastic strip curtains

61

Cabinet dryer

MOAP made an early decision to develop a dryer which could be manufactured entirely in

Ghana. One of the features was to meet the need of small-scale dried fruit production using

low-cost energy sources available in Ghana. Therefore electricity was discounted and

alternatives were biomass, solar, LPG, biogas, diesel or kerosene. The dryer eventually

designed is a three-trolley dryer with each trolley fitted with 22 trays of 900mm X 450mm.

Each tray can hold around 2-3kg fresh fruit (pineapple, papaya or mango slices) giving a

capacity of roughly 60kg fruit per trolley. The design of the dryer is shown below.

The dryer was developed using LPG as an energy source firing a MOAP-designed boiler of

600 litres capacity (see diagram below) with an output of around 60 kW. The hot water is

pumped through a heat-exchanger (vehicle radiator) and air is blown through the radiator

using a fan. The heated air is then directed through a long chamber designed to produce a

laminar air-flow through the trolleys loaded with fruit slices.

The trolley nearest the heat-exchanger dries first and is then removed and replaced by the

second trolley containing semi-dried fruit (i.e. that trolley is then nearest the dryer heat-

source). A further trolley previously loaded with fruit is then attached to take the place of the

second trolley. Two trolleys are always attached to the dryer. The third trolley is always

either being loaded with fresh fruit or is being unloaded with dried product. (The dried fruit

(see photograph below of dried pineapple) is removed from the first trolley and replaced with

fresh sliced fruit.) This trolley is then placed in the second position when the next trolley is

dry. This process is repeated continuously and the dryer becomes a batch-continuous dryer.

Full drawings of the cabinet dryer are shown below.

The dryer has been designed to use various heat sources.

A diesel-fired heater-blower of around 80kW/hour can also be used (see design

below).

A direct electric heater of around 60kW/hour using the fan-system as ventilation

although energy costs are higher than diesel or LPG in Ghana at present.

A biogas digester can be used to receive waste material (such as peels, pineapple cores,

pineapple crowns and seeds) to produce biogas. This feature reduces the running costs of the

drying plant by eliminating the cost of removal of waste material from the factory premises

as well as providing additional heat for the boiler by burning the biogas. Such a system has

been installed as a demonstration unit at the Food Research Institute (FRI) in Accra. This

energy-source can keep the boiler temperature around 20-30oC above ambient and thereby

reduces the amount of LPG necessary to reach the operating temperature required for drying.

62

DryerMoap/GTZ

Drying capacity:

Per drying trolley 66kg to 88 kg wet sliced product (Pineapple)

Total for 3 trolleys: 198kg to 264kg

DESCRIPTION

Toby drier with return hot air exhaust

DATE

12 November 2008

SCALE

No scale dimensions in mm

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Dryer

Page

Page 1 of 3

REVISED

Return Air

Duct Back

Cover

First

Trolley

Second

trolley

Hot Water

to Air Heat

Exchanger

Blower

Fan with

attached

Air Filter

Outside

Wall

Dryer Trolleys

and Return Air exhaust

Duct Cover are

attached to the

Hot Air

Connection Piece

Removable and

interchangeable

Fixed Return

Air Exhaust with

attached

Insect Screen

Third

trolley

1

3

2

Trolley width 1100

Trolley length 960mm

Back cover length 400mm

Hot air connection piece length 2700mm

Overall length 3 trolley drier 5980mm

18

00

mm

Hot Air

connection

Piece

Can be fixed

mounted in a

wall or moveable

on wheels

DryerMoap/GTZ

Drying capacity:

Per drying trolley 66kg to 88 kg wet sliced product (Pineapple)

Total for 3 trolleys: 198kg to 264kg

DESCRIPTION

Toby drier back hot air exhaust

DATE

12 November 2008

SCALE

No scale – dimensions in mm

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Dryer

Page

1

REVISED

Return Air

Duct Back

exhaust

First

Trolley

Second

trolley

Hot Air

connection

Piece

Can be fixed

mounted in a

wall or moveable

on wheels

Hot Water

to Air Heat

Exchanger

Blower

Fan with

attached

Air Filter

Outside

Wall

Dryer Trolleys and Drier

back Air Exhaust Cover

are attached to the

Hot Air Connection Piece

Removable and

interchangeable

Third

trolley

1

3

2

Trolley width 1100

Trolley length 960mm

Back cover length 700mm

Hot air connection piece length 2700mm

Overall length 3 trolley drier 6280mm

18

00

63

Hot water boiler

fire tube

system

Fire box

LPG, Bio gas

or Bio mass

Stack or

Chimney

Expansion tank

Water supply width

ball valve control

Overflow

Heat exchanger

Safety valve

Pressure

set point

Hot water pump

Blower fan

Hot water system for

drying Fruit and

Vegetables

Design and sketch by:

Olivier Van Buynder

Hot water boiler

SIZE Date: DWG NO REV

12 November 2008 ES 002

SCALENo scale -

dimensions in mmSHEET 1 OF 5

Re

turn

wa

ter

flo

w

Hot water flow

Hot airflow to dryer

Stop valve

Stop valve

23

00

mm

1100mm

Non-return valve

Non-return valve

Drain valve

Thermometer

pocket ½”

Thermostat

pocket ½”

13

00

mm

This boiler is a fire tube hot water kettle with a capacity of 600 lit.

The boiler is constructed out of mild steel sheets and boiler tubes.

The 17 tubes used to transfer heat running from the fire plate and are

manifold on top.

The stack (chimney) need to be long enough to ensure a easy flow +/-

6m.

The fire plate need to be of heavy steel and slightly curved to enlarge

the heat transfer area.

The boiler is insulated with a cladding finishing for energy savings and

heat losses.

The fire box can be fit according to used fuel, wood chips, dry grass,

LPG and bio gas. The expansion tank has a capacity of 100ltr.

The heat exchanger “radiator” can be obtained from a old big truck,

earth moving machine or generator.

Safety and other controls are standard.

DryerMoap/GTZ

Holding Capacity per drying cubicle:

Solids (theoretical): average 250 kg wet products per cubicle

Cubicles: 3 to 6 related to the air velocity produced by the blower fan

DESCRIPTION

Modular Cubicle Dryer

DATE

17 January 2008

SCALE

No scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Dryer

Page

1 of 7

REVISED

Return Air

Duct Back

Cover

First

Cubicle

Additional

Cubicles

Positions

Hot Air

connection

Piece

Hot Water

to Air Heat

Exchanger

Blower

Fan with

attached

Air Filter

Outside

Wall

Blower Fan, Heat

Exchanger, Hot

Air Connection

Piece and Fixed

Return Air Exhaust

are mounted to the

outside wall

Dryer Cubicles and

Return Air Duct

Cover are

attached to the

Hot Air

Connection Piece

and Removable

Fixed Return

Air Exhaust

with

attached

Insect Screen

64

DryerMoap/GTZ

Holding Capacity per drying cubicle:

Solids (theoretical): average 250 kg wet products per cubicle

Cubicles: 3 to 6 related to the air velocity produced by blower fan

DESCRIPTION

Connecting Piece

DATE

17 January 2008

SCALE

No scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Modular cubicle dryer

Page

3 of 7

REVISED

Hot Water to Air

Heat Exchanger

(radiator)

Return

Air Exhaust

Mounted to

Connection

Piece

Insect Screen

Connection

Piece Insulated

Walls with

Cladding

Blower Fan

Air Filter

Connecting

Piece Air Seal

DryerMoap/GTZ

Holding Capacity per drying cubicle:

Solids (theoretical): average 250 kg wet products

DESCRIPTION

Modular cubicle

DATE

17 January 2008

SCALE

No scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Modular cubicle dryer

Page

4 of 7

REVISED

95

0

Wheels

4 x galvanized castor wheels

2 x fixed and 2 x swivel

with poly-urethane linings

OD 200mm mounted

on trolley frame bottom

Carrying load +/- 500 kg

Front view

Side viewPlan

970

A

A’

Section A - A’

Runners for drying trays

Material: mild steel angle profile 25 x 3 x 950

welded on to trolley frame

painted with a food grade coating

Cubicle gladding

Material: double galvanized sheeting

riveted on to trolley frame filled

with insulation material on sides,

bottom and top return air duct

Cubicle frame

Material: mild steel structure

angle profile 50 x 50 x 3 with no

hollow bodies painted

with a food grade coating

30

01

10

0

18

00

1070

15

50

Detail

4

Detail

5

Detail

6

Detail

1

Detail

2

Detail

3

Air Seal & Locking Device

Material: mild steel round bar and

channel profile painted with a

food grade coating and a rubber

seal fitted to the touch sides

Detail

7

Return air duct

65

DryerMoap/GTZ

Holding Capacity per drying cubicle:

Solids (theoretical): average 250 kg wet products per cubicle

DESCRIPTION

Dryer Cubicle

DATE

17 January 2008

SCALE

No scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Modular cubicle dryer

Page

2 of 7

REVISED

Return Air Duct

Drying Tray

Compartment

Runner for

Drying Tray

Castor Wheels

Cubicle

Insulated Walls

with Cladding

Cubicle Air

Seal

DryerMoap/GTZ

End piece volume:

Air: 435 lt.

DESCRIPTION

End piece

DATE

17 January 2008

SCALE

No scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Modular cubicle dryer

Page

6 of 7

REVISED

01 November 2010

30

0

Front view

Side viewPlan

970

A

A’

Section A - A’

End piece cladding

Material: double galvanized sheeting

riveted on to trolley frame filled

with insulation material on sides,

bottom and top return air duct

End piece frame

Material: mild steel structure

angle profile 50 x 50 x 3 with no

hollow bodies painted

with a food grade coating

14

50

1070

15

50

Detail

6

Air Seal & Locking System

Material: mild steel round bar and

channel profile painted with a

food grade coating and a rubber

seal fitted to the touch sides

End piece outer wheel brackets

Material: mild steel structure

angle profile 50 x 50 x 3 with no

hollow bodies painted

with a food grade coating

End piece open side

Detail

4

66

TOBY dryerEbenut

DESCRIPTION

Drier installation

DATE

29 October 2010

SCALE

No scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Dryer

Page

Page 1 of 2

REVISED

Return Air

Duct Back

Cover

First

Trolley

Second

trolley

Burner

connector

Blower

Burner

Outside

Wall

Fixed Return

Air Exhaust with

attached

Insect Screen

Third

trolley

1

3

2

Hot Air

connection

Piece

Can be fixed

mounted in a

wall or moveable

on wheels

Burner

Ch

imn

ey

DryerMoap/GTZ

Performance capacity:

Airflow: related to the air velocity produced by the blower fan

DESCRIPTION

Connecting Piece

DATE

17 January 2008

SCALE

No scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Modular cubicle dryer

Page

5 of 7

REVISED

Pe

nd

ing

airflo

w tra

il2000

A

A’

Connecting piece frame

Material: mild steel

structure angle profile

50 x 50 x 3 with no

hollow bodies painted

with a food grade coating

Air Seal & Locking System

Material: mild steel

round bar and channel

profile painted with a food

grade coating and a

rubber seal fitted to the

touch sides

Connecting piece cladding

Material: double galvanized

Sheeting riveted on to trolley

frame filled with insulation

material on sides,

bottom and top return air duct

Heat Exchanger

Hot Water to Air

Material and size:

pending availability

and the outcome

of the airflow trial

1000

Front view Side view

Section A - A’

Insect screen

Material: stainless screen tightly fit to the

return air exhaust outlet

15

50=

=3

00

Rear viewDetail

4

Detail

5

Detail

6

= = 1070

970

Blower fan

Material and size: pending availability

and the outcome of the airflow trial

Legs 250 mm pending wheel height

Air filter

Material: stainless steel pre-filter & washable

screen filter tightly fit to the blower fan inlet

67

Alarm bell

DESCRIPTION

Boiler control board

DATE

10/07/2010

SCALE

No Scale

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

FILENAME

Toby Dryer

PAGE

2 OF 7

Warning light

DryerMoap/GTZ

Main

on/off

switchAquastat

t °

Pilot flame controlOverride switch

Pilot flame ignition

Re- set button

Cable connectors (bottom)

Pressure

reduce valve

Connector to

LPG main line

Connector to High pressure flame

Connector

to Pilot flame

Cable

connectors

.

68

Process flow of a drying plant

The process flow of a drying plant consists of a number of steps which are best illustrated by reference to the diagram below. The subsequent

diagram demonstrates the layout of a typical building which houses two trolley dryers and ancillary equipment.

Indicative Process Flow Diagram for Dried Fruit and Vegetable Production

Pro

ce

ss

ing

*P

ac

ka

gin

g*

Tra

ns

po

rt -

tati

on

Pa

ck

ag

ing

Re

ce

ivin

g

Flow

Fruit – Vegetables

from

Supplier

S t o r a g e

F r u i t

V e g e t a b l e s

Quality Inspection

and

Receiving

Raw Material

from

Suppliers

Quality Inspection

and

Receiving

S t o r a g e

P a c k a g i n g ,

I n g r e d i e n t s ,

C h e m i c a l s

Pre processing

SortingTreatment

& Rinsing

Cleaning

&

Washing

Processing

Peeling DryingSlicing

Quality Control

Quality AssurancePrimary PackagingSecondary Packaging

C o n d i t i o n i n g

Dispatch Administration

Flow

Flow

Flow

Flow

Flow

Dispatch StorageStorage

Flow

Interface

Flow

Interface

FlowFlow

Flow

Flow Flow

Flow

Dispatch Documentation Completed

Receipt Administration

Flow

Interface

Flow

Interface

69

Up

Up

Pallet

Dryer

trays

Rotating Table Peeling

and Cutting

Table

Expansion

tankCubicle dryer

Finished

product

sorting

table

Secondary

Packaging

table

Filling primary

packaging Pallet

Pallet

Pallet

Palle

t

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

trays

Dryer

trays

Peeling

and Cutting

Table

Peeling

and Cutting

Table

Peeling

and Cutting

Table

Peeling

and Cutting

Table

Peeling

and Cutting

Table

Peeling

and Cutting

TableCrate

Crate

Crate

Crate

Crate

Crate

End

piece

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

TrolleyEnd

Piece

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

PalletPalletPalletPallet

Pallet

Pallet

Pallet Pallet Pallet Pallet Pallet Pallet Pallet Pallet

Pallet Pallet Pallet Pallet Pallet Pallet

Boiler

DESCRIPTION

Lay-out Processing Plant

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

DATE

15/10/2010

FILENAME

General

PAGE

1 OF 3

SCALE

1: 100

Process Lay-out

Drying

Product Flow

Raw product flow

Pre-processed product flow

Dried product flow

Finished product flow

Washing Bay

Cleaning

Materials storage

Boiler room

LPGasCubicle dryer

Processing Area

Production Manager Office

QC/QA Laboratory

Drying Area

All Product

Packaging Area

All Product

Storage &

Dispatch Area

Packaging

Material Storage

Raw Material

Receiving

Platform

Pre-

sorting

Table

Air conditioning

Chamber

Dried Fruit

Transfer Table

Sliced Fruit

Transfer Table

Process Waste Exit

Staff Access

Packaging

Material delivery,

Pallet storage

and Loading

Platform

Waste & Waste

Water drain

Staff Hand washing

Area

Dryer

trays

Dryer

trays

Dryer

trays

Dryer

Trolley

Dryer

Trolley

69

HACCP process for drying fruits

1.DELIVERY BY SUPPLIER/COLLECTION

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective

action

Refer

to

1.1 Delivery /

collection of raw

material to

Receiving

1.1 Incorrect raw

material

1.1 Raw material

delivered by supplier

or collected by drying

company matches

purchase order

NO Zero tolerance Visual

inspection of

truck by

supplier and

Receiving

prior to off-

loading and

on-loading

Return

incorrect raw

material to

supplier or

discard and

arrange for

replacements

1.2 Check

consignment

according to

specification

1.2 Supplier sends

out of specification

products

1.2 Supplier must

conform to

specification. Each

delivery must have a

Certificate of

Acceptance

NO Products

according to

specifications

Visual check of

Certificate of

Acceptation

and results

recorded

manager

notifying if

suppliers raw

material is out

of specification

1.3 Signing off 1.3 Traceability

may be inadequate

if raw materials

are not signed off

to Receiving

1.3 Complete all

forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Raw material

must be

according to

spec and

accounted for

Refer SOP SOP 1

70

2. RECEIVING & STORAGE

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective

action

Refer

to

2.1 Check raw

material

2.1 Incorrect raw

material accepted

2.1 Receiving checks all

ingredients are

correctly identified

NO Zero tolerance Visual

inspection to

check raw

material/labels

and the number

of containers

are correct

Receiving to

return incorrect

raw

material/labels

and arrange for

correct

replacement

stock

2.2 Check net

mass or counts

2.2 Incorrect net

mass or counts

2.2 Net mass or count

must not be less than

the declared mass of the

consignment

NO The declared

mass or count

must be the

weighed mass

or count

If net mass out

of spec, check

weigh to verify

the scale

accuracy

If our scale is

correct, ask

supplier to

check accuracy

of their scale, if

our is incorrect

have it checked

by independent

party

2.3 Signing off 2.3 Traceability

may be

inadequate if raw

materials are not

signed off to pre-

processing

2.3 Complete all

forms/book notes before

signing off

NO Raw material

must be in-

spec and

accounted for

Refer to

Standard

Operating

Procedure SOP

Refer to

QC/QA

SOP 2

71

3. PRE-PROCESSING HANDLING OF FRUIT

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective

action

Refer

to

3.1 Sorting by

external

disorder

symptoms and

ripeness

3.1 Incorrect

sorting

3.1 External disorder

symptoms and ripeness

grading

YES Select correct

fruit grade

Guideline

charts

If fruit is to

green send

for ripening

and discard

decomposing

fruit

CCP1

3.2 Sterilizing

and Cleaning

3.2 Incorrect

sterilizing

3.2 Chlorinated water

receiving bath

YES As per

Washing &

Sterilizing

details

Check water

on chlorine

level every 2

hours during

shift

If chlorine

level >50ppm

top-up with

chlorinator

or replace

CCP1

3.3 Rinsing 3.3 Foreign

bodies

remains

3.3 Visual on treatment

bath Chlorinated water

rinsing bath

NO Zero

tolerance As

per Washing

& Sterilizing

details

Visually

Check water

on chlorine

level every 2

hours during

shift

return fruit

to receiving

bath If

chlorine level

>50ppm top-

up with

chlorinator

or replace

3.4 Signing off 3.4

Traceability

may be

inadequate if

raw materials

are not signed

off to Cutting

3.3 Complete all

forms/book notes before

signing off

NO Refer 3.3 Refer 3.3 Refer to

QC/QA

SOP

3

72

4. Peeling and Slicing

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target

levels

Monitoring

procedure

Corrective

action

Refer

to

4.1 C I P

Peeling device

Sorting by

internal

disorders

4.1 Peeling device not

clean and sterilized 4.1 Peeling device to

be cleaned before and

after use. Swabs to be

taken regularly

NO Zero

tolerance

C I P

cleaning

Redo C I P

4.2 C I P

Slicing device

4.2 Slicing device not

clean and sterilized 4.1 Slicing device to be

cleaned before and

after use. Swabs to be

taken regularly

NO Zero

tolerance

C I P

cleaning

Redo C I P

4.3 Peeling 4.3 Peeling not

consistent

4.3 Peel is not totally

taken off

NO Zero

tolerance

Peeling

device to be

sharpened

before

starting up

Stop peeling

and sharpen

device

4.4 Slicing 4.4 Irregular slices 4.4 Slice thickness NO Zero

tolerance

Thickness to

be checked

screens and

scrapers

frequently

Job training

4.5 Signing off 4.5 Traceability may

be inadequate if

products not signed

off to Filling

4.5 Complete all

forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Refer 4.3

and 4.4

Refer 4.3 and

4.4

Refer to

QC/QA lab

SOP 4

73

5. PACKING DRYING TRAYS AND DRYING

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target

levels

Monitoring

procedure

Corrective

action

Refer

to

5.1 CIP Drying

trays,

protecting

gauze and

drier

5.1 Drying trays,

protecting gauze and

drier are not clean

and Sterilized

5.1 Drying trays,

gauze and drier to

be cleaned before

and after use.

Swabs to be taken

regularly

YES Zero

tolerance

C I P

cleaning

Redo C I P

CCP 2

5.2 Packing

drying trays

and filling

drier

5.2 Protecting gauze

broken or

contaminated with

foreign objects Drier

roof broken, solar

panel not operating,

fan not operating.

5.2 Continuous

visual inspection

YES Zero

tolerance

Visually Stop

processing

and repair or

replace

CCP 2

5.3 Drying

cycle

completion

5.3 To high moisture

content

5.3 Random

samples to be taken

and test for

moisture.

YES Zero

tolerance Evaporating

oven

Continue

drying until

moisture

content

correct

CCP 2

5.4 Signing off 5.4 Traceability may

be inadequate if

products not signed

off to Labelling

5.4 Complete all

forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Refer 5.2

and 5.3

Refer 5.2 and

5.3

Refer to

QC/QA lab

SOP

5

74

6. SORTING, PACKING, LABELING, STORAGE AND DISPATCH

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective

action

Refer to

6.1 Removing

dried product

from drying tray

and sorting

6.1 Product out of spec,

moisture content,

browning and blackening

6.1 continuous visual

inspection

YES Zero

tolerance

Visually,

guideline

charts

Re-sort SOP 6

CCP 3

6.2 Establish

moisture

equilibrium

6.2 Varying firmness 6.2 continuous visual

inspection

YES Zero

tolerance

Visually Leave more

time

CCP 3

6.3 Weighing,

packing and

sealing

6.3 Product out of spec,

moisture content,

browning, blackening

under or over weight and

bad sealing

6.3 continuous visual

inspection YES Zero

tolerance

Visually,

guideline

charts

Redo

packing

CCP 3

6.4 Labelling 6.4 Incorrect labelling 6.4 Visual continuous

inspection

NO Zero

tolerance

Visually Re - label

6.5 Stock control 6.5 Incorrect stock 6.5 Daily stock control

data

NO Zero

tolerance

Monthly

verification

Internal

audit

6.3 Signing off 6.2 Traceability may be

inadequate if forms not

signed off to Dispatcher

Customer

6.2 Complete all

forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Zero

tolerance

Monthly

verification

Internal

audit

6.4 Dispatch 6.3 Incorrect invoicing

and stock

6.3 Dispatch order and

stock control data

NO Zero

tolerance

Daily

verification

Internal

audit

75

7. TRANSPORTATION

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target

levels

Monitoring

procedure

Corrective

action

Refer

to

7.1 Deliveries

Internal order,

invoice or

delivery note

and product

data sheets

7.1 Incorrect

paper work

7.1 Internal order invoice

or delivery note received

from Accountant, product

datasheets from QC/QA

department

NO Zero

tolerance

Order correctly

packed and

marketed

Job training

7.2 Dispatch

responsible for

loading truck

7.2

Incorrectly

loaded or not

ready for

loading

7.2 If there are 2 or more

orders, driver must

organize to have orders

packed on LIFO (basis last

in first out) as per his

delivery route

NO Zero

tolerance

Driver must be

present at

commencement

and during

loading

Job training

7.3 Driver

checks truck

loading and

complete

checklist

7.3 Loading

not checked

7.3 Driver verifies

customer name, product

name and the number of

pallets

NO Zero

tolerance

Driver completes

checklist

Job training

7.4 Driver

checks truck

offloading

7.4

Offloading

not Checked

7.4 Driver confirms that

off-loaded consignment is

undamaged and acceptable

to the customer

NO Minimal

damage

Visual

observation

Job training

7.5 Driver gets

customer to

sign invoice

7.5 Invoice

not given to

or not signed

by customer

7.5 Submit invoice to

customer and return

signed copy to accountant

NO Job training

76

Post harvest handling and receiving of fresh fruit

Harvesting

All handling has to perform carefully in order to avoid any mechanical

damage.

The fruit should be picked by hand and placed carefully in a harvesting basket.

The harvesting basket and the hands of the harvester should be clean.

The fruit should be picked when it is ready to be processed into a quality

product depending on the treatment which it will undergo.

Once the fruit left the tree or plant, the organoleptic (taste, texture and aroma)

properties, nutritional value, safety and aesthetic appeal of the fruit deteriorate by

varying degrees.

Major causes of deterioration

Microbial growth

Activity of microorganisms

Activities of the natural food enzymes

Insect, parasites and rodents

Temperature – higher temperatures speed up microorganism growth

Moisture and dryness

Oxygen contained in the air

Light – exposure to light will speed up microorganism growth

Time – the longer a food is left in conditions where microorganism growth can

occur the more the microorganism will grow

Useful storage life of some food products

Food products General Storage Life

(days) at 21°C

Fresh meat, fish, poultry 1 - 2

Fresh fruits 1 - 7

Fresh leafy vegetables 1 - 2

Fresh root crops 7 - 20

Dried, salted, smoked meat More than a year

Dried, salted, smoked fish More than a year

Dried fruits More than a year

Dried vegetables More than a year

77

Receiving – quality and quantity

Fruit reception at the processing plant is performed mainly for the following purposes:

Checking of sanitary and freshness status

Control of Variety

Control of fruit wholeness

Evaluation maturity degree

Collection of data (source of supply and quantities received)

Temporary storage before processing - some basic rules

Keep products in the shade without any possible direct contact with sunlight

Avoid dust as much as possible

Avoid excessive heat

Avoid any possible contamination

Store in a place protected from possible attack by rodents, insects etc.

Preparation of fruit for drying

A typical fruit-drying plant layout produced in this manual should be referred to when

reading the following text. Equipment and building specifications are indicated below.

Pre processing fruit preparation

Washing

Harvested fruit is washed to remove soil, microorganisms and pesticide residues. Fruit

washing is a mandatory processing step; it would be wise to eliminate spoiled fruit

before washing in order to avoid the pollution of washing tools and/or equipment and

the contamination of fruit during washing.

Washing efficiency can be gauged be the total number of microorganism present on

the fruit surface before and after washing – best result is when there is a six fold

reduction. The water from the final wash should be free from moulds and yeast; a

small quantity of bacteria is acceptable.

Fruit washing can be carried out by immersion, by spray/shower or by combination of

these two processes which is generally the best solution.

Pre-washing and washing

Usual practices in fruit washing

Addition of detergent solution in the washing water or 50 ppm chlorinating (1

tablet of 1.67g in 20 litre water)

Use of warm water (about 50°C) in the pre-wash phase

High water pressure in spray/shower washers

78

Sorting

Fruit sorting covers two main separate processing operations

Removal of damaged fruit and any foreign bodies (which may have been left

behind after washing)

Qualitative sorting based on organoleptic criteria and maturity stage

Trimming

This processing step aims at removing the parts of the fruit which are either not edible

or difficult to digest.

Fruit should be delivered to the drying factory in crates and weighed immediately on

receipt. The weight is recorded and checked against the contract with the supplier.

The fruits are then:

inspected and rejected fruits discarded;

weighed again and the weight recorded;

washed in water with minimal detergent to remove soil deposits; and

finally washed in fresh, clean water into a bath which protrudes through a wall

into the fruit peeling room and preparation room.

Peeling and cutting

Washed fruits are transferred to a cutting table where they are peeled by hand, placed

in bowls and then transferred to a slicing table. Waste material (peels, seeds, cores

and pineapple crowns) is returned to the waste area through the fruit ingress point.

Sliced material is then transferred to drying trays and stacked in trolleys ready for

placing in the dyer. There is considerable waste when preparing dried fruit. Indicative

quantities of dried material obtained from various fruits are provided in the table

below.

Pineapple Mango Banana Papaya Coconut

Raw/fresh 25kg 13kg 6kg 14kg 10pieces

Slice/ cut 10kg 6.5kg 3kg 9kg

Waste 15kg 6.5kg 3kg 5kg

Dried 1kg 1kg 1kg 1kg 1kg

Dried to fresh

raw fruit ratio

0.040 0.077 0.167 0.071 0.100

79

Food hygiene management

Good Manufacturing Practices - GMP

GMPs are minimum common-sense sanitary and processing requirements, which

should apply to all food processing establishments. The purpose of GMPs is to

establish broad and specific guideline rules in order to govern personal appearance,

hygiene, sanitation and food handling practices. GMPs generally relates to good

housekeeping practices concerning food safety and quality. Many food processors

have made GMPs for food plants the foundation upon which they have developed and

published more specific practices for food safety.

Food hygiene management in practice

Cleaning at day-end/shift-end and product change over

Working Area

Supervisor oversees the washing of the working area at the end of the shift:

Wash the lower portion of the walls using a bucket containing 0.8% solution

liquid soap (400 g soap per 50 litres water) using a scrubbing brush or cloth.

CAUTION: Avoid getting water near the electrical fittings on the wall.

Remove all loose debris and small items from the working area.

Spray sterilizing solution onto floor and let stand for 10 minutes.

Scrub sterilizing solution onto floor with a rubber broom.

Use a floor bucket and floor cloth to wipe and remove the sterilizing solution

from the floor.

Equipment

Cleaning at end of shift and with product changeover - Supervisor oversees the

cleaning of equipment at the end of the shift and with product changeover

during shift.

Pasteurizing Pots/Vessels

Rinse empty vessels with water, then spray and scrub with sterilizing solution

and allow standing for 10 minutes.

Fill vessel with hot water and let stand for 10 minutes.

Drain the vessel and discard the water.

Spray inside surface area of vessel with sterilizing solution. Do not rinse

residue with water - let it remain inside pot.

Juice Pots/Vessels

Remove pulp from vessel with a clean cloth.

Rinse with water and drain the water and residual pulp.

Spray and scrub with sterilizing solution, let stand for 10 minutes.

Rinse with water.

Note: The clean, empty pot should stand overnight.

Drying Trolleys

Remove fruit-remains and any waste from drying trolleys with a clean cloth.

Rinse with water and remove any residual fruit remains.

Spray and scrub with sterilizing solution, let stand for 10 minutes.

Rinse with water.

80

Drying Trays

Remove fruit residues from the drying trays with a clean cloth.

Rinse with water and remove any residual fruit remains.

Spray and scrub with sterilizing solution, let stand for 10 minutes.

Rinse with water.

Drying Netting

Remove fruit remains and any waste from the drying netting with a clean

cloth.

Rinse with water and drain the water and residual fruit rests.

Spray and scrub with sterilizing solution, let stand for 10 minutes.

Rinse with water.

Containers

Supervisor oversees the cleaning of containers after product is removed.

The dirty containers are washed in a washbasin in the wash-bay or cleaning

area.

The containers in the washbasins are washed in hot water using a clean cloth.

When all or a suitable number of containers are clean, the wash water is

discarded and the washbasins are filled with sterilizing solution in cold to

warm water.

The containers are held in the sterilizing solution for 10 minutes.

The clean containers are placed directly onto a drying rack.

Cleaning Area

Supervisor oversees the cleaning of the cleaning area after container washing

has been completed:

Wash the walls using a bucket containing 0.8% solution liquid soap (400g

soap per 50 litres water) and scrubbing brush or cloth.

Spray sterilizing solution onto floor and let stand for 10 minutes.

Use a floor bucket and floor cloth to wipe and remove the solution from the

floor.

Process Equipment

Supervisor oversees the cleaning of the process equipment after every batch.

Spray sterilizing solution over the mixer and let stand for 10 minutes.

Wash the sterilizing solution off and wipe dry with a clean cloth.

At the end of a shift spray a light mist of anti bacterial solution over the

equipment and leave, do not rinse.

Working Surfaces

Supervisor oversees the cleaning of working surfaces at the end of the shift:

Clean working surfaces with a wet cloth.

Spray a light mist of anti bacterial solution over the working surfaces and

leave, do not rinse.

Cleaning at Start of Shift

Supervisor oversees the cleaning of vessels and drying trays at start-up.

81

The Supervisor inspects the vessels and drying trays for presence of night-

flying insects or other foreign bodies.

Rinse vessels and drying trays with cold water ready for processing.

Personal Hygiene

Probably as important as anything in the production of clean, wholesome,

unspoiled products is the attitude of the workers toward cleanliness. Personnel

with clean hands, clothing and good hygienic practices are absolutely essential

to the production of high-quality foods.

All clothing should be clean, in good condition and made of washable

material. Street clothing should be covered with coats or gowns while

handling exposed product. White or light-coloured clothing is the most

desirable and garments that become soiled or contaminated should be changed

when necessary.

All persons working with exposed food products should have their hair under

control, either completely covered with a clean cap or hat or confined by a

hairnet to prevent hair from falling into products.

Safety devices such as aprons, wrist guards and mesh gloves must be made of

impervious material, clean and in good repair. At no time should leather

aprons, wrist guards or other devices be worn unless clean, washable

coverings are used over them. Light-coloured rubber or plastic gloves may be

worn by product-handlers only if clean and in good repair.

No person working with foods should wear any kind of jewellery, badges or

buttons that may come loose and accidentally fall into the product.

Shoes or boots should be worn at all times and should be appropriate for the

operations being conducted. They should also be made of impervious

materials. Any aprons, knives and footwear that become contaminated during

operations should be routinely cleaned in special areas or with equipment

provided for that purpose.

No cloth twine, belts or other similar materials should be used to cover

implement handles or used in other places where they may harbour dirt and

serve as a ready source of product contamination.

All unsanitary practices should be avoided by food handlers. No one should

smoke or use tobacco in areas where edible products and ingredients are

handled, prepared or stored, or where equipment and utensils are cleaned.

When handling edible products, scratching the head, placing fingers in or

around the nose or mouth, sneezing or coughing on the product should never

occur. Workers must also guard against contaminating products from localized

infections or sores that they may have on their skin.

Workers can contaminate food through handling, coughing and sneezing. This

may cause rapid spoilage of the food or more seriously food poisoning.

Coughs and sneezes are a particularly effective way of transmitting bacteria to

food.

Transfer of faecal matter either of animal or human origin to the food is

particularly hazardous; which is why washing facilities with fresh water and

soap should be provided in all toilets.

Hands should be washed frequently to remove all visible soiling. Stainless-

steel sinks without plugs should be conveniently accessible to all workers.

Water should be supplied at approximately 43°C to a single tap which is foot-

82

or knee-operated or automatic. Liquid disinfectant soap and paper towels

should be available. Particular attention should be paid to cleaning under the

fingernails which should keep short at all time. Hands should also be

thoroughly washed after using the toilet, smoking, coughing or sneezing,

handling money, garbage or dirty or infected material.

All precautions should be taken to prevent product contamination by visitors

or other persons passing through the process area.

Cleaning Schedule

Supervisor oversees the cleaning at a weekly/monthly schedule.

Remove all loose debris and small items from the working area, walls, floors

and ceiling.

Wash the walls using a bucket containing 0.8% solution liquid soap (400 g

soap per 50 litres water) and scrubbing brush or cloth.

Wash the ceiling using a bucket containing 0.8% solution liquid soap (400 g

soap per 50 litres water) and scrubbing brush or cloth.

Wash the windows using a bucket containing 0.8% solution liquid soap (400 g

soap per 50 litres water) and scrubbing brush or cloth.

Wash the burglar proofing and mosquito netting using a bucket containing

0.8% solution liquid soap (400 g soap per 50 litres water) and scrubbing brush

or cloth.

Wash all fixed equipment – driers, baths, lamps, fans etc. using a bucket

containing 0.8% solution liquid soap (400 g soap per 50 litres water) and

scrubbing brush or cloth.

Wash the floor using a bucket containing 0.8% solution liquid soap (400 g

soap per 50 litres water) and scrubbing brush or cloth.

Wash the outside equipment using a bucket containing 0.8% solution liquid

soap (400 g soap per 50 litres water) and scrubbing brush or cloth.

Wash the outside machine rooms – boiler, generator, water treatment, etc.

walls using a bucket containing 0.8% solution liquid soap (400 g soap per 50

litres water) and scrubbing brush or cloth.

Spray sterilizing solution onto working area, walls, floors, ceilings, windows,

burglar proofing, mosquito netting, and steps.

Scrub sterilizing solution onto floor with a rubber broom.

Use a floor bucket and floor cloth to wipe and remove the sterilizing solution

from the floor.

Special attention must be given to ablutions, changing-rooms, canteens and

staff-kitchens.

Clean–up the outside areas from debris and other items at least 10m away

from the factory walls.

Rinse outside walls with chlorination water at 50ppm.

Use a bucket and cloth to wipe and remove the sterilizing solution from the

floor, walls, ceiling, windows, burglar-proofing, mosquito netting etc.

Let stand to dry for 12 hours

Below are examples of GMP for specified unit operations.

83

WASH THE RECEIVING BATH WITH TREATED WATER

PREPARE TREATED WATER IN 210LTR DRUM AND

FILL WASHING BATH WITH THE SOLUTION

PUT FRUIT/VEGETABLES IN THE SOLUTION

FOR 5 MINUTES

GMP 1

FRUIT & VEGETABLE WASHING PROCEDURE

CAREFULLY WASH FRUIT/VEGETABLES WITH A BRUSH AND

PLACE THEM IN THE RINSING BATH

CHANGE WASHING SOLUTION

EVERY 60 MINUTES

84

WASH THE RINSING BATH WITH TREATED

PREPARE TREATED WATER IN 210LTR DRUM AND

FILL STERILIZING/RINSING BATH WITH THE SOLUTION

PUT FRUIT/VEGETABLES IN THE SOLUTION

FOR 5 MINUTES

GMP 2

FRUIT & VEGETABLE STERILIZING/RINSING PROCEDURE

REMOVE FRUIT/VEGETABLES FROM THE STERILIZING/RINSING

BATH AND PLACE THEM IN CONTAINERS

CHANGE STERILIZING/RINSING SOLUTION

EVERY 60 MINUTES

85

SHARPEN KNIVES/

DURING OPERATION

REMOVE THE PEELS WITH THE KNIFE

WASH PEELING DEVICE

WITH 0.2g/l HYPOCHLORITE SOLUTION

WASH STORAGE CONTAINERS WITH

50ppm CHLORINATED & 0.02% SOAP/WATER SOLUTION

TRANSFER PEELED FRUIT/VEGETABLE INTO STORAGE CONTAINER

RINSE PEELING DEVICE WITH WATER,

DRY AND STORE IN A PROTECTED PLACE

MAKE A SOLUTION OF 0.2g/l HYPOCHLORITE SOLUTION

PLACE FRUIT/VEGETABLE ON CUTTING BOARD

AFTER OPERATION

BEFORE AND DURING PEELING

GMP 3

PEELING OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES

PUT WASTE INTO WASTE CRATES

WASH PEELING DEVICE

WITH 50ppm CHLORINATED & 0.02% SAOP WATER SOLUTION

86

SHARPEN KNIVES/INSPECTED SLICER FOR

MALFUNCTION

DURING OPERATION

CUT/SLICE FRUIT/VEGETABLE TO SIZE AS REQUIRED

WASH KNIVES, SLICER GLOVES AND CUTTING BOARDS

WITH 0.2g/l HYPOCHLORITE SOLUTION

DISINFECT WITH HOT WATER

WASH STORAGE CONTAINERS WITH 0.1 V/V DISINFECTOR CLEAN

SOLUTION

TRANSFER CUT/SLICED FRUIT/VEGETABLE INTO STORAGE TANK

SANITISE WASHED TOOLS WITH HOT WATER AND DRY

MAKE A SOLUTION OF 0.2g/l HYPOCHLORITE SOLUTION

PLACE FRUIT/VEGETABLE ON CUTTING BOARD

AFTER OPERATION

BEFORE CUTTING

GMP 4

CUTTING/SLIZING OF FRUIT/VEGETABLE

PUT WASTE INTO WASTE CRATES

WASH KNIVES, SLICERS, CUTTING BOARD & TABLE, GLOVES

AND STORAGE CONTAINER WITH THE SOLUTION

87

MAKE A SOLUTION OF 0.2g/l HYPOCHLORITE

DURING OPERATION

PLACE THE FILLED DRYING IN THE TROLLEY OR ON DRYING PLATFORM

WASH THE DRYING NETTING WITH THE SOLUTION

ARRANGE THE DRYING NETTING ON THE DRYING TRAYS

SANITIZE THE NETTING WITH HOT WATER (80 – 95oC)

LOCK THE DRYER TROLLEY ONTO THE DRYER,

PLACE THE DRYER COVER OVER THE DRYING AREA

MAKE A SOLUTION OF 0.2g/l HYPOCHLORITE SOLUTION

WASH WORKING AREA WITH

WITH 50ppm CHLORINATED & 0.02% SAOP WATER SOLUTION

CLEAN WORKING AREA FROM FRUIT/VEGETABLE RECIDUES

PLACE THE CUT/SLICED FRUIT/VEGETABLE ON THE DRYING

NETTING

AFTER OPERATION

BEFORE FILLING

GMP 5

FILLING DRYING TRAYS

SET DRYER TO DRYING TEMPERATURE / INSPECT

THE SOLAR PANEL AND FANS FOR MALFUNCTION

PUT RESIDUE INTO PLASTIC CRATES AND DISCARD INTO WASTE BIN

RINSE WORKING AREA WITH WATER AND LET DRY

88

MAKE SURE ALL PRODUCTS ARE EVEN DRIED WITH THE

CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT

DURING OPERATION

DISCONNECT THE TROLLEY FROM THE DRYER

TAKE DRYING TRAYS AWAY FROM THE DRYING PLATFORM

PRE - SORT THE DRIED PRODUCTS ON QUALITY MATTERS

PLACE THE DRIED PRODUCT TO THE CURING CONTAINERS

MAKE A SOLUTION OF 0.2g/l HYPOCHLORITE

WASH DRYING NETTING AND TRAYS WITH

WITH 50ppm CHLORINATED & 0.02% SAOP WATER SOLUTION

CLEAN DRIER NETTING AND TRAYS FROM FRUIT /VEGETABLE

RESIDUES

TAKE THE DRIED PRODUCT FROM THE DRYING NETTING

AFTER OPERATION

BEFORE REMOVING

GMP 6

REMOVING DRIED PRODUCTS FROM DRYING TRAYS

PUT RESIDUE INTO PLASTIC CRATES AND DISCARD INTO WASTE BIN

RINSE DRYING NETTING AND DRYING TRAYS WITH WATER AND LET DRY

89

MAKE SURE ALL PRODUCTS ARE EVEN DRIED WITH THE

CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT

DURING OPERATION

SEAL PRIMARY PACKAGING AND LABLE ACCORDING TO REQUIREMENTS

PREPARE PRIMARY AND SECONDERY PACKAGING

FINAL SORT THE DRIED PRODUCTS ON QUALITY MATTERS

FILL PRIMARY PACKING ACCORDING TO REQUIREMENTS

PACK SECONDARY PACKAGING AND LABLE ACCORDING TO REQUIREMENTS

MAKE A SOLUTION OF 0.2g/l HYPOCHLORITE SOLUTION

WASH PACKAGING TABLES AND WORKING AREA WITH

WITH 50ppm CHLORINATED & 0.02% SAOP WATER SOLUTION

CLEAN PACKAGING TABLES, SEALERS AND SCALES FROM

FRUIT / VEGETABLE RESIDUES

TAKE THE DRIED PRODUCT FROM THE CURING CONTAINERS

AFTER OPERATION

BEFORE PACKAGING

GMP 7

PACKAGING DRIED PRODUCTS

STACK PALLET AND LABLE ACCORDING TO REQUIREMENTS

PUT RESIDUE INTO PLASTIC CRATES AND DISCARD INTO WASTE BIN

RINSE PACKAGING TABLES AND WORKING AREA WITH WATER AND LET DRY

90

WASH THE FLOOR WITH CLEAN WATER

WASH THE FLOOR WITH TREATED WATER FOR DISINFECTION

SCRUB THE FLOOR

GMP 8

PRODUCTION FLOOR CLEANING PROCEDURE

RINSE OFF DETRERGENT WITH CLEAN WATER

RINSE FLOOR WITH HOT WATER AND LET DRY

WRITE AND SIGN AGAINST YOUR NAME ON THE DAILY

CLEANING RECORD SHEET/BOOK

91

Dried fruit quality

The following photographs show peeled mango, slices of the fruit, slices on trays

prior to drying compared to the finished product and the typical dried slices.

As part of test-running of the cabinet dryer, samples of banana, coconut, mango,

papaya and pineapple slices were dried and the shelf-life stability of the dried

products assessed over a period of one year by the Food Research Institute.

Two storage conditions used were room temperature (28 +/- 2⁰C) and chilled-room

temperature (18+\- 2⁰C) all at humidity conditions of 78 (+/- 4)% RH. The shelf-life

indices monitored over the 12 month period were the physico-chemical,

microbiological and sensorial properties of the stored products.

All the dried products passed the microbial and physico-chemical and sensory

specifications by the Organic Food Production Act (www.organicGuide.com) as well

as the specifications of the Meridian Organic Foods Company of Stuttgart, Germany.

The conclusion is that the optimal shelf-life duration for dried pineapples, papaya,

mango and coconut, established through this study, under the room condition (average

29 ⁰C and 75 % RH) was 8 months whilst that for the chilled-room temperature

(average 19 ⁰C and 75 % RH) condition was 12 month.

The shelf-life duration for dried banana slices established under both storage

conditions was 8 months.

92

Wet slices

Dry slices

93

Peeling and slicing

Insect protection

94

95

Chapter 5: Fruit juice production

Fruit juice production and unit operations are best described by reference to the following diagram

Indicative Process Flow Diagram for Fruit Juice Production

Tra

ns

po

rt -

tati

on

Pa

ck

ag

ing

Pa

ck

ag

ing

*P

roc

es

sin

g*

Re

ce

ivin

g

Flow

Interface

Flow

Interface

Flow

Interface

Flow

Raw Material

from

Suppliers

Final Processing

Flow

Quality Inspection

and

Receiving

Q u a r a n t i n e

Flow

Receipt Administration

Quality Inspection

and

Receiving

Storage

S t o r a g e

P a c k a g i n g ,

I n g r e d i e n t s ,

C h e m i c a l s

Flow

Flow

Fruit – Vegetables

from

Supplier

Flow

Flow

Pre processing

Dispatch StorageFlow

Quality Control

Quality AssuranceSecondary Packaging

Dispatch Documentation Completed

Flow

S t o r a g e

F r u i t

V e g e t a b l e sFlo

w

Dispatch Administration

Flow

Cleaning

& WashingSorting

Processing

Treatment

& RinsingBlending

Pulping

Pre-heating

Peeling &

Crushing

Flow

Flow

Interface

Pasteur-

izingFilling Sealing

Labeling

96

Sorting

Washing/Cleaning

Pulping

Rinsing

Peeling/Crushing

Pre-heating

Incubation/

Quarantine

Secondary

Packaging

Hot filling

Primary packing

Sealing

Fruit Juice Process Flow Diagram

Pasteurizeding

Storage

Dispatch

Transportation

CCP 1

CCP 2

CCP 4

CCP 3

Receiving to

Processing

Raw Materials

From Supplier

Ingredients

Chemicals

Receiving and

Storage

Packaging

Material

Receiving and

Storage

Fruit Receiving

and Storage

Blending

Labeling

97

Principles of Pasteurization

Physical and chemical factors which influence pasteurization are as follow:

1. temperature and time

2. acidity of the product

3. air remaining in containers

Pasteurizing processes:

Low pasteurization:

63°C to 65°C over 30 minutes

75°C over 8 to 10 minutes

Rapid pasteurization:

88°C for 1 minute

100°C for 12 seconds

121°C for 2 seconds

Pasteurization temperature and time will vary according to:

1. Nature of product

2. Initial degree of contamination

3. Pasteurized product storage condition and shelf life required

In this first category of pasteurizing processes (Low pasteurization) it is possible

to define three phases:

1. Heating to fixed temperature

2. Maintaining this temperature over the established time period – pasteurizing

time.

3. Cooling the pasteurizing products – natural (slow) or forced cooling

98

The second category of pasteurization processes (Rapid, high or flash

pasteurization):

Is characterized by a pasteurization time in order of seconds and temperatures

of about 85°C to 90°C or more, pending on holding time.

While bacterial destruction is very nearly equivalent in low and in high

pasteurization processes, the 121°C for 2 seconds treatment give the best

quality products in respect of flavour and vitamin retention.

Such short holding times, however, require special equipment which is more

difficult to design and generally is more expensive than the 63°C - 65°C for 30

minutes type of processing equipment.

Thermo-penetration:

During pasteurization it is necessary that a sufficient heat quantity is

transferred through the receptacle walls; this is in order that the product

temperature rises sufficiently to be lethal to microorganisms throughout the

product mass.

The most suitable and practical method to speed up thermo penetration is the

movement of the product during the pasteurization process. Rapid rotation of

the product around their axis is an efficient means to accelerate heat transfer,

because this has the effect, among others of rapidly mixing the contents.

The critical speed for this movement is generally about 70 rpm (rotations per

minute). This enables a more uniform heating of products, reducing heating

time and organoleptic degradation.

Indicative pasteurization temperatures and times in minutes:

Orange 65ºC 15

Papaya 85ºC 15

Pineapple 65ºC 15

Typical pasteurization temperatures and times in seconds:

Papaya 90ºC 60

Pineapple 95ºC 15

Orange and Guava 95ºC 30

99

Fruit JuiceProcess Lay-out

DESCRIPTION

Lay-out Small Fruit Juice Plant

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

DATE

4 July 2008

SCALE

1: 100 approx.

FILENAME

Fruit Juice

Page

1 of 3

REVISED

Product Flow

Raw product flow

Final juice flow

Dirt Primary packaging flow

Sterilized Primary packaging flow

Labeling Table Peeling Table

Corking

Waste

Water

Drain

Waste TrapInspection

Hole &

Drainpipe

Fruit, recycled

bottle delivery &

General access

to processing

plant

Loading platform

Fruit crusher

Cutting

Table

Filling

Storage

Pallet

Storage

Pallet

Fruit holding platform 2.20m x 6.00m

Sorting

Table

Recycled

bottle

holding

platform

1.80m x

3.25m

QC/QA Lab Bottle

cleaning and

rinsing

Fruit

processing

area

Corking,

incubation

and labeling

area

Storage

finished

products

Management

office

Staff ablution

Open waste

water drench

Under floor

waste water

piping

Staff shower

1m.

1m

2m.

1m

Siphon/ water

Trap

1m

Partition wall

H = 1.0m

1m

Bottle

sterilizing

Juice

separation

Pasteurization

Cooling bath

Bottle cleaning

bath

Bottle rinsing &

treatment bath

Bottle/Crate

chute

Fruit mixing

3.6

7m

.

Fruit cleaning

bath

100

Fruit JuiceFloor Plan

DESCRIPTION

Floor plan Small Fruit Juice Plant

DRAWN BY

Olivier Van Buynder

DATE

4 July 2008

SCALE

1: 100 approx.

FILENAME

Fruit Juice

Page

1 of 3

REVISED

Fruit, recycled

bottle delivery &

General access

to processing

plant

Loading platform

Fruit holding platform 2.20m x 6.00m

Sorting

Table

Recycled

bottle

holding

platform

1.80m x

3.25m

QC/QA LabBottle

cleaning and

rinsing

Fruit

processing

area

Corking,

incubation

and labeling

area

Storage

finished

products

Management

office

1m.

1m

2m.

1m

1m

Partition wall

H = 1.0m

1m

3.6

8m

.

4m.

21m.

4m. 3m. 3m. 5m. 5m.

10

m.

1m

.3m

.1

m.

4m

.

6m

.1m. 1m.

101

Treatment of primary packaging material

Primary and secondary containers:

The terms primary and secondary containers/packaging is generally used. Some foods

are provided with efficient primary containers by nature such as nuts, oranges,

bananas, etc.

In packaging, primary containers are by definition those which come in direct contact

with food, we will be far more concerned with them than with secondary containers.

Hermetic closure:

The term hermetic closed container means a container which is absolutely

impermeable to gases and vapours throughout its entirety, including its seam or cap.

Such a container, as long as it remains intact, will automatically be impervious to

bacteria, yeasts, moulds, dirt‟s from dust and other sources.

The most common hermetic containers are glass bottles, although faulty closures can

make them non- hermetic.

The crimping of the covers/caps on glass bottles fail more often than seams on cans in

becoming non-hermetic.

Sterilizing of glass bottles:

Recycled glass bottles should be soaked in water with a detergent before cleaning

with a hard brush that is constructed to be able to reach the entire inside of the bottle.

New bottles should be treated the same way.

All handling has to perform carefully in order to avoid damage.

rinsing can be carried out by immersion or by spray

Some usual practices in bottle washing are:

Addition to the detergent 1.5 % hypochlorite solution in the washing water or

50 ppm chlorinating (1 tablet of 1.67gr in 20ltr water)

Use of warm water (about 50°C) in the pre-wash phase

High water pressure in rinsing spray

Before use bottles should be sterilized by boiling water and kept hot until filled.

Sterilize the bottles to be used immediately to prevent cooling down waiting to be

filled.

102

HACCP process for fruit juice

1.Delivery by Supplier/Collection by Factory

Process step Hazard Control measures CC

P

Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective action Refer to

1.1

Delivery/collecti

on of raw

material to

Receiving

1.1 Incorrect raw

material

1.1 Raw material

delivered by supplier

or collected matches

purchase order

NO Zero tolerance Visual

inspection of

truck by

supplier and

Receiving prior

to off-loading

and on-loading

Return incorrect

raw material to

supplier or

discard and

arrange for

replacements

1.2 Check

consignment

according to

specification

1.2 Supplier sends

out - of

specification

products

1.2 Supplier must

conform to

specification. Each

delivery must have a

Certificate of

Acceptance

NO Products

according to

specifications

Visual check of

Certificate of

Acceptation and

results recorded

CEO notifying if

suppliers raw

material is out of

specification

1.3 Signing off 1.3 Traceability

may be inadequate

if raw materials

are not signed off

to Receiving

1.3 Complete all

forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Raw material

must be within-

specification

and accounted

for

Refer SOP SOP 1

103

2. Receiving & Storage

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective action Refer to

2.1 Check raw

material

2.1 Incorrect raw

material Accepted

2.1 Receiving checks all

ingredients are

correctly identified

NO Zero tolerance Visual

inspection to

check raw

material/labels

and the number

of containers

are correct

Receiving to return

incorrect raw

material/ labels and

arrange for correct

replacement stock

2.2 Check net

mass

2.2 Incorrect net

mass

2.2 Net mass must not

be less than the

declared mass of the

consignment

NO The declared

mass must not

be less than the

weighed mass

If net mass out-

of-spec, check

weight to verify

the scale

accuracy

If our scale is

correct, ask supplier

to check accuracy of

their scale, if our is

incorrect have it

checked by

independent party

2.3 Signing off 2.3 Traceability

may be inadequate

if raw materials are

not signed off to

pre- processing

2.3 Complete all

forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Raw material

must be within-

specification

and accounted

for

Refer SOP Refer to QC/QA SOP 2

104

3. Pre-processing Handling of Fruit

Process step hazard control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective action Refer

to

3.1 Sorting by

external

disorder

symptoms and

ripeness

3.1 Incorrect

sorting

3.1 External disorder

symptoms and

ripeness grading

NO Select correct

fruit grade

Guideline

charts

If fruit is to green send

for ripening and

discard decomposing

fruit

3.2 Sterilizing

and cleaning

3.2 Incorrect

sterilizing

3.2 Chlorinated water

receiving bath

YES Chlorinated

200ppm

Check water

on chlorine

level every 2

hours during

shift

If chlorine level

>200ppm top-up

CCP1

3.3 Rinsing 3.3 Foreign

bodies remain

3.3 Visual on

treatment bath

NO Zero

tolerance

Visually return fruit to

receiving bath

3.4 Signing off 3.4 Traceability

may be

inadequate if

raw materials

are not signed

off to Cutting

3.3 Complete all

forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Refer 3 Refer 3 Refer to QC/QA SOP

3

105

4. Pulping Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring procedure Corrective action Refer

to

4.1 C I P cutting

device Sorting by

internal disorders

4.1 Cutting device

not clean and

sterilized

4.1 Cutting device to be cleaned

before and after use. Swabs to be

taken regularly

YES Zero tolerance C I P cleaning Redo C I P

CCP 2

4.2 C I P pulping

device

4.2 Pulping device

not clean and

sterilized

4.1 Pulping device to be cleaned

before and after use. Swabs to be

taken regularly

YES Zero tolerance C I P cleaning Redo C I P

CCP 2

4.3 Pulper 4.3 Pulp not

consistent 4.3 Pulp is chunky and has long

fibres

NO Zero tolerance Pulper screens and

scrapers to be set before

starting up

Stop pulping and reset

4.4 Extractor press 4.4 Low juice

release and pulp

spilling

4.4 Cheese cloth YES Zero tolerance Cheese cloth to be checked

screens and scrapers

before starting up

Stop pressing and

replace

CCP 2

4.5 Batching tank 4.5 Tank lid and

piping open and

not in correct

position

4.5 Visual continuous inspection NO Zero tolerance Make sure all lids and

piping are connected

Stop pressing , close

lid and connect piping

4.6 Pre - heater 4.6 De-activating

enzymes

4.6 Temperature and flow rate NO Zero tolerance 70°C & pump speed Stop processing set

temperature

4.7 Formulation

tank

4.7 Incorrect pH

Wrong

ingredients

inclusion

4.7 Citric acid

Ingredient tick-off list

NO pH <4.0 pH analysis by QC/QA lab Addition of correction

acid

4.8 Pasteurizing 4.8 Bacterial

growth

4.8 Temperature gauge YES Zero tolerance > 85°C and <94°C

Continuous temperature

gauge reading and pump

speed

Stop processing set

temperature isolate

effected batch for

rework

CCP 2

4.9 Signing off 4.9 Traceability

may be

inadequate if

products not

signed off to

Filling

4.3 Complete all forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Refer 7.8 Refer 7.8 Refer to QC/QA lab SOP 4

106

5. Filling, Capping Glass Bottles and Filling/Sealing Doy – Pack

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective action Refer

to

5.1 CIP Bottle filling

and Doy pack filling

machine

5.1 Filling machines are

not clean and sterilized

5.1 Filling machines to be cleaned

before and after use. Swabs to be

taken regularly

YES Zero tolerance C I P cleaning Redo C I P

CCP 3

5.2 Bottle filling and

Doy pack filling

machine

5.2 Glass and dirt bottles

& cross contamination

5.2 Visual continuous inspection YES Zero tolerance Visually Stop processing and

discard running

product

CCP 3

5.3 Doy pack

filling/sealing

machine

5.3 Cross contamination 5.3 Visual continuous inspection YES Zero tolerance Visually Stop processing and

discard running

product

CCP 3

5.4 CIP Capping

equipment

5.4 Capping equipment is

not clean and sterilized 5.4 Capping equipment to be

cleaned before and after use.

Swabs to be taken regularly

YES Zero tolerance C I P cleaning Redo C I P

CCP 3

5.5 Capping 5.5 Broken glass and not

hermetical sealed 5.5 Visual continuous inspection YES Zero tolerance Visually Stop processing and

discard running

product

CCP 3

5.6 Doy-pack

sealing

5.6 Poor sealing 5.6 Visual continuous inspection NO Zero tolerance Visually Stop processing and

discard running

product

5.7 Signing off 5.7 Traceability may be

inadequate if products

not signed off to

Labelling

5.3 Complete all forms/book notes

before signing off

NO Refer 3.5.6 Refer 3.5.6 Refer to QC/QA lab SOP 5

107

6. Labelling, Packaging, Storage & Dispatch

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective

action

Refer

to

6.1 Labelling 6.1 Incorrect or

no labelling

6.1 Visual continuous

inspection

NO Zero

tolerance

Visually Redo labelling SOP 6

6.2 Stock

control

6.2 Incorrect

stock

6.2 Daily stock control

data

NO Zero

tolerance

Monthly

verification

Internal audit

6.3 Signing off 6.2 Traceability

may be

inadequate if

forms not signed

off to

Dispatcher

Customer

6.2 Complete all

forms/book notes before

signing off

NO Zero

tolerance

Monthly

verification

Internal audit

6.4 Dispatch 6.3 Incorrect

invoicing and

stock

6.3 Dispatch order and

stock control data

NO Zero

tolerance

Daily verification Internal audit

108

7. Transportation

Process step Hazard Control measures CCP Target levels Monitoring

procedure

Corrective action Refer

to

7.1 Deliveries

Internal order,

invoice or delivery

note and product

data sheets

7.1 Incorrect

paper work

7.1 Internal order invoice or

delivery note received from

Accountant, product datasheets

from QC/QA department

NO Zero tolerance Order correctly

packed and

market

Job training

7.2 Dispatch

responsible for

loading truck

7.2 Incorrectly

loaded or not

ready for

loading

7.2 If there are 2 or more orders,

driver must organize to have

orders packed on LIFO(basis last

in first out) as per his delivery

route

NO Zero tolerance Driver must be

present at

commencement

and during

loading

Job training

7.3 Driver checks

truck loading and

complete checklist

7.3 Loading not

checked

7.3 Driver verifies customer

name, product name and the

number of pallets

NO Zero tolerance Driver completes

checklist

Job training

7.4 Driver checks

truck offloading

7.4 Offloading

not Checked

7.4 Driver confirms that off-

loaded consignment is

undamaged and acceptable to the

customer

NO Minimal

damage

Visual

observation

Job training

7.5 Driver gets

customer to sign

invoice

7.5 Invoice not

given to or not

signed by

customer

7.5 Submit invoice to customer

and return signed copy to

accountant

NO Job training

109

Chapter 6: Hygiene and control

Food factory hygiene and operation

Food factory hygiene and operations consist of 3 main elements which are

inextricably linked:

Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)

which define the processes which enable the factory to run efficiently

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

monitoring and action which indicate the areas where clearly defined

procedures are necessary to be in place to ensure hygiene and efficiency

Standard Operational Procedures (SOP)

which provide the conditions and processes needed to ensure that the critical

control points highlighted above are addressed.

These three elements are described in detail in the following pages.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point system (HACCP)

HACCP is the fundamental procedure that any food business must have in

place to produce, process or handle food in a safe way.

HACCP is a system that many buyers expect a processor to have and most

factories are HACCP-certified by external inspectors.

HACCP is a continuously-reviewed system that is iterative and never stops

and can be used in all systems from the basic to the most sophisticated

processes.

HACCP is a process control system identifying and preventing microbial and

other hazards in food production.

In the establishing of a HACCP plan/process steps are created to prevent

problems before they occur and to correct deviations as soon as they are

detected.

Preventive control systems are designed with documentation and verification.

A HACCP plan is based on the seven principles recognized and endorsed by

local and international food safety authorities.

110

Sorting

Peeling

Slizing

Washing/Cleaning

Rinsing

Drying

Conditioning

Final sorting

Dried Fruit and Vegetable Process Flow Diagram

Primary

Packaging

Storage

Dispatch

Transportation

CCP 1

CCP 2

CCP 3

Secondary

Packaging

Receiving to

Processing

Packaging

Material

Receiving and

Storage

Fruit Receiving

and Storage

Ingredients

Chemicals

Receiving and

Storage

Raw Materials

From Supplier

111

HACCP Principles

Principle 1: Performing a hazard analysis: Food processing units determine the

food safety hazards identifying preventive measures to control these hazards.

Principle 2: Identifying critical control points: Critical Control Points (CCPs – see

above diagram where 3 critical control points are shown) are steps in a food process

to apply controls that food safety hazard can be prevent, eliminate or reduce to an

acceptable level. Food safety hazards are any biological, physical and

chemical characteristic that may cause a food hazard to be unsafe for human

consumption.

Principle 3: Establishing critical limits for each critical control point: Critical

limits are maximum or minimum values to which physical, biological, or chemical

hazards must be controlled at a specific critical control point to prevent, eliminate or

reduce to an acceptable level.

Principle 4: Establishing critical control point monitoring requirements:

Monitoring activities are necessary to ensure that the process is under control at each

critical control point. Monitoring procedures must be listed in the HACCP plan.

Principle 5: Establishing corrective actions: Corrective actions are taken when a

deviation is indentified at a critical limit. HACCP plans are established to identify the

steps to be taken if a critical limit is not achieved. This will ensure that unsafe food

products are not distributed into the food chain.

Principle 6: Establishing a record keeping procedure: HACCP regulations require

that all food processing units keep documents of the hazard analysis and HACCP

plan; records which document the monitoring of critical control points; the actual

critical limits defined; verification procedures and the rectification of processing

deviations.

Principle 7: Establishing procedures which verify and validate the HACCP

system and are satisfactorily applied: Validation ensures that the HACCP plans do

what they are designed for; that is to ensure production of safe products. Processing

units are required to validate their HACCP plans on their own, and on a regular base,

through external inspection. Verification ensures the HACCP plan is adequate and

operating the way they are designed for. Verification procedures should include

activities such as: regular review of HACCP plans, CCP records, critical limits and

microbial sampling and analysis. The HACCP team must take responsibility for the

verification of HACCP plan. Sampling for microbial activity through analysis is part

of this verification process. HACCP certification can be arranged via Ghana

Standards Board (http://www.gsb.gov.gh/site/home/)

112

Hygiene in fruit juice and drying processing and products handling

The critical importance of good hygiene practice is to ensure food safety

Food safety

Food safety is a scientific discipline which provides guidelines on the

handling, preparation and storage of food in ways that prevent food-borne

illness.

This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially

severe health hazards.

Food can transmit diseases from person to person as well as serve as a growth

medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning.

Food safety standards

In developed countries there are rigid standards for food preparation. Businesses from

any part of the world that want to sell into developed country markets must be able to

achieve these standards. Food processing standards protect consumers from the risk of

contaminated food and are essential for businesses as they help maintain quality

standards and provide a framework for managing a business.

General hygiene principles for food handling

Current recommendations for handling all food products are to keep them clean and

covered to protect against food poisoning and disease. Contamination occurs when the

product comes into contact with dirty hands, clothing, work-surfaces, flies, insects,

dirty equipment, dust etc. If the product is kept clean, there will be little or no

contamination by microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, moulds, viruses or protozoa) or

poisonous chemicals.

Conditions for bacteria to multiply

Food poisoning bacteria multiply when they have ideal conditions. A single bacterium

can multiply to 17,000,000 within 8 hours. They have six main requirements:

Organic material, for example food

Moisture

Correct pH

Warmth

Time

Oxygen

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It is a useful exercise to carry out a self-audit of critical control points in the factory.

The following table provides a guide to carrying out this process with scores to be

assigned to each of the production line process. The results can provide useful

guidance and expectation before an external HACCP audit.

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HACCP Auditing

Internal Audit by Department – Whole Production Line

DEPARTMENT:

AUDIT DATE: SCORE:

1. PREMISES

ITEM OVERALL

SCORE

COMMENTS

Walls /5

Floors /5

Ceiling /5

Windows /5

Doors /5

Drains /5

Other

TOTAL /30

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2. Raw Materials/Products

ITEM OVERALL

SCORE

COMMENTS

Segregation

/5

Stock control

/5

Label identification

/5

Pallet neatness

/5

Space between

pallets

/5

Packing material

/5

Other

TOTAL /30

3. Operations

ITEM OVERALL

SCORE

COMMENTS

Documentation /5

Process control /5

Rework control /5

Cleaning schedules

And records

/5

Packaging /5

Traceability /5

Other

TOTAL /30

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4. Stores and Stock Control

ITEM OVERALL

SCORE

COMMENTS

Stock identification /5

Correct storage of

boxes and pallets

/5

Stock rotation /5

Other

TOTAL /15

5. Quality

ITEM OVERALL

SCORE

COMMENTS

Operation of

testing equipment

/5

Calibration of

testing equipment

/5

Specification

Control

/5

Documentation

methods/records

/5

Available and

traceable records

/5

Non-conformance

Procedure

/5

Customer complaints /5

Product recall /5

Analysis and

Procedures

/5

Traceability

Procedures

/5

TOTAL /50

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6. Hygiene

ITEM OVERALL

SCORE

COMMENTS

Toilet and locker

facilities *

/5

Washbasins /5

TOTAL /10

* Use toilet inspection list (Hygiene Management File)

7. General

ITEM OVERALL

SCORE

COMMENTS

Personnel training /5

Good manufacturing

Practices

/5

Safety data sheets /5

Internal audits /5

External audits /5

TOTAL /25

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Score: Unacceptable 1 Poor 2 Average 3

Good 4 Excellent 5

Each item has a maximum score of 5 points.

The (total score achieved divided by the maximum score obtainable) x 100 gives the

% score for each section.

The total % received as a % of the total maximum achievable is the overall score for

the internal audit.

Overall Score: 0-49% Unacceptable

50-79% conditionally acceptable

80-100% Acceptable

CAR = Corrective action required

N/A = Not applicable to Department being inspected

N/I = Not inspected

BLANK SQUARES = Inspect

INTERNAL AUDIT BY DEPT

ITEM CONTRIBUTION TO MAXIMUM OVERALL SCORE (Sections 1 to 6)

ITEM

%

contribution

to overall

score

Maximum

overall

score

Receiving Preparation Pulping Evaporation Aseptic

Storage

&

Dispatch

Premises 18 30 30 30 30 30 20 20

Raw

materials/

products

18 30 20 20 15 15 25 15

Operations 18 30 25 25 25 25 25 25

Stores/stock

control 9 15 15 10 10 10 10 10

Quality 30 50 35 40 30 40 30 30

Hygiene 6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

TOTAL 100 165 135 135 120 130 120 110

Department Head: Date: Signature: Designation:

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Standard Operational Procedures (SOP)

Standard Operational Procedures are essential for efficient business management.

These should be written down as an operational manual and this should be available

to all staff.

Why is an SOP needed?

Outlines the operational structures

Provides instructive guidelines

Describes activities

Sets operational parameters

Determines performance areas

Defines goals

Establishes performance standards

Functions as a performance measuring tool

When to Apply SOP

From start of business until the end

All the time

All senior managers should know and understand the importance of the SOP

Staff Required to Design SOP

CEO/GM

SENIOR MANAGERS

SUPERVISORS

Benefits of SOP

Improves business effectiveness

Ensures staff have codes-of-conduct

Sets and ensures standards

Saves time in decision making

Quality Auditing (QA)

Inspection lists

A written check list is essential for this operation. The staff member responsible

inspects the premises daily before shift start-up or take-over shift and ticks-off for the

services, equipment and systems:

Buildings

Utilities

Processing equipment - process line and operating machinery

Vehicles (e.g. forklift)

The checklist covers: operational functions, problems to be addressed (such as loose

bolts and nuts), damage, broken or missing parts, cleanliness, oil levels, cooling water

levels, fuel levels, cracks, leaks and so on. Any need for repair should be carried out

according to the severity of the problem (this will be written into the SOP and the

method of solving the problem outlined within).

This is a management function and must be carried out by the supervisor for each

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section, process or department. The supervisor‟s senior manager must monitor this

action and follow-up during the shift. Any deviation from the operational procedure

must be noted and reported on.

A major hazardous or unsafe deviation from standard must be reported instantly and

immediate action taken.

The SOP must also include the factory emergency procedure (in case of fire or other

hazard).

In the annex you find examples of SOPs – 6 each for drying and fruit-juice

production.

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Chapter 7: Certification

Farm certification: why is it necessary, what is it for?

Many products for export require certification through one of several voluntary

standards. These standards seek to set a benchmark for good practice or

sustainability. They are now an indispensible part of modern international trade in

agricultural products. Many fruit processing businesses are selling into export markets

and so need fruit that enters its factory to have at least one form of farm certification.

The complexities of certification: a brief overview

Certification standards provide assurance to traders, processors, and to consumers on

both tangible and intangible qualities of a product.

Intangible qualities: Many certification schemes check that the farms or

factories follow international rules on how labour is treated (no forced labour,

paying minimum wage, labour unions permitted etc). Although these

intangible qualities do not show up in the look or feel of the product, they are

now a core part of overall „quality‟. Most buying companies do not want to be

accused of buying products created through abusive practice and so most ask

for some form of certification.

Tangible qualities: certification schemes can cover a range of issues, and so

these may include tangible qualities such as pesticide-use; defining which

pesticides may be used; and the maximum permitted pesticide residue (MRL)

levels tolerated in fruit or vegetables. They are monitored through record-

keeping, but are tangible because compliance can be physically checked by

sending fruit for laboratory analysis.

Certifying the farm or factory is only part of the issue. The product will go on to be

traded, passing through many hands before end-use. This means that certified and

non-certified products may need to be separated during the journey. If certified

produce is blended with non-certified, then there need to be rules on how this can be

done and how it should be reported. Many standards also include additional rules on

traceability of certified products once they enter the commodity chain. All this makes

adhering to standards complex.

Certification standards make a difference to production systems and supply chains,

but they cannot do everything. Here is a summary of what they can do and cannot do:

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What certification can do:

Address unsustainable practices in a supply chain.

Align common interests of the main stakeholders.

Strengthen the position of the weakest link in a

supply chain, often this is the farmer.

Develop chain-wide norms such as pest and disease

control or traceability systems.

Set up a traceability system that can track a certified

product through a supply chain.

Help certified farmers adopt basic Good

Agricultural Practice; which can improve

productivity.

What certification cannot do:

Immediately reach all producers.

Change laws and regulations, for

instance taxation, import/export tariffs

or land rights.

Drive diversification leading to more

stable farm income.

Build the general infrastructure of a

country, for instance schools or roads.

Deliver significant benefits without

adding some complexity and cost.

The scope, structure and use of certification standards can appear quite complicated.

Often, there is a lot of terminology or jargon associated with standards, and

understanding them can be confusing to start with. This section is intended to explain

some of this jargon and show how these standards work. There is a second section

that describes the main characteristics of the different standards that are used for fruit

and vegetables in West Africa.

These are the subjects that are covered in this section:

The standard: What the standard is, what it looks like and how it is structured with

examples taken from actual standards in use today.

The inspection: A description of the typical inspection activities and processes that

lead to certification.

Chain of custody and traceability: An explanation of how certification works for

commodities as they move from a farm or factory through the supply chain. Included

is a summary of the different ways in which the identity of certified produce is

maintained and differentiated from non-certified produce.

Group certification and internal control systems: In developing countries, a lot of

produce entering world markets is in the hands of small-scale producers and artisans.

Group certification and internal control systems are the mechanisms through which

small producers become certified at a relatively low cost per individual. These are

explained here.

There are several voluntary certification standards used in West Africa on fruit and

vegetables farms that supply processing businesses. These standards are all for

produce entering international markets, mostly in the European Union. Examples of

voluntary certification standards that have importance for farm production are listed

in a directory at the end of this section. There are no quality standards aimed at

national or regional markets in the West Africa region that we are aware of at the time

of writing.

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Certification Standards

The standard (or code of conduct) is the basis of the certification system. In order to

understand a standard it is necessary to take a look at the standard document that

defines it. Generally these cover social and environmental criteria and

requirements for good agricultural practices, when these are followed the

expectation is that the minimum quality standards for production and social and

environmental performance will have been achieved. Standards have been created for

a mix of reasons, for example:

- To address problems in production

- To control pockets of potential malpractice

- To promote the safer use of pesticide by farmers.

- To protect consumers (e.g. from contamination with pesticide residues).

- To ensure minimum product quality standards.

The table below shows some of the areas covered by different standards used in

Africa for small farms:

Good Agricultural &

Business Practices

Social Criteria Environmental Criteria

Smallholder organization;

when the certification

process works through

groups of farmers.

No forced or child labor Biodiversity protection and

protection of endangered

species

Producer training on good

agricultural practices and

post-harvest handling

Transparent and

accountable group

management

Prevention of soil erosion

Farm maintenance Equal opportunities for

men and women

Protection of water sources

and water bodies

Soil management &

fertilization

No discrimination,

respectful treatment of

workers

Reduced deforestation

Integrated Pest

Management

Access to health care Conservation plan for

natural habitat

Product flow control Access to education Minimized environmental

pollution

Record keeping Health and safety training Responsible use of

agrochemicals

Annual internal

inspections

Safe and healthy working

conditions

Responsible disposal of

agrochemical containers

and other waste.

Accident and emergency

procedures

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Principals and criteria

When stakeholders defining a standard have agreed on the main principles, they then

work out what the criteria for each of these would be. Here is an example of the

principles from one Good Practice and Sustainability standard:

Section Principles

1. Good agricultural practice 1. Optimal productivity and efficiency of farming

2. Consistent quality (e.g. of an agricultural commodity)

3. Food and farm safety

4. Application of good environmental practices in

farming

5. Safe and efficient use of fertilizers and crop protection

products

2. Communities 6. Good hired labor practices

7. Safe and healthy production practices

3. Natural resources and

biodiversity

8. Protection of natural resources and biodiversity

9. Environmental risk management and long-term

productivity

4. Effective implementation

of the code of conduct

10. Effective code implementation and training.

5. Product flow control 11. Traceability of certified product

6. Social responsibilities (e.g.

of farmer associations or

cooperatives)

12. Transparent and accountable management structures

13. Equal access to reliable marketing information – on

market prices, quality, weight.

Control points or indicators

Various indicators (also called control points) are then listed for each criterion.

Control Points are the specific points at which the code of conduct defines an

indicator that can be checked by an inspector to judge if the farm is in compliance or

not. Control points are carefully selected and their exact definition usually involves a

lot of debate by stakeholders. Ideally they should be clear and effective in

demonstrating improved practice, without becoming so stringent that they‟re

unrealistic/impossible to achieve, or hard to measure. All certification standards

assume that if the conditions of all the control points or indicators are met, then that

particular farm, factory, forest etc can be judged as worthy of certification against the

code or standard.

The control points are selected to pinpoint those areas where there are particular

issues or risks that must be reduced or eliminated. For example for fruit and

vegetables pesticide residues are considered an important issue for trade. So a

standard may define very carefully what is not allowed to be used, or it may refer to

regulations, for example from the European Union, and state that the farmer should be

in line with these.

Guidance notes

Most standards documents contain detailed guidance notes. This is an essential part of

the standard. The notes help certification candidates and inspectors to interpret the

standards in a useful, practical and consistent way. They are either contained within

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the main standard document, or in a separate document. Often they are within the

main document and also in supporting documents.

Here‟s an example of text taken from a guidance document for GlobalGAP. In this

case, guidance also extends to giving examples of the documents required by any

control point. The table below is example of the guidance notes that accompany most

standards:

GLOBALGAP Risk Assessment on Social Practices (GRASP) Implementation

Guideline

Control Point A.2

Is there at least one

employee or an

employees‟ council

who represents the

interests of the staff to

the management?

Compliance Criteria Documentation is available that demonstrates that a clearly

identified, named person of trust and / or an employees‟ council

representing the interests of the staff to the management is

nominated by all employees and recognized by the management.

This person shall be able to communicate complaints to the

management without personal sanctions.

Explanation:

An employees‟ representation facilitates the dialogue among the employees, but also between

the employees and the management. Problems on the farm can easily be addressed, discussed

and solved. Furthermore, the employees´ council can act as a mediator in case of conflicts.

Agreements with the employees´ council will generally be well accepted within the

workforce, as the representatives of the employees have negotiated the terms.

Implementation:

1. Inform your employees about their right to have a representative or an employees‟ council.

2. This point is not applicable if only core family members are working on your farm. You

find the precise definition of this term in the glossary.

3. As soon as you employ people outside of your core family, make sure there is an

employees‟ representative.

4. If you are managing a farm with many employees, it makes sense to have an election

procedure. Assist your employees in informing on how to elect the representative(s) by

assuring certain rules/principles are followed (e.g. anonymous election).

5. If certified under Option 2, you may nominate one producer (or other suitable person) to

execute this assignment, if there is a high rotation of employed workforce. Make sure all

employees have access to the respective person(s); nominate two or more persons if the group

is very big or geographically dispersed.

6. Make sure you and you employees know which person is the employees‟ representative

and for how long the person carries this task.

7. Follow up the agreements made between the employees‟ representative and yourself and

regularly check upon the status of their implementation.

In some cases, a standard can be described in one document; in others, standard

organizations publish their standard(s) as a series of related documents. A distinction

is often made, for example, between general and product specific standards. The

Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO) and GlobalGAP both have a general standard

and additional product standards for each of the products covered. Roundtable for

Sustainable Palm Oil has a generic standard for sustainable palm oil with versions of

this based on national interpretation in different countries. In addition, many standards

have a separate but linked standard for the chain of custody and traceability (see

section on chain of custody and traceability below).

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The Inspection

For most standards, inspection is carried out by a 3rd

party certification

organisation – which can be a general quality assurance company or may be an

independent organisation set up by a standard organisation to deal exclusively with

that organisation‟s standards (e.g. For FLO certification it is FLO Cert GmbH

www.flo-cert.net). A business wanting its farmers to be inspected must hire a

certification organisation and pay them a fee. The external inspection typically

involves the following activities:

1. Document audit

Compliance with control points or indicators involves a lot of record-keeping:

there may be many documents that need to be properly maintained. Even an

illiterate farmer in an outgrower scheme supplying pineapple to processor needs to

record of the amount of fruit produced on the farm, and the type and amount of

pesticide used. The farmer association supplying the factory would need to have

an up-to-date and accurate list of its members and production data. Usually, the

inspector will begin an inspection by checking that all the documentation and

records stipulated by the standard are in place.

2. The main inspection

The details of this depend on the type of standard; but it usually involves going

through the standard‟s inspection forms, criteria by criteria and indicator by

indicator. The inspector will check whether or not there is conformity with one,

and keep a record of the findings.

3. Reporting the outcome

After the inspection, the inspector will write a report on the findings. An

inspection report may contain:

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Summary and recommendations (which may include specifying corrective

action or recommendation for suspension),

Description of how the inspection was carried out (so in the case of a

farmer cooperative explaining who was met and which farms randomly

selected and visited),

Description of the candidate and the supply chain for its product,

Explanation and description of areas where the inspector has seen non-

compliance

Copies of the inspection forms.

4. Penalties, suspension or corrective action

Failing an inspection does not mean that a candidate for certification is

immediately disqualified: some Standard Organizations have systems that allow

correction to be made and may allow for a re-inspection if necessary.

GlobalGAP, for example, has the following procedure:

Warning For all types of non-compliance. An agreed time period will

allow the candidate time for corrective actions with a maximum of 28

days.

Suspension This occurs when a certificate holder or producer cannot

sufficiently demonstrate undertaking corrective actions following a

warning. They will then be suspended for a stipulated time and then be

eligible for a reassessment.

Cancellation When a (potential) certificate holder or producer cannot

demonstrate sufficient corrective actions, and when major non-

conformances have been identified, then the certification will be

cancelled. This means that the use of the GlobalGAP trademark will be

prohibited and new application for certification will not be dealt with

before 12 months after the date of cancellation.

5. Re-inspection

The external inspection is usually repeated at fixed intervals (e.g. annually,

every three years, depending on the rules), unless a re-inspection is required

earlier due to suspension or cancellation.

Group Certification and Internal Control Systems

Standards dealing with small-scale farmers in cooperatives, associations or

outgrowers schemes have provisions for group certification. Group certification

means that the costs per farmer should be reduced. Group certification also means

that farmers who may not be literate or otherwise capable of reading documents and

keeping records can be supported by the group and enabled to comply.

Group standards and group inspection are different from the normal standard because

of the requirement for the group to establish and manage an Internal Control System

(ICS). With the ICS, a certification process contains two levels of control: the internal

and external control system.

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The ICS allows a certification body, which is responsible for the external inspection,

to delegate inspection activities to specially assigned persons within the unit of

certification (normally the farmer organisation). These assigned persons are

responsible for the internal inspection. Usually, they are group members, though

sometimes they may be from NGOs or support organizations assisting the group. For

group certification it is expected that every group member, no matter what their

situation, is inspected and meets the conditions of the standard.

The Certification Body does two things during the external inspection process for a

group (see Fig. 2):

1. It checks that the ICS is functioning well. This includes making sure

membership lists are accurate and up to date; that farms are mapped; that there

are records of training sessions and of internal inspections etc.

2. Inspectors from the Certification Body will randomly choose a sample of the

group‟s members and inspect them and their farms. Usually, the sample is

the square root of the total number in the group, so a group with 100 members

needs to have at least 10 farms inspected. If any one of these farms fails the

inspection, then it implies that the group as a whole has not reached the

standard of compliance required.

(Fig. 2)

The ICS can be managed by a farmer association that is part of a fruit outgrower

scheme. However, in many cases the ICS is managed by the processing business

which is working with the association to establish its supply base. Normally, if the

processing company pays for the certification, then the certificate is held in the name

of the company. This arrangement helps reduce the temptation for farmers to engage

in side selling.

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A processing business managing the ICS for a fruit farmers‟ association may need to

do the following:

Help organize all the documentation

Write an internal standard (an interpretation of the main elements of the standard

that can be understood by the farmers)

Carrying out training.

Paying for improved farm equipment (e.g. lockable pesticide cupboards or safety

equipment that meet compliance criteria).

Making sure farmers record the inputs they use.

Providing equipment such as toilets with hand washing facilities for the pickers on

every farm.

Organising the ICS, training and internal inspections.

Paying all the costs of certification.

Having external organizations involved in managing the ICS has two main

advantages:

1. A business is more likely to have the competency to manage an ICS and the

certification process in general.

2. Small farmer associations often struggle with cash flow; a business is more

likely to be able to pay the costs and meet deadlines.

If the ICS and certification process is paid for and managed by a business, then

usually the business is the certificate holder. While there are differences between the

ICS of different standards, they tend to share similar basic elements.

Here are three main aspects of internal control systems:

1. Roles and functions:

An ICS must have the following people with the following roles and functions:

ICS Coordinator or Manager. This is normally one person specifically

tasked with supervising the ICS.

Internal inspectors. These may be selected from among the farmers

themselves.

In addition there may be technical staff and trainers whose job is to ensure

that farmer practices are in line with the standard.

A group must have an Approval Committee which oversees the ICS and

which is responsible for sanctioning members who do not meet the standard in

any way, or who cheat. This system must spell out how corrective action

should be managed as well as having an appeal procedure in case of dispute.

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2. Documents and records

Most ICS include the following documentation:

There should be a group-level set of records or database at group, including

information such as member registration data with names, farm and field sizes.

Documentation at member level: on training attended, production yield,

pesticide use etc.

Product flow or Chain of Custody information at group level. This collates

information on production and sales of certified product by individual

members.

An ICS manual containing written procedures and forms. This will cover

the processes for internal inspection, activities of staff members and

documentation.

A document called an „internal standard‟. This is an interpretation of the

actual standard according to the local context. It covers the major risks etc; is

relevant to the context of the members; and is written in a language and form

that they can understand.

3. Actions and processes

Setting up the ICS management and documentation system.

Risk or gap analysis: this is done at the beginning to assess what needs to be

done to bring a group of producers up to the level of the standard.

Action to bridge the gap between the actual level of producers in the group

and level required by the standard (this requires training, investing in new

equipment, building storage facilities, creating record-keeping systems etc).

Internal inspection. This includes the selection and training of internal

inspectors as well as the actual inspection.

Pre-audit (mock external inspection). This is an optional but common step.

It is way of checking that the group is ready for external inspection without the

potential expense of failing a real one. It is usually done in time to allow for

corrective action to be taken. Pre-audit is frequently carried out with help from

a local consultant or local support organization.

The external inspection

Corrective actions or sanctions

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Types of certification in West Africa

Three types of certification are fairly common for fruit in West Africa: GlobalGAP,

FLO (Fairtrade Labelling Organisation), EU organic regulation. However these are

not the only ones; some new types of certification are gaining importance. In this

section we mention the standards that we are aware of at the time of writing this

document that are likely to be of interest to fruit producers and processors. They are

discussed under the following five headings:

1. Retail and supermarket assurance (GlobalGAP; own brand e.g. Tesco‟s

Natures Choice);

2. Environmental impact and footprinting (Carbon and water foot-printing in

various forms -e.g. PAS2050 for carbon);

3. Fair trade, social standards (FLO, IMO Social and Fair);

4. Organic ;

5. Voluntary sustainability standards (Rainforest Alliance).

We have noted that there is some overlap between one category and another. In

general there is a trend for certification standards to converge in their content and

structure (see also WAFF guide to voluntary certification – in preparation, 2010

www.waffco.com).

Retail and supermarket agricultural good practice assurance standards

(e.g. GlobalGAP, own brand, Tesco’s Natures Choice)

When European supermarkets first started buying produce from Africa they sent their

own auditors to farms and processors to check that farm practices met their

expectations for good practice. The audits were mainly related to quality and food

safety, especially risks associated with pesticide residues and bio-contamination that

might affect their own customers as well as checks on quality management systems.

Some businesses still carry out their own audits against their own standards; however,

there has been a move for retailers to adopting globally recognized common

standards.

Of the voluntary standards that we know are used in West Africa GlobalGAP (GAP =

Good Agricultural Practice) is the most important. Almost all fresh fruit and vegetable

produce leaving Africa to supermarkets in the EU have GlobalGAP certification. It is

a quality assurance certification explained in more detail in the profile at the end of

this section. Some supermarkets may also require fruit processed into fruit salad to be

accompanied by GlobalGAP certification. GlobalGAP is a business-to-business

certification so, while it is mainstream and important, it is not well known to

consumers.

An example of a standard developed by a supermarket specifically for products

entering its own stores is Tesco‟s Nature's Choice (TNC). This is an Integrated Crop

Management System (ICMS) and is unique to Tesco. It aims to ensure that Tesco‟s

fresh produce comes from growers who use good agricultural practices, and who

operate in an environmentally responsible way with proper regard for the health and

well being of staff. TNC aims to promote best agricultural practice rather than just

good practice.

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Producers should note that even with GlobalGAP and other general standards it still

happens that retailers in Europe to want to inspect farms and processing factories

themselves, using their own good practice and quality assurance standards and

auditors

Environmental impact and footprinting (e.g. Carbon and water

footprinting)

The concept of a footprint starts with the idea of an ecological footprint which

concerns the resources needed to produce something and the Earth‟s ecological

capacity to regenerate these resources. So resources easily regenerated (e.g. oxygen

breathed by livestock) is not something that is a concern. Footprint calculations focus

on areas where assessments show that there is environmental damage and/or resource

depletion.

A related more comprehensive and more scientific methodology is Life Cycle

Assessment (LCA); this looks at all categories of environmental impact in the life

cycle of a product. LCA has links to the ISO14000 methodology for environmental

management systems which aims to develop management processes to improve

performance. There are two areas of foot-printing that are now starting to be used in

West Africa and which will become more common and more important in future,

carbon and water:

Carbon: Green House Gas (GHG) emissions that cause climate change, is one of

the impact categories covered by an LCA. For simplicity of reporting, GHG

emissions are normally expressed in terms of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e).

This counts carbon dioxide as 1.0, but methane, for example, which has a

greenhouse gas effect much stronger than carbon dioxide is counted as 28. Some

refrigerants used in the fruit and vegetable business have GHG effects thousands

of time stronger than that of carbon dioxide, so where fruit factories have

refrigerated storage, the rate of leakage is one of the things measured for a carbon

footprint. Because climate change is now regarded as a potential global

environmental disaster, businesses are starting to routinely measure this in the

form of a carbon footprint assessment. Some of the pioneering businesses

adopting the use of carbon footprinting include European supermarkets and food

processors (see also Mike Berners-Lee, 2010).

Water: Water use is another impact area that can be covered by an LCA. A farm

business water footprint is a measure of the total water used to produce goods

by a business. Globally water resources are under pressure and it is believed that

it will become a major limiting factor for food production and human

development generally in the 21st century. In the UK, average water consumption

is 1695 cubic metres of which 62% is „embedded‟ in imported products.

International food businesses are starting to ask suppliers to measure water

consumption, to reduce it and to demonstrate that farms are not competing for

scarce water with local populations. The water footprint includes water volume

consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint

consists of three components: the blue, green and grey water footprint.

133

Blue water footprint – Volume of surface and groundwater consumed as a

result of the production of a good or service (e.g. surface water in ponds,

reservoirs, rivers, irrigation canals etc).

Green water – The precipitation on land that does not run off or recharge the

groundwater but is stored in the soil or temporarily stays on top of the soil or

vegetation. Eventually, this part of precipitation evaporates or transpires through

plants and through the soil surface.

Grey water footprint – The grey water footprint of a product is an indicator

of freshwater pollution It is calculated as the volume of water used to carry

pollutants out of a factory and which is put back into water courses or water

bodies.

Relevance to West Africa

For carbon footprinting there are various methodologies that are used, each with their

own strengths and weaknesses. There have been calls for a single standard. One has

been created with the expectation that this will become the basis for an international

standard; it is called PAS2050. Tesco, one of Europe‟s biggest supermarkets, already

has hundreds of items PAS2050 certified goods on its shelves. This standard is

explained in more detail at the end of this section. However, there are other standards

that are easier to use and experts do not agree on which is best.

We do not know of water footprinting being tried in Ghana, where water is not a

highly limited resource in the main fruit growing region. It is probable that this has

been done in dryer countries in the region, such as Senegal and Mauritania, where

there is an export industry in irrigated fruit and vegetables. For countries that have

abundant water it still makes sense to report on water-use and water availability as

this can be an advantage when competing with produce from countries where

horticultural use of water for export is a cause of conflict and barrier to agricultural

expansion.

For both carbon and water footprinting the objective is to measure performance,

analyse and report this and, where there are opportunities for reduction, to reduce it

through a performance improvement plan. Pioneers of carbon footprinting have

found that it is a good way to target waste and inefficiency in energy, packaging,

refrigerated transport, input use, fertilizer use and other „hotspot‟ areas. Targeting

these areas and reducing input and energy use has made these businesses more

efficient. So there is a business case for this type of analysis, with or without

certification demands from the market.

There are other environmental impact areas that would be part of an LCA and which

might also be the subject for impact assessment in future. These include erosion

(especially for pineapple) and eutrophication (due to excessive run-off of fertilizer

into waterways and water bodies) associated with horticultural production.

Fairtrade, social and ethical performance standards

A definition of fair trade that is commonly referred to is that of a definition developed

by FINE, which is an informal association of four international fair trade networks

(Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International, International Fair Trade

134

Association, Network of European Worldshops and European Fair Trade

Association):

‘Fair trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and

respect, that seeks greater equity in international trade. It contributes to

sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing

the rights of, marginalized producers and workers – especially in the South.

Fair trade organizations, backed by consumers, are engaged actively in

supporting producers, awareness raising and in campaigning for changes in

the rules and practice of conventional international trade’.

Fairtrade has also been described as an organized social movement and market-based

approach that aims to help producers in developing countries obtain better trading

conditions and promoting sustainability while advocating the payment of a higher

price to producers as well as promoting social and environmental standards.

The best known certification standard used today in West Africa in the fruit and

vegetable sector is that of the Fair-trade Labelling Organisation (FLO). Sales of FLO

certified goods are increasing, though it is considered by some observers as a market

that cannot grow indefinitely because of the system of calculated minimum prices that

sometimes means consumers having to pay more than non-Fairtrade certified goods.

Because of the difficulty of marketing Fairtrade goods the volume of FLO certified

goods certified produced is greater than the amount actually sold as Fair-trade, which

is an issue that producers should be aware of. The key factor differentiating FLO from

other standards is the calculated minimum price for each product, and the fair trade

premium that goes back to the communities of FLO certified farms for community

development.

The Institut für Marktökologie (IMO) has a standard called Social and Fair which is

also a fair-trade/social performance standard (this is included in the directory at the

end of this section). There are some IMO certified farms in West Africa.

The Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI) is a multi-sector initiative that includes some food

companies exporting from Africa focused on social welfare, labour standards health

and safety etc. There are many food companies in Africa that are ETI members.

However ETI is normally not used as a farm level standard. ETI is a membership

organization that does not give certificates against a fixed standard but is about

transparency, reporting and improvement of performance.

Many mainstream voluntary certification codes increasingly include criteria on social

issues, labour practice and health and safety in the workplace. GlobalGAP has

recently (2010) created GRASP (GlobalGAP Risk Assessment on Social Practice).

This is a voluntary module provided by GlobalGAP, consisting of 11 control points

and compliance criteria. Its purpose is to raise awareness of social issues in

agriculture and to provide practical guidance on what a producer can do to promote

good social practices in their operations. GRASP was defined with a group of

stakeholders including GIZ (www.globalgap.org/cms/upload/The_Standard/GRASP).

135

Organic, bio or biological certification

Organic (Bio or Biological) agriculture is enshrined in a range of standards and is

reasonably widespread in West Africa. The main principle of organic agriculture is

the production of crops and livestock from a balanced and fertile soil. Organic

organizations led by the International Federation of International Agricultural

Movements (IFOAM); have a set of principals and rules on acceptable practices for

organic agriculture. The main element of these is that most synthetic chemicals for

weed and pest control are not allowed; as well as banning most manufactured

chemical or mineral fertilizers. However, some chemical inputs are allowed in some

circumstances, so it is important for farmers and businesses to check the rules to know

what inputs are allowed and what practices should be followed.

Many farmers assume that organic farming is the same as zero-input, this is not the

case. However, some farms that do not use inputs are sometimes considered „organic

by default‟. This is often the case with small-farms in African countryside. A feature

of zero external input systems from which crops are removed year after year is slow

soil depletion and degradation; unless soil fertility is reinstated through very long

fallow periods. Fruit processing businesses should be cautious about certification of

farm in this category as „organic by default‟ may mask underlying problems of

building soil fertility. Farms and businesses should understand that farming by

organic principles normally needs better agronomy, and often higher costs than a non-

organic system; usually this is compensated for by higher product prices. Key

management issues are maintaining soil nutrient levels and replacement of nutrients

exported from a farm. The processor should look at how factory waste can be returned

to farms as a soil amendment if there is an intention to process and sell organic

certified products. Another major problem area for organic farming is controlling

pests and disease with minimal use of pesticides.

Types of organic standards

International inspection and certification organisations are accredited to carry out

inspections to check compliance with various officially recognized organic farming

codes, for example:

EU regulation 2092/91 (based on the European quality standard EN 45011).

Also relevant are amendments and updates to this EU 834/2007, 889/2008.

National Organic Program (NOP) of the United States Department of

Agriculture

Japanese Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) organic

notification regulations.

Bio-Suisse is the organization representing the federation of Swiss organic

farmers. Most organic products exported to Switzerland should be Bio-Suisse

certified or certified under organic codes considered in line with Article 1 of

the Swiss Ordinance on Organic Farming of, 22 September 1997.

These four standards are the basis for the majority for organic certification for West

Africa. The EU regulation being the most important as all organic products entering

the EU countries must comply with this as a minimum standard if it is to be sold

under an organic label.

136

However, many organic certification organisations use the EU code as a baseline

minimum standard, but then add their own interpretation and additional conditions

according to their perceptions of what is „fully organic‟. The result is that some

organic organization certification is more stringent, this can be useful if selling into

markets that demand organic from a specific branded code. A company thinking of

getting organic certification is advised to talk to other farmers, processors and traders

before deciding which certification organization to choose.

Main points of attention during organic inspections

Farm(s):

- History of fields where organic products are grown.

- Pest, disease and weed control methods, practices and inputs.

- Fertilization, soil conditioning and manuring; methods, practices and inputs.

- Organic and non-organic products needs to be separated; so, for example, a fruit

juice factory needs to have a management system so that batches of organic fruit

are not processed at the same time as non-organic, and organic has separate

labelling, and is not mixed up with non-organic in storage.

- Origin of seed and planting material.

- Identification and traceability of products through the production chain.

- Yield estimates.

- Types of livestock housing (if the farm has livestock)

- Livestock management practices (housing/feeding/disease prevention, veterinary

treatment).

- Origin of animals

- Bookkeeping and administration system

- Current or anticipated use of labelling of any type on products

Additional information required for group certification:

- Organization and set up of the internal control system (ICS).

- Quality manual, documentation and records (farmer lists, maps etc) of the ICS.

- Inspection practice, documentation and records of inspection by the ICS.

Information for processing plant(s):

- Origin of organic raw materials.

- Recipe used to manufacture products with organic raw materials.

- Separation of organic and non-organic products (during reception, processing and

storage).

- Batch labelling practices and traceability system of organic and non-organic raw

materials in the processing factory.

- Cleaning procedures in the processing plant.

- Transportation practices into and out of the processing unit.

- Administration and bookkeeping (comparison of purchase and sales).

- Current or anticipated use of labelling of any type on products

Additional inspection programs

One certification body may be able to carry out more than one certification. This

means that if a farm and/or factory wants to use a certification organization that has a

standard consistent with EU regulations (to sell into the EU) and it also wants to sell

137

into the Swiss market, then it might be able to get both EU compliant and Bio-Suisse

certification done at the same time and for a smaller fee than doing both separately.

During an inspectors visit the following types of action may take place:

- interview with the people responsible for production/processing;

- inspection of fields, premises, processing equipment, storage areas, etc.;

- inspection of paperwork; bookkeeping, weighing tags, labels etc.;

- samples taken of inputs, raw materials, or finished products (e.g. for pesticide

residue analysis).

Voluntary sustainability standards (e.g. Rainforest Alliance)

For a number of commodities such as coffee, cocoa, fish, timber there are various

voluntary standards in existence; such as those of Utz Kappeh, Utz Cocoa, Marine

Stewardship Council, and Forest Stewardship Council. These have come into

existence through dialogue between many stakeholders, including major businesses

and other organisations such as labour organisations, international environmental

NGOs governments etc. These dialogues are often in the form of „international

roundtables‟. One such is the Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), which has

resulted in an international standard for the palm oil industry, which is undergoing a

national interpretation as well as field testing for the first time in West Africa in

Ghana in 2010 and 2011.

In the fruit sector in West Africa there are no fruit specific standards (yet). One

sustainability standard that is currently in use in West Africa on fruit farms is the

Rainforest Alliance standard on Chiquita farms. Rainforest Alliance now covers many

commodities but started out with Bananas.

Origins of Rainforest Alliance Certification

It is an initiative by the US-based Rainforest Alliance and the Chiquita Brands

International. It is dedicated to 'the conservation of tropical forests for the benefit of

the global community'. In the late 1980s there were concerns over environmental and

social impacts of banana plantations in Costa Rica. In 1992, the Rainforest Alliance,

the local Foundation Ambio, and Chiquita agreed to work together in the Better

Banana Project (BBP). The scheme has become a major eco-labelling initiative,

certifying coffee, cocoa, citrus fruits and bananas. More than 160 banana farms were

certified by the Better Banana scheme, covering 120,000 acres in Ecuador, Colombia,

Panama, Guatemala, Honduras and Costa Rica. In West Africa Rainforest Alliance

certification is mainly used for cocoa, as well as for some pineapple and banana.

138

Annex 1 Directory of certification standards

This section has additional information on seven of the certification standards

discussed here. Undoubtedly there are some standards that exist in the fruit and

vegetable sector in West Africa that we have not covered, however, our aim is to

show examples of a range of different standards, including those that are currently

most important.

As far as possible the information given in the tables below has been taken only from

current documents and websites (in 2010/11) of the certification standard

organizations themselves.

Name Fair Trade Labelling Organizations International

Logo

Mission, goals,

aims or

objectives

FLO‟s mission is to connect disadvantaged producers and consumers

and to promote fairer trading conditions. It also aims to empower

producers to combat poverty, strengthen their positions, and take more

control over their lives. Type of

organization An alliance of 24 Fairtrade labelling and marketing organizations,

including 19 independent Fairtrade labelling organizations (in Europe,

North America, Japan, Australia and New Zealand). Another five

partners (Producer Networks and Associate Members) are in Czech

Republic, Mexico and South Africa. Independent NGO Scope For producers, FLO has a system for setting a minimum price for each

product which aims to cover the costs of sustainable production. An

additional Fairtrade Premium, advance credit, longer-term trade

relationships, and decent working conditions for hired labour are also

part of the scope of Fairtrade. Fairtrade rewards and encourages farming

and production practices that are environmentally sustainable. Product or sector A range of food products produced in developing countries, on

smallholder cooperatives or commercial farms. Tea, wine, sugar, sports-

balls, rice, spices and herbs, juices, honey, flowers, fresh fruit, coffee,

cotton, bananas, cocoa, some composite products made from more than

one ingredient. Traders, processors, manufacturers have to be registered

and certificated against FLO trade standards. Label Yes

Manager, Secretariat

Fair Trade Labelling Organization (FLO) in Bonn; which is a non-profit

organisation.

Certification All certification is by the FLO Cert Ltd

Contact Details

and URL FLO Bonner Talweg 177 53129 Bonn, Germany Tel: +49 228 949230

Fax: +49 228 2421713 URL: www.fairtrade.net

139

Name GlobalGAP.

Logo

Mission, goals,

aims or

objectives

The aim of GlobalGAP (formerly called EUREPGAP) is to establish one

globally accepted food safety standard for retailers for Good Agricultural

Practice (G.A.P.), with different product applications capable of fitting

to the whole of global agriculture. The GLOBALGAP standard is

designed to reassure consumers about how food is produced on the farm. Type of

organization and

governance

GlobalGAP is a voluntary private-sector membership organization.

Members include retail and food service members, producers/suppliers,

and associate members from the input and service side of agriculture. Scope Agriculture, aquaculture and livestock production. Environmental

impacts of farming operations, reducing the use of chemical inputs, and

ensuring a responsible approach to worker health and safety as well as

animal welfare. Seven categories all of which are farm based: Site

history and site management; Workers health, safety and welfare; Waste

and pollution management; Recycling and re-use; Environment and

conservation; Complaints; Traceability. GlobalGAP Option Two is a

version of the standard for group certification of small farmers and

farmer cooperatives or associations. Product or sector There is a base assurance standard with modules that cover crop

production, aquaculture and livestock. Then there are further modules

under crops for fruit and vegetables, combinable crops, green coffee, tea,

flowers and ornamentals, others; under livestock for cattle and sheep,

calf and young beef, dairy, pigs, poultry/turkey, other; under aquaculture

for salmonids, shrimp, pangasius, tilapia, other. Label No. GlobalGAP is a business-to-business label and not directly visible to

consumers Manager, secretariat

GlobalGAP is managed by FoodPLUS GmbH, a non-profit industry

owned and governed organization, legally representing the

GLOBALGAP Secretariat, Type of

verification Third party

Contact Details

and URL GLOBALGAP Secretariat c/o FoodPLUS GmbH, P.O. Box 19 02 09

50499 Cologne Germany Tel.:+49 (0) 221 57 993-25 Fax: +49 (0) 221

57 993-89 URL: http://www.globalgap.org

140

Name IMO Social & Fair Trade

Logo

Mission, goals,

aims or

objectives

The aim of the Fair for Life Social & Fair Trade certification includes all

social standards, but focuses additionally on trade relations. "Fair Trade"

means long-term and trustful cooperation between partners, transparent

price setting, open negotiations, and prices that allow for social

development of the concerned communities. The Social and Fair Trade certification programme was developed in

response to consumer requests concerning the lack of breadth,

applicability to a wide range of production situations, and trade relations

and accessibility of other fair trade and social certification standards. Type of

organization The programme was developed and is owned by the Bio-Foundation

(Bio-Stiftung), a Swiss non-profit foundation. The company's objectives

are environmentally sound agriculture, sustainable production systems,

and an eco-friendly consumerism in all countries. Scope Basic rights for all workers; Working/ labour conditions; Environmental

aspects. The programme is based on existing baseline standards such as

ILO conventions and FLO standards, but also comprises the recent

recommendations on social standards from the ISEAL SASA project.

This standard does not include fixed minimum prices or fixed fair trade

premiums. Product or sector Applicable to all kinds of products, food and non-food.

Label Yes

Manager,

secretariat Institut für Marktökologie

Type of

verification Third party certification businesses.

Contact Details

and URL Institut für Marktökologie (IMO) Weststrasse 51 CH-8570 Weinfelden –

Switzerland Tel: +41-(0)71 626 0 626 Fax: 41-(0)71 626 0 623 Email:

imo@imo.ch; http://www.fairforlife.net

141

Logo

PAS 2050

Mission, goals,

aims or

objectives

A „carbon footprinting‟ standard. The objective of the PAS2050 method

is measuring embodied greenhouse gas emissions This enables

organizations to measure the climate change-related impacts of their

goods and services against a standard methodology, and then to use the

information to improve the climate change-related performance. Type of

organization BSI is a commercially run, self-funding, non-profit company. The Carbon Trust is a not-for-profit company set up by the UK

Government with the mission to accelerate the move to a low carbon

economy.

Scope Life-cycle green house gasses for any goods or services. Calculated as

CO2e (Carbon dioxide equivalent).

Product or sector All sectors, but PAS2050 has been used a lot in the food sector.

Label The Carbon Trust has a Carbon Reduction Label that can be use on

products to communicate their commitment to carbon reduction. This

label is issued when Carbon Trust has verified a PAS2050 standard

certification. The number inside the label represents the PAS2050

estimate for CO2e emissions per unit of product.

Manager,

secretariat BSI British Standards, London.

Type of

verification This is a publically available standard anyone can use or certify against,

according to their own system of accountability and professionalism.

The Carbon Trust is the only organisation currently offering a

verification service, a certificate and a label. Contact Details

and URL

British Standards International: www.bsigroup.com, 389 Chiswick High Road,

London. The Carbon Trust: www.carbontrust.co.uk 5 New Street Squares,

London.

142

Name Rainforest Alliance (RA) Certified and the Sustainable Agricultural

Network (SAN) Logo

Mission, goals,

aims or

objectives

The Rainforest Alliance works to conserve biodiversity and ensure

sustainable livelihoods by transforming land-use practices, business

practices and consumer behaviour. The SAN seeks to transform the environmental and social conditions of

tropical agriculture through the implementation of sustainable farming

practices. Type of

organization and

governance

The RA is a non-profit organization governed by a board of directors.

The Rainforest Alliance's agriculture program supports the international

secretariat of the Sustainable Agricultural Network. The SAN is made up of environmental groups in Brazil, Colombia,

Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico,

which promote the social and environmental sustainability of

agricultural activities by developing standards. Scope Certification standards are based on ten principles: Social and

environmental management system; Ecosystem conservation; Wildlife

protection; Water conservation; Fair treatment and good working

conditions for workers; Occupational health and safety; Community

relations; Integrated crop management; Soil management and

conservation; Integrated waste management. Product or sector Certification programmes cover cocoa, coffee, ferns and cut flowers,

tropical fruits, tea, wood and tourism Label Yes

Manager,

secretariat Sustainable Agricultural Network (SAN)

Type of

verification Third party certification organisations.

Contact Details

and URL Rainforest Alliance, 665 Broadway, Suite 500, New York, NY 10012,

USA Tel: (212) 677-1900, Fax. (212) 677-2187 Email: info@ra.org

URL: www.rainforest-alliance.org

143

Name

Tesco Nature‟s Choice (TNC)

Logo

Mission, goals,

aims or

objectives

Tesco‟s Nature's Choice is an Integrated Crop Management System (ICMS)

and is unique to Tesco. Introduced in 1992, it aims to ensure that Tesco‟s

fresh produce comes from growers who use good agricultural practices, and

to operate in an environmentally responsible way with proper regard for the

health and well being of staff. Type of

organization

and

governance

Tesco is a supermarket company. A Technical Advisory Committee was

established to ensure that TNC is independent and up to date. The Advisory

Committee includes members of the Tesco technical team, growers,

independent technical experts and members of the scheme registrar. A

private company called CMi Plc manages the grower registration and

certification process on Tesco‟s behalf. Scope TNC is a code of practice that sets environmental standards and specifies

shape, size, taste, variety and shelf life requirements for products. It is

based on seven principles: (1) rational use of plant protection products; (2)

rational use of fertilisers & organic matter; (3) pollution prevention; (4)

protection of human health; (5) efficient use of energy, water and other

natural resources; (6) recycling and re-use of materials; (7) wildlife and

landscape conservation and improvement. The standard is consistent for

growers all over the world, and it is set out in such a way to encourage

continuous improvement. Growers are encouraged to improve and develop,

moving from bronze standard, through to the elite „Gold Standard‟ growers. Product or

sector It is a fresh produce standard (applies to all fruit, vegetable and salad). It is

currently used for all suppliers of these products to Tesco‟s in the UK. Over

6,000 farms in 41 countries are involved. Label No

Manager,

secretariat Tesco manages the standard while CMI independently manages the register

of independent third party auditors Type of

verification Third party auditors, from approved international certification bodies.

However, Tesco also carries out first party audits of its own on its suppliers

from time to time. Contact

Details and

URL

www.tescofarming.com/tnc.asp

144

Name

European Organic Standard

Logo

Mission goals

aims or

objectives

The objective of the EU Regulation is to lay down detailed rules for the

implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 on organic

production and labelling of organic products with regard to organic

production, labelling and control. The objective is to ensure that there is a

common baseline definition for organic production and products. To

define the Community's organic farming standards and import and

inspection requirements. To ensure simplification and overall coherence

and in particular to establish principles encouraging harmonization of

standards and, where possible, to reduce the level of detail. Type of

organisation and

governance

The defining regulation empowered through treaty with European Union

members and enacted by the European Commission. The regulation

covering organic agriculture is COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No

889/2008 of 5 September 2008. Scope This Regulation (889/2008) lays down specific rules on organic

production, labelling and control in respect of products referred to in Article 1(2) of Regulation (EC) No 834/2007.

Product or

sector All organic production for products traded within the European Union

and labelled as „organic‟. Label Yes; though it is not always used. When an organic standard organisation

has its own label then that may be used instead.. Manager,

secretariat European Commission‟s regulatory Committee

Type of

verification Each EU member state is obliged to set up its own system of controls and

to designate one or more competent authorities to be responsible for this.

Member States designate authorities responsible for the approval and

supervision of such bodies. Inspection is therefore usually through third

party certification bodies that are approved by the various EU member

countries. The regulations demands annual inspections. Contact Details

and URL http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/eu-policy/legislation_en

145

Annex 2: List of supplier for parts and spare parts to construct and

repair the Solar 4 and TOBY dryers.

Engineering:

Peetech Fabrications - Patrick O. A. Agyei – Tel: 024 4671 584 – Madina Ghana

Electrical cabling, fans and distribution boards:

Kuskus Electrical Ventures - Tel: 024 4371 331- Opera Square – Accra Ghana

Temperature and gas control systems:

H.P.E. Industry Ltd – Oussama Chalhoub – Tel: 024 3777 666 – 08 Dadeban Road

Industrial Area Accra Ghana

Piping, fittings, valves etc:

Cool Trading Agency – Kwame Wadie Bamfo – Tel: 024 464 2147 – Kantamanto –

Accra Ghana

Solar panels:

Deng Limited – Chris Munteanu – Tel: 021 257 100 – Alajo (off Nsawam road)

Accra Ghana

Drying trays:

Wire Weaving Industries Ltd – Gayas Toutoungi - Tel: 021 227 822 – 024 4313 124 –

49 Ring Road South Industrial Area Accra Ghana

Juice processing and filling machines:

Cottage Industries Italia Srl – Tatiana Boya – Tel: 021 812 357 – 024 4926 724 – Plot

43 A Spintex Road Accra Ghana

Benji Impex Ltd – Tel: 024 4670 1694 (Accra) – Castle Traffic Light Osu Accra

Ghana - 024 4704 468 (Kumasi)

Aqua-stats and gas control systems:

Tesca Pty ltd - Tel: +2713 752-6864 - e-mail: meikle@tecsa.co.za Unit 22 Christie

Crescent Vintonia Nelspruit South Africa

Pressure control valves:

Kwikot Pty Ltd – Tel: 011 897 4600 - technical.info@kwikot.com - 3 Aberdeen Road

Benoni 1501 South Africa

146

Annex 3: Material list for solar dryer

Description Set Material Construction Usage Dimension

Dryer Base 4 Galvanised 3/4"

Pipe Bend & Bolted 0,74 6.6m

Base Plate 4 Plywood 18mm Bolt on Dryer Base 1 4' x 8'

Protecting Plate 4 Galvanised 1mm

sheet Bolt on Base Plate 1 4' x 8'

Box Frame 4 Galvanised 1mm sheet

Bend & Riveted & Bolt on Base Plate

0,25

Drying Tray

Runners 4

Galvanised 1mm

sheet

Bend & Riveted on Box

Frame 0,09

Drying Tray

Center Support 4

Galvanised 1mm

sheet

Bend & Riveted on

Protecting Plate 0,07

Outlet Support

Bracket 4

Galvanised 1mm

sheet

Bend & Riveted on Box

Frame 0,09

Outlet Insect

Protection 4

Aluminium

Gauze

Fit on Outlet Support

Bracket & Box Frame 1

Outlet Closure 4 Galvanised 1mm

sheet Fit on Protecting Plate 0,11

Dryer Lid Frame 4 Galvanised 1mm

sheet

Mounted with Hinge on

Box Frame 0,17

Air Seal 4 Sponge Rubber Sticked to Dryer Lid Frame 4,00 12mm

Dryer Trays 4 Galvanised Wire Mesh

Cut to Size 0,75

Heat Collector 4 Perspex Waterproof Mounted on

Dryer Lid 1 4' x 8'

Sealant 4 AluTar Strip Waterproofing 1 50mm

Hinge/Connectors 4 Galvanised 1mm

sheet

Bend & Riveted on Box

Frame 0,07

Lid Handle 4 Galvanised 1mm

sheet

Bend & Riveted on Dryer

Lid 0,13

Dryer Lid Stay 4 Galvanised 1mm

sheet

Bend & Riveted on Dryer

Lid and Box Frame 0,11

Stay Rail 4 Galvanised 1mm

sheet

Bend & Riveted on Box

Frame 0,11

Stay Roller 4 Teflon Mounted on Stay 2 OD 30

mm

Hinge Pivot 4 Galvanised 3/4" Pipe

Flattened and Bolted on Box Frame

0,07

Bolts & Nuts 4 Galvanised 30 M6

Washers 4 Galvanised 30 M6

Fan 4 Plastic Mounted in the Back Side

of Box Frame 2 0.2 W

147

Paint 4 Black Mat Inside Dryer 1 1ltr

Primer 4 Galvanised

approved Inside Dryer 1 1ltr

Distribution

Board 1

Galvanised 1mm

Sheet

Bend & Riveted & Bolt on

Stand 1

0.4 x 0.4

x 0.8

Connectors 1 Connector

Blocks 2 15 A

Solar Panel Stand 1 Galvanised 3/4" Pipe

Bend & Bolted 4 H 1.5m

Solar Panel 1 Poly Crystallite 2 12V 30W

Battery 1 Sealed Unit 1 12 V

100Ah

Regulator 1 Sealed Unit Solar Panel, Battery 1

Cabling 1 PVC, Solid

Copper Wire

Battery, Solar Panel,

Regulator Connections 10

3 Core

2.5mm2

Rivets 1 Pop 2 4.5 mm

Heating System 4 Copper Pipe

15mm

Bend, Saddled and riveted

to Base Plate 4

Full

length 6m

Connectors 4 Brass 15mm Fit to Heating System 18 T piece

Connectors 4 Brass 15mm Fit to Heating System 6 Bends

Connectors 4 Brass 15mm Fit to Heating System 4 Straight

connector

Connectors 1 Brass 15mm Fit to single solar and boiler 2 Straight

connector

Connectors 1 Brass 15mm Fit to single solar and boiler 2 Bends

Connection pipes 4 Copper Pipe

15mm Fit to single solar and boiler 1

Full

length 6m

Insulation 1 Plastic pipe Fit to single solar and boiler 2 Rolls red

and blue

Boiler and

expansion tank 1 Biomass fired Heating System 1

Hot water

60ltr

Valves 4 Brass Fit in Heating System

Circuit 1 1/2"

Reflex valves

(non return) 4 Brass

Fit in Heating System

Circuit 1 1/2"

Reflex valves

(non return) 1 Brass Fit in boiler system 1 1 1/4"

Filling and

bleeding valve 1 Brass Fit in boiler system 1 1/2"

Filling expansion

tank 1 Brass

Fit in Heating System

Circuit 1 1/2"

148

Equipment Specifications for Dried Fruit Processing

Equip

ment Material Finishing Construction

Dimensio

ns

Capacit

y

Quan

tity

Crates

Easy

cleaning

food grade

plastic

Smooth

surface with air

openings sides

and bottom

Stackable as per

manufacturer

specifications

As per

manufact

urer

specificat

ions

20 kg

fresh

fruit

level

filling

As needed for fresh and

dried fruit storage, further

ripening storage, picking

and collection including

quantity in circulation.

Example: for 200kg

fresh fruit handling - 42

to 45 units

Pre-

sorting

table

Stainless

steel table

top with

mild steel

legs

Table top -

smooth surface

Mild steel legs

- food grade

coating

Table top - flat 4

side splash board.

Legs - welded angle

iron with no hollow

bodies or cavities

1.0 m x

1.5m

standard

available

N/A 1

Baths

Fibre glass

or metal

domestic

quality

mounted on

a mild steel

frame

Bath -

domestic

quality, smooth

surface. Mild

steel frame -

food grade

coating

Bath - side and

bottom outlet pipes,

loose on top of

frame. Fame -

welded angle iron

with no hollow

bodies or cavities

Standard

- top

level

equal

height to

table top

Standard

as

availabl

e

2

Rotatin

g table

Stainless

steel table

top with

mild steel

legs

Table top -

smooth surface

Mild steel legs

- food grade

coating

Table top conical

with waste-drop in

centre area mounted

on a roller bearing

hub. Legs - welded

angle iron with no

hollow bodies or

cavities

Diameter

2.5m or

standard

available

N/A 1

Peeling

and

cutting

tables

Stainless

steel table

top with

mild steel

legs

Table top -

smooth surface

Mild steel legs

- food grade

coating

Table top - flat with

splash board. Legs -

welded angle iron

with no hollow

bodies or cavities

0.6m x

0.6m or

standard

available

N/A 7

Dryer

trays

product

transfer

tables

Stainless

steel table

top with

mild steel

legs

Table top -

smooth surface

Mild steel legs

- food grade

coating

Table top - flat no

splash board. Legs -

welded angle iron

with no hollow

bodies or cavities

1.1 m x

2.4 m or

standard

available

N/A 2

Dryer &

trolleys As per design

Finishe

d

product

Blendin

g and

sorting

tables

Stainless

steel table

top with

mild steel

legs

Table top - smooth surface Mild steel legs -

food grade coating

Table top - flat no

splash board. Legs -

welded angle iron

with no hollow

bodies or cavities

0.6 m

x

1.5m

stand

ard

avail

able

N

/

A

3

Filler

primary

packagi

ng

As per existing equipment

Seconda

ry

packagi

ng &

labellin

g table

Stainless

steel table

top with

mild steel

legs

Table top - smooth surface Mild steel legs -

food grade coating

Table top - flat no

splash board. Legs -

welded angle iron

with no hollow

bodies or cavities

0.9m

x

1.2m

or

stand

ard

avail

able

N

/

A

1

Hot

water

boiler

As per design

Expansi

on tank As per design

149

Annex 4 Material list for TOBY cabinet dryer

Description Set Material Construction Usage

Dimensi

ons Total

Connecting

piece 1

Galvanised

1mm sheet

Bend & Rivetted &

Bolt on Base Plate 8 4' x 8' 8

Angle iron 1 Mild steel Bolt on connecting

piece Base 4

50mm x

50mm x

2mm

4

Insulation 1 Fibre glass

wool Fill in sides 4 4' x 8' 4

Large radiator 1 Heavy truck or generator

Brass 1 800mm x 800mm

1

Industrial fan 1 Mild steel

powder coated

Mild steel powder

coated 1

2.5m/sec

output 1

Air Seal 3 Sponge Rubber Rivetted to dryer

connector piece frame 1 12mm 3

Outlet Insect

Protection 1

Aluminium

Gauze

Fit on Outlet Support

Bracket & Box Frame 1 1

Galvanised

wire mesh 1 Galvanised

Bend & Rivetted on

Protecting Plate 1 1

Dryer

cubicle 3

Galvanised

1mm sheet

Bend & Rivetted on

Box Frame 5 15

Insulation 3 Fibre glass

wool Fill in sides 4 4' x 8' 12

Angle iron 3 Mild steel Bolt on connecting

piece Base 2

50mm x

50mm x 2mm

6

Swivel

castors 3

Mild steel

powder coated Fit on trolley frame 4

150mm

OD 12

Drying trays 3 Wire mesh Bend and cut to size 22 66

Air Seal 3 Sponge Rubber Rivetted to dryer trolley frame

4 12mm 12

Hinge/Conne

ctors 3

Galvanised

1mm sheet

Bend & Rivetted on

Box Frame 0.25 0.75

150

End piece 1 AluTar Strip Waterproofing 1 50mm 1

Insulation 1

Fibre glass

wool Fill in sides 4 4' x 8' 4

Angle iron 1 Mild steel

Bolt on connecting

piece Base 4

50mm x

50mm x

2mm 4

Hinge/Conne

ctors 1

Galvanised

1mm sheet

Bend & Rivetted on

Box Frame 0.25 0.25

Swivel

castors 1

Mild steel

powder coated Fit on trolley frame 4

150mm

OD 4

Boiler 1 Mild steel Shell rolled 2 6mm 2

Fire plate 1 Mild steel Shell rolled 0.25 4.5mm 0.25

Boiler pipes 1 Seamless Cut to size and bend 15 25mm 15

Cladding 1

Galvanised

1mm sheet

Bend & Rivetted on

Box Frame 3 4' x 8' 3

Valve 2 Brass 1 1/4" Inlet/ Outlet 2 4

Valve 1 Brass 1/2" Filling/drain 2 2

Valve 1 Safety valve 2.2bar 1 1

Valve 1

Check/non-

return 1/2" Inlet/drain 1 1

Valve 4

Check/non-

return 1 1/4" 5

3 Core

2.5mm2 20

Rivets 1 Pop 1 4.5 mm 1

Heating

System 4

Copper Pipe

15mm

Bend, Saddled and

riveted to Base Plate 5

Full

length 20

Connectors 4 Brass 15mm Fit to Heating System 4 16

Bends 4 Brass 15mm Fit to Heating System 4 16

General 1

Galvanised

1mm sheet reinforcements etc. 1 4' x 8' 1

Rivets 1 blind All 500 4.5mm 500

Sealant 1 Silicon grey All 40 40

Ball valve 4 Brass 1/2'

Fit in Heating System

Circuit 1 3/4" 4

151

Annex 5 Standard operating procedures (SOP)

Standard operating procedures for receiving (delivery by supplier or

collection)

REFERENCE: HACCP process for Drying Fruit Page 1

SOP 1: Inspection of truck and inspection verifying correct product is being

offloaded.

1. Receiving Supervisor checks the „Request for purchase order‟ agrees with the

„Purchase order to Supplier‟ submitted by Accounts.

2. Supervisor visually inspects that the correct product is on the truck before

offloading starts.

3. Supervisor records on delivery/collection form that the „Goods Receiving

Note‟ matches the „Purchase order to Supplier‟.

4. QC/QA officer notify the Supplier if any of the ingredients or products are not

acceptable.

5. Supervisor, if required, arranges to return the incorrect ingredients and

arranges for correct replacements.

6. The „Request for purchase order‟, „Purchase order to Supplier‟ and „Delivery

note number‟, if all correct, must be stamped and signed.

7. Supervisor submits all completed forms/books to QA/QC.

Standard operating procedures for receiving & storage

REFERENCE: HACCP process for Drying Fruit

SOP 2: Receiving Supervisor checks the Supplier‟s „Certificate of acceptance‟ is in-

specification and our Quality Control and Quality Assurance standards.

1. Supervisor ensures „Certificate of acceptance‟ (COA) is received from

Supplier.

2. If a COA is not submitted, report to the manager.

3. Supervisor collects QC/QA analysis as soon as possible from QC/QA and a

copy of the results are recorded on Supplier‟s COA.

4. QC/QA officer to notify Supplier that the ingredients are out-of-specification.

5. Supervisor signs off approved ingredients.

6. Received fruit/vegetables are stored at the receiving platform protected from

sun and contaminants.

152

Standard operating procedures for pre - processing and handling of

fruit

REFERENCE: HACCP process for Drying Fruit

SOP 3: Treatment of received fruit in pre – processing fruit handling.

1. After sorting, the fruit should be washed in using a 0.2% soap solution,

hypochlorite 50ppm and water.

2. Add the fruit/vegetables in the bath containing the formulated solution made

up in an appropriately-sized container. Chlorination level: 50 ppm and 0.2%

soap solution.

3. The fruit/vegetables are dipped into the formulated solution for 5 minute

whiles brushing.

4. The fruit/vegetables are taken out of the treatment batch and add in to the

rinsing/treatment bath containing the formulated solution made up in a 210

litre drum. Chlorination level: 50 ppm

5. The fruit/vegetables are placed in crates on the peeling table.

Standard operating procedure for peeling and slicing

REFERENCE: HACCP process for Drying Fruit

SOP 4: Peeling and Slicing.

1. Peeling and slicing table, utensil and containers should be washed in water

using a 0.2% soap solution, hypochlorite 50ppm frequently during the process.

2. Commence peeling and place peeled fruit/vegetable in containers.

3. The containers with the peeled fruit/vegetables are taken to the slicing table.

4. Commence slicing and place the slices in containers.

5. Processing waste must be dropped trough the drop holes in the tables and

collected in a waste container that needs to be emptied regularly.

6. The containers with the fruit/vegetables slices are taken to the drying trays

packing table.

153

Standard operating procedure for packing drying trays and drying

REFERENCE: HACCP process for Drying Fruit

SOP 5: Packing drying trays and drying.

1. Rinse and sterilize the drying trays, protecting gauze and drier using a 0.2% soap solution, hypochlorite 50ppm and water.

2. Check that the protecting gauze is not broken or contaminated with foreign objects.

3. Check that the drier roof is not broken. 4. Check that the solar panel is operating. 5. Check that the blower fan is operating. 6. Check that the air intake on the suction side of the blower fan is not blocked. 7. Check that the drier air outlet is not broken or blocked. 8. Test water content of the dried products at random.

Standard operating procedures packaging/storage and dispatch.

REFERENCE: HACCP process for Drying Fruit

SOP 6: Removing dried product from the drying trays, sorting, packing and label

verification of bags and boxes.

1. Supervisor ensures the dried products are within specifications, moisture content

test, size, browning or other discoloration

2. Different quality grades are stored separately and accordingly marked.

3. The sorted products are stored in a container with closed lid to ensure moisture equilibrium.

4. Ready products must be packed immediately on the FIFO (first in first out) base. 5. Supervisor ensures the labels of bottles, bags, boxes and crates are correct to

specification and placed neatly in the designated position.

6. Bag labels include net volume, production date, and best before date, full name and address of the company and the details of the product.

7. For contract processing/packing bag labels include net volume, production date, and best before date, full name and address of contracted end-user and the details of the product.

8. The bags and boxes must be securely sealed and labels legible and easily seen. 9. After the labels are checked, the Supervisor checks the packing configuration of

stored boxes and easily readable by dispatch staff. 10. If there is a problem with incorrect labels or non-adhering labels, the Supervisor

reports to QC/QA. QC/QA will discuss the matter with the production manager. 11. Supervisor keeps records of batches by completing daily packaging control. 12. Supervisor submits completed form to QC/QA for signing.

154

Standard operating procedures for receiving (delivery by supplier /

collection)

REFERENCE: HACCP process for processing pineapple juice

SOP 1: Inspection of truck and inspection verifying correct product is being

offloaded.

1. Receiving Supervisor checks the „Request for purchase order‟ agrees with the

„Purchase order to Supplier‟ submitted by Accounts.

2. Supervisor visually inspects that the correct product is on the truck before

offloading starts.

3. Supervisor records on delivery/collection form that the „Goods Receiving

Note‟ matches the „Purchase order to Supplier‟.

4. QC/QA officer notify the Supplier if any of the ingredients or products are not

acceptable.

7. Supervisor, if required, arranges to return the incorrect ingredients and

arranges for correct replacements.

8. The „Request for purchase order‟, „Purchase order to Supplier‟ and „Delivery

note number‟, if all correct, must be stamped with self- inking stamp marked

or signed.

9. Supervisor submits all completed forms to QA/QC.

Standard operating procedures for receiving

REFERENCE: HACCP process for processing pineapple juice (page 1)

SOP 2: Receiving Supervisor checks the Supplier‟s „Certificate of acceptance‟ is in-

specification and our QC/Q/A standards.

1. Supervisor ensures „Certificate of acceptance‟ (COA) is received from

Supplier.

2. If a COA is not submitted, report to the CEO.

3. Supervisor collects QC/QA analysis as soon as possible from QC/QA and a

copy of the results are recorded on Supplier‟s COA.

4. QC/QA officer to notify Supplier if the ingredients are out-of-specification.

5. Supervisor signs off approved ingredients.

155

Standard operating procedures for pre - processing and handling of

fruit.

REFERENCE: HACCP process for processing pineapple juice (page 2)

SOP 3: Treatment of received fruit in pre – processing fruit handling.

1. After sorting, the fruit should be washed in using a 0.2% soap solution,

followed by hypochlorite 200ppm and then rinsed with water.

2. Add the fruit in crates to a dip bath containing the formulated solution made

up in a vessel of at least 300 litres. Chlorinated level at: 200 ppm

3. The fruits are dipped into the formulated solution for 5 minutes and brushed.

4. The fruits are taken out of the treatment bath and added to the

rinsing/treatment bath containing the formulated solution made up in the 300

litre bath. Chlorinated level at: 200 ppm

5. The fruits are placed on the conveyer chute to the cutting table.

Standard operating procedure for pulping

REFERENCE: HACCP process for processing pineapple juice. (Page 3)

SOP 4: cutting, crushing, extraction, pre-heating, formulating and pasteurizing.

1. Rinse cutting table, utensils, crusher, squeezer, vessels and pasteurizer which

should be washed in using a 0.2% soap solution, hypochlorite 200ppm, anti

bacterial liquid and hot water.

2. Start-up machine and feed with the contents of one container of cut fruit.

3. Feed fruit at constant rate (avoid jamming of fruit above blades) until the crate

is emptied then start with next crate etc.

4. Check that juice line is connected to inlets and outlets.

5. Check heat treatment temperature to ensure Pasteurization has taken place.

156

Standard operating procedure for filling, capping sealing

REFERENCE: HACCP process for processing pineapple juice. (Page 3)

SOP 5: Filling, Capping Glass Bottles and Sealing Doy-pack.

1. Rinse and sterilize the bottle filler which should be washed in using a 0.2%

soap solution, hypochlorite 200ppm, antibacterial liquid and hot water.

2. Check that juice line is connected to inlets and outlets.

3. Rinse and sterilize the Doy-pack filler and sealer according to operating

manual.

4. Rinse and sterilize capping equipment which should be washed in using a

0.2% soap solution, hypochlorite 200ppm, anti bacterial liquid and hot water.

When dry, a food grade solution must be slightly applied by means of wiping

cloth.

5. Start-up bottle filler making sure that the pasteurizing temperature is 85°C and

cap the bottle as fast as possible.

6. Start-up Doy-pack filler/sealer making sure that the pasteurizing temperature

is greater than 5°C.

7. Test cap in the GO – NO/GO tester.

8. Test sealing by pressing manually.

9. Spot check weight and volume.

Standard operating procedures for packaging/storage and dispatch.

REFERENCE: HACCP process for processing pineapple juice. (Page 3)

SOP 6: Label verification of bags and boxes.

1. Supervisor ensures the labels of bottles, bags, boxes and crates are correct and

placed neatly in the designated position.

2. The boxes must be securely closed and labels legible and easily seen.

3. After the labels are checked, the Supervisor checks the packing configuration

of stored boxes. Labels should be easily readable.

4. If there is a problem with incorrect labels or non-adhering labels, the

Supervisor reports to QC/QA. QC/QA will discuss the matter with the

production manager.

5. Supervisor keeps a record of batch used per batch by completing daily

packaging control.

6. Supervisor submits completed form to QC/QA for signing.

157

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