Grave goods, burial practices and patterns of distribution in the Vagnari cemetery.

BEYOND VAGNARINew themes in the Study of Roman South Italy

Proceedings of a conference held in the School of History, Classics and Archaeology,

University of Edinburgh, 26-28 October 2012

edited by Alastair M. Small

Bari 2014

38

o f f p r i n t

beyond vagnari. new themes in the Study of Roman South Italy - ISbn 978-88-7228-726-2 - © 2014 edipuglia s.r.l. - www.edipuglia.it

LIana Brent and tracy Prowse

GraVe Goods, BUrIaL PractIces and Patterns oF dIstrIBUtIon In tHe VaGnarI ceMetery

this paper is part of a larger project that is concerned with integrating ruralcemetery evidence into the broader study of life, death, burial, and commemorationin the roman world. How can inferences about systems of belief be drawn from gravegoods? do variables such as age and sex affect funerary treatment and deposition? Isburial treatment indicative of social status? within the context of roman burials,funerary objects provide the opportunity to examine cultural practices in response todeath, and the grave goods themselves can be the lenses through which aspects ofidentity and social organization are explored. aspects of funerary practices addressedin this study will be used to investigate patterns of funerary ritual and commemorationin rural southern Italy, and to understand if the treatment of the dead varied accordingto changing social roles throughout the life course. through a quantitative anddemographic analysis of grave goods, this study examines how depositional practicesreflect contemporary attitudes to death and commemoration. By applying thesequestions to the increasingly large skeletal and archaeological sample from theVagnari cemetery, it is possible to integrate rural mortuary archaeology with themesof death and commemoration, and to shape future research questions about ruralfunerals and beliefs in the afterlife, as well as the nature of life on an imperial estate.

The Vagnari Cemetery

words like monumentum, bustum, and titulus, which are traditionally part of anyroman funerary study, are not relevant at Vagnari, where the simple graves differ insuperstructure and materials from the large tombs on the outskirts of towns like thoseat Pompeii, Isola sacra, and rome. there are no epitaphs to throw light on the namesand status of the dead. 1 Instead, this study relies on an integration of archaeological,historical, and anthropological evidence, to better understand rural funerary practices.

1 It has been suggested that the absence of funerary inscriptions in this region was due to the nature


the cemetery is located on the southern part of the site, separated from thesettlement on the northern half of the site by a small ravine (Fig. 1). excavation of thecemetery since 2002 has uncovered an area of approximately 30 m (e-w) × 15 m(n-s) (Fig. 2). surface collection and magnetometry survey of this area of the sitesuggests that the cemetery occupied an irregular polygon of 2100 square meters aswell as a possible second area of 780 square meters to the west. 2 as of the end of the2012 excavation season, 98 burials have been excavated at Vagnari, and although theextent of the cemetery is not fully known, it provides a large sample to which we can

of the working population (i.e., slaves, freedmen, and/or tenants of landowners): P. simelon, La propriétéen Lucanie depuis les Gracques jusqu’à l’avènement des Sévères. Étude épigraphique, Brussels 1996.there are, however, two small fragments of inscriptions, probably funerary, found out of context in thefill of the cistern: a.M. small, Two inscribed marble fragments, in Vagnari, 429-430, and dalton (thisvolume, supra). It is likely, therefore, that there were monumental tombs somewhere on the site.

2 c. small, The Surface Collection, in Vagnari, 53-72 at 56.

LIana Brent and tracy Prowse100

Fig. 1. - Plan of the site, showing the cemetery in the southern part.


apply quantitative analyses regarding questions of demography, health, and mortuarypractices.

Most of the Vagnari burials contained an assemblage of grave goods, includingceramic, glass and bronze vessels, lamps, coins, nails and other items of personaldress, which were either used in the funerary process, intended for use in the afterlife,or were worn by the individual at the time of deposition. 3 Grave goods were placedin the burials along with the deceased in a number of positions: most commonlyoutside the feet or lower legs, between the legs, and by the hands; more rarely by thehead. nearly 91% of the burials contained grave goods, even if only a few fragmentsof pottery; only nine have been found with none. 4 the proportion of grave goods isconsidered to be extremely high for rural Italy, 5 which leads to questions of whetherthere is any correlation between the type of grave and the type or number of artifacts

GraVe Goods, BUrIaL PractIces and Patterns oF dIstrIBUtIon In tHe VaGnarI ceMetery 101

3 Roman Cemetery at Vagnari, 138-149.4 Burials with no grave goods are F40, F49, F68, F106, F221, F224, F225, F229, and F292. no grave

goods are attributed specifically to individuals F137a and F211b, but both were found in burials with twoindividuals.

5 Roman Cemetery at Vagnari, 138.

Fig. 2. - Plan of the cemetery after 2012 excavations.


found within, or whether there are patterns based on demographic variables such asage and sex, and the number or types of grave goods.

Grave Types

Four primary types of graves have been found at Vagnari: alla cappuccina, funnel,soil deposition, and cremation burials. 6 to date, 63 cappuccina burials have beenexcavated; these were covered with terracotta roof tiles (tegulae) set in an inverted V-shape above the body, sometimes with curved imbrex tiles along the ridge, or blocksof conglomerate rock to reinforce the sides. Funnel graves were covered with a rowof flat tegulae with two rounded imbrex tiles arranged vertically to form a funnelabove. eight burials of this type have been excavated. In eleven instances, individualswere interred directly in the ground in a shallow pit burial with no grave structure.only two cremation burials have been found, both in situ cremations in which thepyre (bustum) was erected directly above the grave. one of these, F201, had acappuccina cover on top of the cremation, but for the purposes of this analysis, it hasbeen counted as a cremation burial. Fourteen burials with an unidentifiable gravestructure or in an extremely poor state of preservation have been classified as‘disturbed tile and rock burials’. some of these have been disturbed by a subsequentsecondary deposition, or by modern agricultural activity. 7 this classification isintended to help ensure that artifact quantification represents the numbers of gravegoods found inside sealed instead of disturbed contexts.

Types of Grave Goods

Pottery fragments, if not intact ceramic vessels, were found in nearly every graveat Vagnari. even when no other grave goods were found, pottery sherds or vessels invarious states of completeness were uncovered in 91% of the burials, indicating thatceramic vessels were a normal part of the original funerary assemblage. coins havebeen found in 19 of 98 burials, or slightly less than 20%. ten datable coins (studiedto date) have legends and busts of trajan, Hadrian, antoninus Pius, Faustina I,Faustina II and constantine, providing date ranges from ad 98–335. combined with

6 For further descriptions of grave covers, see Roman Cemetery at Vagnari, 129-132; t.L. Prowse -a.M. small, Excavations in the Roman Cemetery at Vagnari, 2008: Preliminary Report, Fasti online,2009; also see t. Prowse - J.L. Barta - t.e. von Hunnius - a.M. small, Stable isotope and mitochondrialDNA evidence for geographic origins on a Roman estate at Vagnari (Italy), in H. eckardt (ed.), RomanDiasporas,Portsmouth 2010, 175-198.

7 these burials include the following Features: 42a, 96a, 98, 99, 127, 130, 132, 137a, 137b, 292, 295,298, and 300.



ceramic evidence, a period of use during the 2nd and early 3rd centuries ad is assignedto the majority of datable burials in cemetery (n=48) with only two 4th century burialsdiscovered to date. 8 additionally, 37 lamps have been found inside or associated with35 burials; three more were outside grave covers; two burials contained two lamps.Many lamps were preserved intact or could be reconstructed from several pieces;burning around the nozzle on many indicates that they were in use before depositioninto the grave, and were either transferred from the sphere of daily life to a funerarycontext, or were lit as part of the funerary process.

Bronze vessels have been found in six burials (6%), including various forms: aflagon with moulded adornment, a cylindrical canister, and a large, open jar (olla).complete or partial glass vessels have been found in fourteen burials (14%) withmultiple vessels in five of these graves. an iron nail, varying considerably in shape,size, state of preservation, and manner of deposition was found in 43 of 98 burials(44%). In 35 of these it was found inside a ceramic vessel or in immediate associationwith one, which suggests ritual activity or significance for the afterlife. 9 three otherburials contained multiple nails that had probably been used in coffins or funerarybiers.

Items that were worn by the individuals at the time of deposition include rings,earrings, bracelets or necklaces, shoes with hobnails and bone pins. Finger-rings havebeen found in twelve burials (12%), with seven burials containing pairs or multiplebronze rings, and two silver and two gold rings have also been found. Gold wireearrings were encountered in two burials, both of infants. Bracelets or necklaces withglass paste beads occurred in eleven burials, bone pins in nine, and hobnails werefound in twenty-two burials. Finally, a small number of weapons, tools, andagricultural implements were found, including an iron spear-head, a bronze spear-head (probably a ritual object) and four iron bill- and pruning- hooks from adult maleburials; four of these burials contained both bronze vessels and tools or weapons.

Methodology and Quantification

one of the central questions of this research is to determine whether specificpatterns are detectable between grave structure, age and sex of the interred individual,and the types or quantities of grave goods inside the burial. Quantification in such a

8 of the 98 burials excavated, 24 are still to be analyzed for dating and 20 do not contain grave goodsthat can provide a specific date. the burials that have been dated are divided chronologically: 1st-2nd

centuries: 4; 2nd century: 36; 2nd-3rd centuries: 12; 4th century: 2. the two burials with constantiniancoins (F42 and F95) can both be dated to the mid-4th century ad. For the purposes of this paper, theyhave been included in the overall analysis, but it should be noted that they, like the two cremations, areanomalous.

9 For nails as grave goods, see s. alfayé Villa, Nails for the Dead: a Polysemic Account of an AncientFunerary Practice, in r.L. Gordon - F.M. simón (eds), Magical Practice in the Latin West, Leiden /Boston 2010, 427-456.



manner allows for an examination of various factors that may have affected the type,quality, and quantity of grave goods that were placed in individual burials, in orderto better understand which practices may have been important to the people atVagnari. Because of the fragmentary nature of some of the objects, it was not alwayspossible to determine the precise number of grave goods from each burial. tocircumvent inflated estimates due to fragments, overall tallies of grave goodsrepresent conservative reconstructions of the minimum number of grave goods thatcan be identified with certainty in each burial. For example, pottery sherds that werefound scattered throughout the burial may have belonged to multiple vessels, butunless separate vessels could be identified definitively, pottery sherds were treated asone item. Items of personal dress or adornment were included as grave goods, sincethey represent an intentional choice by the commemorators to be placed on the body,such as jewelry, or interred in the burial. when more than one iron nail was found inthe same grave, they have been counted as separate artifacts if they were used asgrave goods, but multiple nails from a coffin, funerary bier, cremation pyre, andgroups of hobnails have been treated as single items. Fragments or items that werefound outside the grave structure, such as lamps, ceramic vessels or metal objects,have not been included in the totals, since they were not necessarily deposited at thetime of burial, and they may reflect post-depositional funerary practices. 10

certain trends in the distribution of artifacts emerge after quantification andexamination of the various factors that may have affected the number of grave goodsper burial. 11 Including material from the 2012 excavation season, the average numberof grave goods for all burials at Vagnari is 4.9, and when each type of grave isexamined, cappuccina burials fall closest to this number with an average of 5.4 gravegoods per burial (table 1). this grave type also contained the widest range of gravegoods, ranging from none (in F40 and F68) to more than 20 (in F213). More gravegoods were present in the eight funnel burials, averaging 8.5 items in each, and thetwo cremation burials contained numbers of grave goods that were above the normfor Vagnari, with an average of 13 items.

the average number of grave goods found in soil burials without grave coverswas lowest of all, amounting to only 1.2 items per burial. this might suggest thatthose responsible had fewer resources for the burial of the deceased, or that theseindividuals did not merit a more elaborate burial and funerary assemblage. In the

10 In addition to ceramic vessels, lamps, glass fragments, and bone pins that have been found outsidegraves, an iron spear-head from F213 was found resting on the grave cover.

11 a chronological analysis reveals that the 40 datable burials from the 1st and 2nd centuries have anaverage of 6.2 grave goods, while the 12 burials from the 2nd and 3rd centuries have an average of 6.6items, which suggests that burial practices remained fairly consistent throughout the main period of thecemetery’s use. the two 4th century burials have a higher average of 8.5 items, but since these twoburials are the only examples of 4th century material, they do not affect the overall results and neither ofthese burials are included in the discussion (below). In contrast, undatable burials were poorly preservedor contained few diagnostic items with an average of only 1.9 items.



additional category of disturbed tile and other burials, there was an average of 2.2grave goods, which, along with the soil burials, was well below the average numberof grave goods at Vagnari. this lower average, however, may be due to the disturbednature of these burials. the higher number of grave goods in cremation and funnelburials, when contrasted with the lower average number of grave goods in cappuccinaand soil burials, suggests that grave type and the number of grave goods were relatedfactors in the funerary process. However, the smaller number of cremation and funnelburials may affect or inflate the average number of grave goods in each category, sothis conclusion must be treated with caution.

table 1. average number of grave goods by grave type.

age and sex of the skeletons were determined using standard osteological methods(see Prowse, this volume). while many of the younger individuals could be agedspecifically, there were a number of adult skeletons whose preservation was too poorfor accurate age assessment. Five skeletons have not yet been studied, and those forwhich age and sex estimates are unavailable have been included as ‘unknown’ (table2). assigning age categories can be challenging for a number of reasons that areconcerned with skeletal preservation and methodological issues associated withdetermining the age of older individuals, but at the forefront is the difference betweenbiological and social age. Varro, cicero, and Pliny mention the various stages of life,based on biological, social and psychological development, as well as numericsymbolism. 12 this study uses the life course divisions of infantia, pueritia,adulescentia, juventus, gravitas, and senectus in order to correlate with the socialcategories of age that romans would have used and that would have likely impactedthe treatment of the dead (see Prowse). 13

the overall pattern is that the average number of grave goods was the lowest forinfants and it increased in relation to age. Infantia (0-6 years) had 3.3 items per burial,and within this category, the eleven infants younger than one year had an average of

12 Varro LL 6.52; cic. De Fin.. 5.15.42; Pliny NH 7.16.69-72.13 t. Prowse, Diet and dental health through the life course in Roman Italy, in s.c. agarwal - B.

Glencross (eds), The Handbook of Social Bioarchaeology, oxford 2011, 410-437 at 411-412.


Type Number of Burials

Number of Grave Goods

Average # of Grave Goods (Standard Deviation in Parentheses)

Cappuccina 63 336 5.4 (4.7) Cremation 2 26 13.0 (7.1) Funnel 8 68 8.5 (3.3.) Soil 11 13 1.2 (0.4) Disturbed 14 31 2.2 (2.4) Total 98 479 4.9

!


2.5 items. Pueritia (7-14 years) had an average of 4.4 items, adulescentia (15-30years) had an average of 6.0, and adults in general over the age of 30 had an averageof 5.6 items. this pattern strongly suggests that age is a factor that influenced thenumber of grave goods deposited in a burial. It may reflect the perspective describedby ancient roman authors that young children were not to be given the same degreeof attention in funerary practices, but there are other possible explanations. 14 a smallernumber of grave goods in the burials of younger individuals may reflect the fact thatadults were buried with artifacts associated with their role in Vagnari society duringlife, whereas younger individuals had not yet achieved or acquired items associatedwith their roles in society. However, infants and young children were more oftenburied with personal items of adornment, like earrings, bracelets, and beads, whichwere likely worn at the time of deposition. of the eleven burials containing braceletsand/or beads, all except two (F93, F220) were individuals under 9 years of age atdeath. oliver suggests that jewelry is most often found in the burials of girls andyoung women. 15 In contrast, bone pins were found almost exclusively in the burialsof males and females 14 years of age and older; only one burial (F210) of a 9 year-old child contained a bone pin. Both of these examples clearly demonstrate thatage-at-death was a determining factor in the types and quantities of grave goodsincluded in the burials. even though infants and children were buried with, onaverage, fewer grave goods than adults, the people who buried them chose to depositpersonal items that probably had some meaning to the deceased or family members,such as gold earrings, beaded necklaces, or a glass amulet, suggesting that the infantsand young children were valued by the commemorators.

table 2. average number of grave goods by age-at-death.

14 see M. carroll, Infant Death and Burial in Roman Italy, Jra, 24 (2011), 99-120 for a critique ofthis theory.

15 a. oliver, Jewelry for the Unmarried, in d.e. Kleiner - s.B. Matheson (eds), I Claudia II. Womenin Roman Art and Society, austin 2000, 115-124.


!Age Category Age Burials Grave

Goods Average per Burial (Standard Deviation in Parentheses)

Infantia 0-6 years 28 91 3.3 (3.1) Pueritia 7-14 years 5 22 4.4 (3.6) Adulescentia 15-29 years 17 102 6.0 (5.2) Juventus 30-49 years 16 95 5.9 (5.4) Gravitas / Senectus

50-69 years/ 70+

1 4 4.0 (N/A)

Unknown / Adult

(18-70+) 26 140 5.5

Total 98 (5 unstudied) 454 4.9 !!


when the funerary assemblages were analyzed by sex (table 3), the averagenumber of grave goods for males at Vagnari was 6.1. the average number of gravegoods for females was 5.4 items, just above the average number of grave goods forthe entire cemetery (4.9). this suggests that there was also a slight gender-based biasin the number of grave goods included in the burials, which may reflect statusdifferences between males and females on this imperial estate. For those adults ofindeterminate sex, the average was 5.3 items. the sex of infants and children cannotbe reliably determined from skeletal remains, so the distribution of grave goodsamong infantia and pueritia based on sex could not be investigated.

table 3. average number of grave goods by sex.

Discussion

Based on this preliminary analysis of the number and types of artifacts foundwithin the burials, certain patterns are evident. the current state of the evidence doesnot yet allow for a discussion of grave goods and change over time. coins, lamps, andbronze or glass vessels were deposited in less than half of the Vagnari burials, yetmany of these graves have well above the average number of grave goods for thesite. coins were found in more-or-less equal numbers among males (six), females(four), and individuals younger than 14 years of age (eight), which suggests thatneither age nor sex determined whether or not a coin was placed in the burial. 16

similarly, it appears that there was no distinction based on age or sex for the inclusionof glass vessels in the funerary assemblage; vessels were found in four male, threefemale, and four infantia or pueritia burials, whereas lamps were distributed nearlyevenly between twelve males, eleven females, and ten individuals in the unsexedinfantia and pueritia categories. Hobnails were associated with twelve males, onlyfive females and no children, suggesting that males were most likely to be buriedwith shoes or sandals that were made with hobnails. Bone pins were found in the

16 For a discussion of coins as grave goods and a critique of their association with charon’s obol, seeRoman Cemetery at Vagnari, 149.


!Sex Burials Grave Goods Average per Burial

(Standard Deviation in Parentheses)

Adult males 27 165 6.1 (5.4) Adult females 23 126 5.4 (4.8) Unknown adults 11 58 5.3 (4.8) Unknown children 32 105 3.3 (3.0) Total 93 (5 unstudied) 454 4.9

!


burials of both males and females, indicating that they were probably used to holdclothing or a burial shroud in place. the presence of bracelets, beads, and bone pinsis also clearly associated with age and the changing social status or role of theindividual throughout the life course.

significantly, bronze vessels were found in only six burials, in which the averagenumber of grave goods was 15.3. If overall quantity or type of item is any indicationof burial status, then these burials were among the wealthiest at Vagnari. Four of thesesix burials were of males, one was of a female, and one was a cremation, so sex couldnot be determined. Four individuals, all of whom were adult males, were found withmultiple bronze rings, as well as bronze vessels, and iron or bronze spear-heads. adultmales at Vagnari tended to have the highest number of grave goods and their burialsalso contained more prestige items, such as the bronze vessels. this differs from otherroman cemeteries, such as Musarna near Viterbo, where the average number of gravegoods for men and women was nearly identical at 2.6 and 2.8 items respectively. 17

those burials with higher numbers of graves goods also tended to have luxuryitems within them, such as rings, glass vessels, and coins. Graves with finger ringshad an average of 10.2 grave goods; in burials with glass vessels, there was an averageof 10.7 grave goods; burials with coins had an average of 9.2; and when a lamp waspresent, there was an average of 7.6 items per burial. Pottery was the most commongrave good found in 91% of the burials, and those without a ceramic vessel or at leastfew pottery fragments were in the minority and were often disturbed. one particularlyinteresting trend was the frequent pairing of lamps with nails placed inside ceramicvessels; lamps were found inside 30 undisturbed burials, of which 26 also containedbent or straight iron nails, suggesting that both lamps and iron nails served a combinedand possibly apotropaic purpose in the burials. 18

this preliminary analysis of the grave goods found in the cemetery at Vagnaridenotes a clear correlation between the number of burials with large assemblages ofgrave goods and those that contained luxury items. the patterns of distribution ofgrave goods within the cemetery reflect the fact that the burials of adult males havehigher numbers of grave goods, luxury items and tools that may be potentialindicators of occupational activities. discrepancies in the types of artifacts, such asspear-heads and agricultural tools in male graves and their overall higher quantitiesof grave goods, may address the differential gender roles on this imperial estate.archaeological evidence for tile production, iron-working, and heavy agriculturalactivity was found elsewhere on the estate at Vagnari, and accordingly, grave goodsmay reflect certain occupational activities and preferential funerary treatment. 19 In

17 É. rebillard, Les offrandes et dépots funéraires: nature, modalités et functions, in É. rebillard(ed.), Musarna 3: La nécropole impériale, École Française de rome, roma 2009, 101-109 at 103.

18 Roman Cemetery at Vagnari, 146.19 For evidence of these activities, see Vagnari chapters VI The Kilns and VII Iron-working at Vagnari.



contrast, items in female graves were related to the funerary process, and no explicitindicators of female occupation have been found to date.

that this type of quantitative analysis supports the idea of patriarchal hierarchy isnot in itself surprising, but it provides a basis for approaching social status in thecemetery in the absence of text, inscriptions, or relief sculpture, which are thetraditional tools for assessing funerary and burial customs. Furthermore, this methodallows us to assess and evaluate the practices in the cemetery on their own terms,without applying predetermined assumptions about social and gendered relations tothis rural population. this research also demonstrated that although children (i.e.,those in the infantia and pueritia categories) had, on average, a lower number of gravegoods in their burials, even the youngest infants were buried with modest funeraryassemblages, and that certain types of grave goods, such as beads and bracelets, werepreferentially placed in the burials of infants and young children. this is in contrastto the often-cited lack of concern by roman parents for the proper burial of younginfants and children.

although issues of skeletal preservation and differential understandings of socialor biological age can affect our reading of these patterns, this study demonstrates thatpatterns of distribution of grave goods can tell us much about attitudes towards deathand the afterlife in a rural community. at the regional level, these trends can help fillin the gap noted by Pearce who states that grave goods in roman burials in southernItaly are scarce compared to central and northern regions of Italy. 20 while individualgraves in the Vagnari cemetery contained an average of 4.9 grave goods, those atMusarna in central Italy had an average of 1.3 items, which signifies considerablevariation between two contemporary sites in roman Italy. 21 the quantitative approachdiscussed here is an important aspect of assessing intra-site social status, especiallywhen burials lack monumental superstructures, and more quantification work isneeded for further comparison of regional patterns. Building on the analyticalquantitative approach employed here, these findings will help to situate burialpractices within their greater social and cultural context, both at Vagnari and beyond.

20 P. Pearce, Burial, identity and migration in the Roman world, in H. eckardt (ed.), RomanDiasporas: Archaeological approaches to mobility and diversity in the Roman Empire, Jra, supp. 78(2010), 78-98 at 83.

21 rebillard, Musarna, 103.


Ulrike Roth, Beyond Vagnari: a small achieve-ment

Alastair M. Small, Introduction

Douwe Yntema, Romanization and south-eastItaly

Edward Herring, “The ties that bind”: ethnic-ity and social cohesion in Hellenistic CentralPuglia

Bice Peruzzi, The (d)evolution of grave good as-semblages in Peucetia in the 3rd century BCE

Saskia T. Roselaar, Economic developments andthe integration of southern Italy in the RomanRepublic

Alastair M. Small, From Silvium to Vagnari:sheep, wool and weaving on the saltus

Carola M. Small, Vagnari and the Basentello Sur-vey. A brief summary

Alastair M. Small, Tile stamps of privati from theBasentello valley field survey

Maureen Carroll, Vagnari 2012: New work in thevicus by the University of Sheffield

Alan Dalton, The excavation of the cistern atVagnari: an update

Liana Brent and Tracy Prowse, Grave goods,burial practices and patterns of distribution inthe Vagnari cemetery

Tracy Prowse, Chrystal Nause and MarissaLedger, Growing up and growing old on an im-perial estate: preliminary palaeopathologicalanalysis of skeletal remains from Vagnari

Myles McCallum and Hans vanderLeest, Re-search at San Felice: the villa on the imperialestate

Philip Kenrick, Domestic pottery at Vagnari: re-gional character and Adriatic connections

Alessandra De Stefano, The presence and cir-culation of lamps at Vagnari and in the valleyof the Basentello 143

Giacomo Disantarosa, Contextualizing the con-

text: amphorae from the site of Vagnari and fromthe Basentello valley

Myles McCallum and Adam Hyatt, A view ofVagnari from across the Basentello: initial re-sults from the BVARP survey, 2012

Maria Luisa Marchi, The landscape of Daunia:Ager Venusinus

Helena Fracchia, Rural agglomerations in theUpper Bradano Valley

Maurizio Gualtieri, The villa at Masseria Cic-cotti in the 3rd century AD

Helga Di Giuseppe, Imperial estates in inlandLucania

Edward Bispham and Susan Kane, The MiddleSangro Valley under the Empire: a productivelandscape?

Darian Marie Totten, Building regional con-nections in Late Antique southern Italy

Marcella Chelotti, The development of imperi-al properties in the Second Augustan Region fromthe 1st to the 3rd century AD

Marcella Chelotti and Alastair M. Small, AP-PENDIX. An updated location map of inscrip-tions relating to imperial slaves and freedmenin Regiones II and III

Nicholas Purcell, ‘No two characters seemmore inconsistent than those of trader andsovereign’ (Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations,V, 2, I). The problem of Roman imperial estates

Pasquale Rosafio, Vagnari, an outline of the im-perial estate

Domenico Vera, Imperial estates in Late Romansouthern Italy: land concentration and rent dis-tribution

Pasquale Favia, The Alta Murgia and the Basen-tello valley between Late Antiquity and the Ear-ly Middle Ages: transformation of the country-side and changes in settlement in inland Cen-tral Apulia

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Grave goods, burial practices and patterns of distribution in the Vagnari cemetery.

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