Goods from the East, 1600-1800 - Trading Eurasia

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataGoods from the East, 1600–1800 : trading Eurasia / [edited by] Maxine Berg (professor of history, Warwick University, UK) ; with Felicia Gottman (research fellow, University of Warwick), Hanna Hodacs (research fellow, University of Warwick), Chris Nierstrasz (postdoctoral fellow, University of Warwick).pages cmSummary: “The imperative of the long-distance seaborne trade of Europeans, from the age of exploration, was to acquire the goods of the exotic East—the silks and porcelains and tea of China, the spices of the spice islands and the textiles of India. Goods from the East focuses on the trade in fine products: how they were made, marketed and distributed between Asia and Europe. This trade was conducted by East India Companies and many private traders, and the first Global Age that resulted deeply affected European consumption and manufacturing. This book provides a full comparative and connective study of Asia’s trade with a range of European countries. Its themes relate closely to issues of fine manufacturing and luxury goods in the current age of globalization. Goods from the East brings together established scholars, such as Jan de Vries, Om Prakash and Josh Gommans, and a new generation of researchers, who together look into the connections between European consumer cultures and Asian trade”— Provided by publisher.ISBN 978–1–137–40393–3 (hardback)1. Asia—Commerce—Europe—History—17th century. 2. Asia—Commerce—Europe—History—18th century. 3. Europe—Commerce—Asia—History—17th century. 4. Europe—Commerce—Asia—History—18th century. 5. Luxuries—Asia—History. 6. Luxuries—Europe—History. 7. Trading companies—Asia—History. 8. Trading companies—Europe—History. I. Berg, Maxine, 1950– HF3752.G66 2015382.09504—dc23 2015001285

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Copyrighted material – 978–1–137–40393–3


v

Contents

List of Figures, Tables and Maps viii

List of Colour Plates xi

Acknowledgments xiii

Notes on Contributors xiv

1 Introduction 1Maxine Berg

2 Understanding Eurasian Trade in the Era of the Trading Companies 7Jan de Vries

Part I Objects of Encounter and Transfers of Knowledge

3 Spirited Transactions. The Morals and Materialities of Trade Contacts between the Dutch, the British and the Malays ( 1596– 1619) 45Romain Bertrand

4 The Indigo Trade of the English East India Company in the Seventeenth Century: Challenges and Opportunities 61Ghulam A. Nadri

5 The Orient and the Dawn of Western Industrialization: Armenian Calico Printers from Constantinople in Marseilles ( 1669– 1686) 77Olivier Raveux

6 Europe– China– Europe: The Transmission of the Craft of Painted Enamel in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 92Xu Xiaodong

7 Patterns of Design in Qing- China and Britain during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 107Dagmar Schäfer

8 ‘The Merest Shadows of a Commodity’: Indian Muslins for European Markets 1750– 1800 119Maxine Berg



vi Contents

Part II Private Trade and Networks

9 The Eurasian Diamond Trade in the Eighteenth Century: A Balanced Model of Complementary Markets 139Tijl Vanneste

10 British Private Trade Networks and Metropolitan Connections in the Eighteenth Century 154Timothy Davies

11 Worlds Apart? Merchants, Mariners, and the Organization of the Private Trade in Chinese Export Wares in Eighteenth- Century Europe 168Meike von Brescius

12 The Dutch and the English East India Companies Trade in Indian Textiles in the Seventeenth and the Eighteenth Century: A Comparative View 183Om Prakash

Part III Consuming East and West

13 Becoming Consumers: Asiatic Goods in Migrant and Native- born Middling Households in Eighteenth- Century Amsterdam 197Anne McCants

14 ‘Exotic’ Goods? Far- Eastern Commodities for the French Market in India in the Eighteenth Century 216Kévin Le Doudic

15 Selling India and China in Eighteenth- Century Paris 229Natacha Coquery

16 Textile Furies – the French State and the Retail and Consumption of Asian Cottons 1686– 1759 244Felicia Gottmann

Part IV A Taste for Tea

17 The Popularization of Tea: East India Companies, Private Traders, Smugglers and the Consumption of Tea in Western Europe, 1700– 1760 263Chris Nierstraz

18 Chests, Tubs and Lots of Tea – the European Market for Chinese Tea and the Swedish East India Company, c. 1730– 1760 277Hanna Hodacs and Leos Müller



Contents vii

19 A North Europe World of Tea: Scotland and the Tea Trade, c. 1690– c.1790 294Andrew Mackillop

20 Arriving to a Set Table: The Integration of Hot Drinks in the Urban Consumer Culture of the Eighteenth- Century Southern Low Countries 309Bruno Blondé and Wouter Ryckbosch

Conclusion The Indian Ocean World

21 For the Home and the Body: Dutch and Indian Ways of Early Modern Consumption 331Jos Gommans

Select Bibliography: Suggested Further Reading 350

Index 355



1

1IntroductionMaxine Berg

Asian goods held a special fascination in European imaginations. Exotic and luxury goods were long associated with sensual oriental origins. Their significance went deep into social structures and cultural men-talities. Adam Smith saw the significance of ‘exotic baubles’ in shifting social structures and undermining the political power of the landed elites. He argued that ‘The discovery of a passage to the East Indies, by the Cape of Good Hope, which happened much about the same time, opened, perhaps, a still more extensive range to foreign commerce than even that of America, notwithstanding the greater distance… Europe, however, has hitherto derived much less advantage from its commerce with the East Indies, than from that with America ’1

Jan de Vries, more recently, has found their power among the factors motivating significant changes in the household behaviour of North Europeans, thus generating an industrious revolution that went on to foster industrialization. How irresistible were these goods, and how long did this last?

By the eighteenth century, the oriental curiosities that found their way into the cabinets of Europe’s early modern and Renaissance elites became the products of a systematic European and Asian trade reach-ing a wide consuming public. A trade conducted by Europe’s monopoly East India Companies and myriad private traders made the difference, and provided a whole new level of interaction. Asian- sourced con-sumer goods designed for European markets were to become seam-lessly embedded into European material cultures. This book brings together leading historians and early- career researchers to offer new insight and fresh materials on the trade in Asian goods and how these affected Europeans. Scholars who have researched colonial and Indian Ocean trade join those working on European consumer cultures and



2 Maxine Berg

industrialization. Established scholars Jan de Vries, Om Prakash and Jos Gommans join a new generation of researchers investigating the con-nections between European consumer cultures and Asian trade.

The fascination of Europe’s monarchs, courts and elites with fabulous wealth, exotic flora and fauna and exquisitely crafted fine luxury goods goes back to the Bronze Age. The opening of sea routes to India and China from the end of the fifteenth century changed the game, and by the beginning of the seventeenth century, Northern Europe had estab-lished its famed East India Companies to ply a regular commerce to India, Southeast Asia and China. The surprise packages that filled the cabinets of curiosities of Europe’s elites were displaced over the course of the eighteenth century by the cargoes, auctions, toy shops, drapers, china shops and pedlars that brought Asian export ware onto the bod-ies and into the cupboards of Europe’s merchants and townspeople. We are only now uncovering how deeply these goods penetrated European social structures, and especially now beyond the core regions of Britain and the Netherlands.

Earlier approaches to European connections to wider world histories focused on issues of colonialism, empire and the slave trade. They recounted the economics of trade flows, commodity chains and the pol-itics of colonial domination. They gathered data and analysed the flows of British exports to India and China, as well as to Africa and North and South America. Historians have debated the extent to which these trade flows both provided large external markets for Britain and Europe, and hindered industrialization in many parts of the world.

Our histories have, however, given far less consideration to the impact of trade with distant continents, especially Asia, on European material cultures. Goods from the East benefits from recent research on the mate-rial culture of the early modern period, from new work on the East India Companies, and from the opportunity provided by a large project, the European Research Council- funded ‘Europe’s Asian Centuries: Trading Eurasia’ to bring these fields together. Goods from the East investigates the trade in products: how they were made, marketed and distributed between Asia and Europe. It addresses the impact of the first Global Age as this affected Europe in terms of its manufacturing and consumption. The questions it raises relate closely to issues of fine manufacturing and luxury goods in the current age of globalization.

A key problem for European economies of the early modern period was how to turn the human desire for superfluous things, for fashion, for exotica, into something that could civilize and improve national economies rather than lead them into moral decline and corruption.



Introduction 3

The whole imperative of the long- distance seaborne trade of Europeans from the age of exploration was to acquire the goods of the exotic East – the silks and porcelains of China, the spices of the Spice Islands and India’s textiles. The encounter of early empires with precious and exotic decorative arts was turned into an intensive and systematically organized trade in high- quality export ware sourced in Asia. This was conducted and lubricated via the East India Companies and associated private trade. This trade, in turn, fostered new industries and consumer practices in Europe, and economic policy commentators and enlight-ened writers were well aware of this. The Abbé Raynal wrote in 1777:

If Saxony and other countries of Europe make up fine China, if Valencia manufactures Pekins superior to those of China; if Switzerland imitates the muslins and worked calicoes of Bengal; if England and France print linens with great elegance; if so many stuffs, formerly unknown in our climates, now employ our best art-ists, are we not indebted to India for all these advantages?2

Yet the connection of European markets with the consumption of Asian luxuries and other commodities was not a given and automatic response to trade. Those markets were built, the impact of the goods was diverse across Europe, and the conditions of trade entailed an integrated European and Asian commerce. Scholars working on several different European countries as well as on India and China give us insight into the differences in the structure and impact of Asian goods as well as into the complexities of interactions among Europeans and Asians engaged in the trade. Recent research on East India Companies has provided a greater depth of understanding of commercial interaction. But, even more significantly, research on individual merchants, on private trade and on the personal and commercial networks formed among traders have drawn us closer to understanding the practicalities of acquiring and distributing distinctive quality- defined goods in the period.3

Goods from the East engages with new historical approaches arising from global history; it develops subject areas grounded in skills and pro-cesses of production as well as material culture, and it demonstrates the new depth of research into diverse markets, quality differences and the development of taste. That depth of research is also frequently at a local level: local sites of production, key events of reception and adaptation. Recent historians have gained access to these through microhistorical perspectives on individuals and families, as well as the local worlds that contemporary travellers and writers recounted and left behind.



4 Maxine Berg

Global history brought into the historical mainstream large- scale comparative histories of China, India and Europe. Debates on the ‘Great Divergence’ made China, then India, the focus of comparison, challeng-ing assumptions of European dynamism and static Asiatic economies bound in traditional cultures. Ken Pomeranz and others gathered argu-ments and data to demonstrate that Europe’s divergence was based on environmental factors, notably a new energy efficiency gained in the use of coal. Trade, in this debate, played no part in ‘divergence’. Europe was compared, but not connected, to Asia. For their part, accounts of trade and colonialism assembled the data of commodity flows and recounted histories of imperial domination. But there has been little sense of the products that were traded, how they were made, then mar-keted and distributed in Asia, en route from Asia, and in Europe.

In the recent decade these objects have been the new focal point in the galleries and exhibitions of the world’s museums, and are the sub-jects of a new attention among historians to material culture, including the skills, design and materials of objects as well as their use, display and symbolism. Recent books convey this new direction: Robert Finlay‘s The Pilgrim Art: Porcelain in World History, Kris Lane‘s The Colour of Paradise. Emeralds in the Age of Gunpowder Empires, and John Styles‘ The Dress of the People: Everyday Fashion in Eighteenth- Century England.4 A new sensi-tivity to the diversities and qualities of things, and cultural issues over their reception, negotiation or refusal are now important to our wider histories. Cross- cultural production and use of objects form an equally important aspect of ‘global connections’. The choice of goods and the development of the taste to display and use them were fundamental to the success of this Asian trade. Many of the chapters of this volume engage in the diversity of goods and their qualities.

Objects, furthermore, provide a method of global history. They pro-vide the opportunity of a different perspective, a different point of view. Detailed accounts using those approaches of method and scale arising from microhistory help us to analyse objects perceived as ‘strange’ or brought from a distance, and thus to raise new questions for the ‘local’ and the ‘global’. Many of the contributors to this volume have the experience of working with museum objects and they have drawn on the distinctive methods and knowledge of objects of museum curators as well as wider histories.

The book commences with an extended chapter by Jan de Vries on the scale and significance of Europe’s Asian trade, and concludes with another extended chapter by Jos Gommans on Dutch and Indian con-sumers. Between these two long chapters, there are 23 short chapters



Introduction 5

grouped in four parts. Each part has a short introduction to the subject area and summaries of the four to six contributions.

The book takes up the following themes:

• The scale and significance of Asian exports• Objects of encounter and transfers of knowledge• Private trade and networks• Consuming east and west• A taste for tea• Luxuries and consumers in early modern Dutch cities and Indian

courts

In an opening chapter on the scale and significance of Asian exports, Jan de Vries discusses the extent to which these goods were luxuries, or goods that reached deep down through European social hierarchies. They were among the goods that prompted the ‘industrious revolu-tion’. The many push and pull factors of declining costs of Eurasian trade, political economy in Asia and rising incomes and urbanization in Europe certainly provide good reasons for a trade boom in Asian export wares. But possibly even more significant were the new information flows brought with the trade in goods: new knowledge of goods, new tastes and preferences, and new commercial information.

Objects of encounter and transfers of knowledge have provided a focal point for recent cultural historians and historians of science and tech-nology. The six chapters of this part follow the early uneasy relationship of trade and diplomacy into the development of Asian technologies and resources adapted to Europe’s markets. They also follow attempts to transfer technologies between Asia and Europe: cases range from indigo and dyes to textiles and metal processing, porcelain enamelling and information transmitted through models and pattern books.

Private trade and networks introduces us to the significant place of pri-vate trade operating in tandem with monopoly companies in conveying not only specialist and luxury goods, but tea, textiles and porcelain at various stages of trade and distribution. Four chapters convey the par-ticipation of Company merchants in private trade, the trade in specialist luxury goods, the part played by the diamond trade and comparison between the Dutch and the English incorporation of private trade.

Consuming East and West shows us the wide European markets for Asian products. Not just elites, but middling- class consumers sought the fashion, civility and status that such goods conveyed. New research in inventories, pauper letters and the records of foundling hospitals



6 Maxine Berg

and orphanages, archaeological sites and criminal records provide a wide social perspective to this trade. This part introduces five studies of Dutch and French smuggling, advertising, retailing and consuming Asian goods, including the consumer cultures of the French community in India.

A taste for tea provides new insight into the tea trade, a pivotal part of East India Company trade. Paradoxically, the tea trade has hitherto been relatively neglected by historians. Over the later seventeenth and early eighteenth century, tea imports increased steadily, amplified by smuggling. So much so that by the 1770s smuggling dominated this trade. In 1783 the legal tea in East India Company warehouses was valued at £5.9 million compared to the £ 7– 8 million smuggled in. The Tea Commutation Act of 1784 reduced the duty from 119 per cent to 12.5 per cent, and the value of legal tea in the warehouses in the course of the following year rose to £16.3 million. Three chapters tell a Northern story of an innovative trade led by the Ostend, Swedish and Danish Companies, the incorporation of a culture of hot drinks into Netherlandish society, and another Northern story of sophisticated smuggling networks that spread tea- drinking through remote parts of Scotland. A taste and trade in high- quality teas were developed, and tea drinking and other Asian goods were domesticated and neutralized within Scottish and other European consumer cultures.

A concluding chapter by Jos Gommans, ‘Luxuries and Consumers in Early Modern Dutch Cities and Indian Courts’, compares the recent histories of consumer culture, including the taste for Asian goods in the Dutch Republic with consumer practices in Indian courts during the period of rapidly expanding Indian Ocean and global trade.

Notes

1. Adam Smith, An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of The Wealth of Nations (1776), ed. A.S. Campbell and A.S. Skinner, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 2 vols., Vol. 1, Book IV, chapter 1, p. 448.

2. Abbé Raynal, The Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies (1776), vol. II, p. 288.

3. See especially Emily Erikson, Between Monopoly and Free Trade: The English East India Company, 1600– 1757 (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).

4. Robert Finlay, The Pilgrim Art. Cultures of Porcelain in World History (Oakland, CA, 2010); Kris Lane, The Colour of Paradise: The Emerald in the Age of Gunpowder Empires (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010); John Styles, The Dress of the People: Everyday Fashion in Eighteenth- century England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007).



355

Index

advertising 231, 234, 236–7, 238, 240, 315

Africa 15 111, 125Agard 230Aitchison, Mr 3–4, 305Albuquerque, Alfonso de 48alcohol 55–6Alembert, Jean Le Rond d’ 236almanacs 230–31Alphen, Maria Van 321amber 147America 1, 2, 16, 122, 282

early modern consumption 331, 333, 334

indigo 66, 71private merchants 33, 34resources 9, 10volume and value of trade 21see also New World

Amsterdam Municipal Orphanage (Burgerweeshuis) 195, 199–203, 205, 207, 209–11, 212, 213–15

characteristics of households 204financial profile 202ownership of exotica 206

Andrinople red 86–7angora wool 88Arachel (or d’Arakel), Arapié d’ 79,

80, 83Arbuthnot, Robert 170areca 342Arfwidson, Christian 286, 286, 288Argenson, Lieutenant général D’

250–51Armenia and Armenians 42, 79, 80

calico printers 77–9, 80, 81, 84–7, 335

Pondicherry 219Turkey red techniques 84–5, 85,

86–8

armaments 22Arnold, Urbano 172Ashkenazic Jews 136, 145, 150Atlantic trade 8, 16, 282, 332–3, 335

transaction costs 32, 33volume and value 20–21

August III 109Auld, Robert 304Austria 32Austro-Hungarian empire 86, 87automata 223, Plate 10

Badajoz, Archbishop of 49Bagge & Company 281, 286, 288Baijin 94–5Baltic trade 21Bangladesh 119Barillon, Monsieur De 251–2Barlaeus, Caspar 53–4basse taille 93Bayly, Christopher 344Beaujour, Baron Felix 87Beaulieu, Augustin de 53Beik, William 254Belgium 261

Antwerp diamonds 136, 139–40, 141, 142, 143, 144, 144–6

forks 318, 318hot drink consumption 310–12,

312, 313, 314–16, 316, 317–23Belle, Tobias van 311–12Bellot, Thomas 43, 107, 108, 109,

110, 111–13, 116Benwick, Earl of 72Benyon, Richard 149Berg, Maxine 1–6, 20, 119–34,

237, 331Bernaert, Louis 320Bernard, Marie 254Berthon & Garnault 146, 147

Page numbers in italics refer to FiguresPage number in bold refer to Tables



356 Index

Bertrand, Romain 42, 45–60Best, Captain Thomas 159–63, 164Beuningen, Gerrit van 45Bickham, Troy 322Biesman, Lambert 48, 49Bing tea 266, 267, 292–3Bin Wong, R. 9Blaauw, Gerrit 273Blondé, Bruno 261, 264, 309–27,

333–4Bohea tea 176, 260, 292–3, 320–21

popularization 263, 266, 267, 268, 268, 269, 269–74

Scottish trade 298, 302, 304SEIC 277, 280, 282–4, 284, 285, 287

Bolton, William 73–4Bombay Company 159–64books 22

patterns 41, 43, 107–17, 124Boone, Charles 157Borneo 139, 147Boudac de Martin 78–9, 80, 81,

84, 86Bourrier 246Bowen, Huw 158, 168–9Braudel, Fernand 342Brazil 136, 139, 141, 145, 147breakfast tea 300, 301Breeckvelt, Jacob 56bribery 178Britain see Great BritainBrook, Timothy 337Bruijn, Jaap R. 168Bruslons, Savary des 236bullion 9, 22–4, 25Burma 185, 218, 222, Plate 9Buzanval, Monsieur de 49

Cahill, James 109calico 42, 63, 122, 126, 130, 335,

Plate 1Armenian printers 77–9, 80, 81,

84–7, 335France 237, 240, 246growth of European market 82,

82–4intra-Asian trade 188, 190, 191private merchants 160

California School 9, 337

Campbell, Colin 170, 178, 278, 286, 287, 300

Campbell, Ilay 304camphor 50Cape of Good Hope route 1, 17, 27,

30, 62, 277development of Eurasian trade 11,

13, 14, 16transaction costs 32, 34volume and value of trade 18, 20,

21, 24–5, 25Caribbean 282Carnegie, George 286, 287Carrick Company 299cassia lignea 158, 160, 161Castiglione, Giuseppe 97Central America 66ceramics 25, 29–30, 117, 261

painted enamel 96, 97, 103–4tableware and teaware 310, 315,

316, 317, 334Ceylon (Sri Lanka) 20, 31, 236

Indian textiles 185, 187, 193Chalmers, W. 287Chambers, J. 287Chambers, William 109Chamillard, Controller General 255champlevé 92–3Chardin, Daniel and Jean 148, 151charity 54–5Charles VI, Emperor 320Chaudhuri, K.N. 63, 266Chen Yuanlong 97–8Chen Zhuanliang 114–15China 2–4, 122–3, 168–80, 196, 320,

337–8ceramics 25cloisonné 92–3copper 221cotton 26development of trade 10–11diamonds 139exports of painted enamel 100–103fans 158, 173, 174food production 26–7French East Indian Company 216goods on sale in France

229–40, 245Indian textiles 191



Index 357

labour costs 12–13lacquerware 230map Plate 9mariners as merchants 169–74,

176, 179–80painted enamel 92–104pattern books 43, 107–17pepper 49, 52, 271Pondicherry 218, 221, 222–3, 226,

Plate 9popularization of tea 263–6, 267,

268, 270–75population growth 19–20, 26porcelain 3, 108, 122–3, 173, 223,

230, 259, 261, 336porcelain patterns 109, 110, 113private merchants 136–7, 157,

158, 168–80public sales 171, 174–9silk 3, 26, 30, 108, 113, 117, 122,

170, 173, Plate 14silver 23sugar 26tea 26, 31, 173–4, 175–6, 189, 222,

230, 238, 259–61tea trade and SEIC 277–89, 292–3techniques introduced from

Europe 93–100tobacco 26trade with Java 49, 50, 52, 55, 57usury 54volume and value of trade 20

chintz 187, 196, 334–5, 336, Plate 12, Plate 13

goods in Amsterdam 206, 207, 209, 212, 213

trade forbidden in France 247–52chocolate 122, 198, 230, 297, 333

hot drinks 312, 312, 313, 318, 319, 323

Christians and Christianity 53, 54, 55, 88

Armenian calico printers 79, 81, 87diamonds 140, 148

cinnamon 20Clerk, John 302Clifford & Sons, George 146, 172, 175Clive, Robert (first Baron Clive) 149cloisonné 92–3, 103

Cloppenburg, Johannes 53Clovan Company 299cloves 186, 264Clunas, Craig 337Coen, Jan Pieterszoon 185–6coffee 27, 28, 28–9, 230, 259, 264, 297

American sourced 122consumption in Low

Countries 309, 311–12, 312, 313, 313–15, 317–19, 321–3

early modern consumption 333, 335–6

goods in Amsterdam 198, 200, 206, 207, 208, 209, 212

production methods 88volume and value of trade 20

Colbert, Jean-Baptiste 79, 81, 86, 216

Colley, Linda 127Congo tea 301, 304

SEIC 282, 283–4, 284, 285, 287, 289, 292–3

Congou tea 266, 267Scottish trade 298, 299, 300, 301,

302, 302, 304Coninck, Isabella de 141, 143, 145consumer mentality 309, 310,

317, 334copper 221, 312, 321, Plate 9

painted enamel 92–3, 96, 101, 103

Coquery, Natacha 196, 229–43coral 88, 157

diamond trade 147, 148, 148–50, 157

Corbet, James 300, 301, 301–2, 303, 304

Cossart et fils & Bouwer, Jean 172cotton 12, 30–31, 34, 123, Plate 1,

Plate 12, Plate 13, Plate 15calico printers 77–9, 80, 81,

84–7, 335China 26early modern consumption

335, 345goods in Amsterdam 206, 207,

209, 210, 212goods on sale in France 236, 240,

244–56



358 Index

cotton – continuedgrowth of European market 82–4,

124–5, 126India 25, 30–31, 61, 124–9, 170,

187–8, 191, 193, 259, 335mariners as merchants 170muslin 119–32patterns of design 111standardization 282Taylor’s report 130–32transfer of technology 42Turkey red 84–8volume and value of trade 20

Cowan, John 298–9Cowan, Robert 157craftsmen from Asia in Europe 77–8Crisp, James 127Crompton, Samuel 129crystals 222, Plate 9cultural capital 195, 198–200Customs 95, 245

duties 6, 45, 160, 177–8, 270Scottish duties 298, 301, 305

Daiheng 99Danish Asiatic Company (DAC) 277Danish East India Company 6, 263–4,

265, 268Daupiné, Mademoiselle 248Davis, Timothy 136, 154–67Decker, Sir Matthew 178de-industrialization debate 126, 131de la Tour, Intendant 249, 251, 254Delftware 206, 207, 209, 211,

212, 336hot drinks 316, 317

demonstration effects 29, 30, 31, 35Denmark 32–3, 128, 277

Sound Tolls 21Desmarets, Controller General Nicholas

252de Vries, Jan 1, 2, 4–5, 7–39, 41,

310, 333analysis of Asian trade 123–5,

130–31d’Hautefort, Marquis 247diamonds 5, 7, 79, 135–6, 139–51,

Plate 7contraband 147, 150

private merchants 149, 157, 158sales markets 143–7silver, jewels and coral 147, 148,

148–50supply channels 140–43types 142, 142, 143–4, 144,

145–6, 150Diderot, Denis 236diplomacy 5, 41, 48Dormer, James 140, 141–2,

143–8, 150drugs 158, 159–63, 170, 342Duncan, James 302Dundas, Henry 304Dutch East India Company see

Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC) (Dutch East India Company)

Dutta, Arindam 122duty see Customs; taxesdyes 5, 41–2

Andrinople red 86–7Turkey red 84–8see also indigo

earthenware 29, 198hot drinks 311, 315–16, 316,

317, 321East India Companies 1–3, 16,

122–3, 124, 198, 333development of Eurasian trade

15–16diamonds 147, 149muslin 125, 127, 129–30, 131popularization of tea 263, 270,

274–5printed calico 82, 82–3, 84, 126private merchants 135–7, 156–61,

163–5, 168, 173–4, 179public sales 174–8report on Dhaka 127–9tea 6, 259transfer of knowledge and

techniques 41–2see also English East India Company

(EIC); Swedish East India Company (SEIC); Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC) (Dutch East India Company)



Index 359

East Indies 1, 48, 236moral trade contacts 54, 56, 57private merchants 154–6, 157,

159–60Ebbers, Johannes 311, 312Elers, David 177Ellia, Dominique 78–9, 80, 81, 83, 86emaile en ronde bosse 93embroidery 43, 237, Plate 6

pattern books 43, 107–8, 109–110, 112, 113–15, 117

enamelling 41, 43, 92–104Engel’s Law 207England 27, 47, 92, 209, 229,

333, 344diamonds 136, 139–40, 141, 141–2,

142, 143–4, 144, 145–6, 149hot drinks 321, 322Indian textiles 191, 192, 193muslin 120, 128, 129–30, 131Pondicherry 219private merchants 32–3, 136,

155–7, 158–63Scottish tea trade 294, 295, 299,

304–5tea 260, 265, 274, 278, 282, 286tea price 321volume and value of trade 21–3, 25

English East India Company (EIC) 15–16, 33, 47, 183–94, 339

average indigo exports 65coffee 27cotton 31, 82diamonds 139, 140, 147, 149Indian textiles 82, 125, 126, 137,

183–94indigo 61–74muslin 127–8Pondicherry 220popularization of tea 263–6, 267,

268, 268–70, 272–5private merchants 33, 135, 154–8,

160–61, 163–5, 168–9, 172, 174public sales 177, 178Scottish tea trade 294–5, 297–300,

304–6silk 30tea 259, 260, 278–9, 282, 286, 320volume and value of trade 22, 23

entrepôts 250–52Erikson, Emily 135Estado da India 48, 62European Research Council 2exotica 1–3, 11–12, 111, 122,

216–27, Plate 9consumers 124, 195–6goods in Amsterdam 199, 205,

206, 214goods on sale in Paris 230, 238Great Divergence 7, 8

famille rose porcelain 43, 99, 101, 103, Plate 5

famille verte porcelain Plate 2fans 158, 173, 174, 222, 279, Plate 8fencai see famille rose porcelainFenwicke, Edward 149Finlay, Robert 4First Navigation Fleet 47, 49–50,

52, 57Flachat, Jean-Claude 87Flacourt, Charles de 221Floris, Peter 47Fontaine, Laurence 247Fontenay, Jean de 94–5Forbonnais, François Véron

Duverger de 253forks 205, 207, 318, 318–19France 3, 6, 29, 42, 195–6, Plate 9

Armenian calico printers 77–9, 80, 81, 84–7, 335

champlevé 92coffee 27diamonds 147forbidden trade in Asian textiles

244–56goods on sale in Paris 229–40invoices 232, 233, 235, 239market for calico 82, 82, 83muslin 127–8painted enamel 92, 93–5, 100patterns off design 107Pondicherry 195–6, 216–27private merchants 32–3, 172silk 245, 252–3, 255, 335Turkey red 84–8volume and value of trade 22

Franco, Solomon 149



360 Index

Frank, Andre Gunder 9–10, 26French East India Company 196,

216–17, 219–20muslin 127–8style 217, 223–6tea 263, 265, 268, 278textiles 190, 244, 246, 247, 248

fripiers 245–6Fryer, John 114Furber, Holden 154, 155Furetière, Antoine 236furniture 229, 230, 238, Plate 9,

Plate 11Pondicherry 218, 222, 223,

224–6

Gabianix, Jean Domenico 93Games, Alison 165Gammon & Chaloner, Messrs.

159–60, 162, 163, 164Gaubil, Antoine 96General Indian Company (GIC)

320–21Gerbillon, Jean-François 94Germany 172, 209–10, 281, 338

development of Eurasian trade 16–17

painted enamel 93, 96patterns of design 107, 109

Gersaint 229–30, 231Ghent 320, 322, 339Glorieux, Guillaume 229goat bezoars 160, 161gold 50, 184, 205, 222, 343,

Plate 9volume and value of trade 24

Gommans, Jos 2, 4, 6, 331–49Gottmann, Felicia 196, 244–58Granchez 229Gravereau, Jean Baptiste 95–6Great Britain 2, 33–4, 45–57,

123, 337average indigo exports 65calico printing 86, 335coffee 28, 28early modern consumption 331,

335, 338indigo 61–74muslin 128, 129–30, 131

pattern books 107–12, 113, 115popularization of tea 269,

270, 272private merchants 108, 135–6,

154–65, 169, 170, 172Scottish tea trade 295, 298, 300,

305–6tea 159–61, 278–9, 286–9tea tax 270, 272see also England; Scotland

Great Divergence 4, 7–11, 12–13, 23, 26, 331, 337–8

calico printing 88Greece and Greeks 85, 86–7Grill, Abraham 286, 288Grill, Anthony 288Grill, Carlos 288Grill, Claes 288Grill, Johannes 288Guinea Linen 185, 186gunpowder empires 4, 11Guyana 29Gywnn, John 112

habitus 195Halfpenny, William 109Hanseatic League 204, 206, 208,

210, 212Hartly, Joseph 287hazard 238, 240He Jiazhang 102He Jinkun 99Hellin, Anthoine 314Henri IV, King 49Heren XVII (Gentlemen XVII)

56, 65Hering, Olga Katsiardi 87Hilaire, Pérez, Liliane 87Hindus 148, 341, 342, 343, 345Hising, Merchant 281Hodacs, Hanna 259–61, 277–93Holford, Robert 161Holterman, Martin 286, 288Hope, Thomas and Adrian 146–7horses 222, Plate 9Houtman, Cornelius de 45, 48–9,

50, 52Houtman, Frederick de 51Huang Ruixing 102



Index 361

Huguenot merchants 140, 146, 148, 197

Huizong, Emperor 113Hu Zhengyan 112Hyson Green 301, 302, 302Hyson-Skin tea 286, 292–3Hyson tea 174, 266, 267, 284, 286,

292–3, 301

immigrants in Amsterdam 197–201, 203, 205, 210–15

characteristics of households 204consumer goods 208possession of exotic goods 212

India 2, 3–6, 183–94, 320calico 42, 81, 83–5, 126, 188comparisons 337–41cotton 25, 30–31, 61, 124–9, 170,

187–8, 191, 193, 259, 335development of trade 10–11diamonds 136, 139–42, 147–8,

148, 149–51early modern consumption 332,

335, 337–41French ban on textiles 244, 246,

252, Plate 15gold 24goods on sale in Paris 229–40indigo 29, 42, 61–74labour costs 12–13, 125luxury imported goods 123muslin 119–32, 188, 191pepper 20Pondicherry 195–6, 216–27,

Plate 9population 26private merchants 155, 156–7,

158–65, 170religion 345Scottish tea trade 298sense of luxury 343–5silk 30, 184, 187–90silver 24, 343Taylor’s report 130–32tea 31, 278textiles 3, 20, 61, 63, 124–5, 126,

137, 183–94, 282, 338textiles in intra-Asian trade 125,

137, 183–90, 193

trading with Portugal 49transfer of knowledge 42, 43, 66–8Waters 159–64ways of consuming 341–5

indigo 5, 29, 61–74, 160, 186average exports 65, 65–6challenges and response 68–71counterfeit 67, 70, 71, 73–4India 29, 42, 61–74market in Britain 71–4prices 63, 64, 66, 67–9, 72smuggling 72transfer of knowledge 41, 42, 61,

66–8, 70, 73–4Indonesia 185, 187, 188, 218industrialization 1–2, 82–4

calico 78–81Turkey red technique 84–8

Industrial Revolution 30, 31, 35, 78, 88, 124

early modern consumption 331, 337

mechanization of textile industry 30–31

industrious revolution 1, 5, 310, 332, 333–4

information/knowledge transfer 5, 41–2, 61, 175–6, 195–6

development of Eurasian trade 14–17, 23, 34–5

indigo 41, 42, 61, 66–8, 70, 73–4letters 158–65muslins 130–31pattern books 107–17Turkey red techniques 84–8

Interpersonal networks 136intra-Asian trade 1, 137, 334,

338–9calico 188, 190, 191Indian textiles 125, 137,

183–90, 193Pondicherry 218–19, 221–3, 226,

Plate 9private merchants 135, 136, 154–7,

164–5tea 273, 275

Iran see Persia (Iran)Ireland 295, 299iron 50



362 Index

Irvine, Charles 170–73, 175, 281, 286, 287, 300

Irvine, John 286, 287Isaac, Eleazar Levy 178Israel, Jonathan 142Italy 81, 86, 107, 122

diamonds 136, 139painted enamel 92, 93, 94, 95

I’tesamuddin, Mirza Sheikh 343ivory 222, Plate 9

Jacobsz, Jan 48jade 104, 112, 117Jameson, John 302Japan 14, 29, 231, 236, 336

intra-Asian trade 137, 184, 185, 187, 190

Pondicherry 216, 218–19, 221–3, 226, Plate 9

Jati, Sunan Gunung 48Java 31, 42, 185–6, 191

coffee 28, 28–9map of Banten 46pepper 49, 52, 57, 186trade contacts 45, 47, 47–9

Jeanneton 249Jeffries, David 143jewels 147, 148, 148–50, 222, 229

see also diamondsjoint-stock trading companies 14–16Jones, Eric 8jute 34

Kangxi, Emperor 93–5, 96–8, 100, 101, 102, 103

Kennedy, Andrew 297Kennis, Jan 314–15Kilian Stumpf 94–5knowledge see information/knowledge

transferKoegler, Ignatius 96König & Company, Henrik 170, 278Koninckx, Christian 171

labour costs 12–13, 125La Bourdonnais, Bertrand-François

Mahé de 150lacquerware 12, 122, 158, 174, 230Lairesse, Gerard de 112

Lane, Kris 4Lang Shining 97Langzhong Hai Wang 97Law de Lauriston, Jean 343, 344Lazare Duvaux 229Ledderose, Lothar 115Le Doudic, Kévin 195, 216–28Leur, J.C. van 57Levant Company 42, 62, 63Levy family 150Liell, Thomas 178lieux privilégiés 250–52, 253Lin Chaokai 102Little, Archibald 302Little, John 301Livingston, Alexander 298Lodewijcksz, Willem 49, 50Lombarden 53, 54Long Hongjian 102Louis XIV 94, 197, 216Low Countries see Belgium;

NetherlandsLu Ziqian 114

Machault, Controller General 247Mackillop, Andrew 260–61, 294–308Mailla, Joseph de 95–6Main, William 301majolica 315, 317, 334Malay peninsula 185, 187, 190Malthusianism 10, 12marchands merciers 245Margoline-Plot, Eugénie 248Marks, Robert 13, 26Marshall, Peter 154Martin, Georges 78–9, 80, 81, 84, 86Martin, Serquis de 78–9, 80, 81, 86Marx, Karl 9Mascarene Islands 216, 217Mauritius 216McCants, Anne 195, 197–215, 310measurement units 50meat 57Medhurst, Sir Walter 114Meilink-Roelofsz, M.A.P. 57Mentz, Søren 155, 156metals and metal processing 5, 22,

41, 183–4, 218Mexico 24, 30



Index 363

Ming dynasty 10, 109, 113, 114, 337painted enamel 92–3, 103

Mintz, Sidney 309–10Moir (or More), James 286, 287,

300, 303Mokyr, Joel 130Moll-Murata, Christine 113moneylenders 53–4Morellet, André 252, 253Moura, Joao 95Mui, Hoh-Cheung 282Mui, Lorna H. 282Muirson, Andrew 303–4Muirson, James 303–4Mull Company 299Müller, Leos 260, 277–93Muslims 48, 50, 53–5, 340–43, 345

misconduct by non-Muslims 55–6muslin 42, 119–20, 120–21,

122–32, 244India 119–32, 188, 191Taylor’s report 130–32

Myanmar 218

Nadri, Ghulam A. 42, 61–76Napoleonic wars 33, 35Nassau, Mauritz van 54Nef, John 337neoclassical trade theory 16–17Netherlands 2, 4–6, 45–57, 123,

331–46calico 81, 86characteristics of households 204cheese in Pondicherry 218coffee 28, 28–9, 208consumer goods 195, 197–215determinants of consumer

behaviour 205–13diamonds 136, 139–40, 141, 141–2,

142, 143–4, 144, 145–6exotic goods 206, 212financial profile 202forks 318, 318hot drinks 309–12, 312, 313,

314–16, 316, 317–23Indian textiles 184, 185,

189–91, 192indigo 62, 64–5, 65, 66–9intra-Asian trade 23

moneylenders 53–4painted enamel 92patterns of design 108pepper 7popularization of tea 264–5,

269–71, 272–4porcelain in Amsterdam 198, 200,

206, 207, 208, 209–10, 212, 213Portuguese intermediaries 42,

48–9, 52private merchants 32, 33, 172public sales 175rituals of trade contacts 45, 47–8Scottish tea trade 295, 297, 298,

300, 303, 305smuggling 6tax on tea 269–70tea 6, 208, 259, 261tea and SEIC 277, 278, 281, 289trading with India 337–41trading with Japan 14, 219volume and value of trade

21–3, 25New Company 73New Institutional Economics 340newspapers 230–31New Trade Theory 17New World 9, 10, 31, 33, 35

indigo 29, 66volume and value of trade 18, 19,

20–22, 24see also America

Nian Xiyao 97, 99Niclas, Madame 254Nierstrasz, Chris 259–60, 263–76,

278, 320novelties 12, 15, 223, 225, 240

private merchants 173, 174Nunes, Jacob and Abraham 148nutmeg 50

Oldknow, Samuel 129–30Oostende Trading Company see

Ostend Companyopium 16, 55, 111, 187opoponax 158, 160, 162, 163Orleans, Duc d’ 247Orme, Robert 119, 126O’Rourke, Kevin 13, 264



364 Index

Orry, Controller General 249–52, 254, 255

Ostend Company 6, 32, 170, 172, 311popularization of tea 263–4,

265, 268tea 259, 260, 261, 278, 281, 319–21tea and SEIC 281, 287, 288

ostrich feathers 148, 158Ottoman Empire 27, 78, 79, 80, 81,

83, 84Oxwick, Mr 72

painted enamel 92–104, Plate 3, Plate 4

imitation Plate 2painting manuals 109, 111, 112,

115–16Paiva, Moses Pereira de 149Pallas, Peter Simon 85Pan Chun 101–2Panjan, Quillin 48Parkinson, Robert 286, 287Parthasarathi, Prasannan 10, 24, 131Paton, Mr 304pattern books 41, 43, 107–17, 124

embroidery 107–10, 112, 113–15, 117, Plate 6

patterns for Chinese ware 172–3payment means in Java 50–51pearls 147, 148, 158Pedrini, Teodorico 95Pee, Christian de 114Peers, Charles 102–3Pekoe tea 266, 267, 284, 286, 292–3pepper 7, 12, 20, 51, 63, 124, 189

China 49, 52, 271Java 49, 52, 57, 186popularization of tea 264, 271,

273, 275price 49, 57private merchants 160Scottish tea trade 298volume and value of trade 20

Persia (Iran) 30, 50–51, 69, 83–5, 92, 344

Armenian calico printers 79, 81, 83, 85, 85

carpets 335Indian textiles 185, 188, 191

transfer of knowledge 42, 43Peru 24pewter 311, 317, 319, 321Pfister, Ulrich 16–17Philip II of Spain 49Philippines 222, Plate 9Pitt the Younger, William 131Pointon, Marcia 150Poirier & Daguerre 229Pombal, Marquis of 141Pomeranz, Kenneth 4, 9–10, 13,

23, 26–7Pompadour, Madame de 247, 255Pondicherry market 195–6, 216–27,

Plate 9distribution channels 220

population 8, 12, 18–20, 25, 26porcelain 5, 12, 29–30, 279,

320, 336China 3, 108, 122–3, 173, 223,

230, 259, 261, 336early modern consumption 333,

334, 336famille rose 43, 99, 101, 103,

Plate 5famille verte Plate 2goods in Amsterdam 198, 200,

206, 207, 208, 209–10, 212, 213goods on sale in Paris 230, 234,

237, 238, 240painted enamel 97, 99–101, 103,

Plate 2, Plate 5patterns 109, 110, 113Pondicherry 218, 222–3, Plate 9teaware 311, 314–16, 316, 317,

321–2, 336transfer of techniques 41, 43

Porto Novo Affair 288Portugal 17, 23, 48–50, 219

diamonds 139–41, 141, 142, 143–4, 144, 145–6

indigo 62, 64intermediaries in trade 42, 48–9, 52volume and value of trade 24

Prakash, Om 2, 137, 183–94Price, Joseph 331Prins Carl 279, 280, 286, 292–3

sale of cargo 286summary of cargo 285



Index 365

private merchants 1, 3, 5, 32–5, 135–7, 198

China 136–7, 157, 158, 168–80cotton 126development of Eurasian trade

15–16diamonds 149, 157, 158Great Britain 108, 135–6, 154–65,

169, 170, 172indigo 62, 68, 71–4luxury goods 123mariners 169–74, 176, 179–80metropolitan connections 156–9muslin 127–8permitted cargoes 158, 160Pondicherry 217, 219–21popularization of tea 264,

270–72, 275public sales 171, 172, 173, 174–9reputation 162–4tea 280trade contact with Malays 45trade networks 154–65transfer of knowledge 41–2Waters 159–64

public sales 216, 279–82private merchants 171, 172, 173,

174–9tea 175–6, 277, 279–82, 285,

285–8, 292–3

Qianlong, Emperor 99–100, 102, 103Qing dynasty 10, 26, 43,

107–17, 336painted enamel 92–3, 96–99,

101, 103

Raveux, Olivier 42, 77–91Raynal, Abbé 3recognition fee 271Réunion 216Réveillon 237Reynst, Gerard 56rice 50, 57, Plate 9

Pondicherry 218, 222Riello, Giorgio 31, 124–5, 131Ripa, Matteo 95, 96–7rituals of trade transactions 45,

47–8

Rodrigues, Salvador 148Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent 9Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 252Rousset, Etienne 95Roy, Tirthankar 126Royal Navy 33Roze, Jean 225Ruan Jiayou 102Ruan Yuan 112Russell, Andrew 297Russia 92, 147Ryckbosch, Wouter 261, 264,

309–27, 333–4

Sahlgren, Niklas 178, 278, 286, 286, 288

Saint Domingue 27–9Salindre, Pierre 86Salmasius, Claudius 53–4Salomons family 150salt 253, 255Salvador Snr, Francis 148Salvador, Francis and Joseph 140,

141, 148, 148–50Salvador, Jacob 148Sandberg, David 288sapphires 222, Plate 9Sargentson, Carolyn 229Scavenius, Jacob 128Schäfer, Dagmar 43, 107–18Schouten, Wouter 56Schreuder, Jan 193Scotland 168, 170, 172

map 296tea 6, 260–61, 284, 287, 289,

294–306Scott, James 286, 287, 295, 297Scott, Mr 161Scottish East India Company 294Second Navigation 50, 54Seguine 249Sephardic Jews 136, 140, 141,

150, 197Serra, Phineas 148Seventh Separate Voyage 47Shah, Ahmad 344Shah, Nadir 344Shammas, Carole 310, 316Shoguns 14



366 Index

Siam (Thailand) 47, 51, 185, 218, 222, Plate 9

Signorini, Stefano 96silk 7, 12, 13, 16, 34, 193, 335–6

China 3, 26, 30, 108, 113, 117, 122, 170, 173, Plate 14

France 245, 252–3, 255, 335GIC 320goods in Amsterdam 198, 206,

207, 209, 211, 212, 213goods on sale in Paris 196, 237Indian religion 345intra-Asian trade 184, 187, 188,

189–91patterns of design 113, 117Pondicherry 222private merchants 170, 173SEIC 279volume and value of trade 18

silver 10–11, 22–4 108, 126, 184, 332

diamonds 147, 148, 148–50goods in Amsterdam 205goods on sale in Paris 229India 24, 343payment means in Java 50–51Pondicherry 218private merchants 157tableware 317, 318, 319, 321tea 265, 270–71, 273–5volume and value of trade

22–5, 25Singlo Green tea 301Singlo tea 266, 267, 284, 292–3Sittart, Henry van 149slave trade 21, 22Smith, Adam 1smuggling 6, 157, 172, 177

Asian textiles 245, 250, 253, 254, 255

indigo 72salt 253, 255Scottish tea trade 295, 299–300,

302, 303–4tea 6, 260, 264, 269–75, 278tobacco 253, 255

social connections 136, 169–70, 171–2, 179

Pondicherry 225, 226

private merchants 156, 158–64, 165textile trade in France 247, 248, 249

Solar, Peter 33, 34Sombart, Werner 331Song dynasty 113, 114, 115, 116Song Sanji 97Sood, Gagan 159Souchong tea 173, 266, 267, 284,

285, 292–3, 298Sound Tolls 21Spain 3, 30, 92, 150, 172

trade contacts in Java 49–50volume and value of trade 21, 24

Spice Islands 3, 20, 185, 186, 187, 191spices 3, 7, 12, 64, 124, 189

early modern consumption 333, 342Java 48, 57Portugal 48, 49, 50private merchants 158VOC 15, 270–71

Sri Lanka see Ceylon (Sri Lanka)Stavorinus 119Steencuyl, Joannes 314Ström family 288Stumpf, Kilian 94–5Styles, John 4, 319sugar 34, 50, 122, 303, 333, 342

China 26rapid expansion of consumption

309–10, 312, 313, 322volume and value of trade 20, 21

Sumatra 20, 51, 185, 222, Plate 9supply inelasticities 27–32Surinam 28Sweden 6, 32, 168, 178

Scottish tea trade 300, 303, 304, 305

tea 260, 277–89, 292–3Swedish East India Company

(SEIC) 284popularization of tea 263–4, 265,

268private merchants 168, 170, 171–2,

173–4public sales 178, 279–81Scottish tea trade 295, 299, 300,

302, 304tea 260–61, 277–89, 292–3

Switzerland 3, 335



Index 367

Taiwan 185, 336Talib, Mirza Abu 344Tang Yin 99, 110Tang Zhenji 99Tavernier, Jean-Baptiste 151taxes 124

Armenians 81France and textiles 245, 249–51,

254, 255tea 260, 269–70, 271–2, 274–5,

278, 312Tayda, Pedro da 49Taylor, John 42, 119, 122, 125,

128–9, 130–32tea 5, 6, 34, 259–60, 277–89,

294–306black 173, 260, 263, 265–6, 267,

268, 268, 269, 272, 274–5, 320black in SEIC trade 277, 282–4,

289Ceylon 31China 26, 31, 173–4, 175–6, 189,

222, 230, 238, 259–61China trade and SEIC 277–89,

292–3consumption in Low

Countries 309, 312, 312, 313, 313–15, 317–23

early modern consumption 333, 335–6

fraud 320goods in Amsterdam 198, 200,

206, 207, 208, 209–10, 212, 213goods on sale in Paris 230, 238green 174, 265–6, 267, 268, 282,

284, 320India 31, 278Java 31Pondicherry 222, Plate 9popularization 263–6, 267, 268,

268–75price 264, 265–6, 267, 268–72, 321price in Scottish trade 298–300,

301, 301–2, 302, 304price in SEIC trade 279–80, 282–3private merchants 160, 170, 172,

173–4, 264, 270–72, 275public sales 175–6, 277, 279–82,

285, 285–8, 292–3

quality 12, 279–82, 289, 298–9, 302Scottish trade 6, 260–61, 284, 287,

289, 294–306size of tea chests 277–8, 280smuggling 6, 260, 264,

269–75, 278smuggling Scottish trade 295,

299–300, 302, 303–4standardization 282Swedish strategies 282–5taxes 260, 269–70, 271–2, 274–5,

278, 312volume and value of trade 20

Tea Commutation Act (1784) 6teak wood 222teaware 310–11, 314–16, 316, 317,

321–2, 334, 336technology transfer 122–3

calico printing 78, 81, 84, 88enamelling 92–104Turkey red 84–8

Temple, William 109textiles 5, 25, 29, 63–4, 81,

124–30, 264dyes 41–2early modern consumption 333,

334, 338embroidery pattern books 113French antipathy 244–56goods in Amsterdam 200, 206,

207, 209–11, 213–14goods on sale in Paris 196, 229,

231, 234, 236–7, 240India 3, 20, 61, 63, 124–5, 126,

137, 183–94, 282, 338intra-Asian trade 125, 137, 183–90,

193, 334mechanization of industry 30–31Pondicherry 218, 222, 225, Plate 9private merchants 170, 172quality 12religions in India 345smuggling 245, 250, 253, 254, 255taxes 245, 249–51, 254, 255Taylor’s report 130–32transfer of techniques 41–3types 185–7, 191volume and value of trade 20see also calico; cotton; muslin; silk



368 Index

Thailand see Siam (Thailand)Thirty Years’ War 66, 74Thomas of Aquin 53tin 27, 218, 238

popularization of tea 271, 273, 275tobacco 26, 122, 309, 319, 323,

333, 342Scotland 305smuggling 253, 255volume and value of trade 20–21

tombak 222, Plate 9Tournon, Maillard de 94trade diversion 18, 20transaction costs 13–14, 17, 32–6,

66, 84, 124Trémouville, Marquis of 240Turkey 147, 335Turkey red 42, 84–5, 85, 86–8Turkish baths 88Turner, Nathaniel 149

Udny, George 298United States of America see Americausury 53–4

Valatx, Jean 93value and volume of trade 17–25van Dishoeck, Ewout 335van Merlen, Bernadus 141, 143,

145, 147Vanneste, Tijl 135–6, 139–53, 175van Sittart & Plowman 149Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie

(VOC) (Dutch East India Company) 15–16, 137, 183–94

average indigo exports 65coffee 27, 28, 28diamonds 140early modern consumption 334,

335, 336goods in Amsterdam 207, 208,

209–10, 212immigrant employees 197, 204Indian cotton exports 82indigo 62, 64, 65, 66, 67–71, 74intra-Asian trade 183–9misconduct of crews 55–6morality 54muslin 127–8

patterns of design 109pepper 271, 273popularization of tea 263–5, 268,

269, 269–74private merchants 168, 172, 271Scottish tea trade 297, 299, 304spices 15, 270–71tea 259, 278, 320–21trade contacts 47, 54, 55–6, 57trade with Japan 14volume and value of trade 22, 23

Vigne, La 244, 249, 255Villars, Madame la maréchale de 247volume and value of trade 12, 17–18,

19, 19–25, 57coffee 27, 28, 28–9cotton 30diamonds 142, 147indigo 63, 66pepper 7popularization of tea 273private merchants 157, 169–70rate of growth 31, 33–4tea 283, 284, 285, 298, 300,

302, 304von Brescius, Meike 136, 168–82Vora, Virji 151Voskuil, J.J. 336

Wales 260Walle, Father de 219–20Wallerstein, Immanuel 7–8wallpapers 173, 230, 234, 237Wang Fu 112Wang Gai 112, 116Wang Yingling 115Wang Zuo 92Washbrook, David 125, 131Waters, Charles 159–64, 165Waters, Thomas 160, 161, 162,

163, 164Watson, Ian Bruce 154, 157Watson and Anderson 302,

302, 304weaving and weavers 30, 42, 117

muslin 120, 121, 125–30patterns of design 109, 110, 117

Weber, Max 9Wedgwood, Josiah 29



Index 369

weights and measures 50–52, 57Westerman, Adam 54West Indies 49, 66, 111, 185

coffee 27, 28, 28–9Wilkieson, Thomas 172, 175Willemsens, Maria Theresia 314Williamson, Jeffrey 13, 264wines and spirits 218, 222, 303, 342,

Plate 9woad 29, 61–3, 65woollens 22, 63, 191, 196, 245, 255

angora 88goods in Amsterdam 198,

211, 212wood 221–2, 225, Plate 9World Systems 7, 9Wretts-Smith, Mildred 157Wu Shiqi 97Wylie, Alexander 114

Xu Xiaodong 43, 92–106

Yanglin, Viceroy 98, 101–2Yang Shizhang 102Yemen 27Yi, Prince 97, 98Yogev, Gedalia 139, 143, 147Yongzheng, Emperor 96–103, 110Yuan dynasty 92, 93Yuanmingyuan 97, 98–9, 101Yuanwai Lang Haiwang 97

Zaveri, Shantidas 151Zhang Zi 115Zhang Zilie 111Zhao Hongxie 98Zhong tea 301Zhou Yue 97Zuo Shiyong 98



Goods from the East, 1600-1800 - Trading Eurasia

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