Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains provenance of Permian–Triassic sandstones in the Prince Charles...

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Gondwana Research 14

Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains provenance of Permian–Triassicsandstones in the Prince Charles Mountains and offshore Prydz Bay:

Integrated U–Pb and TDM ages and host-rock affinity from detrital zircons

J.J. Veevers ⁎, A. Saeed

GEMOC ARC National Key Centre, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney NSW 2109, Australia

Received 22 August 2007; received in revised form 29 November 2007; accepted 18 December 2007Available online 31 December 2007

Abstract

Permian–Triassic drainage radiates from the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains (GSM) in central Antarctica. Proximal to the GSM arePermian–Triassic fluvial sandstones in the Prince Charles Mountains (PCM), and neighbouring ?Triassic red beds in Prydz Bay (PB) ODP740A.We analysed detrital zircons for U–Pb ages, Hf-isotope compositions, and trace elements to determine the age, rock-type and source of the hostmagma, and “crustal” model age (TDM

C ).Populations of detrital zircons are (1) 700 to 500 Ma, host magmas granitoid and alkaline rock, TDM

C ranges from 2.5 to 1.1 Ga, and (2) 1200–800 Ma, host magmas mafic granitoid and alkaline rock, TDM

C 2.1 to 1.5 Ga. The bedrock of the PCM-PB region is a potential provenance of thedetrital zircons, but the same populations in Permian siltstone south of the PCM and in sediment inclusions in ice at Lake Vostok indicate that theGSM–Vostok Subglacial Highlands (VSH) are the main provenance. Similar detrital zircons in other sandstones in Gondwanaland downslopefrom a wider central Antarctic reflect an upslope provenance including the GSM–VSH as a complex of 1200–800 Ma (Grenville) and oldercratons with mafic granitoids embedded in 700–500 Ma fold belts with granitoids and alkaline rocks. During the past 1000 Ma, the GSM hasundergone intermittent uplift on a scale resembling that of the present uplands of Central Asia.© 2007 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Detrital zircons; U–Pb ages; Hf-isotopes; Prince Charles Mountains; Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains

1. Introduction

Since their discovery in the 1950s by a Soviet seismicexpedition, the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains (GSM) haveintrigued investigators about their age and composition (Fig. 1).Dalziel (1992) wrote that “they are totally unknown geologi-cally. The drainage basins of this [East Antarctic] ice sheet dateback to the Permian, possibly to the Proterozoic.” Developingthe idea of Permian drainage, Tewari and Veevers (1993),Veevers (1994), and Veevers (2000, p. 126) found that thepresent drainage of East Antarctica, with ice radiating from acentral Dome Argus (DA) draped over the high ground of theGSM, recapitulates the Early Permian scene, including thesouth polar latitude. This idea was tested by an analysis of

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9850 8355; fax: +61 2 9850 8943.E-mail address: [email protected] (J.J. Veevers).

1342-937X/$ - see front matter © 2007 International Association for Gondwana Rdoi:10.1016/j.gr.2007.12.007

detrital zircons from Early Permian sandstones in DronningMaud Land (DML) and conjugate southeastern Africa (Veeversand Saeed, 2007). Developing the idea of Neoproterozoicdrainage, Phillips et al. (2005, 2006) found that an igneous andmetamorphic terrane of 1100–1000 Ma age in the interior of theEast Antarctic Shield was upslope from the southern PrinceCharles Mountains (S PCM) during deposition of theNeoproterozoic Sodruzhestvo Group.

Aerogeophysical surveys have determined the elevation ofthe GSM (Lythe et al., 2001) and the Lambert basin (Jamiesonet al., 2005), and specifically the elevation and magnetic fabricof the area between the S PCM and the northern front of theGSM (McLean et al., 2004) in an extension of the magneticsurveys of Golynsky et al. (2006a,b). Aerogeophysical surveysand drilling through the ice to bedrock in the GSM have beenproposed for the International Polar Year 2007–2008 (Storeyet al., 2005).

esearch. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

mailto:[email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2007.12.007

317J.J. Veevers, A. Saeed / Gondwana Research 14 (2008) 316–342

The geological neighbourhood north of the GSM is nowrelatively well known (Fig. 2), at least in terms of ages, thanksto the geological studies of the PCM (Mikhalsky et al., 2001)and around PB, involving hundreds of U–Pb dates, and thedescription of the lithostratigraphic units in the southern PCM(Phillips et al., 2005) and their U–Pb geochronology involving~1500 detrital zircons (Phillips et al., 2006).

The present review of this large dataset is augmented by aU–Pb and TDM geochronological and host-rock study of severalhundred detrital zircons in the Permian–Triassic Amery Groupin the northern PCM and in ?Triassic sandstone in ODP 740A inPB, a region strategically situated between the upslope GSMand downslope Mahanadi Basin of Gondwana India (Veeversand Saeed, in preparation).

Our work is constrained by these considerations:

1) The GSM were demonstrably high ground, as they aretoday, through the earlier Cenozoic (from drainage throughthe Lambert Glacier into PB), in the Permian and Triassic(from paleoslope measurements in the Amery Group), andin the Neoproterozoic (970–650 Ma) (from paleoslopemeasurements in the Sodruzhestvo lithostratigraphicgroup).

2) Ages of detrital zircons in the downslope (b1000 Ma)lithostratigraphic groups, including the Amery andSodruzhestvo Groups and clasts of Permian siltstone inmoraine at 74°S (Veevers et al., 2008), ~100 km fromthe front of the GSM, are directly attributable to theGSM.

3) Common features of the detrital zircons from other arms ofthe radial fluvial drainage in DML-SE Africa, SE and SWAustralia, the Transantarctic Mountains (TAM), the Ells-worth–Whitmore Mountains block (EWMB), and AntarcticPeninsula define a central Antarctic provenance (CAP) thatincludes the GSM–VSH complex.

Our aim in this work is to test these ideas by analysingdetrital zircons from Permian–Triassic sediments in thePCM-PB region for U–Pb and TDM ages and host-rocktypes, and set these results in the context of Gondwanalandpaleogeography.

The on-line appendix contains a detailed set of methods,supplementary data (Tables A1–A12), and Excel files of theanalyses (Tables A13–A20).

Fig. 1. Early Permian Gondwanaland platform showing only those ice and water flVeevers and Saeed (2007). From Jamieson et al. (2005; Stewart Jamieson, pers. cosurmounted by Dome Argus (DA), and the Vostok Subglacial Highlands (VSH), delinelevation contour; the northern part of the GSM–VSH is within the Lambert drainageflow from the northwest (thin arrow) (Leitchenkov et al., 2007). The other Quaternarythe GSM into the Lambert Glacier (Fig. 2). Detrital zircons aged 700–500Ma and 120Mt Rymill/Mt Maguire (Veevers et al., in press). Also shown are paleoflow in the Caet al., 2002; Goodge et al., 2004), where Middle–Late Cambrian (≤520 Ma) sandst(Goodge et al., 2002). Similar aged populations are found in the Cambrian sedimen(Flowerdew et al., 2006, 2007) and Kanmantoo Group (Veevers, 2000, p. 200), OrdDronning Maud Land (DML) — SE Africa (Veevers and Saeed, 2007), Permian–Trand Perth Basins (Veevers et al., 2005), and the Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone (Vee(Veevers and Saeed, 2007) comes from a proximal provenance, and not from the fo

2. Review of age and type of Precambrian bedrock of thePCM-PB region

The Lambert Glacier (Fig. 2) flows along a rift inPrecambrian rocks that was inaugurated in Permian Gond-wanaland from its head in the ancestral GSM and its tail in theMahanadi rift of India. Fluvial sediments and coal of theGondwana facies were deposited in the system during thePermian and Triassic so that their detrital zircons reflectproximal sources in the PCM and GSM. Breakup ofGondwanaland was associated with Early Cretaceous volca-nics in the onshore Lambert Graben and the depositionoffshore of coal-bearing fluvial sediment in PB and Jurassicand Early Cretaceous non-marine sediment in the MacRo-bertson Shelf (Truswell et al., 1999), immediately west ofPB. Glacigenic sediment was then deposited from the lateEocene. Clasts of glacial diamictons from ODP sites 739,742, and 743 in central PB at ~75°E comprise metamorphicrocks and sedimentary rocks with Permian, Triassic, andJurassic–Cretaceous non-marine palynomorphs and Eocene–Oligocene diatoms (Jenkins and Alibert, 1991). All areappropriate to derivation from PB and the hinterland. Clastsof mylonites and charnockitic gneisses have a potentialprovenance on the coast between the Larsemann Hills and theVestfold Hills.

The drainage is divided on either side of 70°E into a westernpart (MacRobertson Land) with exposures in the PCM and theMawson Escarpment (ME), and an eastern part (PrincessElizabeth Land) with exposures in the Grove Mountains,Munro Kerr Mountains, and on the coast of PB at LandingBluff, the Larsemann Hills, the Rauer Islands, and the VestfoldHills. The Lambert Glacier flows within the Lambert Graben;between 72°S and 74°S it is bounded on the east by theMawson Escarpment, and on the west by the main body of theRuker Terrane. To the south past Komsomolskiy Peak theglacier drains Dome Argus above the GSM, some 500 kmdistant.

The western and eastern sides (Fig. 2) have similar ages but indifferent proportions by area (Fig. 3). In the west (Tables 1–5),ages of 600–500 Ma, 1300–900 Ma and 3200–3000 Ma, allincluding A-type rocks, predominate, younger alkaline rocks(550–500 Ma) are common, and the oldest U–Pb age is3519 Ma. In the east (Tables 6 and 7), ages of 550–500 Ma,including alkaline rocks, predominate, ages of 1000–900 Ma

ow vectors radiating from central Antarctica. The fit of the continents is frommm., 2006), the modern GSM, delineated by the 2 km elevation contour, areeated by the 1 km elevation contour, set in a wider upland limited by the 0.5 km(broken line). Lake Vostok (LV), with the location of the 5G-1 drillhole, has iceice flow (thin arrow) is northward from an ice divide across Dome Argus across0–1000Ma (circles) include those at Lake Vostok (Leitchenkov et al., 2007) andmbrian (double-shafted arrow) in the central Transantarctic Mountains (Myrowones (circles) contain detrital zircons with peak ages at ~1050 Ma and 525 Mat of the Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains block (EWMB) and Welch Mountainsovician turbidite of SE Australia (Veevers, 2000, p. 204), Permian samples ofiassic of the Lambert–Mahanadi, Godavari (Veevers and Saeed, in preparation),vers et al., 2006; Veevers and Saeed, 2007). The paleoflow in the Ellisras Basincus of paleoflows in central Antarctica.

318 J.J. Veevers, A. Saeed / Gondwana Research 14 (2008) 316–342

Fig. 2. MacRobertson Land, Princess Elizabeth Land, and Prydz Bay (PB), from Fitzsimons (2003, Fig. 5) and Mikhalsky et al. (2001). Lambert Graben, fromGolynsky et al. (2006a), is extended northward (dotted lines) through a seismic crosssection (Cooper et al., 1991a, fig. 2–1); in the eastern part of PB 740A lies 12 kmseaward of the fault scarp (Cooper et al., 1991b) beneath the Svenner Channel at the edge of a 120-km-wide and 8-km-deep graben (Cooper et al., 1991a, fig. 2–1).Outcrop marked in black, names of terranes in bold, TDMNd (Ga) is encircled. Alkaline rocks are marked by an asterisk, with age in Ma. Detrital zircons with low-HREE (alkaline affinity) in ODP site 740A (Cooper and O'Brien, 2004) are marked by the hash (#). Location of GSM beneath Dome Argus from Jamieson et al.(2005). The box in the left-hand lower corner locates the overlap of Fig. 4.The leaf symbol indicates the Amery Group at Beaver Lake and Mt Meredith, and theGlossopteris-bearing red siltstone in moraine at Mt Rymill and Mt Maguire in the S PCM, carried in the ice northward (arrow) an unknown distance. Thequartzite at Komsomolskiy Peak contains detrital zircons aged 2600 Ma, 2000 Ma, and 1850 Ma, and was deposited after 1850 Ma (Phillips et al., 2007).


are minor, and the oldest U–Pb age is 3300 Ma. TDM Ndmodel ages found in the west and east (Fig. 2) are 3.0, 1.9, 1.7,and 1.2 Ga.

Alkaline rocks, including A-type (anorogenic) granites, aredistinguished as potential provenances of those detrital zirconswith low concentrations of heavy rare earth elements (low-HREE).

Fig. 3. Timetable of zircon-producing events, deposition, and TDM (Nd)model ages in the terranes of the PCMand PB, divided into areaswest and east of 70°E, fromdata inTables 1–7. Also shown are the age probability curves of the detrital zircons in the AmeryGroup (left side) and 740AU+L (right side). Linked TDM (Nd) andU–Pb ages areshown in the Fisher, Beaver, and Grove Terranes. The Ruker Terrane contains the ages of zircons in the lithostratigraphic groups (Fig. 5). In the Beaver Terrane, theb~500 Ma alkaline rocks are shown on the right. Shading links the common ages 1200–800 Ma and 660–475 Ma, and the rare ages of 3240 Ma, 2730 Ma, and 2030 Ma.


2.1. Terranes

The terranes are shown in Fig. 2. Key ages are given belowand the source reference of each age is given in the tables.

2.1.1. Ruker TerraneThe Ruker Terrane (Table 1) consists of the Mawson

Orthogneisses and Menzies Group that were intruded/deposited(3170–3150 Ma) and deformed and metamorphosed (2780 Ma)and intruded by 2650 Ma pegmatites. The Archaean rocks areunconformably overlain by cover sequences of the Stinear, Ruker,Sodruzhestvo, and perhaps Lambert lithostratigraphic groups.Details of the detrital signatures for these cover sequences aregiven in Section 2.3. All of these rocks were variably reworked515 Ma.

Inherited zircons have core ages of 3370 Ma. TDM ages are3.5–3.0 Ga. According to Sheraton et al. (1996, p. 347, 355),A-type biotite–hornblende granite was emplaced in the RukerTerrane at 3200–3000 Ma and 3005 Ma. A lamproite wasintruded at 430–414 Ma.

2.1.2. Lambert TerraneGranitoids were emplaced in three pulses (Table 2): 3519 Ma,

2123 Ma, and 530–490 Ma. The 530–490 Ma rocks include“kilometre-sized stocks of … muscovite–biotite granite in thecentral Mawson Escarpment” (Sheraton et al., 1996, p. 351). Thisgranite has “an unusually Nb-rich source. Significantly, thewidespread Archean biotite–hornblende granite gneiss of the

southern Prince Charles Mountains [Ruker Terrane] also hasunusually high Nb and Y, and would be a suitable source …”(Sheraton et al., 1995, p. 362). This is another example from thePCM of alkaline rocks potentially derived from older alkalinerocks (cf. Beaver Terrane). TDM Nd ages range from 3.8 Ga to1.9 Ga.

The Lambert Group was deposited in the interval 2100–950 Ma (Phillips et al., 2006), and with all the older rocks wassubjected to amphibolite-facies deformation andmetamorphism at~510 Ma.

Other ages come from zircons inherited by the igneous rocks,with ages of the cores of 2790 and 2120 Ma, and of the rims of2150, 1850, 1800, and 1600 Ma (Boger et al., 2001). All theseages reflect events in the provenance.

2.1.3. Beaver TerraneGneisses at 1300 Ma and 1100 Ma were followed by

charnockite and granite emplacement and peak metamorphismbetween 990–900 Ma (Table 3). At Mount Collins, 980 Mahornblende–biotite granite has A-type affinities (Sheraton et al.,1995, p. 361), and monzonite resembles syenite in terms ofexceptionally high sodium and potassium (Zhao et al., 1997).Later (550–480Ma) granite emplacement and metamorphism areminor.

Cambrian (~500 Ma) alkaline mafic dykes are known in theBeaver Terrane, as well as throughout the region in the RukerTerrane, PB coast, and Vestfold Hills (Mikhalsky et al., 2001,p. 187), and 1200 km to the east in the Bunger Hills (Rb–Sr 502±

Table 1Zircon-generating events (U–Pb, Ma) and TDM Nd model ages (Ga) in the Ruker Terrane

Age Ma TDM Ga Event Reference

430, 414 Lamproite (melasyenite) dyke Mount Bayliss Mikhalsky et al. (2001, table 12)515 Metamorphism-granite Mikhalsky et al. (2001)795 Felsic gneiss950–530 Deposition Sodruzhestvo Group Phillips et al. (2006)1310 Felsic gneiss Mikhalsky et al. (2001)1810 Schist2100–950 Deposition Lambert Group Phillips et al. (2006)2285 Pegmatite Mikhalsky et al. (2001)2500–2100 Deposition Ruker Group Phillips et al. (2006)2375 Amphibolite dyke Mikhalsky et al. (2001)2495 Plagiogneiss2.5 Metadolerite2650 Pegmatite, minimum age deformation Boger et al. (2001)2800–2500 Deposition Stinear Group Phillips et al. (2006)2780 High-grade metamorphism Boger et al. (2006)3200–2800 Deposition Menzies Group Phillips et al. (2006)2900 Ultramafic schist Mikhalsky et al. (2001)2981 Granite gneiss3.0 Schist3005 A-type biotite–hornblende granite gneiss Mts Rymill, Stinear, Bloomfield, age from Mt Ruker Sheraton et al. (1995 p. 347, 355);

Mikhalsky et al. (2001)3200–3000 A-type biotite–hornblende granite gneiss southern Mawson Escarpment Sheraton et al. (1995 p. 347, 355),

Mikhalsky et al. (2001)3035 Granite gneiss Mikhalsky et al. (2001)3070 Granite gneiss3.2–3.0 Gneiss Fitzsimons (2003)3175 ?Protolith Mikhalsky et al. (2001)3180–3160 Emplacement Mawson orthogneiss Boger et al. (2001, 2006)3370 Inherited zircon Boger et al. (2001, 2006)3.4 Granite Mikhalsky et al. (2001)3.5 Orthogneiss

Alkaline rocks in bold, including b430 Ma lamproite (melasyenite) at Mount Bayliss. Depositional events are shown within radiometric limits.


12 Ma: Sheraton et al., 1990), and 700 km west in the NapierComplex. Mesozoic and Cenozoic alkaline rocks are common inthe Beaver Terrane. All these younger alkaline rocks areassociated locally with older alkaline rocks, in a long-livedalkaline province.

Table 2Zircon-generating events (Ma) in the Lambert Terrane

Age Ma Event

490 Granitic dyke, minor deformation510 Gneiss from deformation~510 Amphibolite-facies deformation, metamorphism530–490 Granitoids TDM 3.5–2.3, 1.9 εNd–22 to–26,–14551±74 WR Rb–Sr A-type muscovite–biotite granite, central Ma1600 Inherited zircon rim growth: deformation/metam1800 Inherited zircon rim growth: deformation/metam1850 Inherited zircon rim growth: deformation/metam2100–950 Deposition Lambert Group2123 Granitoids TDM 2.87 εNd -4.82120 Detrital zircons (core) in granitic gneiss2150 Inherited zircon core growth: deformation/metam2423 Granodiorite2790 Detrital zircons in granite dyke3519 Granitoids TDM 3.8 εNd -2.1

Alkaline rocks in bold.

2.1.4. Fisher TerraneThe Fisher Terrane (Table 4) contains ~1300 Ma orthogneiss,

granodiorite, and metadacite, 1200Ma granite, ~1000MaA-typegranite, mafic schist, and metagabbro, and finally metamorphismat 810 Ma.

Reference

Boger et al. (2001), Boger and Wilson (2005)

Boger et al. (2008)

wson Escarpment Sheraton et al. (1995, p. 351, 362)orphism Boger et al. (2001)orphismorphism

Phillips et al. (2006)Boger et al. (2008)Boger et al. (2001)

orphismMikhalsky et al. (2006)Boger et al. (2001)Boger et al. (2008)

Table 3Timetable of zircon-generating events (Ma) and TDM (Ga) in the Beaver Terrane


~50 Phonolite lava Manning Massif TDM 1.2–0.9 Mikhalsky et al. (2001, table 25)110, 108 Mica lamprophyre Radok Lake119, 113 Mica lamprophyre Jetty Peninsula123 Melanephelinite stock Jetty Peninsula150, 142 Alkali picrite stock Jetty Peninsula245, 239 Diorite porphyry dyke Jetty Peninsula246 Alkaline basalt321 Camptonite dyke swarm Jetty Peninsula TDM 1.2–0.9504 K–Ar Basanite dyke Fox Ridge TDM 1.2–0.9480 Metamorphism- granite507–495 Pegmatite517 Pegmatite565, 524 A-type granite dykes and veins Jetty Peninsula Mikhalsky et al. (2001, p. 116)548 Felsic dykes Boger et al. (2002)551, 546 Granite Mt Meredith Laiba et al. (2006)910 Pegmatite Mikhalsky et al. (2001)940 Granite gneiss942 Leucosome980 Quartz monzonite950–890 Peak metamorphism amphibolite-facies Mt Meredith Laiba et al. (2006)976 A-type hornblende–biotite granite⁎ Sheraton et al. (1995, p. 350, 361); Kinny et al. (1997)984 A-type hornblende–biotite granite⁎

984 Quartz syenite⁎

990 Granite gneiss Mikhalsky et al. (2001)991 Pegmatite1017 Orthogneiss1105 Orthogneiss Mt Meredith Laiba et al. (2006)1165 Prehnite- metamorphism Mikhalsky et al. (2001)1294 Orthogneiss Mt Meredith Laiba et al. (2006)1.8 Felsic orthogneiss Mikhalsky et al. (2001)2.0 Metagabbro2.1 Granite gneiss2.2 Metapelite2100–1800 Detrital zircons2800–2500 Detrital zircons

Alkaline rocks in bold, including b504 Ma ones, dated by K–Ar.⁎Mount Collins.


2.1.5. Clemence MassifThe Clemence Massif (Table 5) contains ~1060–900 Ma

gneiss and pegmatite, and a 530 Ma high-temperature event.

2.1.6. Prydz Complex, Rauer Group, Vestfold HillsThePrydzComplex (Table 6) was subjected to ~1000–820Ma

granulite-facies metamorphism, including 940 Ma orthogneiss

Table 4Zircon-generating events (Ma) and TDM (Ga) in the Fisher Terrane (Kinny et al.,1997; Mikhalsky et al., 2001)

Age Ma Event

810 Metamorphism994 Metagabbro 2.01009 Mafic schist 1.71020 A-type biotite granite1193 Granite1283 Metadacite1290 Orthogneiss1293 Granodiorite1.7 Schist, granodiorite2.0 Metavolcanics2.1 Metagabbro

and a second granulite-facies metamorphism at 570–520 Ma, a550 Ma syenogranite, and a 500 Ma A-type granite.

The Rauer Group contains 3300 and 2800Ma gneiss protolithsaffected by 1100–1000 Ma high-temperature metamorphism, a~1000Ma gneiss protolith, and ~500 Ma metamorphic resetting.

The Vestfold Hills contain 2800–2500 Ma gneiss and 650–400 Ma alkaline dykes.

2.1.7. Grove MountainsThe Grove Mountains (Table 7) contain 920–910 Ma

protoliths of mafic granulites and felsic orthogneisses (A2-

Table 5Zircon-generating events (Ma) in the Clemence Massif (Corvino et al., 2005)

Age Ma Event

530 High-temperature event as in Mawson Escarpment,Prydz Bay, Grove Mountains

905 Pegmatite910 Peak metamorphism990–900 Paragneiss1062 Orthogneiss protolith1100–800 ?Detrital zircons sourced from a 990–900 Ma terrane

[Fisher, Beaver, Rayner]

Table 6Zircon-generating events (Ma) and TDM (Ga) in the vicinity of Prydz Bay


Prydz ComplexU–Pb 500±4, Rb–Sr 493±17 A-type granite Landing Bluff Sheraton et al. (1996)514, 516±7 Granite Carson et al. (1996)527±14 Felsic intrusive Kelsey et al. (2007, in press)c. 530 Granulite-facies metamorphism of ortho-and para-gneiss Fitzsimons (2003 p. 116)550 Syenogranite Zhao et al. (1995)570–520 Ultrahigh temperature tectono-metamorphism Kelsey et al. (2007)750–600 Detrital zircons Filla Paragneiss Kelsey et al. (in press)715 Detrital zircons Zhao et al. (1995)865 Detrital zircons920 Detrital zircons940 Orthogneiss950–820 High temperature tectono-metamorphism Kelsey et al. (2007)970 Detrital zircons Zhao et al. (1995)c. 1000 Granulite metamorphism Kinny et al. (1993)1200 Detrital zircons Zhao et al. (1995)1.6–1.2 Gneiss Rickers et al. (2001)2.0–1.7 Gneiss Sheraton et al. (1984; Zhao et al., 1997)2.2, 2.1, 1.6, 0.7 Metasediments Zhao et al. (1995)

Rauer Group560–460 Cooling Wilson et al. (2007)550–490 Partially reset zircon in gneiss Kinny et al. (1993); Fitzsimons (2003, p. 116)1060–1000 Gneiss protolith1100–1000 High-temperature metamorphism Tong and Wilson (2006)3269, 2800 Gneiss protolith Kinny et al. (1993); Fitzsimons (2003, p. 116)3267, 2850 Detrital zircons

Vestfold HillsRb–Sr 650–400 Alkaline dykes Passchier et al. (1991)2500 Tectonothermal overprint Black et al. (1991)2800–2500 Gneiss Fitzsimons (2003 p. 116)3.0–2.7 Gneiss Rickers et al. (2001)

Table 7Timetable (Ma, by U–Pb zircon) of events and TDM (Ga) in the GroveMountains, from Liu et al. (2007) and Zhao et al. (2003)

Age (Ma) Event

501±7 Granitic dykes TDM 1.9 Ga510–508⁎ Leucogneiss Austin Nunatak529±14 Zircon rims of felsic gneiss534±5 Granite TDM 1.7 Ga550–535 High-grade metamorphism920–910 Protoliths of mafic granulites and felsic orthogneisses

(A2-type granite), with εNd -7 to -3.5 and TDM ~1.70 Gaand εNd -10.5 and TDM ~2.35 Ga

1.7 Granite1.9 Granitic dykes2050 Metamorphism (detrital zircons in paragneiss)

⁎U–Pb rutile and titanite.


type granite), 550–535 Ma high-grade metamorphism, and534–501 Ma granite.

2.2. Alkaline rocks

The PCM contains nine generations of alkaline, includingA-type, rocks, fromyoungest to oldest: 9) 50Ma; 8) 150–108Ma;7) 246, 245, 239 Ma; 6) 321 Ma; 5) 430, 414 Ma; 4) 504 Ma; 3)565, 524 Ma; 2) 980 Ma, 1020 Ma; 1) 3200–3000 Ma.

Nos 1 and 5 are from the Ruker Terrane (Table 1), the restfrom the Beaver Terrane (Table 3). No. 2 (980 Ma) is fromMount Collins (Fig. 2), 100 km southwest of Beaver Lake.According to Kinny et al. (1997), “Around 980 Ma ago,voluminous magmas representing a combination of mantle-derived and intracrustal melts … were emplaced during aregional high-grade tectonothermal event.”Model ages are 2.2–1.8 Ga (Table 3).

Nos 1 to 3, older than 504Ma, are dated by U–Pb. The othersare dated by K–Ar: nos 4–7 are probably minimum ages, 8 and9 probably emplacement ages. Nos 4, 5, and 9, with the sameTDM of 1.2–0.9 Ga (Mikhalsky et al., 2001, p. 187), probablycame from the same source.

East of 70°E, alkaline rocks include 920–910 Ma A2-typegranite (Table 7), and 650–400 Ma alkaline dykes, 550 Masyenogranite, and 500 Ma A-type granite (Table 6).

In the PCM-PB region (Fig. 3), alkaline rocks areconcentrated within 560–500 Ma, during the second intervalof oblique stress in Gondwanaland (Veevers, 2003, 2007).

2.3. Precambrian lithostratigraphic units

The work of Phillips et al. (2005, 2006) in structural analysisfollowed by U–Pb dating of ~1500 zircons has shed much lighton the geology of the S PCM (Figs. 4 and 5).

http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.09.003

Fig. 4. Southern PCM (location on Fig. 2) showing nunataks, including thesouthernmost Komsomolskiy Peak with detrital zircons U–Pb dated 2.6 and 2.0 Gawithin the Lambert lithostratigraphic group (Fig. 6, Phillips et al., 2006) and the otherlithostratigraphic groups, in their geographical context of the Lambert Glacier andtributaries draining from Dome Argus above the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountainsto flow through the Lambert Graben to debouch into the Amery Ice Shelf in PB(Jamieson et al., 2005). The 200 m sub-ice elevation contour of the GamburtsevSubglacialMountains and other ice data south of 74°S are fromMcLean et al. (2004).


The lithostratigraphic units, part of the Ruker and LambertTerranes in the S PCM, constitute an important potentialprovenance upslope of the Permian–Triassic Amery Group.The paleoslope in the Neoproterozoic Sodruzhestvo Group, asindicated by three sets of asymmetrical ripple marks, is northerly(from the GSM), the same general paleoslope as that in the AmeryGroup during the Permian and Triassic, and as in the Cenozoic tothe present day. Phillips et al. (2006) found that the SodruzhestvoGroup was deposited after 970 Ma (the age of the youngestdetrital zircons) and before 530 Ma (the age of folding andmetamorphism). As shown below, the dominant age of zircons inthe Amery Group, and hence in the GSM provenance, is 650–500 Ma. It follows that the Sodruzhestvo Group, whose youngestzircons are 970 Ma, must have been deposited before 650 Ma,hence sometime in the interval 970–650 Ma.

In Fig. 5, the peak ages of the detrital zircons in thelithostratigraphic groups of the S PCM are, in order of decreas-ing age, as follows.

(1) Z (3200–3050 Ma), in the Menzies Group deposited inthe 3100–2780Ma interval, and in the Ruker Group in the2450–2100 Ma interval, matches the 3200–3000 MaMawson orthogneiss (Phillips et al., 2006).

(2) Y (2820–2650 Ma), in all except the older the MenziesGroup, is represented in the PCM by 2780 Ma high-grademetamorphism and 2650 Ma pegmatite in the Ruker

Terrrane, and, 600 km to the northeast, by 2800–2500 Magneiss in the Vestfold Hills and 3300 Ma and 2800 Magneiss protoliths in the Rauer Group.The Stinear Group,deposited 2780–2500 Ma, contains clusters X and Y.

(3) X (2580–2400Ma), the highest peak, in the 1830–950 MaLambert Group and 2450–2100 Ma Ruker Group, isrepresented by a 2495 Ma plagiogneiss in the RukerTerrane, a 2423 Ma granodiorite in the northern MawsonEscarpment (Lambert Terrane), and 2500 Ma gneiss in theVestfold Hills.

(4) W (2150–2000 Ma), in the 1830–950 Ma Lambert Group(including KP1— Komsomolskiy Peak, 2160–2000 Ma)and 970–650 Ma (Neoproterozoic) Sodruzhestvo Group,is represented in bedrock solely by zircon growth in theLambert Terrane.

(5) V (1130–1000Ma), only in the 970–650Ma SodruzhestvoGroup, is widely represented by 1017Ma orthogneiss in theBeaver Terrane, 1020Ma granite in the Fisher Terrane, and1062 orthogneiss in the Clemence Massif. The Sodruz-hestvo Group was deposited from north-flowing paleocur-rents (Phillips et al., 2006) so that it derived its 1130–1000 Ma detrital zircons from the south, in the direction ofthe GSM, and not from rocks of this age in the Beaver,Fisher, and Clemence areas, which lay downslope.

From the fact that clusters V, W, and Yare found in the 970–650 Ma Sodruzhestvo Group with northerly paleoslope, weconclude that the provenances of these clusters lay in or south ofthe southern PCM sometime during the 970–650 Ma interval,as follows:

• V (1130–1000Ma), unrepresented in the southern PCM, wasderived from south of the PCM;

• W (2150–2000 Ma), represented by 2123 Ma granitoids inthe Lambert Terrane, could have come from the proximalsouthern PCM;

• Y (2820–2650 Ma), barely represented in the southern PCM,were probably derived from south of the PCM.

• Z (3200–3050 Ma), with the same age as the Mawsonorthogneiss, may have had a proximal provenance in the SPCM during the interval 3100–2100 Ma during depositionof the Menzies and Ruker Groups.

• X (2580–2400 Ma), with the same age as a 2495 Maplagiogneiss in the Ruker Terrane and a 2423Ma granodioritein the Lambert Terrane, may have had a proximal provenancein the S PCM.

3. Methods of analysis, presentation, and interpretationof data

Details of the methods are given in the Supplementary Datasetin the online version.

In brief, the samples were processed by standard methods forseparating zircons. U–Pb analysis of zircons was conducted bylaser-ablation microprobe inductively coupled plasma-massspectrometry (LA-ICPMS) and Hf-isotope analysis (εHf andTDMC model age) by laser-ablation-multi-collector inductively

Fig. 5. Above, probability plot of aggregated ages of all 371 zircons from the 6 samples of the Amery Group from Beaver Lake, with clusters (Fig. 3); probability plotof all 1212 N80% concordant ages of zircons from the five lithostratigraphic groups of the S PCM from the dataset of Phillips et al. (2006). Below, the “main agepopulations” of Phillips et al. (2006, table 2, using 95% concordance) of the 13 samples in descending order of deposition; e.g., the Sodrudhestvo Group, 6 km ofconformable greenschist metasediments, sampled by CM46, CM21, and MM2, was deposited after the youngest detrital zircon (~970 Ma) and before the ~530 Madeformation and intrusion-limits denoted by the dotted lines; the bases of the other groups are delimited by implied superposition, orogenesis, or by the emplacement oforthogneiss (Phillips et al., 2006). The difference between plots using 5% or 20% discordance is negligible.


coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-MC-ICPMS). Trace-element abundances were determined by electron microprobeand ICPMS analysis.

Belousova et al.'s (2002) classification and regression tree(CART) of zircons has a branch interpreted as coming fromalkaline rocks and carbonatites (ARCs), with these discriminants:Lub20.7 ppm and Tab0.5 ppm characterize syenite; Lub20.7 ppm, TaN0.5 ppm, then LuN2.3 ppm characterizecarbonatite. In place of the inferred rock-type names, we refer tozircon grains with these characteristics by the general descriptiveterm “low heavy-rare-earth-element (low-HREE) group”. Wediscriminate further by “low-HREE-s” for those classified assyenite, and “low-HREE-c” for those classified as carbonatite.

We use the more precise 206Pb/238U ages for grains with207Pb/206Pb ages b1000Ma and 207Pb/206Pb ages for older grains(Gehrels et al., 2006). The U–Pb ages have a precision of ±1% orless comparable to those of ion-probe data. We cite peaks in ageprobability in single numerals, e.g., 1007Ma, but the precision of±1% is implicit.

We follow Gillis et al. (2005) in admitting grains ≤20%discordant. A common value for 1 sigma uncertainty based on

random or measurement errors is ~10 Ma. We follow Gehrels(2006) in “the view that only clusters of ages record robust sourcesages, and attach significance only to age peaks that comprise threeor more analyses (Gehrels et al., 2006). The data are presented inage probability plots with histograms (Ludwig, 2001) that showthe number of analyses within each 20 million-year interval.

Cathodoluminescence and back-scattered electron images ofgrains typical of the populations provide details of the structure.

The analytical data of the 8 samples (95–141, 95–150,740AL, 740AU, BL3, BL6, CRF47, CRF77) are available inarchived Excel files (Tables A13–A20) in the SupplementaryDataset in the online version.

4. Permian and Triassic sandstones (Amery Group) of thenorthern PCM

4.1. Introduction

The Permian–Triassic Amery Group crops out on themargins of Beaver and Radok Lakes in the northern PCM(Fig. 6). The Amery Group abuts the Beaver Terrane of 1000–

Fig. 6. Location of samples BL3, BL6, CRF47, CRF77, 95–141, and 95–150 inthe members of the Amery Group around the ice-covered Beaver Lake and RadokLake faulted within the Proterozoic rocks of the Beaver Terrane (Fielding andWebb, 1995, 1996; Holdgate et al., 2005; McLoughlin and Drinnan, 1997a,b;Webb and Fielding, 1993). The single arrows show the paleocurrent direction at thesample sites, the doubled-shafted arrows the northward axial flow of the braidedrivers, and the lateral eastward flow of the alluvial fans in the Radok Conglomerateand Jetty Member, and the westward flow of the Radok Conglomerate on theeastern side of Beaver Lake, as sketched by Fielding and Webb (1995, fig. 19a).The Vs indicate dated (Ma) alkaline volcanics.


900 Ma high-grade metamorphics along the Amery Fault on thewest, and an unnamed fault on the east. On the eastern margin ofBeaver Lake, in the Jetty Peninsula, the metamorphics are furtherintruded and metamorphosed at 565–471 Ma, intruded by maficalkaline rocks at 321 Ma and ~245 Ma (Mikhalsky et al., 2001),and finally, together with the Amery Group, intruded by 150–113 Ma alkaline mafic dykes (Foley et al., 2002), and by similarrocks aged 110 Ma at Radok Lake. A veneer of the NeogenePagodroma Tillite unconformably overlies all older rocks(McKelvey et al., 2001).

A tiny outcrop of sandstone and siltstone of the AmeryGroup is found at the foot of the southeastern escarpment of MtMeredith (Laiba et al., 2006), 30 km south of Radok Lake.Similar rocks, as well as coal fragments, are found as clasts inmoraines on the southeastern and northwestern escarpments.According to O'Brien et al. (2007), early Pleistocene debrisflows in ODP 1167A contain coaly organic matter fromPermian sediments of the Lambert Graben. These occurrencestogether with those of red siltstone with Glossopteris inmoraines at Mt Rymill and Mt Maguire in the S PCM(Mikhalsky et al., 2001, p. 146; Ruker, 1963) suggest widedistribution of Permian sediment within the Lambert Graben.

The oldest exposed part of the Amery Group (Fig. 7), thealluvial-fan Radok Conglomerate (Fielding and Webb, 1995), isoverlain by the fluvial Bainmedart Coal Measures (Fielding andWebb, 1996) and fluvial Flagstone Bench Formation(McLoughlin and Drinnan (1997a,b). The Late Permian(264–250 Ma) Bainmedart Coal Measures contain Glossop-teris and coals. The earliest Triassic to Norian (250–210 Ma)Flagstone Bench Formation contains red beds in place of coal.Similar red beds in ODP 740A in PB are tentatively identified asTriassic (Turner, 1991). The known Amery Group ranges fromLate Permian (Australian Lower Stage 5, ~265–250 Ma)through the Late Triassic (Norian, 221–210 Ma). Boulders ofdiamictite in modern moraine indicate the possibility thatPermo–Carboniferous glacigenic sediment was deposited in theancestral Lambert Graben, as confirmed by recycled palyno-morphs offshore (Veevers and Collinson, 1994).

Samples are distributed from near the bottom of the ~3000-m-thick section to the top. The basal contact is concealed or faultedand the top is exposed. The cross-dip azimuth of the alluvial-fandeposits ranges from 072° (Radok Conglomerate) to 070° (JettyMember) and of the braided-river deposits from 345° (Glossop-teris Gully) through 000° (Ritchie member) to 051° (GraingerMember). The Radok Conglomerate and Jetty Member areinterpreted as piedmont aprons deposited from the west orsouthwest from the faulted margin of the ancestral LambertGraben. The overlying Bainmedart Coal Measures weredeposited in the axis of an alluvial valley dominated by north-to northeasterly-flowing low-sinuosity river-channel belts alter-nating spatially and temporally with extensive, low-energy,floodplain and forest-mire environments (Holdgate et al., 2005).Above the Permian–Triassic boundary, the Flagstone BenchFormation was deposited in the same physical environment but ina drier climate and without peat. The Dragons Teeth Member,Ritchie Member, Jetty Member, and the section in ODP740Acontain red beds. Another Permian red bed in the region is the redsiltstone with Glossopteris in moraine at Mt Rymill and MtMaguire (Veevers et al., 2008).

In the reconstruction of Gondwanaland from seafloor data(Fig. 1), the Lambert Graben lines up with the Madanadi Basin,whose thickness of equivalent (Late Permian and Triassic)facies is 800 m (Veevers and Tewari, 1995, p. 27), much lessthan the 3000 m of the Amery Group. A comparable thicknessof this interval is in the northwest Pranhita–Godavari Basin ofIndia, where the Late Permian and Triassic section of the BarrenMeasures through Dharmaram Formation is 3000 m thick(Veevers and Tewari, 1995, p. 25). Other similarities are coalrank, explained by the similar thickness, and coal-maceralpetrology (Holdgate et al., 2005). In our opinion, the similaritiesreflect comparable syn-depositional structure, not, as suggestedby Holdgate et al. (2005), original contiguity.

Samples are pooled according to similar U–Pb age profiles:(1) CRF77, (2) BL3+BL6+CRF47, and (3) 95–141+150.

4.2. Sample CRF77

CRF77, Radok Lake, 70.9° S, 68.0° E, conglomeraticsandstone, is at 282 m in Bed 58, Section E, Late Permian

Fig. 7. Stratigraphical column of the exposed Amery Group, from Holdgate et al. (2005), showing the distribution of the 6 samples and their paleoslopes. In the RadokConglomerate, the paleoslope azimuth of 072° is of facies 2 and 4, and near the top, at sample site CRF77, 348° (Fielding and Webb, 1995).


(265 Ma) Radok Conglomerate, 4 m below the base of theBainmedart Coal Measures (Fig. 7)(Fielding and Webb, 1995).The Radok Conglomerate is a succession of interbeddedconglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, claystone, and minor coal.Clasts in conglomerates are composed mainly of felsicgranulite, the dominant lithology of the Proterozoic basementto the west. From additional textural and paleocurrent (072°)data, the Radok Conglomerate is interpreted as an alluvial apronderived locally from the Proterozoic massif. At the level of thissample near the top of the Conglomerate, the paleocurrentdirection of 348° indicates an axial swing northwards, as foundin the overlying Bainmedart Coal Measures (Fielding andWebb, 1995).

The U–Pb ages (Fig. 8) are clustered between 1200 Ma and800 Ma about a peak at 934 Ma, with a scattering of grains to261 Ma — the latter age conceivably from contemporaneousmafic rocks. The TDM

C model ages are about 500 million yearsolder about a peak at 1520 Ma. The host rocks are dominantlyfelsic granitoids. Incidentally, we use “felsic granitoids” forthose with 70–75% SiO2 and “mafic granitoids” for those withb65% SiO2. εHf is distributed thus: (1) most 1200–1100 Mazircons, with positive εHf, come from juvenile mantle sourcesderived from the mantle at 1600 Ma (A1); (2) 1100–900 Ma ,with εHf~0, indicating that most rocks are mixed, derived byreworking of older crust and from fertile crust generated fromthe depleted mantle at 1850 Ma (A2); (3) 900–800 Ma, with

negative εHf, by reworking of older crust generated from thedepleted mantle at 1950 Ma (A3); and (4) 500–400 Ma, 3 felsicgranitoids, negative and low positive εHf, host magmas derivedin part from older recycled crustal material generated from thedepleted mantle at about 1450 Ma (A4).

The dominant felsic granitoids with negative εHf match thelocal provenance of 1000–900 Ma gneissic granite of theBeaver Terrane.

4.3. Pooled sample BL3–BL6-CRF47

In stratigraphical order, the constituent samples are asfollows.

a. CRF47, 70.84°S, 68.12°E, is 570–580 m above the base inBed 73, Section B, Late Permian Glossopteris GullyMember, Bainmedart Coal Measures, medium-grainedsandstone with a paleocurrent direction of 342°±22°(Fielding and Webb, 1996) (Fig. 6).

b. BL3 [95–137], western margin of Beaver Lake, locality 25,70.44° S, 68.20° E, level 280 m, 225 m above the base of theLate Permian Grainger Member of trough cross-beddedquartz–feldspar sandstone of fluvial channel facies(McLoughlin and Drinnan, 1997a, fig. 11, p. 347).Measurements through the Grainger Member indicate acontinuation of northeasterly sediment transport (Fig. 6).

Fig. 8. Sample CRF77 zircons from the Late Permian Radok Conglomerate.Above, probability distribution diagram and histogram (20 m.y. bins) (Ludwig,2001) of (a) U–Pb ages of a total sample of 42 grains (discordance b20%, mostb5%), with a peak at 934 Ma; (b) probability distribution diagram of TDM

C ages of40 grains, with a peak at 1520 Ma. The arrow tips indicate the ages of zircons thatcame from a host magma derived in part from juvenile crust (mainly positive (+)εHf [A1]) or from older recycled crustal material generated from the depletedmantle (mainly negative εHf [A2–A4]). Below, EpsilonHf (difference between thesample and a chondritic reservoir in parts/104) versus ages of zircons with trace-element classification of source igneous rock (Belousova et al., 2002); thediscriminant line CHUR (chondritic unfractionated reservoir) is at zero. Inset andabove: distribution of rock types: 75=felsic granitoid with 75–70% SiO2;65=mafic granitoid with b65% SiO2; M = mafic rocks, from Table A6; andprobability density plots of εHf data. εHf values and model ages are calculated witha decay constant for 176Lu of 1.865×10−11 year−1 (Scherer et al., 2001).


c. BL6 [95–110], southeastern margin of Beaver Lake, 70.77° S,68.70° E, southern McKelvey Ledge, Section 58–59, 12 mabove the base of the McKelvey Member, Late Triassic–Norian, 215 Ma, cross-dip azimuth 020° (McLoughlin andDrinnan, 1997b, fig. 8, p. 791) (Fig. 6). The McKelveyMember, the uppermost part of the Flagstone BenchFormation, is a braided-river deposit of white sandstone andminor carbonaceous siltstone. Localized zones of iron ormanganese cementation give the sandstones a deep red, purple,or even black colour. The underlying Jetty and Ritchiemembers contain more red pigment and much less carbonac-eous material.

The U–Pb ages (Fig. 9) are clustered between 2800 Ma and2660 Ma, 2150 Ma and 1700 Ma (peak 2030 Ma), 1200 Ma and800 Ma (peaks 1094 Ma and 928 Ma), and 650 Ma and 500 Ma(peaks 639 Ma and 534 Ma). The TDM

C and TDM model agespeak at 3500 Ma, 1900 Ma, and 1300 Ma. The host rocks aredominated by felsic granitoids; two clusters have significantproportions of mafic rocks. εHf is distributed thus: (1) 2800–2660 Ma and 2150–1700 Ma zircons are negative, by

reworking of older crust generated from the depleted mantlerespectively at 3100 Ma (B) and 2700 Ma (F, N); (2) 1200–800 Ma and 650–500 Ma zircons, with positive and negative(mixed) εHf, were derived by reworking of older crust and fromfertile crust generated from the depleted mantle respectively at1900 Ma [G (+)] and 1500 Ma [O(+)], and at 2500 Ma (E).

4.4. Pooled sample 95–141+150

The constituent samples are as follows.

a. 95–141, locality 2, west side of Beaver Lake, 70.56° S,68.22° E, 345 m above the base of the McKinnon Member,Late Permian–Tatarian ~250 Ma (McLoughlin and Drinnan,1997a, fig. 13, p. 349).

b. 95/150, southeastern margin of Beaver Lake, southernMcKelvey Ledge, Section 58–59, 70.77° S, 68.70° E,22 m above the base of the McKelvey Member (10 m aboveBL6), Late Triassic–Norian 215 Ma (McLoughlin andDrinnan, 1997b, fig. 8, p. 791).

The U–Pb ages (Fig. 10) are concentrated between 1100 Maand 800 Ma, and 700 Ma and 500 Ma, with peaks at 910 Ma,617 Ma, and 535 Ma. Single grains are scattered out to3250 Ma. The TDM

C model ages have peaks at 2200 Ma and1400 Ma. The host rocks are dominated by granitoids; four havea low-HREE-c host about 530 Ma.

Both clusters have εHf values that range from positive tonegative (Table A12). The 560–500 Ma (late Pan-Gondwana-land) rocks (24 granitoids, 5 low-HREE-c) with mainlynegative εHf indicate host magmas derived in part from olderrecycled crustal material generated from the depleted mantle atabout 2200 Ma (K, I). 560 Ma marks the onset of the last phase(oblique stress 2) of the Pan-Gondwanaland event of Gondwa-naland assembly, involving intense reworking of older crust(Veevers, 2007). The predominantly positive εHf values of 700–560 Ma rocks indicate derivation mainly from juvenile mantlesources generated from the depleted mantle at about 1300 Ma(L, J).

5. ?Triassic red beds in eastern PB — ODP 740A

5.1. Introduction

ODP 740A, situated at 68.69° S, 76.72° E in a water depthof 807 m, penetrated the topmost 169 m – the Prydz Bay redbeds – of a N2-km-thick succession (Turner, 1991; Turner andPadley, 1991). The red beds resemble parts of the AmeryGroup (Keating and Sakai, 1991), in particular the TriassicFlagstone Bench Formation, and are tentatively regarded asTriassic.

ODP740A lies 30 km from the coastal outcrop of theVestfold Hills and Rauer Group (Fig. 2). As shown in a seismicsection (Barron et al., 1989), the red beds of Stagg's (1985)seismic unit PS 5 (re-named PS.4 by Cochrane and Cooper,1991) extend updip or southeastward to abut or onlap the NE-trending fault scarp, marked at the surface by the Svenner

Fig. 9. U–Pb ages and TDMC and TDM Hf model ages of detrital zircons in pooled samples BL3, BL6, and CRF47 respectively of the Late Permian Grainger Member,

Late Triassic McKelvey Member, and Late Permian Glossopteris Gully Member. Above, probability distribution diagram and histogram (20 m.y. bins) of (a) U–Pbages 4000–0 Ma of a total sample of 184 grains (discordance b20%, all but 46 b5%), with peaks at 534 Ma, 928 Ma, and 2030 Ma; clusters of U–Pb ages (2800–2660 Ma, 2150–1700 Ma, 1200–800 Ma, 650–500 Ma) are shaded. (b) probability distribution diagram of TDM

C of zircons b2500 Ma and TDM of zircons N2500 Ma,of 120 grains, with peaks at ~3500 Ma, 1900 Ma, and 1300 Ma. The arrow tips indicate the ages of zircons that came from a host magma derived in part from juvenilecrust (mainly positive (+) εHf [D, G, M, O]) or from older recycled crustal material generated from the depleted mantle (mainly negative εHf [B, C, E, F, N, P]). Below,εHf versus ages of zircons with trace-element classification. Histograms show distribution of rock types (as in Fig. 8, with L = low-HREE-c) within each cluster. Grainsfrom felsic granitoids are prominent. Further details in Tables A6, A10–12.


Channel, of PS 6 (PS.5), interpreted as Precambrian meta-morphic rock. A cross section across PB shows 740A some12 km seaward of the fault scarp (Cooper et al., 1991b) at theedge of a 120-km-wide and 8-km-deep graben (Cooper et al.,1991a, fig. 2–1).

5.2. Pooled sample 740 AU+L

Sample 740 AU is a bulk sample from cores 11, 13, 14, 17,20, and 22 between 72.17 and 131.91 mbsf (metres below seafloor), and sample 740 AL is from cores 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30,and 31 between 139.34 and 223.52 mbsf of fluvial red beds ofpresumed Triassic age, part of Unit III (Turner, 1991; Turnerand Padley, 1991).

The U–Pb ages (Fig. 11) are concentrated between 3600 Maand 3150 Ma, 1200 Ma and 800 Ma, and 650 Ma and 500 Ma,with peaks at 3240 Ma, 910 Ma, and 540 Ma. A minor cluster is~2730 Ma. TDMmodel ages have a peak at 3400Ma, and TDM

C at2155Ma. Except in the 3600–3150Ma cluster, the host rocks aredominated (~50%) by low-HREE-c.

The negative εHf values (0 to −33) of the 650–500 Ma (Pan-Gondwanaland) 7 low-HREE-c rocks and 5 granitoids(Table A11) indicate host magmas derived in part from olderrecycled crustal material generated from the depleted mantle atabout 2200 Ma (Z). The less negative (+4 to −28) εHf values ofthe 1200–800 Ma cluster of 24 low-HREE-c, 25 granitoid, and3 mafic rocks indicate derivation mainly from older recycledcrustal material generated from the depleted mantle at about2000 Ma (X, Y). The 3600–3150 Ma cluster with negative εHfindicates host magmas derived in part from older recycledcrustal material generated from the depleted mantle at a TDM ofabout 3500 Ma (ZZ).

6. Properties of the Amery and 740A zircons

6.1. Morphology

In the main populations 660–475 Ma, 1200–800 Ma, and2850–1600 Ma in the Amery Group and 740A, the zirconsrange in shape from angular to rounded, in structure from

Fig. 10. U–Pb ages and TDMC and TDM Hf model ages of detrital zircons in pooled samples 95–141 and 95–150 respectively of the latest Permian McKinnon Member

and Late Triassic McKelvey Member. Above, probability distribution diagram and histogram (20 m.y. bins) of (a) U–Pb ages 4000–0 Ma of a total sample of 116grains (discordance b20%, all but 20b5%), with a peak at 535 Ma; clusters of U–Pb ages (1100–800 Ma, 700–500 Ma) are shaded. (b) probability distributiondiagram of TDM

C of zircons b2500 Ma and TDM of zircons N2500 Ma, of 101 grains, with peaks at 1400 Ma and 2200 Ma. The arrow tips indicate the ages of zirconsthat came from a host magma derived in part from juvenile crust (mainly positive (+) εHf [J, L]) or from older recycled crustal material generated from the depletedmantle (mainly negative εHf [I, K]). Below, εHf versus ages of zircons with trace-element classification. Histograms show distribution of rock types within each cluster.Grains from low-HREE-c hosts are confined to the 650–500 Ma cluster.


euhedral to structureless, and in size from 50–300 μm (Fig. 12,Table A1). In the 660–475 Ma population, the low-HREE-czircons in 740A are structureless, the same as those in the sameage population in SE Africa and DML (Veevers and Saeed,2007).

6.2. Host rocks

Host rocks are shown in Fig. 13 from details in Table A2.The samples with some contribution from the west (CRF77and BL3) are dominated (N50%) by felsic granitoids with 70–75% SiO2 (≤42% in the others), ≤37% of mafic rocks, and≤12.5% of mafic granitoids withb65% SiO2. The others,derived from the south (CRF47, 95–141, 95–150, BL6), haveroughly equal abundances of mafic and felsic granitoids, maficrocks 14% to 37%, and low-HREE-c rocks from 2% to 12%.740A is distinctive in having low-HREE-c rocks and maficgranitoids each 35%, with felsic granitoids 20%, and maficrocks 10%.

6.3. U–Pb age, rock type, εHf, and TDMC

The properties of U–Pb age, rock type, εHf, and TDMC of the

zircon populations of both pooled samples of the Amery Group(Figs. 9, 10) overlap each other, as follows.

6.3.1. 700–500 Ma (d+) populationIn this range of U–Pb age, recognised as d+ of Veevers et al.

(2006), the rock types are granitoids, and eHf overlaps in therange 10 to −28. In the 560–500 Ma sub-population, generatedduring oblique stress 2 (Veevers, 2003), mainly negative (0 to−28) εHf indicates host magmas derived in part from olderrecycled crustal material generated from the depleted mantle atabout 2500–2200 Ma; and in the 700–560 Ma sub-population,generated during oblique stress 1, the predominantly positiveεHf values indicate derivation mainly from juvenile mantlesources generated from the depleted mantle at about 2100 Maand 1300 Ma. The change from positive εHf of the older sub-population to negative εHf of the younger sub-population

Fig. 11. U–Pb ages and TDMC and TDM Hf model ages of detrital zircons in pooled samples 740 AL and 740 AU of the Triassic red beds in ODP 740A. Above, probability

distribution diagram and histogram (20 m.y. bins) of (a) U–Pb ages of a total sample of 114 grains (discordance b10%, all but 9b5%), with peaks at 3240Ma, 910Ma, and540 Ma (grey); shown as white are the zircons with low-HREE-c peaks at 900 Ma and 524 Ma; clusters of U–Pb ages (3600–3150 Ma, 1200–800 Ma, 650–500 Ma) areshaded. (b) probability distribution diagram of TDM

C of zircons b2500 Ma and TDM of zircons N2500 Ma, of 102 grains, with peaks at 3400 Ma and 2155 Ma. Below, εHfversus ages of zircons with trace-element classification. All but a few grains have negative εHf, signifying derivation of the host rocks from older recycled crustal materialgenerated from the depletedmantle. Histograms show distribution of rock typeswithin each cluster. Grains from low-HREE-c hosts are prominent: 24 (46%) of the 52 grainsin the 1200–800 Ma cluster, and 7 (55%) of the 13 grains in the 650–500 Ma cluster. Further details in Table A7.


corresponds to the switch from stress 1 to 2. (We thank GlenPhillips for this idea).

6.3.2. 1200–800 Ma (c) populationThe range of U–Pb age (c of Veevers et al., 2006) is similar

except BL3–BL6-CRF47 has an additional peak at 1094 Ma, therock types are mafic granitoids and mafic rocks, and εHf overlapsin the range 10 to −13, indicating derivation from mixed mantleand older crustal sources. In BL3–BL6-CRF47, the host rockwasderived from juvenile mantle sources at 1500 Ma.

6.3.3. 2150–1700Ma (aa) and 2800–2660Ma (aaa) populationsThese populations, aa and aaa of Veevers et al. (2005), are

represented in BL3–BL6-CRF47 only. The rock types are maficgranitoids and mafic rocks, εHf overlaps in the range 0 to −20,and the host rock was derived from reworked older crustgenerated from the depleted mantle at 3100 Ma and 2700 Ma.

6.3.4. TDMC and TDM

In all populations, TDMC overlaps within a combined range of

2.5–1.0 Ga, and TDM overlaps from 4.0–2.5 Ga.

6.4. Summary

The properties of zircons from the Amery Group are given inFig. 14 and Table A3, and placed on Fig. 15(d).

As shown in Fig. 3, the 660–475 Ma and 1200–800 Mapopulations of detrital zircons overlap these ages of bedrock inmost parts of the PCM-PB region, so that on the criterion of agealone, the region is a potential provenance. By takingpaleogeographical, in particular paleoslope, evidence intoaccount, we argue below that the Amery Group samples withnortherly paleoslope are linked through the proximal Mt Rymillsample to their main provenance in the GSM. In turn becausethe PCM-PB region contains the same ages as in the AmeryGroup (Fig. 15), we infer that the geology of the GSM may be asouthern extension of that of the PCM-PB.

6.5. ?Triassic red beds in 740A

The paleoslope on which the red beds were deposited isunknown. From its proximity to the exposures along the easterncoast of PB and similar zircon features (Figs. 3, 11, 15), sample740 AU+L was probably derived locally from the PCM-PBregion, with an unknown part from the distal GSM.

The main difference between the 740A (Table A9) and Amery(Table A10) zircons is the dominant low-HREE-c host rock inboth main populations (650–500 Ma, 1200–800 Ma) of 740A(Table A7). Potential hosts are abundant in the PCM-PB region(Fig. 3), in particular the ~1000 Ma alkaline rocks of the BeaverTerrane. The few low-HREE-c zircons in the Amery Group areconfined to the 600–500 Ma range (Figs. 10, 16 and 17), which

Fig. 12. Back-scattered electron (BSE) — cathodoluminescence (CL) images of selected zircon grains from three age populations in the Amery Group and 740A redbeds. The smaller circle locates the U–Pb laser ablation pit ~30 μmwide, the larger circle the Hf-isotope pit ~50 μmwide. In each frame, the scale bar is shown above,the grain number and its U–Pb age is shown below, and the host-rock type variously above, below, or on the side.


we take to represent this age of alkaline rocks in the GSMprovenance.

7. Provenance of the Permian–Triassic fluvial drainagesystem of the PCM-PB region

Paleoslope is the prime indicator of sediment provenance.During the Permian–Triassic, such indicators show that

drainage radiated on all sides from an upland in centralAntarctica (Figs. 1 and 17, black arrows) and from time to timeearlier (double-shafted arrows) in SE Australia and the TAM.

7.1. Focus of Permian drainage

Permian ice and fluvial drainage radii about the GSM withina wider central Antarctic upland (Fig. 1) are in clockwise order

Fig. 13. Pie diagrams showing the proportion of rock types (from trace elements and Hf-isotopes of detrital zircons) in host rocks (Table A2). The samples are given inorder of age, from CRF77 in the lower left to 740A in the top right. CRF77 and BL3 come from the west, the rest (except 740A, unknown) from the south. 95–150 andBL6, and 740AL and 740AU are pooled.


as follows: the Lambert–Mahanadi Graben (9 am), Collie(11 am), SE Australia (1 pm), TAM (3 pm), DML (5 pm), andLower Zambezi (7 pm). The provenance is further narrowed bythose sediments proximal to the GSM–VSH.

7.2. Sediments proximal to the GSM–VSH

The southernmost part of the Lambert Graben fluvial systemis indicated by Permian sediment in the form of morainal clastsof red siltstone with Glossopteris at Mt Rymill (73°S), andMt Maguire (74°S), deposited within a few hundred km of thefront of the GSM from ice that flowed from the southern-most part of the Lambert Graben system (Fig. 1, small arrow)(Veevers et al., 2008). U–Pb ages from the siltstone of mainly d+(660–475 Ma) and minor c (1200–800 Ma) and aa (2300–1950Ma), and a whole-rock TDMNdmodel age of 2.72 (Fig. 15,f) indicate a provenance with these ages in the GSM–VSHcomplex.

The 970–650 Ma Sodrudhestvo Group (Fig. 4), also derivedfrom the south, reflects bedrock aged 1130–1000 Ma (V),2150–2000 Ma (W), and 2820–2650 Ma (Y) (Fig. 5).

A further indication of the age is provided by the siltstoneinclusions in the ice at Lake Vostok (5G-1) (Leitchenkov et al.,2007), proximal to the upslope Vostok Subglacial Highlandsextension of the GSM (Fig. 1, small arrow). U–Pb ages from thesample of mainly c (1200–800 Ma) and a whole-rock TDM

model age of 1.88 Ga (Fig. 15, f) indicate a provenance withthese ages in the GSM–VSH complex.

Less proximal but in the same system of drainage is the AmeryGroup. Situated today at 71°S, 250 km downslope fromMt Rymill, the Amery Group was deposited on a northerlypaleoslope except the alluvial fans of the RadokConglomerate andJettyMember, whichwere deposited from thewest (Figs. 6 and 7).

The six samples of the Amery Group come from parts, includingthe topmost Radok Conglomerate (CRF77), with northerlypaleocurrents. Sample CRF77, however, differs from the othersin having no U–Pb ages N1200 Ma (Fig. 8). The others — BL3,BL6, CRF47 (Fig. 9), and 95–141, 95–150 (Fig. 10)— representthe north-flowing fluvial system in the Permian and Triassic. Thepooled sample (Fig. 15d) contains zircons of clustersd+, c, aa, andaaaa, as in the Mt Rymill–Lake Vostok samples. This suggeststhat themain provenance of the AmeryGroupwas theGSM–VSHcomplex, and that the PCM-PB region with the same ages ofzircons as those in the Amery Group and 740A (Fig. 15b, e) wasnevertheless minor.

The properties of zircons in the proximal AmeryGroup, 740A,Sodrudhestvo Group, Mt Rymill, and Lake Vostok (Figs. 14 and15c, d, e, f) reflect those of the GSM–VSH (Fig. 18, box):

(1) overall TDM 3.7–2.5, 2.5–1.5, 1.5–1.0 Ga;(2) 680–475 Ma (d+) mafic granitoids and low-HREE-c

hosts, with εHf 9 to −28, and TDMC 2.5–1.3 Ga;

(3) 1200–800 Ma (c) mafic granitoids and low-HREE-chosts, with εHf 11 to −28, and TDM

C 1.8–1.3 Ga;(4) 2200–1700 Ma (aa) mafic granitoids, with εHf 0 to −20,

and TDMC 3.1–2.7 Ga;

(5) 2900–2600 Ma (aaa) (no further information);(6) 3350–3150 Ma (aaaa) mafic granitoids, with εHf 0 to

−20, and TDMC 3.6–3.5 Ga.

7.3. Sediments with similar U–Pb and TDM ages and rock typesfurther downslope from central Antarctica

Formations deposited at various times in the Phanerozoicfarther downslope from the GSM–VSH within the widerCentral Antarctic provenance (CAP) and with detrital zircon

Fig. 14. Specifications of the GSM–VSH (from proximal samples in bold) and CAP (from all samples) by detrital zircons in samples deposited downslope from theprovenance (Table A4). TDM and εHf (or εNd) in the Mt Rymill and Lake Vostok samples was determined on clay. Summed values and properties for each of thecommon ages of 760–460 Ma (d+), 1200–800 Ma (c), 2200–1700 Ma (aa), 2900–2600 Ma (aaa), and 3150–3350 Ma (aaaa) are given in the TOTAL rows.EWMB = Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains block; gran = granitoid; low-H-c = low-HREE-c.


properties are the Cambrian metasediments of the Mt Welch–Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains, the Permian Amelang Pla-teau Formation of DML, and the Triassic Hawkesbury

Fig. 15. Summary of ages of (a) global events, (b–f) samples and bedrock of the PCMin text; (b) bedrock east of 70°E, from Fig. 3. Explanation in (a) inset. (c) U–Pb agessamples 740 AU+L of the ?Triassic red beds in ODP 740A, from Fig. 11. Ages of loages (n=215) of detrital zircons in pooled samples of the Permian–Triassic Amery G(e) Bedrock west of 70°E, from Fig. 3. Explanation in (a). (f) U–Pb SHRIMP agesfraction from Permian morainal clasts of siltstone (Veevers et al., in press). Also pmonazites in a quartzose siltstone (Leitchenkov et al., 2007) and whole-rock Nd modages (n=141) and TDM

C Hf model ages (n=102) of detrital zircons in pooled samples K(Veevers and Saeed, 2007). The heavy broken lines and arrows indicate derivation ofrom a juvenile mantle source; and those in the range 760–480 Ma, including threTDMC =1.35 Ga from mixed juvenile mantle and older crustal sources. (h) U–Pb ages

K2258 of the Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone (Veevers et al., 2006). Ages of low-H

Sandstone. The properties of the contained detrital zircons(Fig. 15g, h) are added to the age groups of Figs. 14 and 15(Table A4).

-PB region; (g) samples of Dronning Maud Land; (h) SE Australia. (a) explained(n=114) and TDM

C and TDM Hf model ages (n=102) of detrital zircons in pooledw-HREE zircons in white. (d) U–Pb ages (n=338) and TDM

C and TDM Hf modelroup about Beaver Lake, from Figs. 8–10. Ages of low-HREE zircons in white.(n=22) of zircons (shaded) and TDM

C Hf and TDM Nd model ages of the b5 μmlotted are the U–Pb SHRIMP ages of 17 detrital zircons and 5 ?metamorphicel age (Delmonte et al., 2004) from an inclusion in ice at Lake Vostok; (g) U–PbF30 and 43 of the Permian Amelang Plateau Formation in DronningMaud Landf grains in the range 1140–880 Ma, with mainly positive εHf , at TDM

C =1.35 Gae low-HREE-c grains, have positive and negative εHf signifying derivation at(n=87) and TDM

C and TDM Hf model ages (n=85) of detrital zircons in sampleREE-c grains in white.


The only significant difference from that of the proximalsamples is in the 1200–800 Ma (c) cluster: in the Ameryand 740A samples (grey filled circles in Fig. 18), εHf is main-ly negative, whereas in the samples of the Hawkesbury

Sandstone, Amelang Plateau Formation, and from theEWMB–Mt Welch region (black filled circles), εHf is positive.These data tentatively suggest a CAP divisible into a zone,including the GSM–VSH, of 1200–800 Ma rocks with mainly

Fig. 16. Salient features of zircons aged 660–475 Ma. (a) Probability plot of ageof 101 Amery-740A zircons (grey) with superimposed plots of Australiansamples of the Hawkesbury Sandstone (K2258) and the Eneabba beach sand;(b) proportion of host-rock types and, except the Eneabba beach sand, TDM

C ages.75=granitoids with 70–75% SiO2; 65=granitoids with b65% SiO2; M=maficrocks; Lc = low-HREE-c (carbonatite); Ls = low-HREE-s (syenite).


negative εHf bounded by rocks of the same age with positiveεHf (Fig. 18).

7.4. Common features

Distinctive features of the CAP provenance are discernible inthe main age clusters.

7.4.1. Cluster d+This correlate of the familiar 700–500 Ma group of ages (the

Pacific–Gondwana igneous component of Ireland et al., 1994;Sircombe, 1999; d+ of Veevers et al., 2006) is found in allpanels of Figs. 14 and 15. Mafic granitoids and low-HREE-crocks are dominant; and εHf is mainly negative (10 to −40),indicating crustal recycling, consistent with the tectonicassembly of Gondwanaland (Veevers, 2007). TDM

C model agesof 2.5 to 2.1 Ga and 1.8 to 1.0 Ga are common in bedrock inAntarctica and Australia (Veevers, 2007).

Fig. 17. On a base from Fig. 1, the boxed data from detrital zircons in SE Australia, Dand composition of the upslope provenance. Specific details of whole-rock analyses oice is 1.88±0.13 Ga and εNd(0) is negative (−15) (Delmonte et al., 2004); TDM Nnegative, indicating derivation of the host rock by crustal reworking. Further details

Common features of d+zircons in the Amery-740A samplesand those in the K2258 Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone of SEAustralia (Fig. 16, Table A5) are overlappingU–Pb and TDM

C ages,similar proportions of host-rock types, including low-HREE rocks,and similar ranges of εHf: +9 to −33, +8 to −38.

The Eneabba beach sand from SW Australia, probablyderived from a proximal Pan-Gondwanaland provenance(Veevers et al., 2006), contains zircons of the same age with amajor proportion (62%) of low-HREE hosts, probably alkalinerocks. The significant proportion of low-HREE hosts in all threesamples probably reflects the common alkaline rocks generatedby oblique stress (Fig. 15a) during the assembly of Gondwana-land (Veevers, 2007).

7.4.2. Cluster cIn c (Veevers et al., 2006), mafic granitoids are dominant, and

εHf is mainly negative (10 to −20) in the GSM–VSH core of theCAP, both properties associated with the tectonic assembly ofRodinia (Condie, 2001). TDM

C ages are 2.3 to 2.0 Ga and 1.8 to1.0 Ga, similar to those above, suggesting derivation from acommon source. Farther afield, in SE Australia and in DML andnearby EWMB andMtWelch, εHf is positive, signifying derivationat ~1.3 Ga from a fertile source.

7.5. Correlation with global/regional events that generated zircons

Global events are shown in Fig. 15a:

(1) the assembly of Gondwanaland from oblique stresses 1(570–490 Ma) and 2 (650–570 Ma)(Veevers, 2003, 2007);

(2) the 1000–900 Ma collision (Mezger and Cosca, 1999;Rogers and Santosh, 2004) of India (Eastern Ghats) andAntarctica (Napier–Rayner Complex). Following Torsviket al. (2001), Boger and Wilson (2005) take the view thatthe Rayner Province at ~750 Ma was separated by c. 30°of latitude from the rest of East Antarctica, and onlyjoined together ~500 Ma during tectonism in the Lambertregion. The contrary view, which we prefer, is fromRogers and Santosh (2004, p. 225): at ~1 Ga during“granulite-facies metamorphism … both belts were thrustaway from central East Antarctica over adjoining Archeancratons, and neither belt exhibits evidence of oceanclosure within the belt. Presumably the closure thatcreated both orogenies was somewhere within the ice-covered part of East Antarctica.” This means that 1000–900 Ma collisional orogens are to be expected in centralAntarctica.

(3) the “worldwide Grenville orogenic event at 1.3–1.0 Ga”,taken as marking the assembly of the supercontinentcalled Rodinia (Condie, 2001).

ML-SE Africa, and the EWMB, as well as those described here, indicate the agef clay are as follows: the TDM Nd of bedrock inclusions in Lake Vostok accretedd of b5 μm clay from Mt Rymill is 2.72±0.05 Ga; the values of εNd(300) arein Table A8.

Fig. 18. Hypothetical super-terrane of sub-glacial Antarctica. Cratons of age c (1200–800 Ma) with minor aa, aaa, and aaaa ages (aa,a,a) are set in a matrix of foldbelts of age d+ (660–475Ma), bounded (dot-and-dash line) by the East African–Antarctic Orogen (EAAO) and the Prydz–Leeuwin Belt (PLB) on two sides, the RossOrogen on the Pacific side, and Australia on the fourth side. From data in Fig. 1, and extended from Veevers et al. (2006, fig. 37). Small exposures of Archean rocks areknown in the Miller Range (MR) on the Pacific margin, the Grunehogna (G) craton of Dronning Maud Land, and the Windmill Islands (WI) at 110°E. The super-terrane possibly extends (dot-and-dash line) as exposed c and d+ terranes into DronningMaud Land, into the PCM-PB, Rayner, and Eastern Ghats regions, and into theWilkes and Albany-Fraser regions. The ages of sediment shed from the central Antarctic provenance (CAP) are given in Ma. TDM (Ga) are shown for rocks of the RossOrogen. The dotted line circumscribes the present upland of the GSM, and its specifications from proximal samples (Fig. 14) are given in the box. The CAP can besubdivided into a poorly defined area with 1200–800 Ma rocks with negative εHf (grey circles of Amery and 740A) bounded by areas with positive εHf (black circlesof Hawkesbury Sandstone, Amelang Plateau Formation — APF, EWMB–MtW — Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains– Mt Welch) (Tables A11, A12).


The 900–1300 Ma Rayner–Ghats and Grenville eventsoverlap c (800–1200 Ma). The 800–900 Ma zircons may reflecta local event of this age, the 810±2 Ma metamorphism in theFisher Terrane (Table 4) and the 950–820 Ma tectono-metamorphism of the Prydz Complex (Table 6). Rocks aged800–900 Ma are not known in the wider area (see the timetableof events in Veevers, 2007, fig. 20).

(4) Condie's (2001) stages of growth of juvenile continentalcrust II (2400–1600 Ma) and younger part (2700–2400 Ma) of Stage III, and Rogers and Santosh's (2004,p. 105, 112) “assembly of a supercontinent [Columbia] …suggested by the abundance of orogenic activity betweenabout 2.1 Ga and 1.6 Ga,” and a 2.9–2.2 Ga Neoarchean

supercontinent. Weak correlation exists between cluster aa(2300–1950 Ma) and crust II (2400–1600 Ma), and aaa(2900–2600 Ma) and the 2900–2200 Ma supercontinent.

8. Discussion and conclusions

Following Veevers et al. (2006, fig. 37), we sketch the solidgeology of Antarctica (Fig. 18) as a mosaic of cratons of age c(1200–800 Ma) with minor aa (2300–1950 Ma), aaa (2900–2600 Ma), and aaaa (3350–3150 Ma) ages embedded in amatrix of Pan-Gondwanaland fold belts of d+ (760–460 Ma)age. The GSM–VSH with negative εHf in its 1200–800 Marocks is bounded on either side by rocks of this age with positiveεHf. The shape of the modelled super-terrane was inspired by the


composite cogs of the West African, Congo, Amazonia, India–East Antarctica–West Australia that rotated within a matrix ofPan-Gondwanaland fold belts (Veevers, 2003). The size of theindividual cratons resembles that of the Gawler Block, and inmain age that of the nearby 1300–1000 Ma Musgrave Block ofcentral Australia.

The 550–490 Ma subduction-related Ross orogen bordersthe super-terrane. Its model ages (2.0–0.9 Ga, Veevers et al.,2006, fig. 29) overlap the 1300–900 Ma range of c, suggestingthat it may be underlain by the super-terrane (Fitzsimons, 2003).

The Pinjarra orogen of SWAustralia, including the LeeuwinComplex (Collins, 2003), contains d+ ages as well as c andolder ages, so that the various projected models (e.g.,Fitzsimons, 2003) would have much of Antarctica underlainby Proterozoic and Archean cratons embedded in d+ fold belts.

This view is foreshadowed by Goodge et al. (2004, p. 1277)in their “sediment provenance I… Precambrian rocks of the EastAntarctic Shield and their Grenville-age mobile belts”. Goodgeet al. (2004, p. 1268) also point to provenance IV “Grenville andPan-African sources in Queen [Dronning] Maud Land and theEast African orogen”, as detailed in Veevers and Saeed (2007).

Both c and d+ terranes are indicated by samples (circles inFig. 17) that were deposited (in decreasing age) at 525 Ma inSouth Australia, 500 Ma along the Pacific margin of Antarctica,450 Ma in SE Australia, 300–200 Ma in the Mt Rymill–Amery–Godavari rift, 290 Ma in DML, 275–255 Ma Perthregion, and 240 Ma in the Hawkesbury Sandstone of SEAustralia. In turn, the Hawkesbury Sandstone contributed c andd+ aged zircons to the shelf sand of eastern Australia (Veeverset al., 2006).

Veevers (1994) argued that the Permian (290 Ma) radialdrainage of East Gondwanaland originated from uplift of theancestral GSM by far-field stress from the ~320 Ma (Variscan)collision of Gondwanaland and Laurussia acting on regions ofweak crust attenuated during prolonged subsidence of intracra-tonic basins. Permian radial drainage was on the same scale asthe present drainage about the thick crust of the uplands of Tibetand Mongolia (Veevers, 2000, p. 126, 127).

Earlier uplift of the GSM and CAP, in the Cambrian andOrdovician, is attributable to the 700–500 Ma obliquecollisional assembly of Gondwanaland involving the generationof copious zircons, including those with low-HREE-c hosts(Veevers, 2007). Still earlier uplift, indicated by the depositionof the 970–650 Ma Sodruzhestvo Group, possibly reflected therelated effect of ~950 Ma collisions in central Antarctica duringthe collision of the Rayner Province and the Eastern Ghats(Rogers and Santosh, 2004).

The intermittent uplift of the GSM and CAP over the past1000 Ma points to alternations of weak (thin) and strong (thick)crust at the scale of the great plateau uplifts of Central Asia.

Acknowledgements

We thank Chris Fielding, Stephen McLoughlin, and JohnWebb for providing samples of the Amery Group, and theOcean Drilling Program (ODP) for the offshore samples. Wethank Stewart Jamieson for providing an updated copy of Fig. 1

of Jamieson et al. (2005), Glen Phillips for data files of Phillipset al. (2006), German Leitchenkov for a pre-print, AlexanderGolynsky for advice and help with references, and NormPearson for advice on the analytical services. We thank GlenPhillips and the journal reviewers Mike Flowerdew and SteveBoger for their criticism, which has greatly benefitted themanuscript. Supported by ARC DP0344841 and grants fromMacquarie University. This study used instrumentation fundedby ARC LIEF and DEST Systemic Infrastructure Grants,Macquarie University, and industry. Contribution 496 from theARC National Key Centre for Geochemical Evolution andMetallogeny of Continents (www.es.mq.edu.au/GEMOC).

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data associated with this article (Methods ofanalysis, Tables A1–A12, Analytical data of the 8 samples inarchived Excel files Tables A13A20) can be found, in theonline version, at doi:10.1016/j.gr.2007.12.007. [Andersen, 2002;Andersen et al., 2004; Belousova et al., 2001; Blichert-Toft et al.,1997; Dodson et al., 1988; Griffin et al., 2000; Griffin et al., 2002;Griffin et al., 2006; Griffin et al., 2007; Jackson et al., 2003;Knudsen et al., 2001; Link et al., 2005; Zheng et al., 2006].

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