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VOL. NO. XIX, ISSUE NO. 06 3

CONTENTSAGRONOMY

1. WaterloggedSoil:CausesandEffects 7Twinkle Jena, Jagadish Jena and Sameer Ranjan Misra

2. Aerogation:AVentilationTechnologyforYieldEnhancementinCrops 9Chijina K, Sarin S and Musafir P.

3. ContractFarming:AnAlternativeforIndianFarmers 11Somanath Nayak and Prayasi Nayak

4. FarmMechanizationinIndia: ACustomHiringPerspective 13B. Padmaja

5. BiostimulantsforEnhancingNutrientUptakeinCrops 15Jeena Mary

6. Wind-Break 16Geeta Kalaghatagi, Shilpa V Chogatapur

and Gunabhagya7. ManagementofHerbicideResistantWeedsin

Wheat 18Seema Dahiya and Sunil

8. AdverseImpactofCOVID-19onIndianAgricultureanditsMitigationMeasures 19Sunil, Paras and Seema Dahiya

9. FertigationUniformityinDripFertigation 21R. Sureshkumar

10. IntegratedFarmDevelopment 23S. Saravanakumar and A. Premalatha

11. IncreasingtheResourceUseEfficienciesthroughHydrogels 24Madam Vikramarjun

12. AlienWeeds:ABiowarinAgriculture 25Dr. S. Sanbagavalli

CROPPHYSIOLOGY

13. EffectofNaturalandAnthropogenicActivityonGreenHouseGasProduction 27Y. M. Yadav and S. D. Surbhaiyya

14. AntOxidativeDefensesSystemsinPlantinResponsetoDroughtStress 29Mamata, K., Savita S. K. and Rajashree B.

ORGANICFARMING

15. OrganicFarming:Definition,ConceptsandPrinciples 30Dr. Doomar Singh

WASTE MANAGEMENT

16. Vermitechnology:AWasteManagementProcess 33Hemant Saini and Poonam Saini

NOVEMBER,2020/VOLUMEXIX/ISSUENO.06

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Publishing Date || 01 November 2020 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER

4 VOL. NO. XIX, ISSUE NO. 06

SOILSCIENCE

17. Biochar:AToolforSoilQualityManagementandClimateChangeMitigation 34Gopal Lal Dhaker, Devi Lal Dhaker and Basu Devi Yadav

18. PrecisionNutrientManagementApproachforEnhancingProductivityofCerealCrops 35M. Srinivasarao

19. PotentialofSlaginMitigationofMethaneEmissionfromSubmergedPaddyField 37Pallavi T. and Shwethakumari U.

20. ResidueBurning:It’sEffectonSoil 38Shwethakumari U and Pallavi T

21. SoilManagementforWheatCrops 39Pratik Ramteke, Neha Navnage and Pramod Wani

22. UAVforAgriculturalWaterManagement 40V. S. L. Raj Rushi K and Raghu. R. S

23. NanotechnologyanditsApplicationsinAgriculture 42Alpana Paul

24. LiquidBiofertilizers:APotentialToolforSustainableSoilHealth 43A. Premalatha and S. Saravanakumar

25. SaltAffectedSoilsandReclamationMeasures 45Pratik Ramteke, Neha Navnage and Pramod Wani

26. Agro-IndustrialWasteforSustainableSoilProductivity 46Ruheentaj1and Geeta Kalaghatagi

27. ConstraintsofWomeninUnorganizedSector 49Deepika Pandey

HORTICULTURE

28. DevelopmentandOpportunitiesofLandscapeGardeningthroughCAD 50Dr. V. G. Magar

29. IntegratedPestManagementofInvasive:TomatoPinwormPest 51Dr. M. Venkateswara Reddy

30. FruitofNewWorld:Avocado 52Pooja

31. BleedinginCoconutPalms:isitaChoas? 54P. Logeshkumar and K. Arunkumar

32. Microgreens:NewGenerationSmartandSuperFood 56Shaunak Singh and Vartika Singh

FORESTRY

33. BambooShoots:HealthyFood 58Chichaghare AR

MEDICINALANDAROMATICPLANTS

34. Plumbago rosea:AVersatileMedicinalPlant 60Rajeswari E and Dr. Deepa S. Nair

MUSHROOMCULTIVATIONANDPROCESSING

35. SPAWN:ASeedMaterialforMushroomProduction 61Ranganathswamy Math Arjunsinh Rathva and Gajanan Laxmanrao Kadam

SEEDSCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGY

36. ProblemsandWaystoOvercome:HybridSeedProductioninSorghumandBajra 62Bangaru Kiranmayee and Bagudam Rachana

37. GenomicSelectionforCropImprovement 63Thota Joseph Raju, Deva Prasanna Angel and Vijayalakshmi N

38. MolecularInsightsinControlofSexExpressioninCucurbits 64Vijayalakshmi N., T. Joseph Raju, and Deva Prssanna Angel

39. SeedHardnessUnderChangingClimate 65Dr. Archana Sanyal

40. GASignalingandRoleofDellaProteinsonSeedGermination 67Thota Joseph Raju, Sudeep Kumar E and Deva Prasanna Angel

41. Quinoa:TheSuperGrain 69Islavath Suresh Naik

PLANTBREEDINGANDGENETICS

42. OrganicBreeding:PrioritytoQualitythanYield 70Minakshi R. Neware

43. RoleofPre-BreedinginCropImprovement 73Khushbu Chittora

44. PearlMilletBiofortificationtoThwartDeficienciesinHumanDiets 73Sonu Get and Madhu Choudhary

45. LinseedOil:AnAyurvedicandHistoricalMedicine 75Ritika Singh

46. GeneticUseRestrictionTechnologyanditsImpactontheFarmingCommunity 76Ishwarya Lakshmi VG and Basavaraj PS

47. ChromosomeManipulation:AToolforDistantHybridization 77Rukoo Chawla

48. GeneticEliminationoftheLectininSoybeanSeedsbyMarkerAssistedSelectionbySpecificDNAMarker 79Shrinkhala T. Pawale

49. ReverseBreeding:AVersatileToolforPlantBreedingTechnique 81Sandhya, Manoj Kumar, and Pawan Kumar

50. HybridizationTechniquesandConsequences83Dr. Rani A. Jadhav



51. Sesame:SeedsandOilImportance 85Paras and Sunil

BIOTECHNOLOGY

52. InsectCellExpressionVectors 87Dr. Poloju Deepa and Dr. Koppu Vasavi

53. ApplicationofBiotechnologicalToolsinVegetableImprovement 88Nupur Saini

MICROBIOLOGY

54. BiocontrolofPlantPathogens:AMicrobialFormulation 91Nisha Sharma and Nivedita Sharma

55. MechanismofBiologicalNitrogenFixationanditsImportance 92Amir Khan

PLANTPATHOLOGY

56. RespirationinDiseasedPlants 94P. Valarmathi and D. Ladhalakshmi

57. TipOver/RhizomeRotofBananaaSeriousThreattoBananaCultivation 95K. Dinesh, Puli Shashanka Roy and Ajit Kumar Savani

58. MajorDiseasesofGroundnutandtheirManagement:ABriefReview 96Tejpal Bajaya, Manisha Shivran and Ramesh Chand Bana

59. Bacillus Spp.:APromisingBiologicalWeaponsforPlantDiseaseManagement 98Huma Nazneen, K. Greeshma and A. Jawahar Reddy

60. QuarantineinAgriculture 99Dr. Harshraj Kanwar and Dr. Brajnandan Singh Chandrawat

61. NucleicAcidIsothermalAmplificationToolsforDetectionofPlantPathogens 100Nagesh, and Aishwaryarani Basavaraj Baliger

62. AnOverviewofQoIFungicide:Strobilurin 102Sneha Shikha, and BK Namriboi

63. MeansofMicrobialCommunication:QuorumSensing 103Bhagyahree Bhatt, Sanghmitra Aditya

and Surbhi Sharma64. RemoteSensingApplicationinAgriculture 105

Shalini Yerukala and Chandrakala Jillela65. TranskingdomRNATraffickinganditsRolein

DiseaseManagement 106Dr Sneha R. Patil

66. GeneticEngineeringofPlantViruses 107Anita Jat

ENTOMOLOGY

67. OrganicPestManagement:AnEcofriendlyStrategyforInsectPestManagement 109Prajna Pati

68. Myrmecochory:AnAccountonEggDispersalofStickInsectsbyAnts 111Nidheesh T. D., Kuldeep Sharma., Harsha B. R. and Niranjana G. N

69. DetectionofInsectPestinStorage 112Richa Banshiwal and Tara Yadav

70. MarkerAidedSelection(MAS)TechniqueinResistanceBreeding 114Beerendra, and KV Nagarjuna Reddy

71. Eco-PhysiologicalPhasesofInsectDiapause 115Kiran K. G. N. and Mogili Ramaiah

72. PotentialThreatofDesertLocust(Schistocera gregaria)toIndianAgriculture 117Soniya Dhanda and Anil

73. Mycoherbicides:Weeds-KillingFungi 118Chandrakala J and Shalini Yerukala

EXTENSIONEDUCATIONANDRURALDEVELOPMENT

74. InformationandCommunicationTechnologyinAgriculture 119Sonal Athnere and Kamal Garg

75. RoleofEcofriendlyAgriculturalPracticesusedbyTribalFarmersinCropProductionforSustainableDevelopment 121Sonam Upadhyay

76. DAMINI:AMobileApplicationonLightningLocationNetwork 123Shwetha, N. V. Rajath H. P., Nandeesha, C. V., and Adarsh, N.

77. ZeroBudgetNaturalFarming(ZBNF):BenefittingReplyofAgricultureDuringCOVID-19 124Dharmender Singh, Dangi Pooja Arun

and Peeyush Kumar Jaysawal78. SWOTAnalysis:AManagementToolforAgri-

BusinessDevelopment 127Mutteppa Chigadolli

79. MajorAgricultureReform2020:HelpsinRisingtheIncomeofFarmers 128Subha Laxmi Sahoo, and Abhilasha Deepa Minz

80. FieldDemonstration 130Seema Yadav and Rajendra Jangid

FOODPROCESSINGANDPRESERVATION

81. MilkandMilkProducts:AnEnterpriseofSHGsforBalancedFoodsduringPandemic 132Tarak Chandra Panda, and Susrita Sahu



FOODTECHNOLOGY

82. Agro-ProcessingIndustry:ASupportSystemforNon-FarmActivitiesinRuralEconomy 135Mousumi Malo

ECONOMICS

83. TechnicalEfficiencyofPaddyFarmersinCauveryDeltaZone:AComparativeStudyofCorrectedOrdinaryLeastSquareandMaximumLikelihoodEstimates 137R. Vasanthi, and B. Sivasankari

84. AgricultureasEmploymentProvider:ChangingTrend(1991-2019) 139Dinesh

85. FarmerProducerOrganisations(FPOs):WayofUnitingFarmers 140Indhushree, A and Saravana Kumar, M

86. MultidimensionalPoverty andIndia 142Snigdha Manav and Dinesh

ENVIRONMENTALSCIENCES

87. Nanotechnology:ANewFrontierinSustainableAgriculture 143Raviteja Machanuru and Venkata Naga Sindhuja Padigapati

ANIMALDISEASES

88. UdderAffectionsinAnimals 144Dr. Koppu Vasavi, and Dr. Poloju Deepa



AGRONOMY20197

1. Waterlogged Soil: Causes and EffectsTWINKLE JENA1*, JAGADISH JENA2 AND SAMEER RANJAN MISRA3

1Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agriculture Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, UP 2Department of Agronomy, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, CG-492012 3Division of Agricultural Chemicals, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-110012, India. *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

IntroductionWaterlogging happens once most or all of the macropores become stuffed with water instead of air. It happens a lot in soils that have a bigger proportion of micropores than macropores, as macropores promote free drainage whereas the micropores tend to carry on to water. Both compaction that presses the soil particles and aggregates nearer along, and dispersion that fills the pore spaces with clay particles, tend to cause waterlogging. Waterlogging could be common to many soil types but prevalent significantly in clay soils. Waterlogging is also caused due to heavy rain, dispersion, compaction, poor irrigation management, rising water tables, or a mixture of poor surface drainage (across the paddock) and poor subsurface drainage (down the soil profile). The combination of one or more reason aggravates the problem of waterlogging.

Different Forms of Waterlogging in the Field � Riverine flood waterlogging: Flood may

occur in nearby land from the stream having excess floodwater in the rainy season.

� Oceanic floodwater logging: Ocean water spreads within the close land causes waterlogging. Seasonal water-logging: Ran off water accumulates within the low lands and depression in the rainy season.

� Perennial water-logging: Swamp gets rainwater, runoff water and seepage water from canal inflicting perennial water-logging.

� Subsoil water-logging: High water level in the rainy season is generally unsuitable for root growth.

Factors Causing Waterlogging � Climatological factor: Because of high

rainfall, rainwater accumulates on the soil surface.

� Flood: Flood water typically causes a water-logged state in the field.

� Seepage flow from canal: Water levels are nearer to the surface due to seepage from the canal.

� Land shape: Saucer-shaped land gets water

from high-lands which ends into water-logging.

� Uncontrolled and unwanted irrigation: Excess irrigation causes accumulation of water on the soil surface.

� Drainage: Poor drainage system within the field.

Effects of Waterlogging � Plants show stunted growth and become yellow

as nitrogen is lost because of denitrification that is caused by a scarcity of aeration.

� Improved pasture plants are replaced by tolerant weeds (docks, smartweed, rushes, sedges, couch, etc.).

� Pastures become fouled with mud and utilization is reduced.

� Pasture rate declines. � Soils become blocked and water ponds on the

surface. � Responses to the applied chemical are poor. � Nutrient balance within the pasture is upset

with lower levels of nitrogen, potassium, magnesium and chlorine in the pasture.

� Modification in soil biology from aerobic to anaerobic soil organisms.

Problems of Water-Logged Soils � Water depth: Low land areas are typically

flooded to depths of about 50 cm and therefore the limitations to crop production related to extensively low reduction potentials and partially owing to low phosphorus availability.

� Poor aeration: Because of water-logging, a vicinity of the soil air moves out into the atmosphere as it is displaced by the incoming water.

� Soil structure: Continuous water stagnation destroys the soil structure and makes the soil compact.

� Soil temperature: Water-logging lowers the soil temperature as wet soils have a better specific heat than dry soils.

� Soil pH scale: pH tends to increase in acidic soils and reduce in base-forming soil, fixing pH scale towards neutral.



� Availability of nutrients: Nitrogen deficiency is very common in waterlogged soil. Because of lower temperature and reduced condition, mineralization of organics affected.

� Phosphorus: The inorganic type of P is present at higher levels in flooded soils than in upland soils thus making it available

� Potassium: K response is clear in several lowland soils. Flooding and puddling of the soils throughout lowland preparation could significantly increase the soil solution concentration of K owing to the displacement of exchangeable K by larger amounts of Fe and Mn in the soil resolution.

� Sulphur: Sulphur deficiency has been reported from several lowland areas. The reduction of SO4 in flooded soils has 3 implications for rice culture: The S availability could become insufficient, Zn and Cu are also immobilized, and H2S toxicity could rise significantly in soils low in Fe.

� Zinc: Widespread deficiency of Zn to rice crop in wetland conditions is reported as Zn is most often deficient in basic soils.

� Salinity: Salinity is a crucial constraint to rice production in several coastal lowlands additionally as in alkaline soils.

� Iron and Manganese: Fe and Mn are present in excess inflicting toxicity to the plant.

� Impact on crops: Under the water-logged condition, all field crops cannot survive because of poor aeration and unavailability of nutrients to the plant except rice.

Management of Water-Logged Soils � Levelling of land: Leveling of land in several

wetlands removes water by inducing runoff. � Drainage: Drainage removes excess water

from the root zone that is harmful to plant growth. The land is drained by surface drain, sub-surface drain and drainage well strategies.

� Controlled irrigation: Excess use of water in the irrigation leads to the water-logged condition.

� To check the seepage in the canals and irrigation channels: Seepage causes water-logging.

� Flood control measures: Construction of bunds could check water flow the rivers to the cultivable lands.

� Plantation of the tree has a high transpiration rate: Transpiration rate in trees like Eucalyptus, Acacia, Ziziphus is very high. In transpiration method the underground water is consumed by trees, thus, lowering the groundwater table.

� Choice of crops and their suitable varieties: Certain crops like rice, jute and Sesbania will tolerate water-logging up to the same extent. In rice crop, submergence tolerance varies from one variety to another.

Generally, lowland and deep-water varieties are preferred.

Reducing Waterlogging through Irrigation ManagementWaterlogging is one of the most limiting factors affecting flood-irrigated pasture production. In a flood irrigation situation, waterlogging will occur as it takes too long to get water: on to a bay and off to a bay.

Reducing Waterlogging through Drainage � Surface drainage: Improvement in surface

drainage that involves maintaining existing drains and installing additional drains is most important as it is the simplest and cheapest option. Emphasis should be placed on preventing water from the upper paddocks flowing over onto the lower paddocks.

� Subsurface drainage: Poor subsurface water movement is caused by an impediment to the water moving down the soil profile due to heavy soil texture, compacted layers, and natural or induced hardpans in the profile. Poor subsurface water movement can also be caused by subsurface water moving downhill from upper slopes or by springs. In irrigation areas, groundwater pumping is a common form of subsurface drainage.

In high-rainfall areas of Australia, the main forms of subsurface drainage are subsurface pipe drains or mole drains or a combination of both.

� Subsurface pipe drains: Free-draining topsoils with an impermeable layer at a depth of more than 0.7 meters, or deep, subject to rising water tables, require pipe drains. Though they are expensive to install but are very effective and economically viable in the correct situations. They can last for many years, provided they are correctly installed and consistently maintained.

� Mole drains: Clay and clay loam soils with poor natural drainage and with clay less than 40 cm from the surface are generally suitable for mole drainage. A mole drain can be made simply by pulling a metal object (i.e. a ripper blade with a cylindrical foot, or mole plough) through the soil, leaving an open channel. Mole drains cost less than tile drains but require more maintenance.Nutrient management in water-logged

soils: Low N fertility is an important constraint in the water-logged soil. Following concepts may increase N-use efficiency in lowland rice; i.e. deep placement, slow and controlled release fertilizers, use of nitrification and urease inhibitors.

� Planting should be done in mounds show the crop escape the complete submergence.



� In saline areas, good burrowed earth soil should be used for making mounds.

� Fertilizers should be applied along with planting.

� Protect seedlings from termites. � Provision of an effective open drainage system

to divert runoff & entering the low-lying areas. � Grassing the drainage channels for improving

the functioning of the open drains. � Suitable tree species for waterlogged soils are-

Eucalyptus robusta, Syzigium cuminii, Salix sp, Terminalia arjuna, Acacia nilotica.

ConclusionWaterlogging may occur in almost all soils depending on climatological factor, land shape, irrigation method, drainage, seepage water. It causes blocking of soil pore spaces thus preventing aeration and affects adversely crop plants. Poor aeration coupled with the destruction of soil

structure and neutrality of pH affects the availability of different nutrient elements. However, nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient under waterlogged condition. Proper levelling of land, improved drainage condition both surface and subsurface drainage as per requirement, controlled irrigation, checking seepage losses, planting bio-drainage crops and selection of suitable crops along with efficient nutrient management conditions can mitigate the adverse impact of waterlogging conditions on crop plants.

ReferencesRitzema, H.P. (1994). Agricultural Drainage Criteria.

Drainage Principles and Applications, ILRI Publication 16:635-690.

Hillel, Daniel (2004). Introduction to Environmental Soil Physics. United States of America: Elsevier Academic Press: 441.

McFarlane, D.J. (1985). Assessment of waterlogged sites. /. Agric. W. Aust. 26(4): 119-121.

20479

2. Aerogation: A Ventilation Technology for Yield Enhancement in CropsCHIJINA K1, SARIN S2 AND MUSAFIR P3.1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara 2M.Sc. Agronomy, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani 3Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Agricultural Research Station, Mannuthy

IntroductionSubsurface drip irrigation is catching up as a better method of irrigation as it saves 25 – 50 per cent water compared to traditional irrigation methods. However, frequent application of irrigation water through subsurface drip irrigation creates a saturated wetted front around the emitters leading to the displacement of air from the crop root zone because water delivered through emitters will move in all directions slowly only. In heavy clay soil, crops irrigated with subsurface drip may suffer from hypoxia when the rate of irrigation is close to or higher than evaporation rate. If the crop roots stay in anaerobic condition for a longer period, it may reduce root and microbial respiration. It may also change the hormone levels and enzyme activity of plants, which weakens photosynthesis, reduces water and nutrients uptake by plants and increases leaf abscisic acid (Bai et al., 2013). This situation may eventually lead to the decline of crop yield and quality (Sey et al., 2010). These constraints can be overcome by aerating the irrigation water and the process is known as aerogation. It is also known as oxygation, subsurface oxygation and aerated irrigation.

AerogationAerogation is the process of aerating irrigation water when employing subsurface drip irrigation to deliver it to the root zone. High oxygen concentration in water is accomplished by either mixing air using an air pump, super micro bubble generating system or venturi injector or by mixing peroxides such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) with irrigation water before it is distributed through the irrigation lines. Oxygation offers plant roots and soil biota extra oxygen with water during, or before, finishing each irrigation cycle, when soil air has been replaced by irrigation water. With the current oxygation technology, additional oxygen is provided directly into the rhizosphere during irrigation with air injection into the irrigation stream (Goorahoo et al., 2002), or close to the end of each irrigation cycle as with hydrogen peroxide injection. Air injection was accomplished by mixing air at the rate of 12 per cent by volume of the irrigation water by venturi injector coupled in the pressurized irrigation line. Aerating irrigation water increases the oxygen concentration from 5 to 42 mg per litre (Bhattarai et al., 2004).

Ventilation after irrigation is almost the same as the original drip irrigation system except for the



presence of additional air pumps. The advantage of this approach is that will have little bad effects on the original soil. Secondly, this method can increase the anti-clogging ability of dripper; therefore, it extends the service life of the drip irrigation belts. Although this method needs additional cost for electricity, drip facility, etc., these results have some comprehensive benefits.

Aerogation using Super Micro Bubble Generating SystemBefore irrigation, it is disposing the water by super-micro bubble generating system, so that the water is enriched with a bubble whose diameter is less than 3 μm.

Aerogation using Venturi InjectorAt the entrance of the underground irrigation system, use venturi injector to inject a certain amount of air, which is transported to the soil in the crop root zone by water. This method is called mixing gases with irrigation. According to Bernoulli’s law, when water flows through the Venturi at a certain pressure, the flow velocity will increase, due to the smaller radius of the throat. Water pressure energy converts into kinetic energy and it also reduces on a side wall. If the sidewall pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure, negative pressure will be formed, and then air will be sucked into the pipes (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1. Working principle of the venturi injector

FIGURE 2. Sketch map of aerated by groove

Aerogation using ChemicalsUse urea and calcium peroxide as fertilizer and add low concentration hydrogen peroxide (HP) to irrigation water. These substances will release oxygen to add oxygen to the root zone soils slowly.

Injection of HP to the root zone can effectively improve the oxygen content of the crop rhizosphere. The technique is simple, fast, and to some extent alleviates root zone hypoxia. Therefore, it improves crop physiological indexes and yield. However, limitations of this method are greater, such as the inconvenience of transportation and storage, strong oxidizing and potential hazards for the crop, soil structure and soil organisms.

Other MethodsAnother method is groove culture; its advantages are harmless to the environment, and significantly improve the plant height, stem diameter, biomass, crop yield and quality. However, it needs higher costs before planting.

Current researches are mostly in small greenhouses (Figure 2).

Benefits of AerogationBenefits of rhizosphere ventilation include increased soil enzyme activity, root respiration, uptake of mineral elements, improved root physiological activities, chlorophyll concentration at which lead to higher photosynthesis and ultimately increasing the yield and quality.

Limitations � Expensive � Air moves away � Disturbs the soil microbial community � Non - uniformity in application

ReferencesBai, T. H., Li, C. Y., Li, C., Liang, D., and Ma, F.

W. 2013. Contrasting hypoxia tolerance and adaptation in Malus species is linked to differences in stomatal behavior photosynthesis. Physiol. Plant. 147(4): 514–523.

Bhattarai, S. P., Huber, S., and Midmore, D. J. 2004. Aerated subsurface irrigation water gives growth and yield benefits to Zucchini, vegetable soybean and cotton in heavy clay soils. Ann. Appl. Bio.,144 (3): 285–298.

Sey, B. K., Manceur, A. M., Whalen, J. K., Benjamin, K., Gregorich, E. G., and Rochette, P. 2010. Root-derived respiration and nitrous oxide production as affected by crop phenology and nitrogen fertilization. Plant Soil, 326: 369–379.

Goorahoo, D. Carstensen, G., and Zoldoske, D. F. 2002. Using air in sub-surface drip irrigation (SDI) to increase yields in bell peppers. Int. Water Irrig. 22(2): 39–42.

Li, Y., Wenquan, N., Jingwei, W., Jian, X. Mingzhi, Z., and Kangyong, L. 2016. Review on advances of airjection irrigation. Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng. 9 (2): 1- 11.



20484

3. Contract Farming: An Alternative for Indian FarmersSOMANATH NAYAK1 AND PRAYASI NAYAK2

1Division of Agronomy, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 2Division of Agronomy, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttrakhand

IntroductionThe Government of India has reformed the agricultural policies in recent times in the area of marketing, infrastructure development, etc. as a part of Atmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan. One of the major policy reform talks about contract farming, in which the Govt is going to give legal support to farmers engaged with the agro-based industry. Though contract farming isn’t new to this country it is high time to learn about contract farming, type of contract farming, its advantages, and disadvantages. Contract farming are often defined as agricultural production administered consistent with an agreement between a buyer and farmers, which keeps conditions for the assembly and marketing of a farm product or products. The farmer must provide agreed quantities of the agricultural products following the desired standards of the purchaser at the time determined by the purchaser. In turn, the buyer commits to purchase the product at a pre-determined price and in some cases, it gets involved in the production process to support producer, for example, the supply of farm inputs, provision of technical advice, etc. Some successful cases of contract farming in India are Pepsi foods ltd. in Punjab – Tomato puri, Tomato paste, Basmati rice, Chillies, oilseeds and vegetable crops like potato, wheat farming in Madhya Pradesh by Hindustan Lever Ltd (HLL), Rallis and ICICI, Appachi’s integrated cotton company model –Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu backed by a model called the Integrated Cotton Cultivation (ICC) and therefore the contract farming for Gherkin production in Karnataka Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Karnataka alone, approximately 30,000 small and marginal farmers have involved themselves in contract farming of gherkins. Karnataka exported 50,000 metric tons of gherkins valued a Rs. 143 crores during 2004-05.

Contract Farming Business Models [1, 3]Centralized model: In a centralized model, a sponsor (a processor/ packer) sources the products from large numbers of the small, medium, or large farmers. In this model, the buyers’ involvement may vary from minimal input provision (e.g. specific varieties) to regulate of most production aspects (e.g. from land preparation to harvesting). The quantities (quota), qualities, and delivery

conditions are usually predetermined at the beginning of the sowing season. The production and harvesting processes and qualities are tightly controlled, sometimes directly implemented by the buyer’s staff. The firm provides inputs like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, credit, and machines, etc. This model was used for annual crops and crops which frequently require a high degree of processing. This is the most common CF model followed by the sponsor which requires large volumes of uniform quality products usually for processing; e.g. sugar cane, tobacco, tea, coffee, cotton, tree crops, vegetables, dairy, poultry.

Nucleus Estate Model: In this model, the buyer buys both from own estates/ plantations and from contracted farmers. The central estate is usually used to supply inputs for the processing plant but in some cases, it is used for research, breeding or piloting, and demonstration purposes and/ or as a collection point. The estate system involves significant investments by the sponsor into land, machines, staff, and management. This model is acceptable for crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, sugar and palm, crops with which farmers may have had little or no experience. The farmers are sometimes called ‘satellite farmers’ illustrating their link to the nucleus farm. This model was within the past often used for state-owned farms that re-allocated land to former workers.

Multipartite Model: The multipartite model may involve a variety of organizations, frequently including statutory governmental bodies alongside private companies and sometimes financial institutions. Each organization provides different goods and services such as credit, inputs, types of machinery, equipment, transport, processing and marketing facilities. Separate organizations (e.g. cooperatives) may organize farmers and provide embedded services (e.g. credits, extension, marketing, sometimes also processing). This model may involve equity share schemes for producers.

Intermediary Model: In this model, three tire arrangements are there where the buyer subcontracts an intermediary (collector, aggregator or farmer organization) who formally or informally contracts farmers (a combination of the centralized/ informal models). The intermediary provides embedded services (intermediate the services provided by buyers) and purchases the crop from the growers. With this model, problems



arise in vertical coordination as the sponsor loses direct contact with farmers. The sponsors run the risk of losing control of production and quality as well as prices received by farmers. Hence this model fits into those ventures which are least worried about the quality of raw materials.

Informal Model: The informal model is characterized by an informal contract between individual entrepreneurs or small companies and farmers on a seasonal basis. The success of these often depends on government support and extension services. Usually, the firm’s involvement in actual production and input procurement is very minimal or limited to the delivery of basic inputs, occasionally on credit; advice is usually limited to grading and quality control. Informal contract arrangements are often found in crops that need minimal processing. Usually, these are sorted and graded before being put to the market. These kinds of models are found in products requiring minimal processing/ packaging and vertical coordination; e.g. fresh fruit/ vegetables for local markets, sometimes also staple crops. Many supermarket chains in India usually follow this model to make sure a gentle supply of produce.

Advantages and Disadvantage of Contract Farming to the Farmers [2]Advantages DisadvantageInputs and production services are often supplied by the sponsorNew technology and skill are transferred to the farmer’s fieldPrice volatility is often reduced as prices are fixed in advanceExposed to advanced mechanized agro-technology

Farmers face production problems and sometimes threats of market failure while growing new crops.Sometimes the sponsoring companies become untrustworthy or take advantage of a monopoly position.The corrupted staff of sponsoring organizations may exploit farmers.Farmers failed to repay the debt because of production problems and excessive advances.

Advantages and disadvantage of contract farming to the sponsors [2]

Advantages DisadvantageProcurement of raw material becomes easy and more reliable than open-market purchases

More consistent quality can be achieved than open market purchases.

Protection from fluctuation in market pricing as the price is fixed in advance with the farmers.

The sponsoring company can-do long-term planning as the raw material supply is steady and secured

Sometimes the farmers can’t produce the desired product due to their social and cultural constraints.

Farmers may sell the products outside the contract which will reduce processing factory output.

Farmers may use inputs provided by sponsors for other purposes, thereby reducing yields.

Poor management and lack of discussion with farmers may lead to farmer discontent.

ConclusionIn India, more than 85% of farmers are small and marginal in nature that face problems with respect to credit supply and other necessary inputs during the cultivation. Then the unpredictable nature of market forces causes price fluctuation which has a negative effect on both the buyer and seller in one and another way. Hence the contract farming, which is an agreement between a buyer and farmers in terms of production and marketing, can be mutually advantageous.

ReferenceManjunatha A.V., Ramappa K.B., Lavanya B.T and

Mamatha N.C. 2016. Present status and prospects of contract farming in India International Journal of Agriculture Sciences 8(7): 1072–1075.

Ramsundar, B and Shubhabrata, S. 2014. Problems and prospects of contract farming In India. Global Journal of Commerce and Management Perspective 3(6): 12–17.

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4. Farm Mechanization in India: A Custom Hiring PerspectiveB. PADMAJASRF-NAHEP, ICAR-NAARM *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Farm mechanization is the dynamic process which includes the process of development and use of machines that can take the place of human and animal power in agricultural operations. Mechanization in Indian agriculture started with the introduction of the green revolution, in which the Central Tractor Organization was established mainly for land reclamation and mechanical cultivation. The effective farm mechanization contributes to increase production in two major ways: firstly, the timeliness of operation and secondly the good quality of work. In agriculture, the need and type of machines required continue to undergo a change with the development of farming in terms of new crops of high yielding varieties, cropping pattern, inputs used, availability of irrigation sources, shift in power sources, increase in the farm level, income of the farmers as well as general development of area.

Government Schemes to Promote Farm Mechanization1. Macro Management of Agriculture

(2001): This scheme was launched in 2001 by GOI and later in 2008, the MMA scheme was revised. The role of the scheme has been redefined to avoid overlapping and duplication of efforts and to make it more relevant to the present agricultural scenario in the states. Under this scheme the major focus was on Promotion of agricultural mechanization equipments, especially small farm implements like cono-weeder, zero till machine, rotavator, improved hand-tools, i.e., gender friendly equipment, bullock drawn implements and power operated equipments, etc. At least 25 percent of the overall allocation for the agricultural mechanization should be earmarked only for the new technology equipment recommended by ICAR.

2. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (2007): This scheme was launched in 2007 by GOI. Under this scheme, assistance will be given for establishing Custom Hiring Centres for agricultural equipments, custom hiring centres for Straw Management, Agriculture Machines Testing Centers, Hi-tech hubs for Custom Hiring, Post-Harvest Technology Units for Primary Processing and Value Addition. It

also supports for the use of Solar Energy in Agriculture i.e. Solar pump sets, Solar dryers, solar energy in green house etc. and gives financial assistance for the development of Modern Farms of agricultural mechanization at Govt./SAUs level for demonstration.

3. Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (2014): This mission was launched in 2014 by GOI. The funding pattern will be 60 per cent by GOI and remaining 40 per cent by respective state governments and states of Northern-Eastern and Himalayan region, the share of Govt. of India & State Govt. is 90 per cent: 10 per cent. This scheme specially focuses on promotion and strengthening of agricultural mechanization through training, testing and demonstration. Demonstration, training and distribution of Post-Harvest Technology and Management (PHTM). Financial assistance for procurement of agricultural machinery and equipment’s. Establishment of Farm Machinery Banks for Custom Hiring. Establishment of Hi-Tech, High Productive Equipment Hub for Custom Hiring. Promotion of Farm Mechanization in Selected Villages. Financial assistance for promotion of mechanized operations carried out through Custom Hiring Centers.

Custom Hiring Service Centers / Krishi Yantradhare CentersMeaning of CHSC/KYC: Is an important mechanism through which most small holders can access services of agricultural machinery. It is one option that can ensure the use of improved farm machinery even to small and marginal farmers on rental basis. It odffers prospects for facilitating rapid mechanization of agricultural systems in the region.Need for Custom Hiring Service Centers1. Growing concerns over productivity &

efficiencies.2. Farmers are trying ways to increase

productivity and profits by keeping down production costs.

3. Farmers tend to tie less money into capital assets (machinery) or they tend to increase per cent utilization of equipment over the year.



4. Modern machinery help provide dramatic increase in yield.

5. Mechanization is generally expensive, especially for small farmers.

6. Leaving them to choose between dependence on labor-intensive methods or hiring equipments or quit farming.

Objectives of Custom Hiring Service Centers1. In order to address the constraints in land

preparation and development, by providing farm machinery and equipments on custom hire service basis.

2. To encourage in-situ moisture conservation and to harness the residual moisture of kharif season for rabi pulses and oilseeds.

3. To enhance the production and productivity of the crops.

4. To overcome the non-availability of farm laborers problem.

5. To provide services of High-Tech farm machinery to small and marginal farmers.

6. To attract the youth towards agriculture with modern machineries.

List of Farm Machineries Proposed to be Shelfed in the Custom Hire Service Centers1. Land Development, Tillage and Seedbed

preparation Equipments: Tractor and it’s accessories like hook, trailer, trolly, bolts, Power Tillers, M.B. Plough, Rotavator, Disc Plough, Disc Harrow, Cultivators, Sugarcane Stubble shaver cum cultivator, Leveller Blade, Cage Wheel, Blade Harrow, Laser Guided Land Leveller etc.

2. Sowing and Planting Equipments: Paddy Planter, Furrow Opener/Ridger, Seed cum Fertilizer Drill, Roto till Drill, Raised Tray Nursery Preparation Machine with Trays, Raised bed Planter/ Ridge Furrow Planter.

3. Inter Cultivation Equipments: Paddy Planter, Furrow Opener/Ridger.

4. Harvesting & Threshing Equipments: Multi Crop Thresher, Groundnut Digger, Groundnut Pod Stripper/ Thresher, Harvester/ Reaper, Combined Harvester, Baler.

5. Equipments for Residue Management: Sugarcane Thrash Cutter, Coconut Frond Chopper, Chaff cutter.

6. Post-Harvest & Agro Processing Equipments: Dal Processor, Mini Rice Mill, Mini Rice Mill, Mini Oil Expeller, Ragi Cleaning Machine, Sugarcane Crusher Unit, Flour Mill, Pulverisers, Chilly Pounding Machine, Sugar Cane Juice Making Machine.

7. Power Sources: Tractor, Power tiller, Diesel Pump sets.

Package of Machineries Under Different Crops1. Paddy package: Tractor, Laser guided

leveller, Soil Pulveriser, Rotovator, Automatic Nursery seedling machine, Paddy Transplanter (8 Row), Paddy weeder (2 Row)

2. Direct sowing paddy package: Drum seeder- Fiber body, Conoweeder, Power operated Paddy weeder.

3. Sugarcane package: Sugarcane Harvester, Sugarcane harvester cum loader, Sugarcane planter, 18.5 hp mini tractor with rotovator

4. Groundnut package: Tractor with Rotovator, Groundnut digger cum shaker, Groundnut planter, Groundnut seed drill, Groundnut thresher

5. Spraying and inter-cultivation package: Knapsack mist blower, Self-propelled Power weeder, Aero blast Sprayer, Power tiller sweep cultivator, Power sprayer

Rental rates of machineries available in CHSC

Sl. No. Name of the Machinery In

numbersHiring rate

1 Multi crop thresher (Rs./quintal) 1 502 Hand sprayer (Rs./Day) 1 1003 Power sprayer (Rs./Day) 2 3004 Power tiller (Rs. /hr.) 2 2505 Harvester/reaper (Rs. /hr.) 2 7006 Cultivator (Rs./Day) 2 5007 Rotary (36 blades) (Rs. /hr.) 3 7008 Hole digger (Rs./dig) 1 189 Tractor operated seed drill (Rs./

Day)1 350

10 Tractor (Rs. /8 hr.) 4 150011 Disc harrow (Rs. /hr.) 1 100012 Mini Tractor (Rs. /8 hr.) 2 80013 Battery sprayer (Rs. /8 hr.) 2 10014 Rotary weeder (Rs/hr.) 2 20015 Leveler (Rs./Day) 1 35016 Rotavator (Rs.hr.) 2 70017 MB plough (Rs. /hr.) 2 600

Suppliers of Custom Hiring Service Services: Cooperatives, FPOs, Charitable Trusts, NGOs, Farm machinery Manufacturers, Landless farmers through PPP and Resource-rich/ Progressive farmers

Terms and Conditions of Custom Hiring Service Centers

� Preference will be given for the farmers who comes first.

� The responsibility of the driverless machineries should be taken by the farmers and it should be returned carefully after use.

� There will be no discount and bargaining on the rates fixed for the machineries.

� The machineries and implements should be used only for the purpose for which it is hired



Key Challenges in Custom Hiring Include: � Virtual or real consolidation of the widely

fragmented and scattered land holdings in many regions of the country.

� Extend benefit of mechanization to all cropping systems including rice and horticultural crops.

� To achieve higher production levels, the quality of operations like seedbed preparation,

sowing, application of fertilizer, chemicals and irrigation water, weeding, harvesting and threshing will have to be improved by using precision and efficient equipment.

ReferencesAnonymous, 2015, Annu. Repo. (2014-15),

Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, p.112.

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5. Biostimulants for Enhancing Nutrient Uptake in CropsJEENA MARYDepartment of Agronomy, College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Modern agriculture is in search of new techniques that help to reduce the use of chemical substances without reducing the yield. Long term indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers invited many soil health problems and reduced the input use efficiency. So to manage agriculture production under unfavourable soil as well as plant conditions, various options have been developed. One such approach is the use of biostimulants which can enhance the effectiveness of conventional mineral fertilizers.

Plant biostimulants are substances and/or microorganisms which can increase the nutrient use efficiency by invigorating the natural processes like nutrient uptake and translocation, utilization of nutrients, better root growth and physiological and metabolic processes. These biostimulants are also known as metabolic enhancers and positive plant growth regulators.

Categories of Biostimulants � Humic substances � Seaweed extracts and other botanicals � Protein hydrolyzates � Chitosan and other polymers � Microbial inoculants

Uses in Agriculture1. Enhances crop yield and quality2. Increases recovery from abiotic stress3. Facilitates nutrient uptake, translocation and

utilization4. Improves water use efficiency5. Increases the population of beneficial micro

organisms6. Improves soil fertility7. Accelerates soil enzymatic activity

Mechanism of ActionBiostimulants can act directly on plant metabolic process and physiology or indirectly by improving

soil conditions. The major mechanisms are changes in root morphology, improves the activity of mycorrhizal fungi, improves soil structure or soil microbial population, solubilisation and chelation of nutrients, increases the activity of enzymes like assimilation or solubilisation or mobilisation enzymes etc. Thus, increases the crop quality, nutrient use efficiency and abiotic stress tolerance.

Humic substances: Humic substances are heterogeneous organic molecules that form in the soil as byproducts of microbial metabolism of dead organic matter. This contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Humic substances involve humic acid, fulvic acid and humin. Among this, humic acid is the most abundant and considered as the important component of a healthy fertile soil. Application of humic substances increases the aggregation of soil, water holding capacity and nutrient uptake. This has an effect on root system by increasing the root biomass, root branching, increasing root hair and cell rhizo deposits like chelates, enzymes and exudates. Increase in root biomass leads to increase in nutrient uptake and utilization. By going for foliar spray of humic or fulvic acid, they structurally transform micronutrients into usable molecular complexes. The high number of cation exchange sites in humic substances allows mineral elements to move back and forth through the cell membranes with ease.

Seaweed extracts and other botanicals: Seaweed concentrates are effective biostimulant in many crops including vegetables, flowering plants and grain crops. Seaweed extract and other botanicals have been shown to increase seed germination, plant growth, chlorophyll content, flowering and yield. Seaweeds have been applied directly to soil as manure and as soil conditioning agents. Seaweed extract contains plant hormones like auxin, cytokinin etc. which will also help to



improve nutrient use efficiency. The mechanisms of seaweed extract that affect soil processes include refinement of soil structure and micronutrient solubility in the soil. The mechanisms that affect the plant’s physiology include changes in root morphology and increased root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. It contains large amounts of polysaccharides such as alginates and fucoidans, which bond with the metallic ions in the soil to produce a gel that helps to hold water and maintain an aggregate structure. This helps the plant to grow a robust root system, which in turn can increase nutrient uptake.

Botanicals obtained from different parts of various plants like Moringa also show biostimulant activity by enhancing plant growth and development due to many active compounds present in them.

Protein hydrolyzates: Protein hydrolyzates, are derived from the hydrolysis of proteins from different sources. It is marketed as plant biostimulants that can be applied as soil drench or seed treatment or foliar spray. Plants can absorb this directly into the roots when they are dissolved in the water, through specific transporters in the roots or by diffusion into the leaves. The application has increased biomass production, help to protect crops against abiotic and biotic stresses and increase the antioxidant activity. This will help to improve nutrient uptake by promoting beneficial microbial population and nutrient mineralization in the soil. Foliar application of these substances will help to improve absorption of nutrients and increase the nutrient use efficiency.

Chitosan: It is a biopolymer modified from chitins which act as a potential biostimulant and elicitor in agriculture. It is non-toxic, biodegradable and biocompatible. It accelerates the physiological response and mitigates the adverse effect of abiotic stresses. The benefits of application of this compound are helps to condition the soil for

planting, strengthen the roots, controlled release of nutrients to the plant, used for coating seeds to improve germination, stimulate plant growth and reduces usage of fertilizers, increases strength and resistance to diseases and finally increase growth and yield of crops.

Beneficial microbes: Microbes are also considered as biostimulants because of its activity in the soil and makes nutrient available for plants. The mechanisms involved include nutrient mobilisation and solubilisation, nitrogen fixation, PGPR production of volatile organic compounds and iron sequestering by PGPR produced siderophores. Application of exogenous AA to plant leaves and roots has been shown to increase nutrient uptake and nutrient-use efficiency for both macro- and micronutrients.

Conclusion: Use of biostimulants enhances the nutrient use efficiency and thereby increases the yield of the crop. It not only improves nutrient uptake, but also provides stress tolerance to crops and increases soil fertility. By applying these, rely on chemical fertilizers can be minimized and loss of nutrients can be avoided.

ReferencesCalvo, P., Nelson, L. and Kloepper, J. W., 2014,

Agricultural uses of plant biostimulants. Plant Soil., 383 (1-2): 3-41.

Khan, W., Rayirath, U. P., Subramanian, S., Jithesh, M. N., Rayorath, P., Hodges, D. M., Critchley, A. T., Craigie, J. S., Norrie, J. and Prithviraj, B., 2009, Seaweed extracts as biostimulants of plant growth and development. Plant Growth Regul., 28: 386–399.

Nardi, S., Muscolo, A., Vaccaro, S., Baiano, S., Spaccini, R. and Piccolo, A., 2007, Relationship between molecular characteristics of soil humic fractions and glycolytic pathway and Krebs cycle in maize seedlings. Soil Biol. Biochem., 39: 3138-3146.

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6. Wind-BreakGEETA KALAGHATAGI1, SHILPA V CHOGATAPUR2 AND GUNABHAGYA2

1Senior Research Fellow ZBNF Zone-3, AC, Vjayapur, UAS Dharwad 2Research Associate, ZBNF Zone-3, AC, Vjayapur, UAS Dharwad.

Wind-breaks are strips of trees and/or shrubs planted to protect fields, homes, canals or other areas from wind and blowing soil or sand.The Important Reasons for which Wind-Breaks are Planted Include:

� to protect livestock from cold winds � to protect crops and pastures from hot, drying

winds � to reduce/prevent soil erosion � to provide habitat for wildlife � to reduce evaporation from farmlands � to improve the microclimate for growing crops

and to shelter people and livestock, � to retard grass fire



� for fencing and boundary demarcation1. Permeability: A wind-break works by filtering

and breaking the force of the wind. For most purposes, permeable wind-breaks which allow some wind to pass through are the most suitable. The slight movement of air through the wind-breaks forms a cushion of slow-moving air on both upwind and downwind sides. This deflects the main volume of wind upwards and prevents it from descending for some distance. Thus, the wind velocity in the protected area may be reduced to between 25 and 75 per cent of the wind speed. Dense wind-breaks produce a small area of still air in a narrow strip behind the trees, but further downwind there may be considerable turbulence. However, dense wind-breaks may be desirable when a high level of protection is needed for small areas such as around homesteads and work areas or for vulnerable livestock such as newborn lambs, calves etc.

2. Orientation: For best results, plant wind-breaks at right angles to winds from which protection is needed. Wind-breaks planted north- south are a good compromise as they provide protection from winds coming from the western quarter. They also give better shading of adjacent crops and pastures than wind-breaks planted east-west.

3. Height: The wind-break height determines the size of the sheltered area. The taller the wind-break, the greater the area it protects. On level ground a windbreak will reduce the speed of wind for about 25 times the tree height on downwind side. Maximum reduction of wind speed is in the area 5 to 15 times the tree height away from the wind break. On the upwind side some protection is gained up to a distance of 5 times the tree height away from the windbreak. Thus, a wind breaks 20 m tall will give some protection from 100 m on the upwind side to 500 m on the downwind side.

4. Length: Wind breaks are most effective when they stretch without major gaps for distances exceeding 12 times the mature height of the trees. The desired permeability can be obtained by carefully selecting tree shrub species. Species such as Eucalyptus and Casuarina will form wind-breaks but most native species are more permeable.

5. Number of rows: A single row wind break should be used only where land is so valuable that only a small amount of space can be spared for tree planting. If a single row wind break is to be planted, tree species that retain their foliage to the ground and give a fairly dense growth should be selected. Eucalyptus are generally unsuitable as single-row wind-breaks because of their habit of losing their lower limbs. The main disadvantage of

a single row is that if one tree is lost, gap is created, which reduces the efficiency of the entire wind break. Wind breaks of three to five rows are more effective for most farm situations and are less affected by gaps caused by mission trees. Tall growing species should be planted in the centre rows and small bushy species in the outside rows

6. Tree spacing: Distance between trees varies with the relative importance of the protective versus productive purposes of the wind break. Where the products of wind breaks have a high priority, then land-users may favor greater number of shorter strips and a higher proportion of small trees and shrubs which provide products such as fodder and fuel wood. If the by product is timber, the height of wind breaks and the intervals between them can be increased. When the interest is to protect valuable crops, the wind breaks should be as tall and as far apart as possible to obtain the more protection.

7. Gaps: Gaps are required for gates and tracks, but because of the funneling effect through gaps, wind velocity in these areas can be substantially increased. In multi row wind breaks this can be eliminated by angling the gap at about 45 degrees to the prevailing wind direction. Alternatively, a few plant, trees or shrubs can be used on either side of the gate or track to broaden the gap and reduce the funneling effect. Other solutions are to plant five or six trees at an angle to the main belt as a wing or to plant a second short row to cover the gaps.

8. Species: In general, trees with narrow, vertical growth are ideal for wind breaks to minimize the land removed from crop production. Some fast-growing species should be used to establish the desired effect as rapidly as possible. Some of the tree species used for wind-breaks are Eucalyptus, Cassia, Prosopis, Leucaena, Casuarina, Acacia, Grevillea, Syzygium, Dalbergia etc.Methods of raising the plants: A knowledge

of the silviculture of the species is essential for the success of shelterbelts. Unfortunately, it is lacking for most of the species. Until the best method of raising the plant is known. It is better to sow the seeds in polythene bags and plant out the plants so raised. For this purpose, nurseries should be maintained at site.

The plant should be regularly watered for one or two years and properly fenced to protect them from browsing cattle. Unless effective closure can be assured, success cannot be guaranteed.

Advantages of Shelter Belts/ Wind BreaksVery little research work has been done in our country to find out the benefits of the shelter



belts on yields of agricultural crops, horticultural crops and grasses. However, on the basis of research work done in Russia, America and other Western countries, the following advantages of the shelterbelts may be mentioned:

Advantages � Moderating effect on temperature � Increase in humidity � Reduction in evapotranspiration � Increase in soil moisture. � Reduction in wind velocity and wind erosion.

Controlling ravages of wind. � Increase in yield of agriculture and

horticultural crops. � Protection of damage to public and private

property. � Other benefits- improving environmental

conditions. � Controlling shifting Sand dunes � Yielding firewood, fodder and timber � Improving aesthetic value and generate of

recreation areas. � Habitat for wild life

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7. Management of Herbicide Resistant Weeds in WheatSEEMA DAHIYA AND SUNILDepartment of Agronomy, CCS HAU, Hisar-125004, Hryana (India) *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Herbicide ResistanceHerbicide resistance is the ability of individual plant to survive under herbicide application that would kill a normal population of the same species.

In India there are three crops namely wheat, rice and soyabean which accounts for the major herbicide consumption and facing the problem of herbicide resistant weeds. The increased cases of herbicide resistant weeds are threat to wheat production. Studies at IIWBR, Karnal have observed that there are five weeds which have evolved herbicide resistance in wheat.

1. Little seeds canary grass (Phalaris minor)2. Rabbit foot grass (Polypogon monspeliensis)3. Toothed dock (Rumex dentatus)4. Chenopodium album5. Avena ludoviciana

The first case of herbicide resistant was reported in Phalaris minor due to higher adoption of rice wheat cropping system i.e. monoculture and use of only isoproturon for its management. Later on the problem was enhanced by emergence by four new cases of herbicide resistant weeds of Avena ludoviciana, Rumex dentatus, Chenopodium album, Polypogon monspeliensis.

Factors Responsible for Herbicide Resistance Development1. Short Life cycle: Annual weeds complete

their life cycle in short period and have tremendous ability of seed production.

2. High selection pressure: Application of residual herbicide of single target and specific mode of action frequently without rotating with herbicide of other group with different site of action impose a high selection pressure. Evolution of resistant population

due to proportion of resistant and susceptible population of plants left after herbicidal application.

3. Hyper sensitivity of weed: Particular weeds are extreme susceptible to particular herbicide. As a result, most of the population is eradicated. Thus, the high selection pressure will allow the resistant biotype to prevail.

4. Initial frequency of resistant biotype: If there is more number of individuals having inherent resistance in a particular population then there will be more chances of resistance.

5. Characteristics of herbicides:a) An herbicide with single site of action is at

greater risk of resistance development.b) Herbicides with long residual activity

in soil suppress susceptible biotype for longer time so that resistance biotype gets competition free environment.

6. Cultural characteristics:a) Practicing monocultureb) Using herbicide or mixture with same

chemistryc) Improper or non-judicious use of

herbicide

Resistance Mechanism1. Exclusionary resistance:

a) Different herbicide uptake: Presence of some barriers such as hairy epidermis in some resistant biotype make herbicide uptake different.

b) Differential translocation: Due to reduction in apoplastic and symplastic activity translocation rate is reduced in resistant biotype.

c) Sequestration: Sequestration of herbicide occurs in many sites before it



reaches to site of action.d) Metabolic detoxification: Before

reaching the site of action herbicide is detoxified at a fast rate

2. Target site alternation: Target site of specific herbicide gets changed due to mutation or any other reason due to which the plant loses its susceptibility.

3. Overproduction of site of action: In such cases the normal dose of applied herbicide is not enough to inactivate the encyme protein produced. So, the plant produces additional amount of encymes and carry out normal activities.

Herbicide Resistance Management1. Stop use of herbicide against which resistance

is developed.2. Use alternative herbicide with different mode

of action.3. Use herbicide which have short residual effect

because higher the residual effect, higher will be the selection pressure.

4. Use different sprayers filled with multiple – flat fan nozzles.

5. Herbicide mixture: Herbicide mixture is best for reducing the selection pressure for

resistant biotype and delaying evolution rate. Mixing two or more herbicide with different mode of action is efficient in reducing the risk of weed flora shift.

Herbicide Time of application

Dose (ml or g/ha)

Herbicides for Management of Resistant in P. minorPendimethalin+metribuzin Pre-emergence 1500+150Sulfosulfuron+metsulfuron mehyl

Post-emergence 32

Pendimethalin fb sulfosulfuron

Pre-emergence 1500/32

+metsulfuron mehyl fb post-emergence

Pendimethalin fb pinoxaden Pre-emergence 1500/64+metsulfuron mehyl fb post-

emergenceHerbicides for Management of Resistant in R. dentatusCarfentrazone+metsulfuron Post-emergence 25 gCarfentrazone Post -emergence 20 gHerbicides Management for Chenopodium albumCarfentrazone Post -emergence 20 gPendimethalin Pre-emergence 1500 mlHerbicides Management for Polypogon monspeliensisPendimethalin Pre-emergence 1500 mlmetribuzin Pre-emergence 175 g

20853

8. Adverse Impact of COVID-19 on Indian Agriculture and its Mitigation Measures*SUNIL1, PARAS2 AND SEEMA DAHIYA1

Ph.D. Research Scholar, 1Department of Agronomy, 2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar – 125 004, Haryana, (India) *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Worldwide, COVID-19 has become a major problem that has affected all forms of life. Infection of this pandemic has been continuously spreading at an alarming rate. India has declared lockdown throughout the country, yet lot of people had died due to this pandemic and graph of mortality is continuously increasing at very high rate. Protecting lives of people from this pandemic is the priority of nations. Governments of various nations have taken quick actions after the unprecedented attack of Corona virus. During this unprecedented situation, it is very important to know the adverse effects of this pandemic on Indian agriculture, response of our agricultural crops to crisis and various protected measures to mitigate their adverse effects.

Disruptions in Indian Agriculture as Resulted from COVID-19Various Agricultural and supply chain activities are have disrupted to a great extent. As we all know that labours from various fields have migrated to their own states and it resulted into interruptions in various cultural practices such as harvesting due to non-availability of these labour. Restrictions in vehicles movement or transportation activities also resulted into decline in prices of agricultural commodities like wheat and vegetables which is not good for our poor or marginal farmers. Shutdowns of various hotels, restaurants, tea stalls, milk shops have also depressed the milk sales. Meanwhile the poultry sector has widely affected due to misinformation that chickens are carrier of COVID-19. Some of the main disruptions are discussed following –



� Interruptions in the attainment of food grains by government agencies

� Interruptions in the process of harvesting of farm produce by private traders.

� A scarcity of labours to harvest the rabi crops � A shortfall in the availability of drivers to run

the transport sector. � Restrictions in the movement of various

agricultural commodities across major highways.

� Barricades in the operations of APMC mandi. � Closure of the important retail agricultural

markets. � Stoppage of labour work under the MNREG

scheme.Since the end of March, fishers haven’t been

able to go out to sea and it is also a subject of worry that 45-day annual fishing ban is announced in country in line with the fish breeding season, coming into force along the east coast from mid-April. Harvest of both fresh and brackish water aquaculture is also delayed due to previously discussed points like labour non-availability, market closure and movement restrictions etc. In addition to these activities, several forestry activities like collection of non-timber produce like kendu leaves and mahua flowers is also affected adversely in lockdown due to closure of markets.

All of these discussed disruptions resulted in crisis in the range of various crops like wheat, grapes, watermelons, bananas, muskmelon, chana, cotton, chillies, turmeric, cumin, coriander, onion, and potato.

These impediments also caused a downfall in the prices of various commodities of agriculture. For examples; wheat price in M. P. has decreased from 2200 to 1600 Rs/qtl. Selling prices of vegetables in Punjab has decreased from Rs 15 per kg to Rs 1 Per kg. Prices of various poultry products have decreased to an extent of 50 per cent. Many agricultural industries including mills have been closed due to shortage of labours. According to a statement of chairman of AMUL, most of the milk processing plants are now working with nearly 50 per cent of labour force. Many of APMC mandi are remaining closed or working only twice a week. These bottlenecks vary greatly from one state to other state.

Mitigation Measures to Reduce Agricultural LossesGovernment has issued various lockdown guidelines for easiness for farm operations and supply chains. Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (A plan for well-being of the poor), is aimed to provide help those poor or needy people who are hit hardest by the COVID-19 lockdown. However, this is not enough for the well-being of poors. According to the Nobel Prize economists Esther Duflo and Abhijit Banerji there is need of much

more package’s social transfer schemes. Various programs like Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), mid-day meals and Anganwadis (rural child care centers) should be in working stage as essential services and provide rations and meals to recipients at home. Several state governments have started innovative programs to help informal workers and the poor like in Kerala, where meals with diversified diet are provided by government at the doorsteps of household. The government has provided Rs.500 ($6.60) per month to the bank accounts of needy people via the Jan Dhan financial inclusion program. But this is insufficient for the well-being of poor. At least there is minimum requirement of Rs.3000 per month to all poor or needy people under these worst conditions. There are about 40-50 million seasonal migrant workers in India. In recent days, global media have broadcast images of hundreds of thousands of migrant workers from several states trudging for miles and miles on highways; some walked more than 1000 kilometers to return to their home villages. They should be given both cash transfers and nutritious food. Several social organizations and NGO’s have been engaged in various activities to help poor and needy ones. For example, the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation has been continuously providing relief through availability of funds and other essential services to the communities in these difficult times. This foundation is also spreading innovative technologies for betterment of crops through various extension pathways and facilitating the aggregation and sale of produce with the help of various farmer producer organisations (FPOs).

� Awareness programs on COVID-19 should be conducted in various villages.

� Various policies should be made for the rectification of falling prices and labour scarcity.

� It is necessary for our food security that various supply chains should remain in functioning stage without facing any barriers.

� Farmers and other agricultural works should maintain social distancing and go for quick COVID-19 test if any symptoms appear.

� Poultry and livestock sector need more attention from government and special policies should be made for these sectors for easiness in their market access and input supply.

� There should be inclusion of farmers other agricultural workers in government’s assistance package and other programs addressing the crisis.

� Various bans on the import and export of commodities should be removed to promote the trade of country.

� There should be an urgent need of expansion of Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojna (PMFBY) scheme to provide relief to COVID-19 affected farmers.



� An unemployment allowances or assistance should be provided to MNREGA job card holders.

� Government should ensure a fresh flow of credit to all small and marginal farmers for the

kharif season of 2020. � MSP’s of various crops for agricultural year

2020-21 should be substantially raised to a 1.5 times the cost of production.

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9. Fertigation Uniformity in Drip FertigationR. SURESHKUMARAssistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, Kumaraguru Institute of Agriculture, Erode - 638 315, Tamil Nadu, *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected].

IntroductionFertigation is widely practiced with drip irrigation, yet remains much unsophisticated. Designers and the micro irrigation systems users always consider the point of fertigation uniformity. Since, irregular water and fertilizer applications may reduce quality crop yield and cause groundwater contamination which results in soil degradation. The uniform application of water and fertilizers were affected by several factors. One among them was variation in operating pressure in a field system is the main reason leads to non-uniform water distribution. It is essential to understand the pressure head distribution for improving uniformity in micro-irrigation systems. Hathoot et al. (1993) developed a procedure to overcome non uniformity by using the difference of the reynolds number and the friction coefficient. Bralts et al. (1993) also analyzed the hydraulics of a virtual emitter system using a finite element approach. Kang and Nishiyama (1995) used lateral discharge equation method for hydraulic analysis of micro-irrigation sub units. Several other researchers have addressed the influence of emitter clogging on hydraulics of micro-irrigation systems (Talozi and Hills, 2001). Application uniformity was affected by different type of emitters reported by Solomon (1979) can be incorporated into system design. Clark et al. (2005) also studied the relation of emitter discharge to water operating temperature.

In micro irrigation system, the performance of injecting device is also an important factor which affects fertigation uniformity. Townsend (1988) reported that the fertilizer injection process imparts direct influence on fertilizer uniformity. Venturi-principle device, differential pressure tank, water-driven-piston proportional pump and positive-displacement pump are the most commonly used injectors. Bracy et al. (2003) reported that fertigation uniformity was significantly affected by injection rate.

Major areas which require upgrading are (i) the irrigation systems ensured to have a high Distribution Uniformity (DU), (ii) usage of proper protection hardware and injection pumps, (iii)

Understanding the chemical reaction between fertilizers and water to prevent precipitation which clog emitters, (v) Identification of appropriate form of nitrogen fertilizer for drip fertigation and (vi) developing proper fertilizer schedule.

Uniformity Calculation

Water Distribution UniformityIrrigation system which engage fertilizer application should ensure uniform distribution of water throughout the field. The DU of the system was determined by using the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) method (1985) as follows:

Where,Du- Water distribution uniformity %.qn - Average of lowest 1/4th of emitter flow

rate, l/h.qa - Average emitter flow rate l/h.

Fertilizer Concentration in Stock SolutionThe concentrated stock solution was calculated with the following equation:

Where,C- Mass of the fertilizer in g in the stock

solutionF - Desired concentration of nutrient (g/m3)n - Volume of the stock solution (m3)a - the ratio of active ingredients in the fertilizerDf - Dilution Factor.

Fertilizer Distribution EfficiencyThe fertilizer distribution efficiency of the system was determined by measuring the weight of the



fertilizer (mg) in the total volume of water collected from the different emitter, during 20 min after fertigation operation.

The total water collected from emitter at the inlet, 1/3, 2/3 and the end of laterals.

The fertilizer distribution efficiency was determined as follows:

Where,FDU - Fertilizer distribution efficiency (%)Wfm - Mean weight of fertilizer in water of the

lowest 1/4 emitter (mg)Wfa - Mean weight of fertilizer in water during

chemigation (mg)

Causes for Fertigation Non-Uniformity � Low grade drip unit results in poor filtration

and reduce uniformity � Poor maintenance of filters, flushing valve and

fertilizer injector Lack of knowledge about fertilizer compatibility.

� Reusage of drip tape by the growers increases degree of clogging.

Fertigation Uniformity Guidelines1. It is advised to have multiple injectors for

many fertilizers to a single pump for the following reasonsa) If a single pump is used for multiple

fertilizers chemical incompatibility will be a major problem.

b) Different fertilizers need to be injected at different rates.

2. Venturi injectors with bypass water pumps works but they usually have problems of plumbing around valves in the main line.

3. Flow meters must be calibrated for each fertilizer and temperature, since the density and viscosity of chemicals will affect a typical flow meter reading.

4. Injectors should be always placed upstream of filters, so that it aids in easy back flushing.

5. The fertilizers should be injected into the centre line of a pipe for popular mixing.

Basic Mixing Rules of Fertilizers1. Mixing container should contain 50 – 75%

of the required water for mixing dry soluble fertilizers.

2. Always add liquid fertilizers to water in the mixing container followed by dry soluble fertilizers.

3. Dry ingredients should be slowly added with circulation to prevent the formation of lumps.

4. Always mix acid into water, not water into acid.

5. Likewise, when chlorinating water with chlorine gas, always add chlorine to water, and

not vice versa.6. Never mix an acid or acidified fertilizer with

chlorine, whether the chlorine is in the gas form or liquid form such as sodium hypochlorite, because it releases toxic chlorine gas.

7. Do not mix any kind of ammonia directly with acid.

8. Do not mix concentrated fertilizer solutions directly with other concentrated fertilizer solutions.

9. Do not mix a compound containing sulphate with another compound containing calcium. The result will be a mixture of insoluble gypsum.

10. Always check with the chemical supplier for information about insolubility and incompatibility.

11. Be extremely cautious about mixing urea sulfuric fertilizers with other compounds, since, it is incompatible with other fertilizers.

12. Many incompatibility problems tend to disappear if fertilizers are gradually injected.

13. When mixing phosphatic fertilizers with calcium fertilizer jar test should be performed.

14. If fertilizers containing phosphate and sulphate compounds used along with hard water will form insoluble substances.

ConclusionIn micro irrigation systems to maintain the water uniformity specific standards to be followed. However, the detailed guidelines for fertigation uniformity and maintenance of fertigation system are lacking. The guideline should be developed by understanding the relationship between fertigation uniformity and water application uniformity. The injection method in a micro irrigation is always associated with water application uniformity and fertigation uniformity. Studies on the influence of injector type and manufacturing variability on fertigation uniformity was minimal. In micro irrigation system with water uniformity does not necessarily have a uniform fertilizer distribution in fertigation. The injection methods as well as injectors performances should be considered before designing micro irrigation systems.

ReferenceBracy, R. P., Parish, R. L. and Rosendale, R.M. 2003.

Fertigation uniformity affected by injector type. Hort. technology, 13, 103-105.

Bralts, V. F., Kelly, D. F., Shayya, W. H. and Segerlind, L. J. 1993. Finite element analysis of microirrigation hydraulics using a virtual emitter system. Trans ASAE, 36, 717-725.

Clark, G. A., Lamm, F. R. and Rogers, D. H. 2005. Sensitivity of thin walled drip tape emitter discharge to water temperature. Appl. Eng. Agric., 21, 855-863.

Hathoot, H. M., Al-Amoud, A. I. and Mohammad, F. S. 1993. Analysis and design of trickle-irrigation laterals. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. ASCE, 119,756-767.



Kang, Y. and Nishiyama, S. 1995. Hydraulic analysis of microirrigation subunits. Trans. ASAE, 38, 1377-1384.

Solomon, K. 1979. Manufacturing variation of trickle emitters. Trans. ASAE, 22, 1034-1038.

Talozi, S. A. and Hills, D. J. 2001. Simulating emitter clogging in a microirrigation subunit. Trans. ASAE,

44, 1503-1509.Townsend, J. D. 1988. Fertigation-uniformity of

fertilizer application through drip irrigation systems. In: Proceedings of the 4thinternational microirrigation congress, Albury-Wodonga, Australia.

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10. Integrated Farm DevelopmentS. SARAVANAKUMAR1 AND A. PREMALATHA2

1Scientist (Agronomy), 2Scientist (Soil Science) ICAR – Krishi Vigyan Kendra, MYRADA, Erode District, Tamil Nadu – 638 453

Small holder agricultural production systems are the main source of food and income of most of the poorest people in the world. Increases in productivity achieved in the past are attributed in part to the significant use of fossil fuels, contributing to the greenhouse gas emissions and wasting considerable amount of energy along the chain. Modern industrial agriculture contributes a great deal to climate change. It is heavily dependent on fossil fuels and contributes to the loss of soil carbon to the atmosphere, especially through deforestation to make more land available for crops and plantations. This situation led to the disturbances in soil reaction, development of nutrient imbalances in plants, increased susceptibility to pests and diseases and decrease in soil life.

In order to sustain a positive growth rate in agriculture, a holistic approach is the need of the hour. Integrated Farm Development is an innovative concept to improve farm productivity in a sustainable manner through integrating various farm resources and recycling various farm / home waste. The main objective of IFD is to integrate the animal and human waste into useful and productive components such as for the manufacture of vermicompost, biogas and crop pest repellant, thereby reducing input cost for farmers. Any technology must be farmer friendly and this IFD technology is feasible and helps the farmers to easily perceive and adopt. Nearly 5-10 interventions are demonstrated in this IFD program which is location specific, technically feasible, economically viable and ecofriendly. Integrated Farm Development helps the small and marginal farmers in reducing the input cost and increasing the yield.

The following components have been demonstrated under IFD:

� Cattle shed with urine collection pit � Biogas � Vermicompost

� Panchakavya � Pest repellant � Green fodder � Kitchen garden with drip irrigation � Grain storage management � Ecological sanitation � Biomass

Cattle Shed with Urine Collection PitCattle shed emphasizes on safe and sound environmental condition for the animal and ensures the great care and hygiene. Cattle shed helps to safely dispose cow dung and harvest urine which facilitates effective recycling of waste to manure.

Bio GasBiogas is produced by anaerobic digestion or fermentation of organic matter including Cow dung, Food waste, sewage sludge, municipal solid waste, biodegradable waste or any other biodegradable feedstock, under anaerobic conditions.

VermicompostVermicomposting by vermiculture is the culturing of earthworms and their application for a variety of uses in farming

PanchakavyaThe panchakavya, an organic formulation used for improved composting is unique combination of five products of cow (cow dung, urine, milk, curd and ghee) and other products / byproducts of plant origin.

Crop Pest RepellantPest repellent refers to Fermented plant extract in cow urine which serves as a repellent to crop pests. The use of repellants to ward off insects has been a very old practice with mankind. Chemicals that prevent insect damage to plants or animals by rendering them unattractive, unpalatable or offensive are called repellants. The botanicals of



plant products have been used as insect repellants in our country from ancient times.

Green FodderGreen fodder is playing major role ensuring the increase in milk production and improves animal health and reproduction in an affordable and accessible way. Nutritional requirements of the animals, value of various feeds and fodders and their optimum utilization can result in saving on production expenses.

AzollaAzolla is a protein rich green fodder and supplementary feed for livestock. Azolla is rich in protein (25- 35%). It is also found to contain essential minerals like Iron, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, copper, manganese, etc apart from appreciable quantities of vitamin A precursor and Vitamin B12. It is also found to contain almost all the essential amino acid for the growth of cattle and poultry.

Kitchen Garden with Drip IrrigationA home garden or kitchen garden refers to raising the vegetables to meet the daily requirements of the vitamins and minerals to supply the food essential for protection and body building Kitchen garden refers to raising the vegetables to meet the

daily requirements of the vitamins and minerals to supply the food essential for protection and body building. The watering in the kitchen garden is a crucial problem in the village and there is a need to reduce the drudgery among women.

Grain StorageGrain storage is the storage of food grains in order to minimize the losses and to maintain its original quality.

Ecological SanitationEco san is an alternative approach to safe and efficient management of human excreta and urine Ecological sanitation recycles human excreta safely and productively to improve soils. It minimizes water consumption in sanitation. It protects water resources and the environment from sewage pollution thereby offering very comprehensive public health protection.

BiomassBiomass is the total mass of living matter within a given unit of environmental area. The organic materials produced by plants, such as leaves, roots, seeds, and stalks and in some cases, microbial and animal metabolic wastes are also considered as biomass.

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11. Increasing the Resource Use Efficiencies through HydrogelsMADAM VIKRAMARJUNPh.D. Scholar, Division of Agronomy, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi – 110012

Introduction: India succeeded significant food production and productivity achievements through technology driven farming during the mid-1960s to early 2000s. Though, the need for refining the physical properties of soils to escalation of productivity in the farming sector was significantly sensed in post green revolution era. Deprived soil physical state can limit water movement into the topsoil and its following uptake by roots. One such method includes addition of modifying materials to improve the soil physical condition, such resources are called soil conditioners. Implementing suitable management practices in husbandry to uphold soil moisture and rise water holding capacity is deliberated as one of the means to save water. Super absorbent polymers (SAPs) hydrogel can swell to captivate enormous volume of water. This property has headed to several real-world applications of these novel resources in specific in

farming for refining water holding of soils and the water supply to plants.

Hydrogels: Hydrogel is referring to hydrophilic polymers used in popular oil recovers, medical grafting supplements, clarification of potable and waste waters, dewatering sludge, mining separations, food processing, personal care products, laboratory supplies etc. Hydrophilic emollients termed hydrogels are cross-linked resources absorbing huge amounts of water without liquefying that absorb considerable quantities of aqueous solutions. Smoothness, smartness and the size to supply water mark hydrogels inimitable materials.

Advantages of Hydrogels in Agriculture � Increasing their capacity to hold water � Reducing erosion and runoff



� Reduce frequency of irrigation � Increase the efficiency of the water being used � Increase soil permeability and infiltration

Application of Super Absorbents in AgricultureIn agriculture Super absorbent polymers (SAPs) were used as a soil additive, as reservoir of nutrients, and as water super absorbent in the soil. Properties of this material are dependent on many factors, such as their chemical and compositional characteristics, soil texture, plant species and also environmental factors. Super absorbent polymers made from Polyacrylamide are of these materials and are used as water adsorbents for increased ability of the soil to captivate and hold water and this property is very important to encounter the influences of dehydration and reduce influences of drought stress in crops. Biodegradation amount of super absorbent polymers in soil depends on the dimensions of soil particle and amount of organic matter. Also, with decreasing Oxygen in soil and in turn reducing activities of bacteria, biodegradation rate of superabsorbent polymers will be reduced. The quantity of this increase depends on the physical conditions of the soil, climate of the region and the utilization amount of super absorbents in soil. According to their pH Close to neutral, super absorbents have no adverse effect on the soil, and are not considered as toxic in soil.

Salient Features of Hydrogels � Maximum absorbance of moisture at higher

temperatures (40- 50 °C) � Absorbs water 400 -500 times its dry weight � Stable in soil for a minimum period of one year � Least affected by salts � Low rates of soil application –2.5-5 kg/ ha for

field crops � Reduces leaching of herbicides and fertilizers

� Helps plants withstand prolonged moisture stress

� Reduces nursery establishment period � Reduces irrigation and fertigation

requirements of crops � Extensive root growth resulting in improved

water and nutrient use efficiency

Environmental Safety Aspects of Hydrogels � Super absorbent polymers (SAPs) materials

cannot return to their starting monomers, i.e. they are scientifically irreversible to toxic initiating materials.

� Moderately bio‐degraded in the soil by the ionic and microbial media to convert finally to ammonia and carbon dioxide.

� A very simple and effective HPLC method to estimate residual monomer content in the hydrogels has been developed in our laboratory

� Hydrogels of this type degrade completely into CO2, water and ammonia within one year.

� Recommended application rate of hydrogels is very low i.e. 2.5 kg ha-1 for most of the crops which is equivalent to 2.5 ppm per unit weight of the soil.Conclusion: Hydrogel application in almost

all cereals, vegetables, oilseeds, flowers, spices etc. has resulted in significant enhancement in the superiority of agricultural produce and increased plant harvest. It has also resulted in reduction in the irrigation frequencies, reduction in the quantity of fertilizers and greater water use efficiency and high benefit cost ratio.

ReferencesChoudhary, S. K., Jat, A. L., Upadhyay, P. K. and

Singh, R. K. 2014. Hydrogel: the potentialities to produce more crops per drop in agriculture. Popular Kheti. 2(4): 154-158.

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12. Alien Weeds: A Biowar in AgricultureDR. S. SANBAGAVALLIAssociate Professor, Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 641 003, Tamil Nadu *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Alien WeedsOrganisms, including plant species that have been moved from their native habitat to a distant location are typically referred to as non-native, nonindigenous, exotic, or alien to the new environment. An invasive species is one that both spreads in space and has negative impacts on species already in the space that it enters. In the United States, an “invasive species” is defined

by the Executive Order in 1999 (Executive Order 13112 of February 3, 1999) as a species that is i) non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under consideration and ii) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health.

Invasive Weeds and BiodiversityHuman induced biological invasions are occurring on a global scale and are beginning to blur the



regional distinctiveness of the Earth’s biota. That distinctiveness, which developed over the past 180 million years as a result of the isolation of the continents (termed evolution in isolation), has maintained biodiversity.

Nature and Distribution of Invasive SpeciesThe nature and distribution of invasive species has no geographical boundaries. All living organisms viz., bacteria, fungi, plants and other organisms have evolved to live in specific areas on the Earth. Local climate, geology, soils, available water and other natural factors may influence plant or organism’s invasion and subsequent establishment in a particular habitat.

Traits of Invasive Weeds � Rapid seedling growth and early maturation � Ability to reproduce by vegetative propagules

as well as by seeds � Ability to reproduce at an early stage � Ability to produce viable seeds and with seed

dormancy ensuring periodic germination

� Diverse dispersal mechanisms and high dispersal rate

� Ability to tolerate wide range of environmental conditions

� Ability to tolerate high habitat disturbance

Potential Research on Invasive SpeciesIntegrated research needs for plant invasion with climate change are as follows:

� Growth and development of invasive plants with climate change

� Assessing reproductive potential of each invasive

� Effects of rising CO2 on photosynthetic capacity

� Effects of rising temperature on species adaptation

� Use of biogeographic information on invasive nature and distribution

� Use of GPS on early detection program predicting plant invasion with climate change

� Critical management needs for combating plant invasions with climate change

Intentional introduction of various weeds to India

Scientific name Common name Introduced from PurposeChromolaenaodorata Chromolina Tropical areas Cover cropEichnoniacrassipes Water hyacinth South America OrnamentalLantana camera Lantana Many countries OrnamentalMikaniamicantha Miconia Malaysia Cover cropOpuntiastrictsa Opuntia Australia Hedge plantPhaseoluslabatus Phaseolus USA Cover cropSorghum halepanse Johnson grass USA Forage cropParthenium hysterophorus Carrot grass South America Wheat grain import

Some of the Important Invasive Weeds and their Possible Management Strategies

Parthenium Hysterophorus � Release of Mexican beetles (Zygogramma

bicolorata) @ 100-150/ac � Growing competitive plants like Cassia spp. � Application of common salt 20 g/lit of H2O or

atrazine 2.5 kg/ha � Volatile essential oil from lemon scented

eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora) can control the Parthenium.

Eichhornia Crassipes � Chain pulling followed by application

herbicide 2,4 D � Orthogalumna terebrantis- Damages the leaf � Neochetina eichhorniae & Neochetina bruchi

Damages growing point/leaves/stems

Cyperus Rotundus � Hand weeding � Crop rotation with rice (water availability) � Growing of green manures

� Spray NaCl 20g/l

Lantana Camara � 0.8 kg gramaxone or1.0 kg 2,4‐D amine / ha

significantly reduced its growth within 2-3 days of spraying

� Puccinia spegazzinii cause extensive damage to its leaves, petioles and branches result in death

� Cutting of vines near the ground can eliminate 90% of Mikania micrantha

Major International Conventions/Agreements/Protocolsrelated to Alien Invasive Weeds

� Convention on Biological Diversity � Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB) � Convention on International Trade of

Endangered Species � International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)

and � Office International des Epizooties



Eichhornia crassipe Lantana camara Parthenium hysterophorus

Croton bonplandianu Cenchrus tribuloides Chromolaena odorata

Celosia argentea Argemone mexicana

CROP PHYSIOLOGY20196

13. Effect of Natural and Anthropogenic Activity on Green House Gas ProductionY. M. YADAV1 AND S. D. SURBHAIYYA2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agril. Botany (Plant Physiology) and 2Ph.D. Scholar Department of Agril. Botany (Agril. Biotechnology), Dr. Punjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Maharashtra (MH)-444104

What do you Mean by Greenhouse Gas? � Greenhouse gases means the gases which

allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and reach on the earth’s surface.

� From the total sunlight some of this sunlight is captured as a heat on Earth, and some of is radiated back toward space.

� When greenhouse gases are present in the

right amounts, they trap just enough heat to keep the earth warm enough for organisms to survive while letting some of that heat back into space.

This Trapping of Heat Under the Atmosphere is Called as “The Greenhouse Effect”.A greenhouse is a building which is made of with



glass that allows sunlight to enter inside but it is trap inside, so the building become warm even when it’s cold outside. A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs infrared radiation (IR) and radiates heat in all directions. Greenhouse gases on the earth’s atmosphere absorb IR from the sun and release it. Some of the heat which is released reaches on the earth, along with heat from the sun that has penetrated in the atmosphere. So, if greenhouse gases are so good for us, why do they get such a bad reputation? The types and amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are only beneficial when they are present in just the proper amount.

� The Earth surface gets energy from the sun in the form of sunlight.

� The Earth’s surface absorbs some of this energy and release heat.

� That’s why the surface of a road can become hot even after the sun has gone down because it has absorbed a lot of energy from the sunlight.

� The Earth gets cool down by giving off a different form of energy, called infrared radiation.

� But before all this radiation can release to outer space, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of it, which makes the atmosphere more warmer.

� As the atmosphere gets hot, it makes the Earth’s surface warmer, too.

� What are the primary Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions?

� – Natural Factor � – Human activities � – Agricultural activities � – There are both natural and human sources

of carbon dioxide emissions.

Natural Sources Include:1. Decomposition2. Ocean release3. Respiration.

Human Sources are:1. Burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil & natural

gas.2. Activities like cement production,3. Deforestation.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Natural Sources � Ocean-atmosphere exchange: � – The largest natural sources of carbon

dioxide emissions. Dissolved carbon dioxide, released into the air at the sea surface.

� – Many molecules moved between the ocean and the atmosphere through the process of diffusion, carbon dioxide is one of them. This movement is in both directions, so the oceans release carbon dioxide but they also absorb it.

� Plant and animal respiration � – Plants and animals used respiration to

produce energy, which is used to fuel basic activities like movement and growth.

� – The process uses oxygen to break down nutrients like sugars, proteins and fats.

� – This releases energy that can be used by the organism but also creates water and carbon dioxide as byproducts.

� – Annually this process produces about 220 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions

� Soil respiration and decomposition � – Any respiration that occurs below-ground

is called as soil respiration. � – Plant roots, bacteria, fungi and soil

animals use respiration to produce the energy they require survive but this also produces carbon dioxide.

� Volcanic eruptions (0.03%) � – A minor amount carbon dioxide is

produced by volcanic eruptions, � – Volcanic eruptions release magma, ash,

dust and gases from deep below the Earth’s surface.

� – One of the gases released is carbon dioxide.

� – Carbon Dioxide Emissions: Human Sources � – Fossil fuel combustion/use � – produces 87% of human carbon dioxide

emissions. � Land use changes � – accounting for 9% of human carbon

dioxide production. � Industrial processes � – account for 4% of human carbon dioxide

emissions � Fossil fuel combustion/use � – The largest human source of carbon

dioxide emissions gets from the combustion of fossil fuels.

� – The 3 types of fossil fuels that are used the most are coal, - 43% of carbon dioxide emissions natural gas 20% from natural gas oil. 36% is produced by oil.

The Three Main Economic Sectors That Use Fossil Fuels are1. Electricity/heat,2. Transportation and3. Industry.

Impact of Climate Change � Global warming � Ozone depletion � Storms � Heat waves � Sea level rise � Precipitation � Drought � Floods � Increase in allergy inducing pollen



� Shrinking water sources � Ocean acidification � Melting glaciers � Natural agro-ecosystem disruption � Forest fires

� Soil health � Pest and disease outbreak � Loss of wetlands � Rapid and continued loss of biodiversity

20291

14. Ant Oxidative Defenses Systems in Plant in Response to Drought StressMAMATA, K., SAVITA S. K. AND RAJASHREE B.1Dept. Genetics and Plant Breeding, GKVK, UAS, Bengaluru. 2Dept. Crop physiology, UAS Dharwad *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Drought is a major abiotic constraint and its consequences affecting in crop production systems are perhaps more deleterious than other abiotic stresses under changing climatic scenarios. If prolonged over to a threshold level drought stress will undoubtedly result in oxidative injury due to the over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) Hussein and Safinaz (2013). ROS include free radicals such as superoxide anion (O2

•−), hydroxyl radical (•OH), as well as non-radical molecules like hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), singlet oxygen (1O2), and so forth. In plants, ROS are regularly produced by the unavoidable leakage of electrons onto O2 from the electron transport activities of chloroplasts, mitochondria, and plasma membranes or as aby-product of various metabolic pathways localized in different cellular compartments.

In plants, ROS production and scavenging are delicately balanced to determine whether act as damaging molecule and/or signalling molecule in variety of cellular process. Drought stress causes disruption of electron transport systems, leads to partial reduction of O2 resulting in the formation of ROS. All ROS are extremely harmful to organisms at higher concentrations. The enhanced production of ROS during drought stress can pose a threat to cells by causing oxidation of protein, peroxidation of lipids, damage to nucleic acids, enzyme inhibition, activation of programmed cell death (PCD) pathway and ultimately leading to death of the cells (Sharma et al., 2012).

In order to cope with continuous and excess ROS production, plants have evolved a complex enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defence systems. The enzymatic antioxidants include superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), enzymes of ascorbate glutathione (AsA-GSH) cycle such as ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and glutathione reductase (GR) (Sharma et al., 2012). The enzymatic

components may directly involve in scavenging of ROS or may act by producing a non-enzymatic antioxidant. Ascorbate (AsA), glutathione (GSH), carotenoids, tocopherols, and phenolics serve as potent nonenzymic antioxidants within the cell and cooperate to maintain the integrity of the photosynthetic membrane under drought stress.

Anjum et al., (2017) conducted a study to appraise the performance of three different maize hybrids (Dong Dan 80, Wan Dan 13, and Run Nong 35) under well-watered, low, moderate and severe stress conditions. Compared with well-watered conditions, drought stress caused oxidative stress by excessive production of ROS which led to up-regulation of the activities of antioxidative defence systems in all maize hybrids. The enzymatic activities in Run Nong 35 were increased at initial drought levels but decreased dramatically at severe drought levels, exhibiting drought sensitive behaviour of Run Nong 35. The content s of non-enzymatic antioxidant and their combined concentrations were higher at higher levels of drought; the concentrations of these non-enzymatic antioxidants were higher in drought tolerant hybrid Dong Dan 80 than those in Wan Dan13 or Run Nong 35. Similar results corroborate those of Zhang et al. (2013) who demonstrated that drought stress exacerbated the production and accumulation of non-enzymatic antioxidants in drought tolerant Cannaedulis. A key role of antioxidants in drought tolerance has also been reported in various crops including rice (Yang et al., 2014), sugarcane (Sales et al., 2015), and wheat (Kaurand Zhawar, 2015).

ROS are unavoidable by products of normal cell metabolism. Under normal growth condition, ROS production in various cell compartments is low. However, drought stress condition disrupts the cellular homeostasis and enhances the production of ROS. In order to avoid the oxidative damage, higher plants possess a complex antioxidative defence system comprising of non-enzymatic and enzymatic components. Maintenance of a high



antioxidant capacity to scavenge the toxic ROS has been linked to increased tolerance of plants to drought stresses. Although rapid progress has been made in recent years, there are many uncertainties and gaps in our knowledge of ROS formation and their effect on plants mainly due to short half-life and high reactivity of ROS. Study of formation and fate of ROS using advanced analytical techniques will help in developing broader view of the role of ROS in plants.

ReferencesAnjum, S. A., Ashraf, U., Tanveer, M, Khan, I.,

Hussain, S., Shahzad, B., Zohaib, A., Abbas, F., Saleem, M. F., Ali, I. and Wang, L. C., (2017). Drought Induced Changes in Growth, Osmolyte Accumulation and Antioxidant Metabolism of Three Maize Hybrids. Front. Plant Sci. 8:69.

Hussein, M. M. and Safinaz, S. Z., (2013). Influence of water stress on photosynthetic pigments of some Fenugreek Varieties. J. Applied Sci. Res.9: 5238-5245.

Kaur, L., and Zhawar, V. K. (2015). Phenolic

parameters under exogenous ABA, water stress, salt stress in two wheat cultivars varying in drought tolerance. Indian J. Plant Physiol. 20, 151–156.

Sales, C. R. G., Marchiori, P. E. R., Machado, R. S., Fontenele, A. V., Machado, E. C. and Silveira, J. A. G., (2015). Photosynthetic and antioxidant responses to drought during the sugarcane ripening. Photosynthetica. 53, 547–554.

Sharma, P., Jha, A. B., Dubey, R. S., and Pessarakli, M. (2012). Reactiveoxygen species, oxidative damage and antioxidative defence mechanism in plants under stressful conditions. J. Bot., 217037; 1-26.

Yang, P. M., Huang, Q. C., Qin, G. Y., Zhao, S. P., and Zhou, J. G. (2014). Different drought-stress responses in photosynthesis and reactive oxygen metabolism between autotetraploid and diploid rice. Photosynthetica. 52, 193–202.

Zhang, W., Tian, Z., Pan, X., Zhao, X., and Wang, F. (2013). Oxidative stress and non-enzymatic antioxidants in leaves of three edible canna cultivars under drought stress. Hortic. Environ. Biotechnol. 54, 1–8.

ORGANIC FARMING20900

15. Organic Farming: Definition, Concepts and PrinciplesDR. DOOMAR SINGHAssociate Professor & Head, Department of Plant Pathology, AKS University, Satna 485001, M.P. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

India has attained self –sufficiency in food production and is poised for large scale export of many agricultural products. It is indeed a matter of pride to have achieved such an outstanding success of boosting up agricultural production has come through the release of high yielding photo-insensitive varieties/hybrids, which are highly responsive to chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The high yield potentiality of these varieties/hybrids necessitated an artificial supply of large quantities of nutrients & pesticides from outside sources. The use of herbicides also became popular to control the weeds in irrigated areas. Many growth promoters and growth retardants are also introduced commercially and their large-scale use is aimed at improving the crop yield.

Absolute dependence on the fertilizers & other agro-chemicals such as insecticides, fungicides, antibiotics, rodenticides, acaricides for increasing the crop yields is not only dangerous due to adverse effect to our environment, health hazard to human & animals and also for physical & chemical properties of the soil. Our country has blindly followed whatever developed countries have found and introduced in their societies. The blind

perception that whatever is found in developed countries is good to us is unequivocally a blunder. As and when they realize that the new found material/practice is not good to their society and thereafter when they promote the ideas against their inventions/discoveries, the possible maladies are realized in India and efforts to discourage their use are made the price paid to achieve the green revolution in India is beyond imagination, In an largeness to quickly fight against the hunger & overcome the food shortages, an overwhelming use of agro-chemicals was infused in the sphere of agriculture, apparently ignoring the ill effect of these agro-chemicals. In the last two decades scholarly thinking on the dangers of agro-chemicals was made which led to zero chemical farming in the form of organic farming.

Hundreds of pesticides produced till now, and many of the pesticides are very toxic than the other over, i.e. they could kill or seriously injure microbes, pests, higher animals and human at a much lower concentration. These chemicals consisted of persistent molecules that resisted breakdown and remain toxic for many years or indefinitely. A few voices of concern about using



pesticides were beginning to be heard in the 1950s, but the obvious benefits from controlling insects, diseases in plants, animals and human were so overwhelming and the assurances of pesticides safety by scientist and pesticide industries so effective that few such concerns reached the wider public. Rachel Carson’s book “Silent spring” published in 1962, however vividly described the dangers of polluting the environment with poisonous chemicals and documented several cases of birds & fish deaths to be the results of pesticides being accumulated and concentrated through the food chain. Many scientists at first were quite unbelieving and unconvinced of Rachel Carson’s arguments. Slowly, however, many of them agreed to do research on the issue of safety of pesticides and began testing insects, earthworms, birds, fish, plants, animals, water reservoir’s for pesticides.

By the mid-1960s all mercury containing pesticides were banned by the U.S. government and soon afterward DDT & chlorinated hydrocarbons were also banned. Indian government has also banned DDT, BHC and other chlorinated hydrocarbons in 1990s and recently Hon’ble supreme court of India has banned endosulfan, an insecticide in 2012.

What is organic farming?In present time, organic farming has become like a ‘ghost’. Everybody is trying to define it in its own either he/she is concerned with the farming (agriculture) or not. Many people either literate, illiterate, middle pass, graduate, post graduate, retired bureaucrats, doctors, vedhya, Sadhues who has no work at all are deliberating their ideas about organic farming to the agriculture students & farmers. Such people do not know basic theory, principles & concepts of organic farming. Many such type of people are going to the educational institutes & farmers to deliver lecture on organic farming even they have never seen the agriculture field. Such type of peoples is misguiding the farmers, our youth engaged in farming and agro based small industries. Few cunning people selling infected & infested agriculture produce which has graded them from the conventional farming saying that it is organic produce & no any agro chemical has been used in its production. Fertilizer & pesticide manufacturing companies & NGOs are also selling their products at high prices & by attractive names in the market and even direct to the farmers by the name of organic product like antiviral, organic insecticides, fungicides, yield boosters, organic manures, all in one etc. without any registration, certification & standard. Innocent farmers are using these products on the false faith of organic products. They are not only losing their money but also adding adverse effect on yield, soil properties & ecological balance. Government has not any strict law against such manufactures & cunning

people in regarding famers’ welfare. Although there are some laws against such manufactures but government officials are closing their eyes.

Nobel laureate, Dr. Aleris carrel in the year 1912 predicted that the earth is ailing-almost beyond repair. Today soils are tired, overworked, depleted, and poisoned by synthetic chemicals. Hence, the quality of food has suffered and so has the health. Malnutrition begins with the soil. Sir Albert in 1916 advocated that chemical fertilizers lead to imperfectly synthesized protein in leaves and thus results in many of the diseases found in plants, animals and human beings. As a healthy alternative, he pleaded a simple system in which these proteins are produced from freshly prepared humus and its derivatives in which case has averred that “all goes well”, the plant resists diseases and treatment appeared to be curative as well as preventive.

“Organic (holistic) agriculture is a way of life in India, a tradition that for centuries has shaped the thought, the outlook, the culture and economic life of its people.” Although organic farming was practiced since the period of ancient civilizations, the term organic farming was introduced by lord Northbourne in 1940. He has a vision of sustainable, ecologically stable, self-contained and biologically balanced farming in defining the organic farming the origin of name organic lies in signifying the biological basis agriculture, because the term organic is derived from organisms, signifying the entire biota on the earth.

Many definitions are coined to define organic farming. Some of them are based on holistic meaning of organic agriculture as follows.

“Ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity by adopting management practices that restores, maintains and enhances ecological harmony as well as minimized use of off farm inputs”- National organic standard board, USDA, 1995.

“Organic agriculture is the production system that sustains the health of soil, ecosystem and people, by relying on ecological process, biodiversity and natural cycles and adopted to local condition than the use of inputs with adverse effects.” – International forum for organic agriculture movement (IFOAM), the most trusted and accredited global body in the field of organic farming.

“Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro-system health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity and this is accomplished by using on farm agronomic, biological & mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off farm inputs” – Food and Agriculture organization (FAO).



Concepts and PrinciplesThe concept of organic farming is based on related aspect like ‘organic concept’, holistic concept, living soil concept and healthy plant concept where nature is perceived to be more than just an individual element. In this farming system there is dynamic iteration between soil, plant, human beings, animals, ecosystem & environment. A farmer, students and anybody willing to go for organic farming should farther understand the broad areas covering these concepts. The holistic concept is to view all agro-ecosystem as a whole in relation to the farm. Farmers and other persons willing to involve in organic farming should aware that their action in one sphere can affect other parts of the ecosystem for better or worse.

The Four Principles as Delineated by IFOAM are1. The principle of health: organic agriculture

should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plants, animals, human and plant as a whole. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, resilience and regeneration are key characters of health.

2. The principle of ecology: this principle anchors organic agriculture within living ecological systems. It states that production is to be based on ecological processes and recycling.

3. The principle of fairness: fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice stewardship of the shared world, both among people and in their relations to other living beings. The principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conduct human relationship in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties- farmers, workers, processors, distributors, traders and consumers.

4. The principle of care: It should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generation and the environment. Precaution and responsibility are the key

concerns in management, development and technology choices in organic agriculture. Decisions should be transparent and participatory and reflect the values and needs of all who could be affected.

Assets of Organic Farming1. Selection of diverse crop rotation to sustain

the soil fertility.2. Diversification of agriculture: Present

agriculture has become professional. The farmers of a specific area are more concentrated with a specific crop and enterprise rather than different crops and different enterprises which are fully unscientific. This ill custom has become a social problem like attack of diseases, insects, weeds & unemployment. Farming should be diversified so that the residual matter obtained from the one enterprise can be used as input in other enterprises.

3. Use of Bio-fertilizers: The major part of the income of the farmers incurred to manage the fertilizers. These chemical fertilizers leave their adverse residual effect to the soils. Our soils are rich in many nutrients but these are in insoluble form. This problem can be solved by the use of bio-fertilizers.

4. Extensive use of organic manures: Changed living standard/Westernization & Mechanization has promoted the use of chemical fertilizers/ready mode nutrients alternative. Farmer’s do not want to prepare manures by themselves due to the living standard, lack of resources & lack of manpower. The organic manures improve physical & chemical properties of the soil. The domestic wastes of the farmer or out wastes which pollute the environment may be used as organic manures.

5. Biological pest & weed management: In present days the efforts of the scientists are continue to manufacture/culturing bio-pesticides and bio-herbicides.



WASTE MANAGEMENT20652

16. Vermitechnology: A Waste Management ProcessHEMANT SAINI AND POONAM SAINIDepartment of Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionThe day by day increase of waste production has created a serious problem in the environment. Thus, to overcome this problem, an economically affordable and environmentally sustainable technology known as vermitechnology can be used. It is an innovative eco-technology which converts all the biodegradable wastes into biofertilizers in the form of vermicompost. This low cost and environmentally sound waste management process uses earthworms as natural bioreactors. Vermitechnology is based on the principle that the earthworms during feeding fragment the raw material which helps in increasing the surface area for further colonization of microbes. The humus like finely granulated and stabilized product of vermitechnology can be used as a soil conditioner to improve the organic matter of the agricultural soils. The potential raw material for vermitechnology could be farm wastes, kitchen wastes, non-toxic wastes of industries. Parameters like quality of raw material, pH, temperature, moisture, aeration, type of vermicomposting system, and earthworm species used decides the success of vermitechnology. There are various physical processes involved like substrate aeration, mixing, and grinding while biochemical processes which include decomposition of waste by various enzymes present in the gut of earthworms and is affected by microbes present in their intestine. Earthworms are major component of the soil system and are known to accumulate toxic residues from soil/substrates. The earthworms play a major role in sustainable farming as these organisms assist in the recycling of organic nutrients.

Substrates for VermicompostingCattle dung, plant products (sawdust and leaf litter), kitchen waste, city refuge, non- toxic waste of industry, biogas slurry, horticultural waste and agricultural residue etc. can be used as raw material for vermicomposting.

Selection of Suitable Earthworm SpeciesSelection of suitable earthworm species is most important aspect of vermitechnology. Different earthworm species which exhibit significant variation in respect of nutrient composition are

used for production of vermicompost. Perionyx excavates, Eisenia fetida, Eudrilus eugeniae and Metaphire posthuman are most widely used species of earthworms for vermicomposting. These earthworm species exhibit more tolerance in extreme atmospheric conditions than any other species of earthworms. Tolerance range in case of high temperature is up to 42°C and low soil temperature below 5°C.

Process of VermicompostingSelection of suitable organic waste material is the first step of vermicomposting process. Earthen pots or pits, cemented tanks, wooden boxes lined with either plastics or stones can be used for vermicomposting. Earthworms grow faster and produce more cocoons in slightly darker and humid places with 40-50% moisture content in beds, neutral pH and slightly decomposed organic matter having high nitrogen content. Degradation of organic waste material can be done by enzymatic digestion and enrichment by excrement of nitrogen. The initial 5-10% of raw material is taken up by the tissue of the earthworms for their physiological activities and the remaining is excreted in the form of vermicompost. The decomposition process continues even after the excretion of the cast by the establishment of microbes. The large number of microorganisms, hormones and enzymes already present in the intestine of earthworms converts the partially degraded organic substrates rapidly in vermicompost. The final product of vermicomposting is rich in nutrients, much stabilized and potential organic manure which helps in upsurge the fertility of soil and used as stimulator for growth of plants, and is suitable for agricultural application.

Benefits of Vermitechnology � Reduces the poisonous solid waste � Agricultural and industrial waste can be

recycled and managed efficiently � Biofertilizers with major macro and micro

nutrients can be produced by vermicomposting. � Reintegrates soil properties and nutrients



SOIL SCIENCE19757

17. Biochar: A Tool for Soil Quality Management and Climate Change MitigationGOPAL LAL DHAKER1, DEVI LAL DHAKER2 AND BASU DEVI YADAV3

1Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur (Raj.) 303328 2Department of Agronomy, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur (Raj.) 303328 3Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner (Raj.) 334006 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Globally, greenhouse gas emissions have been increasing as the growing demand for energy has more than offset what progress there has been from improved efficiency and deployment of new energy sources with lower GHG emissions (Le Quéré et al., 2013). Global warming is caused by the emission of various greenhouse gases in which Carbon dioxide emissions are the most important cause of global warming. Concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere have been increasing from preindustrial levels of 280 ppm largely as the result of the combustion of fossil fuels. Hence stabilizing or reducing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and thus the climate will require performing a massive transformation in the energy and transportation system (NRC, 2010). Biochar offers us a golden opportunity to remove excess CO2 from the atmosphere and sequester it in a virtually permanent and environmentally beneficial way.

BiocharBiochar is defined simply as charcoal that is used for agricultural purposes. It is the carbon products, gained while the raw materials, like a forest, animal compost, plant residues etc. is heated in a closed storage place without air. It created using a pyrolysis process, once the pyrolysis reaction has begun, it is self-sustaining, requiring no outside energy input. Byproducts of the process include syngas (H2 + CO), minor quantities of methane (CH4), tars, organic acids - and excess heat.

When biochar is created from biomass, approximately 50% of the carbon that the plants absorbed as CO2 from the atmosphere is “fixed” in the charcoal. As a material, the carbon in charcoal is largely inert, showing a relative lack of reactivity both chemically and biologically, and so it is strongly resistant to decomposition. Hence, biochar is the best way to handle the biomass as well as reduce the emission of CO2 which produce through decomposition process of biomass.

FIGURE 1: Flowchart for the biochar preparationPreparation of Biochar

Biochar is made using a process called pyrolysis. Pyrolysis involves placing the biomass into a special oven before heating in the presence of little

or no oxygen. The result is a stable solid material rich in carbon content that can effectively capture carbon and lock the carbon into the soil. Figure: -1



shows the complete process of biochar preparation. Temperatures required by this process vary and a different type of biochar is produced depending on the feed biomass used and the temperature reached in the pyrolysis process. Pyrolysis methods used to operation raw materials can be classified, to four kinds: a) slow b) fast c) flash and d) gasification pyrolysis methods. All types vary in expressions of modifications to the structure of raw material (feedstock’s), temperatures & heating rates, that outcome in the production of various quantities of every product (like biochar, bio-oil & syngas). Pyrolysis methods can be well known via the residence time, pressure and size of adsorbent, pyrolytic temperature of the pyrolysis substance and heating rate and methodSlow and middle pyrolysis can create a greater yield of biochar, while fast methods can create additional liquid products and flash methods can create additional gas. Therefore, to obtain additional biochar, slow methods and middle methods pyrolysis is additionally appropriate.

Importance of BiocharBiochar represents tool management for quality of soil in the long period, with climate change mitigation. Biochar is the main ingredient in a new carbon-negative strategy to resolution numerous critical current ecological, economic and energy defies. If properly made and used, biochar can relieve climate change and other environmental effects:

� Rise soil fertility & agricultural yields

� Sequester carbon � Enhance soil structure, water penetration &

aeration � Decrease the use of pesticides and synthetic

fertilizers � Reduce methane emission from soil and

nitrous oxide � Decrease farm chemicals leaching into

watersheds and nitrate � Create or produce renewable fuels from

feedstock’s � Change green & brown residues into valuable

resources � Decrease dependence on imported oil � Support local, distributed energy production

and distribution � Increase energy security and community food � Construct local jobs and economic cycles.

ReferencesLe Quéré, C., Andres, R.J., Boden, T., Conway, T.,

Houghton, R.A., House, J.I., Marland, G., Peters, G.P., van der Werf, G.R., Ahlström, A., Andrew, R.M., Bopp, L., Canadell, J.G., Ciais, P., Doney, S.C., Enright, C., Friedlingstein, P., Huntingford, C., Jain, A.K., Jourdain, C., Kato, E., Keeling, R.F., Klein Goldewijk, K., Levis, S., Levy, P., Lomas, M., Poulter, B., Raupach, M.R., Schwinger, J., Sitch, S., Stocker, B.D., Viovy, N., Zaehle, S., and Zeng, N. (2013) The global carbon budget 1959–2011, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 5: 165–185.

NRC. (2010) Limiting the Magnitude of Future Climate Change. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

20030

18. Precision Nutrient Management Approach for Enhancing Productivity of Cereal CropsM. SRINIVASARAOAssistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College, Naira, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionPrecision agriculture is a modern agriculture practice involving the use of technology in agriculture like remote sensing, Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) to enable farmers to use crop inputs more efficiently including pesticides, fertilizers with respect to soil, weather and crop need in order to improve productivity, quality and profitability in agriculture. Site specific crop management based on spatial and temporal variability within fields is the key principle in precision agriculture by doing the right thing, in the right place, in the right way,

at the right time.Nitrogen (N) fertilizer is the primary input

in most of the cereal and commercial crops to get high yields. The requirement N fertilizer varies greatly across the country, season to season and year to year because of high variability among fields and fertility status of the soil. These blanket recommendation and application have fulfilled the purpose of producing higher yields, but limited in the capacity to increase nutrient use efficiency. Over application of nitrogen in the crops like rice leads to further lowering of N fertilizer recovery efficiency. The optimum use of



nitrogen can be achieved by matching the crop demand with available nitrogen supply in the soil. Site-specific nutrient management is new concept for optimizing the demand and supply of the nutrients according to their variation in time and space by increasing nutrient use efficiency for achieving the high yields. There is urgent need for scientific management of nitrogen, by increasing crop use efficiency there by optimizing yields. Establishment and implementation of real time N management techniques in field level is one of the efficient alternatives to improve the N use efficiency and to higher grain yield by minimal fertilizer N loss. (Varinderpal Singh et al. 2011).

Various Approaches for Real-Time Site-Specific Nitrogen ManagementVariable rate technology (VRA) refers to provide accurate quantities of inputs on need based to specific site or crop plant. The two basic technologies for Variable rate technology are: map-based and sensor-based. In map-based VRA, it automatically adjusts the application rate by using the field position from a GPS receiver and a preloaded prescription map of desired rate, the concentration of input is changed as the applicator moves through the field. Sensor-based VRA requires no map or positioning system, based on this continuous stream of information, a control system calculates the input needs of the soil or plants and transfers the information to a controller, which delivers the input to the location measured by the sensor.

Some non-invasive optical tools viz., leaf colour charts, chlorophyll meters, digital, aerial SPAD meter, Green seeker and satellite imageries are also available to calculate accurate nitrogen requirement based on spectral reflectance by the intact leaf. The leaf colour chart gives quick and reliable monitor the relative greenness of leaf and can be used as an indicator of leaf N status (Bijay Singh et al., 2011). These tools have helped in developing real time N management strategies especially in rice crop.

Other methods based on application of spectral reflectance and remote sensing technologies for measuring reflectance in the red (defined by chlorophyll content) and near infrared (defined by living vegetation) region of the electro-magnetic spectrum for estimating N requirement of crops have been developed and the measured spectral reflectance is expressed as spectral vegetation indices such as Normalized Difference Vegetative Index (NDVI). The NDVI is one of the most extensively applied methods and it provides an appraisal of photosynthetic efficiency, productivity potential and potential yield (Bronson et al., 2011). Vegetation indices are other methods based on reflectance is the most reliable and non-destructive method for effective assessment of total dry matter, Leaf Area Index (LAI) especially

in wheat and barley crops. Use of optical sensors by measuring visible and near-infrared spectral response from plant canopies to detect N stress is also one of the approaches. Hand-held Green Seeker and Holland optical sensors have specific advantage over need-based N management tools like SPAD meter and leaf color chart to work out fertilizer N requirement of rice and wheat crops based on expected yields as well as achievable greenness of the leaves. Active multispectral crop canopy sensors are more suitable for practical use in site specific N management applications in the field level due to their independence and relatively low costs compared with other passive sensors or hyperspectral sensors.

ConclusionCrop demand driven real-time site-specific nitrogen management practices avoids application of excessive nitrogen especially in cereal crops specific to rice, wheat and maize which require higher dose of nitrogen fertilizers, thus helps to minimize the fertilizer losses and increases nitrogen use efficiency. Research needs to be carried out to assess the effect of real-time site-specific nitrogen management on grain quality and also to develop algorithm table prepared for exact nitrogen requirement by crops for each agro-climatic zone.

ReferencesBijay Singh., Sharma, R.K., Jaspreet Kaur., Jat, M.L.,

Martin, K.L., Yadvinder Singh., Varinderpal Singh., Chandna, P., Choudhary, O.P., Gupta, R.K., Thind, H.S., Jagmohan Singh., Uppal, H.S., Khurana, H.S., Ajay Kumar., Uppal, R.K., Vashistha, M., Raun, W.R and Gupta, R. (2011). Assessment of the nitrogen management strategy using an optical sensor for irrigated wheat. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 31: 589-603.

Bronson, K.F., Malapati, A., Scharf, P.C and Nichols, R.L. (2011). Canopy reflectance based nitrogen management strategies for subsurface drip irrigated cotton in the Texas High Plains. Agronomy Journal. 103: 422–430.

Varinderpal-Singh., Yadvinder Singh., Bijay Singh., Thind, H.S., Ajay-Kumar and Vashistha, M. (2011). Calibrating the leaf colour chart for need-based fertilizer nitrogen management in different maize (Zea mays L) genotypes. Field Crops Research. 120: 276-282.



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19. Potential of Slag in Mitigation of Methane Emission from Submerged Paddy FieldPALLAVI T.1* AND SHWETHAKUMARI U.2

1Ph.D. Scholar; Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, UAS, Bengaluru, Karnataka 2Ph.D. Scholar; Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Introduction: Methane (A Highly Potent Greenhouse Gas)Methane (CH4) is an important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, with 21-fold higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide (CO2) over a 100-year time horizon. The methane cycle contributes 1% to the atmospheric carbon cycle. The concentration of methane in the atmosphere is increasing at the rate of 0.3 % yr-1. Submerged rice is one of the major sources of anthropogenic CH4 emissions to the atmosphere, contributing about 25 per cent (60 Tg CH4 y

-1) of the global radiative forcing effects. Since, rice is the principal food crop for more than half of the world’s population, rice production must increase to meet the food demand of the expanding world population. This in turn increases the associated CH4 emissions by 40–50 per cent and may accelerate the global warming effects. In this context, application of slag, a by-product of the steel industry containing high amount of active iron oxide, emerges as a feasible soil amendment in wetland rice farming for sustaining rice productivity as well as reducing CH4 emissions from submerged paddy soils.

SlagSlag is the residual by-product generated during steel manufacturing, which is known to constitute substantial amounts of oxides of silicon (SiO2), aluminium (Al2O3), iron (FeO), calcium (CaO), phosphorus (P2O5), magnesium (MgO), and manganese (MnO). However, the amount of each constituent varies with the process of steel manufacturing. Depending upon the processes or type of furnace used different types of slags are basic oxygen furnace slag (BOF), electric arc furnace slag (EAF) and refined slag (LF) slag.

Mechanism of Methane Formation and Emission from Submerged Paddy SoilSubmergence creates an anoxic environment, which is conducive for the anaerobic methanogenic bacteria to produce methane. The anoxic conditions in paddy rice fields, allow a sequence of anaerobic degradations of organic matter, the final step of which leads to the formation of methane. The rice fields - provide carbon-rich

conditions required for high rates of microbial methanogenesis. Methanogens (e.g. Methanothrix paradoxum and Methanosarcina barkeri) gain energy by producing CH4 from simple substrates like formate, ethanol, acetate and H2 and CO2.

The major pathways of CH4 emission from submerged paddy are diffusion, ebullition and plant-mediated pathway, among which plant mediated pathway contributes to nearly 80-90 per cent of total CH4 emission from submerged paddy. This is the primary biological process for CH4 emission in rice, through aerenchymatous tissue. Aerenchyma is modified parenchymatous tissue having air vacuoles to adapt the plant in flooded environment and its main function is the transportation of oxygen for root respiration in rice. Methane is also transported to the atmosphere from rhizosphere through these aerenchymatous tissues in rice and this process contributes about 80– 90% of the total CH4 flux emitted to the atmosphere from the rice field. CH4 is released primarily through the micropores in the leaf sheath of the lower leaf position and released secondarily through the stomata in the leaf blade.

How Slag Mitigates Methane EmissionSoil oxidants and reductants play vital roles in controlling CH4 emissions from submerged paddy fields. When the paddy soil is submerged, some part of organic carbon is decomposed to carbon dioxide by reducing several electron acceptors. The anoxic environment allows a sequential reduction of ionic species which acts as alternate electron acceptors (O2>NO3

-> MnO2>Fe3+>SO4-

2>CO2) in order to meet the oxygen requirement of microbes. So, among these electron acceptors, CO2 is the last to get reduced and the presence of other ionic species prevents reduction of CO2 to CH4. The slag application contributes enormous ferric substances which acts as alternate electron acceptor and oxidizing agent. The availability of high amounts of ferric substances induces the activity of iron reducing bacteria which pose competition for methanogens activity. Thereby suppresses formation of CH4 and emission. The organic carbon in these submerged soils soil is anaerobically decomposed to methane only after the reduction of ferric substances. Furthermore,



slag also supply adequate amounts of silicon which increases oxygen transport from the plant to the roots by enlarging aerenchyma gas channels and this enhances root oxidase activity in turn improves rhizosphere oxidative conditions. The rhizosphere oxidative condition accelerates CH4 oxidation, which eventually suppress CH4 emission.

The application of slag also has its effect on soil properties such as soil reaction (pH) and redox potential (Eh) majorly. Soil pH plays an important role in methane production with maximum production rates at neutral pH conditions. Methanogens are usually more active in neutral (pH 6.5–7.5). The pH of a flooded soil is usually close to 7.0 regardless of its initial level and thus flooded rice field offer suitable condition for CH4 production. The slag addition increases soil pH towards alkalinity due to the release of basic cation such as Ca+2 and Mg+2 which affects activity of methanogens (CH4 producing bacteria) in turn suppressing CH4 production. Methane is produced by strictly anaerobic archaea methanogens, which need highly reduced conditions for their growth and production of methane. The slag amendment to soil actually enhances redox conditions which is not favourable to methanogenic activity. With all these possible mechanisms, slag application known to be effective in reducing methane emission from submerged paddy fields.

ConclusionGlobal agriculture in the 21st century faces

tremendous challenges of food security for the growing population, while minimizing environmental consequences. Rice is the dominant staple food for more than half of the global population and its production is crucial for global food security, yet rice cultivation is a significant source of CH4 emissions. The residual slag of the steel industry containing high concentrations of electron acceptors is a low-cost soil amendment. Being a byproduct of steel making, it is found to contain certain heavy metals. Field trials are required to explore the efficiency of slag in mitigation of CH4 emission.

ReferencesAli. M. A., Oh, J. H. and Kim, P. J., 2008, Evaluation

of silicate iron slag amendment on reducing methane emission from flood water rice farming. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 128: 21-26.

Gwon, H. S., Khan, M. I., Alam, M. A., Das, S. and Kim, P. J., 2018, Environmental risk assessment of steel-making slags and the potential use of LD slag in mitigating methane emissions and the grain arsenic level in rice (Oryza sativa L.). J. Hazard Mater., 353: 236-243.

Wang, W., Sardans, J., Lai, D. A. F., Wang, C., Zeng, C., Tong, C. and Liang, Y., 2015, Effect of steel slag application on greenhouse gas emissions and crop yield over multiple growing seasons in a subtropical paddy field in China. Field Crops Res., 171: 146-156.

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20. Residue Burning: It’s Effect on SoilSHWETHAKUMARI U1* AND PALLAVI T2

1Ph.D. Scholar Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, COA, UAS, Raichur. 2Ph.D. Scholar Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Agriculture is one of the most important production activities that generates a large amount of wastes that includes residues from the processing of farm produce and the disposal of such a large amount of crop residues is a major challenge in the current situation. Residue burning (RB) may traditionally provide a fast way to clear the agricultural field of residual biomass, which facilitates further land preparation and planting. However, these crop residues are a potential source of organic matter & nutrients for microorganism and plants, and hence it needs efficient management. Burning of residues is arguably the quickest way of releasing nutrients tied-up in crop residues, but can result in volatilization loss of appreciable quantities of N, S, and, to some extent, P or even K at very high temperatures and reduction in soil microbial

activity.The crop residue is the material that is

left after the harvest of the crop and byproduct of agriculture based industry. It is an important source of OM that can be returned to the soil for improving soil physical, chemical and biological properties including nutrient recycling.

To clear the land for the succeeding crop, farmers are going for the use of combined harvesters which saves time in agricultural



operations but it leaves behind a large amount of rice residue that to be burnt in the open fields. The use of combined harvester spreads the rice residue in the fields which is difficult to collect and hence the farmers opt for the burning of these residues because it is the easiest and the most economical way of getting rid of the rice stubble.

Why Burning? � Huge volume of crop residue. � Easy and fast way to clear the agricultural field. � Increased mechanization, particularly the use

of combine harvesters. � Declining numbers of livestock. � Long period required for composting. � Labour shortage. � Fertility enhancement [Increases the short-

term availability of some nutrients (e.g. P and K) and reduces soil acidity].

� Controls weeds, insects and diseases.

Effects of Residue Burning1. Global warming2. Emission of GHGs3. Releases of soot particles which causes smog4. Health hazards to human, animals and birds5. Loss of biodiversity6. Loss of carbon7. Loss of soil flora and fauna8. Deteriorates soil fertility9. Loss of plant nutrients/ biodiversity

Loss of Residues NutrientBurning of crop residue will result in loss of

nutrients present in the residues. Where, the entire amount of C, approximately 80–90% N, 25% of P, 20% of K and 50% of S present in crop residues are lost in the form of various gaseous and particulate matters, resulting in atmospheric pollution which in turn cause damage to human health (Jain et al., 2014). Nutrient loss due to burning of rice residues in Punjab in 2001–2002 was 2,400 kg of carbon, 35 kg of nitrogen, 3.2 kg of phosphorus, 21 kg of potassium and 2.7 kg of sulphur in 1 ha. While the loss of carbon and nitrogen was almost total, the loss of phosphorus, potassium and sulphur was partial (around 20–60 %) (Singh et al., 2008).

Hence, the efficient management of crop residues can increase organic matter as well as soil nutrient status. Awareness must be created amongst the farming communities about the negative impacts of crop biomass burning and the importance of crop residues incorporation in the soil for maintaining sustainable agricultural productivity.

ReferencesJain, N., Bhatia, A. and Pathak, H., 2014. Emission of

air pollutants from crop residue burning in India. Aerosol Air Qual. Res., 14, 422–430.

Singh, R. P., Dhaliwal, H. S., Sidhu, H. S., Manpreet-Singh, Y. S. and Blackwell, J., 2008. Economic assessment of the Happy Seeder for rice-wheat systems in Punjab, India. Conference Paper, AARES 52nd Annual conference, Canberra. Australia: ACT.

20856

21. Soil Management for Wheat CropsPRATIK RAMTEKE*, NEHA NAVNAGE1 AND PRAMOD WANI2

*Ph.D. Scholar, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola-444104, MH, India. 1Ph.D. Scholar, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413722, MH, India 2Ph.D. Scholar, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola-444104, MH, India. *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionSoil health is not a permanent property of soil but is highly depends on the way in which it is managed. It is limited to the grower, how and what management interventions he plans for his land. In general, good soil management practices are required to produce higher returns from the cropping system on a sustainable basis. To achieve this, management practices need to maintain soil conditions that are good for plant growth, particularly aeration, temperature, nutrient and water supply. The soil needs to have a soil structure that promotes an effective root system that can

maximise water and nutrient utilisation. Good soil structure also promotes infiltration and movement of water into and through the soil, minimizing surface ponding, runoff and soil erosion.

Conservation tillage practices, including no-tillage and minimum tillage that incorporate the establishment of temporary cover crops and crop residues on the surface, provide soil management systems that conserve the environment, minimise the risk of soil degradation, enhance the resilience and quality of the soil, and reduce production costs. Conservation tillage protects the soil surface reducing water runoff and soil erosion. It improves



soil physical characteristics, reduces wheel traffic which lessens wheel traffic compaction, and does not create tillage pans or plough pans. It improves soil trafficability and provides opportunities to optimize sowing time, being less dependent on climatic conditions in spring and autumn.

Conservation tillage also encourages soil life and biological activity (including earthworm numbers) and increases micro-organism biodiversity. It retains a greater proportion of soil carbon sequestered from atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and enables the soil to operate as a sink for CO2. Soil organic matter levels build up as a result and create the potential to gain ‘Carbon Credits’. Conservation tillage also uses smaller amounts of fossil fuels, generates lower greenhouse gas emissions and has a smaller ecological footprint on a region, thereby raising marketplace acceptance of produce.

On the other hand, conventional tillage can impact negatively on the environment, with a greater food eco-footprint on a region and a country. It reduces the organic matter content of the soil by microbial oxidation, increases green-house gas emissions (including the release of 5-times more CO2), uses more fossil fuels (i.e., 6-times more consumption of fuel), degrades soil structure, increases soil erosion, and adversely alters microflora and microfauna by reducing both the number of species and their biomass. The fundamental difference between conventional tillage and conservation tillage is their relative environmental and economic sustainability. The long-term affects of conventional tillage are cumulatively negative whereas the long-term affects of conservation tillage are cumulatively positive.

20862

22. UAV for Agricultural Water ManagementV. S. L. RAJ RUSHI K1 AND RAGHU. R. S2

1&2PhD Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Agricultural College, Bapatla

IntroductionTraditional remote sensing approaches place remote sensors on towers over crop fields (thermal imagery, multi and hyper-spectral cameras, fluorometers, etc.) where the main limitation is the fixed position from which data is collected. Another traditional remote sensing technique is the use of aircrafts or satellites where the temporal and spatial resolution significantly limits their usefulness for agricultural assessments. UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) and remote sensing come into as useful tools because they are able to fill this important coupled with aerial imagery and adequate computational efforts.

UAV for AgricultureUnmanned helicopters have more complex flight systems, they offer lower flight altitudes and hover capacities (ability to maintain a stable position in flight). No special requirement of takeoff and landing

Fixed-wing UAV: offer more simple flight systems and longer durations, increasing their capacity to cover wider areas. Flight altitude is higher, thus reducing the image resolution.

UAV low altitude remote sensing: main technologies

1. Visible-band, near-infrared, multi-spectral, hyperspectral cameras: Plant



and soil analysis, Height, growth, health, and vegetation indices. Irrigation, property, moisture, erosion and Specific chemical components

2. Thermal imaging: Plant and soil analysis, Irrigation, maturity, temperature

3. Laser scanners: Plant and soil analysis, Height, growth, topographical maps, UAVs for agriculture and Drones

UAV for Agriculture Water Management

Benefit of using UAVs in Agriculture1. Crop health Imaging: UAV can help

farmers get a more detailed view of their crop using infra-red, thermal, multispectral, and NVDI sensors to assist with early detection of any health issues. For example, near-infrared sensors can identify stress in plants up to 10 days before it can be perceived at eye level. They can also obtain data such as sunlight absorption rates and transpiration rates

2. Integrated GIS Mapping: Farmland can be mapped to produce highly precise, georeferenced 2D maps and 3D models. The photographs can be used with a geographic information system (GIS) to provide more detailed analysis. As well, using UAV is a lot cheaper than satellite imagery and the photos are at a higher resolution.

3. Increased Yields: Farmers can identify issues earlier and quickly resolve them. You

can calculate the index that works best with your crop and generate specific classifications and prescriptions to better manage your field. You can optimize inputs such as fertilizers and improve on irrigation efficiency and water management.

4. Time and Cost Savings: UAV can achieve results much more quickly than traditional methods while reducing the amount of labour. UAV can help farmers know precisely where to apply pesticides and fertilizers when needed and assist with water and disease management.

5. Ease of use: UAV can be used to survey crops on a more frequent basis. Autopilot, GPS functionality, and auto-return home features add to the ease of use.

Steps involved in using UAV for crop growth and water use maps

ConclusionUAVs can be used to determine plant water status for several crop species. An exciting scientific-technical challenge will be to combine this technology with an approach that would allow us to estimate the chlorophyll a fluorescence as a proxy for WUE at the crop-scale. UAVs are clearly highly useful and adapted tools for precision agriculture and irrigation management. UAV based crop monitoring could allow for further crop



management, perhaps, even in combination with ground sensors or smartphone Apps, not only for

crop productivity, but also for crop quality

20874

23. Nanotechnology and its Applications in AgricultureALPANA PAULPh.D. Research Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005-Uttar Pradesh, India *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionIndian agricultural growth was 3.59 % in 2004-14 (Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India 2014) which is below than the targeted 4 % annual growth in agricultural sector for 2020. The need of the situation is to accelerate food grain production. The annual per capita food grain production has reduced from 207 kg in 1991/1995 to only 179 kg in 2014/2017 (Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India 2017-2018), and this decreasing food grain production rate is leading to food and nutritional security risk. Thus, to attain targeted agricultural growth with this limited water and land resources can be obtained by increasing per unit natural resources productivity and farm income by judicious use of modern technologies. Nanotechnology has been identified as one of the potential technologies which has the ability to revive agriculture and food industry together with improving the livelihood of poor people. The European Commission has identified nanotechnology as one of the six “key enabling technologiesʺ that can play important role in sustainable growth of different fields (EC 2012). The term “nanotechnology was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974. Nanotechnology is the branch of science which studies the understanding of matter at nanometer dimensions (1-100 nm) (US EPA). With the goal of promoting nanotechnology, the US Federal Government introduced the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in 2001. An effective regulatory and strong governance mechanisms is required for the application of nanotechnology in agriculture. Thus, nanotechnology can bring second green revolution in Indian agricultural sector with the goal of sustainable production.

Applications of Nanotechnology in AgricultureAgriculture sector got constant benefits from technological innovations like hybrid varieties, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. But with time scientists have realized the need of smart technology like nanotechnology to face the global challenges of food security and climate change. Nanomaterials has application in increasing crop yield, improving fertilizer use efficiency through

slow-release nanofertilizers, reducing pesticide use, early detection of plant pathogens, monitoring of soil health through nanosensors, smart fertilizer and pesticides delivery systems, nanomembranes for treatment of soil and water.

Soil Fertility ManagementAfter the adoption of high yielding hybrid, and fertilizer responsive cultivars, fertilizers are required for maintaining soil fertility thus leading to higher food production and crop quality. Spraying and broadcasting are conventional fertilizer application methods which cause losses by leaching, runoff, evaporation, drifting, hydrolysis, and microbial and photolytic degradation. This loss causes very less concentration to reach the targeted site. Among the conventionally applied fertilizers of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, 40-70 %, 80-90 % and 50-90 % respectively are lost in the environment. Due to excess use of fertilizers and pesticides, it causes natural resource degradation, environmental pollution, pesticide resistance in pest, pesticide bioaccumulation, and reduction in soil microflora and nitrogen fixation. Thus, the need is to use chemical fertilizer optimally as per crop nutritional demand and minimum environmental pollution. This can be done through application of nanofertilizers. A nanofertilizer is a product in nanometer level that can improve nutrient use efficiency (NUE) by supplying nutrients to specific target sites and diminishing environmental degradation. Nanoencapsulation of fertilizers is done in three ways: nutrients are (a) encapsulated in nanoporous materials, (b) coated with thin film polymer, or (c) delivered as nanoparticle or nanoemulsions.

Crop ProtectionWith the rising food demand with growing population there is an excessive use of pesticide all over world to control pests and pathogens. Out of total amount very less amount of pesticides (nearly 0.1 %) reaches to the target sites, while the rest are lost through runoff, off-target deposition, spray drift, and photodegradation, thus increasing application costs and environmental damage. Thus,



nanotechnological intervention in plant pathology brings new insights toward crop protection. Nanomaterial can be applied in plant protection through encapsulatuion of pesticide for controlling pests and pathogens through controlled release, application of nanosensors for timely detection of plant diseases and pollutants from pesticide residues. Nanopesticide formulations improve the solubility of less soluble compound and aid in releasing the active compound gradually.

Food Processing/ Packaging / ExportBesides agriculture, nanotechnology has great potential to reform food systems. The nanoscale level of foods improves safety, efficiency, bioavailability and nutritive value of novel food products and ingredients. Major application of

nanotechnology in food science include improving processing and food security, taste and nutrition, absorbable plant nutrients, pathogen detection, environmental protection etc.

ConclusionsNanotechnology plays a great role in agriculture, food security and water purification, food processing and packaging, environmental remediation and plant protection. Nanotechnology has the potential of precise delivery of agrochemicals for improving disease resistance, plant growth, and nutrient use. The use of nanomaterials is quite new in agriculture and it requires additional research. The research and development scopes are very hopeful, and the prospects offered by nanotechnology in numerous agricultural uses are being vigorously explored.

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24. Liquid Biofertilizers: A Potential Tool for Sustainable Soil HealthA. PREMALATHA1 AND S. SARAVANAKUMAR2

1Scientist (Soil Science), 2Scientist (Agronomy) ICAR – Krishi Vigyan Kendra, MYRADA, Gobichettipalayam, Erode District, Tamilnadu

IntroductionIn agricultural eco-system, microorganisms have vital role in fixing/ solubilizing/mobilizing/nutrient recycling. These microorganisms occur in soils naturally, but their populations are often scanty. In order to increase the crop yield, the desired microbes from rhizosphere region is isolated and artificially cultured in adequate count and mixed with suitable carrier material or as they are in suitable combinations (Microbial consortium) by artificial culturing. These are known as biofertilizers or microbial inoculants. Biofertilizers usually need a carrier as medium for the microbial inoculants. A suitable carrier material needs to be inexpensive, easily available, and high in organic matter content, and should have a high water-holding capacity and a favourable H+ concentration (Gaind and Gaur, 1990). Furthermore, a good quality carrier should be free from microbial contamination, and can optimize the growth of the biofertilizer microorganisms (Phua et al., 2009a). However, it is not easy to get a carrier that meets the desired qualities.

Bio-fertilizers manufactured in India are mostly carrier based (solid) bio-fertilizers; the microorganisms have a shelf life of only six months. They are not tolerant of UV rays and temperatures above 300C. At the time of production, the population density of these microorganisms is only 108 (10 million) CFU / ml at the time of production.

This count reduces day by day. In the fourth month it reduces to 106 (10 lakhs) c.f.u/ml and at the end of 6 months the count is almost nil. That’s why the carrier-based bio-fertilizers were not effective and did not become popular among the farmers. Liquid biofertilizer is the solution to the problems where no solid carrier is needed. These are liquid formulation containing the dormant form of desired microorganisms and their nutrients along with the substances that encourage formation of resting spores or cysts for longer shelf life and tolerance to adverse conditions.

Liquid BiofertilizerLiquid biofertilizer preparation comprising requirements to preserve organisms and deliver them to the target regions to improve their biological activity or a consortium of microorganism provided with suitable medium to keep up their viability for certain period which aids in enhancing the biological activity of the target site. Liquid biofertilizer are the microbial preparations containing specific beneficial microorganisms which are capable of fixing or solubilizing or mobilizing plant nutrients by their biological activity. Liquid biofertilizers have one to two years shelf life with high microbial load of 1010 to 1012 cells/ ml. Since, the application in field is also simple and easy.



Differences between carrier and liquid bioinoculants

Characters Carrier based inoculants

Liquid bio inoculants

Shelf life Approximately 6 months

One to two years

Storage condition Below 30° C Up to 45° CMicrobial load 107 to 109 cells/ g 1010 to 1012 cells/

mLContamination Higher and not

easy to detectAlmost nil and easy to detect

Quality control Time consuming process

Easy and quick

Dosage More 10 times lesserApplication by drip irrigation

Not possible Possible

Production Cumbersome Easy and cost effective

Use in Different Groups of Microbes for Liquid Biofertilizer

� Nitrogen fixing Biofertilizers as Free-living- Azotobacter, Symbiotic- Rhizobium and Frankia, Associative Symbiotic- Azospirillum.

� P-Solubilizing Biofertilizers - Bacteria like Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum, Bacillus circulans, Pseudomonas striata and Fungi like Penicillium sp., Aspergillus awamori.

� P-Mobilizing Biofertilizers as Arbuscular mycorrhiza- Glomus sp., Gigaspora sp., Acaulospora sp.

� Silicate and zinc solubilizers- Bacillus sp. � Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria mainly

as Pseudomonas fluorescens

Characteristics of Different Liquid Biofertilizers1. Physical features of liquid Rhizobium

a) Dull white in colourb) No bad smell and foam formationc) pH – 6.8 to 7.5

2. Physical features of liquid Azospirilluma) The colour of the liquid maybe blue or dull

whiteb) Bad odor confirms improper liquid

formulation and maybe concluded as mere broth

c) Production of yellow gummy colour material confirms the quality product

d) Acidic pH always confirms that, there is no Azospirillum bacteria in the liquid

3. Physical features of liquid Azotobacter: The pigmentation that is produced by Azotobacter in aged culture is melanin which is due to oxidation of tyrosine by tyrosinase an enzyme which has copper. The colour can be noticed in liquid form. Some of the pigmentation are described below.a) Chrococcum – produces brown – black

pigmentation in liquid inoculum

a) Beijerinchii – light brown pigmentation in liquid inoculum

b) Vinelandii, A. agilies and A. paspali – produces green fluorescent pigmentation in liquid inoculum

c) insignis – produces less, gum less, grayish blue pigmentation in liquid inoculum

Application Dosages of Liquid Biofertilizers1. Seed treatment a) Rhizobium – 200 ml/

acre for all field crops, pulses and oilseeds. b) Azospirillum – 200 ml/ acre for rice, wheat, oat, parley, maize and sorghum. c) Azotobacter – 200 ml/ acre for all cereals, millets, forage crops and grasses

2. Seedling root dip a) Azotobacter – 500 ml/ acre for plantation crops and tobacco b) Azospirillum – 500 ml/ acre for rice 400 ml/ acre for tea and coffee

3. Soil application a) Rhizobium – 1-2 ml/ plant for leguminous plants and tress b) Azotobacter – 2-3 ml/ plant at nursery for all fruit and agro-forestry plants.

ConclusionLiquid bio-fertilizes is considered the best choice for traditional carrier-based biofertilizers in modern agriculture, which helps in achieving increased crop yields, soil health and sustainable global food production by reducing the cost of input material. Liquid bio-fertilizes is innovative agronomic input for sustainable agriculture. Quality standards of liquid based organic fertilizers are good and stable for 1 to 2years than carrier based biofertilizers. Hence, liquid biofertilizers can be effectively used in organic agriculture.

ReferencesGaind, S and Gaur, A.C. 1990. Shelf life of phosphate-

solubilizing inoculants as influenced by type of carrier, high temperature, and low moisture. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 36: 846-849.

Phua, C. K. H., Abdul Rahim, K. and Nazrul, A. A. W. 2009a. Evaluation of gamma irradiation and heat treatment by autoclaving in the preparation of microorganism-free carriers for biofertilizer products. Jum al Sains Nuklear Malaysia, Volume 21 (1).



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25. Salt Affected Soils and Reclamation MeasuresPRATIK RAMTEKE*, NEHA NAVNAGE1 AND PRAMOD WANI2

*Ph.D. Scholar, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola-444104, MH, India. 1Ph.D. Scholar, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413722, MH, India 2Ph.D. Scholar, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola-444104, MH, India. *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionSalt affected soils are intrazonal, and these limits the crop production because of either pH or soluble salt concentration or both. The regions with low rainfall and high evaporation, the areas near sea which inundated frequently, or soils having pedogenic CaCO3 in their profile have one or more factor which limit the crop growth. Such soil is termed as a salt affected soils. Their classification and reclamation or management is discussed in following section.1. Saline Soils: These are generally found

in areas with arid and semi-arid climatic conditions. Under such condition, high evaporative demand brings out the soluble salts on the soil surface. Moreover, less rainfall under such condition restrict the movement of soluble salts away from root zone. Because of saturation of soluble salts on soil surface this soil has white crusty layer of soluble salts. The soluble salts chlorides and sulfates of calcium, sodium and magnesium. Because of these, the soil has pH is less than 8.5, electrical conductivity more than 4 dSm-1 at 25 °C and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) less than 15 and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) less than 13. The. In physical terms the soil has flocculated structure, with good permeability equal to or higher than normal soil.

2. Sodic Soils: The salt affected soils turns into sodic when exchangeable position of clay micelle is dominated by sodium ion rather than calcium or magnesium. Under drying condition of soil solution, calcium and magnesium salts gets precipitated out while sodium salts owing to high solubility makes an exchange with clay micelle and dominates on exchange complex. This result is development of sodic soil, characterize by pH more than 8.5, EC less than 4 dSm-1 at 25 °C, ESP more than 15 and SAR more than 13. In physical sense, these soils are in dispersed or deflocculated condition which restrict the root growth and water permeability.

3. Saline-Sodic Soils: As the name indicates these soils have the properties of both saline and sodic soils in equal proportion. These soils contain high amount of neutral soluble salts

as wee as exchange complex is appreciably dominated by sodium ion. Because of presence of excess soluble salts, the physical condition of soil remains in flocculated condition with good permeability class. These soils are characterizing by pH less than 8.5, EC more than 4 dSm-1 at 25°C, ESP more than 15 and SAR more than 13. In these soils, both free salts and exchangeable Na are present. These soils can turn into sodic soil, as soon as free salts in soil leach out from the soil.

4. Degraded Alkali Soils: If extensive leaching of a saline-sodic soil occurs in the absence of any source of calcium or magnesium, part of the exchangeable sodium is gradually replaced by hydrogen. These is the extensive or advanced form of the sodic or alkali soils. These soil also have deflocculated or dispersed condition. Such a soil designated as a degraded sodic soil, earlier known as degraded alkali soil.

5. Calcareous Soils: Zonal soils of arid regions usually contain sufficient amount of lime (CaCO3) at some horizons of the soil profile. The pH of calcareous soils is usually above 7.0 and may be as high as 8.5. This variation is due to partial pressure of CO2, being high and formation of undissociated carbonic acid, so that hydrolysis of CaCO3, is reduced. The lowering of partial pressure of CO2, on dilution of soil suspension raises the pH of calcareous soils. Soils high in lime are frequently productive for many ordinary field crops, including most forage crops, corn cotton, sugar beets, potatoes and tomatoes.

Reclamation and Management of Salt-Affected SoilsPhysical reclamation methods include deep-ploughing, sub-soiling, profile inversion, sanding, flushing and scrapping.1. Deep ploughing and Sub-soiling: these

are intended to break or removes the cemented sub soil layer or hardpans. These allows rapid movement of soil water and thus helps leaching of soluble salts. Because of these, the soil can turn into normal condition and crops can be grown successfully. The basic idea is



to leach out the soluble salts beyond the root zone to deeper layer which in general does not comes in contact with plant roots.

2. Profile inversion: This is difficult task to accomplish. It is followed in those soils which have normal condition in surface soil but have salt affected condition in sub soil layers. In this method, good surface soil is retained while the salty sub-soil is inverted down the profile. This method is not followed by farmers.

3. Sanding (Marling): Sometimes sand is mixed in the salt-affected soil to improve permeability and air water relations in the root zone.

4. Flushing: Flushing involves washing away the surface accumulated salts by flushing water over the surface. It is sometimes used

to desalinize soils having surface salt crusts. Because the amount of salts that can be flushed from the soil is rather small, this method does not have much practical significance.

5. Scrapping: Removal of few centimeters of salt encrustation is called scrapping. It might temporarily improve crop growth, but the ultimate disposal of salts still poses a major problem. Also, this method fails to give permanent solution under shallow water table conditions where salts can again rise and accumulate at the surface due to evapotranspiration.

6. Reclamation of Saline soils by leaching: The main objective in reclamation of these soils is to leach the salts below the root zone. This is achieved by flooding or draining.

20892

26. Agro-Industrial Waste for Sustainable Soil ProductivityRUHEENTAJ1AND GEETA KALAGHATAGI2

1Technical Assistant in Agriculture, MGNREGA, ADA, office, Shikaripura 2Senior Research Fellow ZBNF Zone -3 AC, Vijayapure, UAS Dharwad

Use of Agro-industrial waste materials, press mud, bagasse, spent wash, paper mill effluent, lime sludge, coir pith, crop residues, animal wastes and other alternatives in agriculture as a source of nutrients is gaining importance. They are the non-product outputs of production and processing of agricultural products that may contain material that can benefit man. Their composition will depend on the system and type of agricultural activities and they can be in the form of liquids, slurries, or solids.

At present, there are 579 sugar mills producing 28.5 metric tonnes of sugar by crushing 281.57 metric tonnes of sugarcane annually. About 12-15 litres of spentwash is being produced during production of 1 liter of alcohol from molasses (Chhonkar et al., 2011). In a typical Indian sugar factory processing of 100 tonnes of cane produces about 30 t of bagasse and 3 t of press mud and annual availability of major sugarcane by products in India is more than 45-55 million tonnes bagasse and 8-10 million tonnes press mud (Verma et al., 2012). It is estimated that about 273-455m3 of water is required per tonne of paper produced, that consequently generates 300m3 of waste water (Santosh Kumar Singh, 2007).

Agro-industrial wastes are generated during the industrial processing of agricultural or animal products. Products such as bran, straw of wheat, straw of rice, hull of soy, corn, rice, sugar cane molasses, beet molasses, bagasse of sugarcane, cassava flour and its wastewater are representative

candidates of Agro-industrial waste. These wastes are generated in large amounts throughout the year, and are the most abundant renewable resources on earth. Agro-industrial waste hold good nutrient value and can be used as an amendment in soil. They significantly improve crop yield and soil fertility. Reduce the global dependence on fertilizers, fossil fuels etc. Due to the large availability and composition rich in compounds that could be used in other processes, there is a great interest on the reuse of these wastes, both from economic and environmental viewpoints. The economical aspect is based on the fact that such wastes may be used as low-cost raw materials for the production of other value-added compounds, with the expectancy of reducing the production costs. The environmental concern is because most of the Agro-industrial wastes contain phenolic compounds and/or other compounds of toxic potential; which may cause deterioration of the environment when the waste is discharged to the nature. The impact of waste application to the soil for the improvement of physical properties such as soil structure, water holding capacity, soil temperature, bulk density, total porosity, pore size distribution, soil resistance to penetration, aggregation, aggregate stability, hydraulic conductivity, base exchange capacity and resistance to soil erosion have been well documented.

Disposal of Agro industrial waste is a major problem in many industries. Dumping of industrial wastes in the vicinity of industrial areas causes



environmental hazards. Recycling of industrial wastes is one way of disposal mechanism and another way of resource management. India has a vast scope for re-utilization of renewable agricultural wastes like farmyard manure, industrial wastes like press mud, coir pith. The Land application of wastes is preferred alternative for its disposal as a source of plant nutrients and as irrigation water. Since, soil is believed to have a capacity for receiving and decomposing waste and pollutants where organic materials are stabilized through the activity of micro flora in the soil.

Reasons for Decline of Soil Productivity1. Loss of top soil by erosion2. Nutrient mining3. Physical degradation of soil (poor structure,

compaction, crusting and waterlogging etc.4. Soil acidification, salinization and alkalization5. Decrease in organic matter content and soil

bioactivity

6. Use of high analysis fertilizers

Alternate Solution to Improve Soil ProductivityInstead of using high chemical fertilizer we can use the agro- industrial wastes as an alternate source of nutrients. Agro - industrial source acts as an organic source which may results in increasing the organic matter content of the soil.

Different Agroindutrial Waste Production

Press Mud (Filter Mud)It is generated during the purification of sugar by carbonation or sulphitation process. It is Soft, spongy, amorphous, and dark brown to brownish material. It contains 50–70 % moisture which is most favourable for soil micro-organisms, especially earthworms. It contains significant amounts of Fe, Mn, Ca, Mg, Si, P, and enhances the suitability of Sugarcane Pressmud as a source of nutrient. On an average in India, about 8-10 million tonnes of press mud are produced annually.

TABLE 1: Nutrient Composition of Pressmud Cake

NutrientSulphitation Carbonation

Range Mean Range MeanN (%) 1.1-2.5 1.85 0.6-0.9 0.74P (%) 0.6-3.6 1.60 0.4-2.4 0.82K (%) 0.3-1.8 0.80 0.3-1.6 0.62Fe (mg kg-1) 880-2500 1957 2100-3640 2870Zn (mg kg-1) 153-272 224 108-275 204Mn (mg kg-1) 111-1500 587 344-2150 1247Cu (mg kg-1) 45-140 137 69-250 160

BiocompostPrepared from the sugar industry waste material which is decomposed and enriched of with eco-friendly bacteria and fungi such as Phosphate solubilizing bacteria and useful fungi like decomposing fungi, Trichoderma viridae which protects the plants from various soil borne diseases.

PREPARATION OF BIOCOMPOSTDecomposed product of sugarcane residues

↓Press mud and distillery spentwash mixed (1:2.5)

↓Microbial consortium is spread

(Pacelomyces fusisporus / Trichoderma spp.)↓

Aeration provided during two months↓

Bio-compost curied for a month↓

Enrichment with FeSO4, ZnSO4 and biofertilizers

SpentwashDistillery spent wash is the liquid waste generated during alcohol extraction from sugarcane molasses, which is acidic (pH: 3.8 – 4.2) in nature. It has

dark brown colour which is due to presence of melanoides with unpleasant odor, high COD, BOD and traces of heavy metals. It contains considerable amount of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, traces of micronutrients and some other organic compounds which improve the bio-catalytic potential of the treated soils. On an average in India, about 15000 million liters of distillery spent wash is generated annually.

Coir Pith (Coco Peat)A spongy material that binds the coconut fiber in the husk. It is obtained during the preparation of coir fiber. It is an excellent soil conditioner and is being extensively used as a soil-less medium for various Agri-horticultural crops. As it is having higher C:N ratio (100:1) Coir pith is composted to reduce the wider C:N ratio to an acceptable level i.e., 20-22:1, its manurial value of pith is increased by using fungus like pluerotus spp, trichoderma and aspergillus. It is having higher Moisture retention capacity of 500-600% and higher Cation Exchange Capacity about 38.9 to 60 me /100g and it also contain considerable amount of exchangeable K, Ca, Mg, Na. On an average in India, 7.5million tones of coir pith is generated per year.



TABLE 2: Characteristics of Distillery Spent Wash

Property ContentPercentage of total solids

Fraction ContentpH 3.8 Fat, oil and waxes 3.35EC (dSm-1) 28.0 Resins 12.39Acidity (mg CaCo3L-1) 9852 Polysaccharides 42.67Moisture (%) 91.2 Hemicelluloses 2.35Mineral matter (%) 26.5 Cellulose 0.98Total N (%) 2.0 Lignin* + Protein** 1.68C:N ration 15.8 Humic acid (HA) 2.36Total P (%) 0.28 Fulvic acid (FA) 12.5Total K (%) 9.96 HA/FA ratio 0.19

Paper Mill EffluentPaper industry is one of the notorious polluters of the environment. It has been categorized as one of the 17 most polluting industries in the country due to discharge of huge volumes of highly coloured

and toxic waste water in the environment. It ranks 3rd in the world in terms of fresh water withdrawal after primary metal and chemical industries in the world. It is estimated that about 273-455 m3

of water is required per tonne of paper produced that consequently generates 300m3 of waste water.

TABLE 3: Nutrient Composition of Paper Mill Effluent

Property Content Property ContentpH 8.3 Color (OD at 420 nm) 16.5EC (ds m-1) 1.9 SAR 7.6Suspended solids (g L-1) 3010 dissolved Solids (mg L-1) 1765BOD (mg L-1) 165 COD (mg L-1) 448Ca (mmol L-1) 10.6 CO3(mmol L-1) 6.4Mg (mmol L-1) 3.4 HCO3(mmol L-1) 8.4Na (mmol L-1) 20.2 SO4(mmol L-1) 9.5K (mmol L-1) 2.8 Cl (mmol L-1) 14.0

Rice HuskRice husk is a major by-product of the rice milling industry. Rice husk is an agricultural residue abundantly available in rice producing countries. During milling of paddy about 78 % of weight is received as rice, broken rice and bran. Rest 22 % of the weight of paddy is received as husk. The annual rice husk produce in India amounts is generally approximately 120 million tons. Around 20% of paddy weight is husk. Ogbe et al., concluded that both the physical and chemical properties of soil were affected by the application of rice rusk as compared to control.

Impact of Agro-Industrial Waste � Long-term effects of Agro-industrial waste on

soil fertility. � Repeated application of exogenous organic

matter to cropland led to an improvement in soil biological functions. For instance, microbial biomass carbon increased by up to 100% and enzymatic activity increased by 30%.

� Long-lasting application of Agro-industrial waste increased organic carbon by up to 90% versus unfertilized soil, and up to 100% versus

chemical fertilizer treatments. � Repeated application of agro-industrial

waste materials enhances soil organic nitrogen content by up to 90%, storing it for mineralization in future cropping seasons, often without inducing nitrate leaching to groundwater.

� Crop yield increased by up to 25 % by long-term applications of high rates of Agro-indusrtial waste.

� Stabilized organic amendments do not reduce the crop yield quality.

� Regular addition of organic residues increased soil physical fertility, mainly by improving aggregate stability and decreasing soil bulk density.

Benefits of Agro-Industrial Wastes � Agro industrial waste hold good nutrient

value and can be used as an amendment in soil. Significantly improve the crop yield, soil fertility, soil productivity and decrease the global dependence of fertilizers

� Typical concentrations of nutrients in treated wastewater Nitrogen (N) - 50 mg/l, Phosphorus(P) - 10 mg/l, Potassium (K) - 30



mg/l � Application rate of 5000 m3/ha/year, the

fertilizer contribution from Agro industrial effluent would be: N - 250 kg/ha. Year, P - 50 kg/ha. Year, K - 150 kg/ha. year

� Soil conservation and potential reduction of desertification. The use of agro-industrial wastes as raw materials can help to reduce the production cost and also reduce the pollution load from the environment. Waste to wealth perception agricultural wastes. Improves environment by enabling zero-discharge to receiving bodies. Enabling the re-allocation of freshwater supplies for urban use

Limitations in Use of Agro-Industrial Wastes � High C:N ratio of agricultural wastes. � Less nutrient content as compare to chemical

fertilizers. � Bulky in nature � Labour consuming for transportation of

residues to field. � Chance of disease and weed dissemination.

� Shortage of animal feed and fuel in rural areas. � Transportation and application of biogas

slurry may not be practically feasible. � Liquid portion of excrement is not properly

conserved. � Heavy metal contamination.

ReferencesChhonkar, P. K., Datta, S. P., Joshi, H. C. and Pattak,

H., 2011, J. Sci. Res., 59,350-361.Ogbe, V. B., Jayeoba, O.J. and Amana, S. M., Effect of

rice husk as an amendment on the physicochemical properties of sandy-loam soil in lafia, Southern-Guinea Savannah, Nigeria. Production Agric. Tech., 11: 44-55.

Verma, A. K., Singh Shubhra, Singh Shalini, and Ashutosh Dubey, 2012, RDNA Sequence based characterization of bacteria in stored jaggery in Indian jaggery manufacturing units. Sugar Tech., 14(4): 422–427.

Santosh Kumar Singh,2007, Effect of irrigation with paper mill effluent on the nutrient status of soil. Int. J. Soil. Sci., 2 (l): 74-77.

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27. Constraints of Women in Unorganized SectorDEEPIKA PANDEYPh.D. Research Scholar, Department of Family Resource Management, GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand

The unorganized sector provides earning opportunities to the largest number of workers in India including both men and women. It contributes to 82.7% of total workforce in our country. Female workers are found to be employed in agricultural activities and form the largest segment of India’s unorganized workforce. Majority of women work in unorganized sectors for low wages due to illiteracy, ignorance, low level of skills and surplus labour and thus face high level of exploitation. The social and economic profile of female worker is greatly affected by the nature of industrial sector for which they work. The employment of women is high in certain works such as agricultural labourers, construction sector, domestic workers, tanneries, beedi rolling, saw mill, oil mill, labeling & packaging, weavers, roadside vendors etc. Reviewing their way of life, health related problems, occupational risks and working conditions provide an insight to comprehend the vastness and uniqueness of issues related to women employed in unorganized sector.

A healthy workplace and health at work are the assets for an individual. Occupational health and safety is concerned with the safety, health and welfare of the people at the workplace to help prevent work related injuries, illness and fatalities. Among various women, occupational

health problems as well as reproductive health hazards can be seen from a gender perspective. Various factors like multiple overlapping roles (as housewives, mother and worker), type of job, shift work etc. may lead to occupational stress which is one of the major problems from gender perspective. Women are exposed to various reproductive health hazards due to exposure to solvents, chemicals, dust, pesticides etc. The heavy manual labor may lead to musculoskeletal disorders resulting from constrained working postures, repetitive work and psychological stress. Even the design of tools, machines and workstations may be a cause of injury. According to National Institute of Occupational Health, acute pesticide poisoning, acute methemoglobinemia in plastic scrap cleaners and Green Tobacco Sickness due to tobacco cultivation are recognized as important occupational health problems among women. Repetitive trauma is often the cause of a variety of musculoskeletal and neurologic disorders in women. Exposure to volatile organic solvents, dusts and pesticides and non-ionizing radiation has been found to be associated with increased risk of infertility in women. During the process of tobacco cultivation, many agricultural women labors have reported Green Tobacco Sickness due to absorption of nicotine manifesting as headache,



nausea, vomiting and giddiness associated with high levels of nicotine and its metabolite in urine of these women.

The occupational health problems of working women, especially those in the unorganized sector are a matter of great concern. It is important to create awareness among the health personnel,

NGOs and women organizations to improve occupational health of unorganized workforce since chronic occupational diseases can only be prevented but if developed, in a longer run, are rarely curable. The national growth and economy can be achieved by improving the health of workers, especially women.

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28. Development and Opportunities of Landscape Gardening through CADDR. V. G. MAGARAssistant Professor, College of Agriculture, Dongarshelaki Tanda, Udgir (MS) *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionThe concept of CAD i.e. computer aided designing for landscape gardening is somewhat innovative. It can be simply defined as design and drafting of a landscape garden with the aid of computer. It can also be defined as use of information technology in garden designing. A CAD system consists of IT hardware (H/W), specialized software (S/W) (depending on the particular area of application) and peripherals, which in certain applications are quite specialized. The core of a CAD system is the software, which makes use of graphics for product representation; databases for storing the product model and drives the peripherals for product presentation. Its use does not change the nature of the design process, but, as the name states, it aids the product designer. The designer is the main actor in the process, in all phases from problem identification to the implementation phase. Computer aided designing is an important industrial art extensively used in industry and landscape architecture designing and many more. For landscape designs, it represents a practical solution for their imperative needs. Nowadays, CAD is using to create 2D or 3D computer models.

Need of Computer Aided Designing in Landscape GardeningOriginally the technique was aiming at automating a number of tasks a designer is performing and in particular the modelling of the product. Today, CAD systems are covering most of the activities in the design cycle, they are recording all product data, and they are used as a platform for collaboration between remotely placed design teams. CAD systems can shorten the design time of a product. Therefore, the product can be introduced earlier in the market, providing many advantages to a

landscaper. Traditional drafting is repetitious and can be inaccurate, while, CAD provide accurate and efficient drafting with repetitive option which is prime need for a landscaper. CAD systems have the ability to provide a digital prototype of the product at early stages of the design process, which can be used for testing and evaluation. Many specialists from various subject areas can share it, they can express their opinion for the product at early stages, in order to complete the design in less time and with the least mistakes.

Components of CAD SystemThere are two main components of CAD system, i.e., software and hardware.

Cad SoftwareSome of the CAD software’s (http://usa.autodesk.com/autocad/features) used in landscaping are AutoCAD, ArchiCAD, Advance Concrete, Advance Design, Advanced Steel, BRL-CAD, BricsCAD, Tekla, Revit and LANDCADD, etc.

Hardware’sThere are basically two types of devices that constitute CAD hardware, one is input devices and another are output devices. Input devices like Mouse, Digitizers, Light pens, touch sensitive screens and other graphic devices like image scanner etc. are used. In computing, an input device is a peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system, such as a computer or information appliance. These are the devices that we use for communicating with computer, and providing our input in the form of text and graphics. The text input is mainly provided through keyboard. For graphic input, there are several devices available and used according to the



landscaping provision.After creating a CAD model, we often need

a hard copy, using an output device. Plotters and printers are used for this purpose. A plotter is often used to produce large size drawings and assemblies, whereas, a laser jet printer is adequate to provide a 3-D view of a model.

Steps of CAD for Landscapes Designing1. Conducting a site inventory and analysis2. Determining your needs3. Creating functional diagrams4. Developing conceptual design plans5. Drawing a final design plan.

The first three steps establish the aesthetic, functional, and horticultural requirements for the design. The last two steps then apply those requirements to the creation of the final landscape plan.

ConclusionsIt is concluded that through CAD drawing errors can be corrected easily. Drawings can be sent and

received elsewhere quickly via e-tools. Drawing can be zoomed, copied and pasted for more detailed sections. Reuse of designs is possible through CAD applications. It can be stored in personal computer. It can work throughout the night so can produce product 24 hours of a day. Design can be analyzed and optimized virtually using finite element analysis. CAD helps to reduce timescales and mistakes. But on the other hand, CAD can be very expensive and hard to do. For handling of CAD needs training.

ReferencesAnupam Tiwari, Anil K. Singh, N. Kanth, Sumit Pal

and T.S. Hada (2016) Computer Aided Designing for Landscape Gardening. Indian Journal of Research, 5(5): 386-388

AutoDesk.2007. AutoCAD [Online]. Available: http://usa.autodesk.com/autocad/features

Haixiao, S. 2013. Landscape design based on computer aided design technology. Lecture notes in electrical engineering. Inform and Manage Sci.257-262

Raj, D. 2015. Floriculture at a glance, pp 339-348. 4th edition. Kalayani publisher, Ludhiana

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29. Integrated Pest Management of Invasive: Tomato Pinworm PestDR. M. VENKATESWARA REDDYAssociate Professor (Horticulture), Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderanad-30 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Scientific name of Tomato pin worm is Tuta absoluta, which is a moth belongs to family Gelechiidae, order Lepidoptera. This is known by the other common names tomato leaf miner, and South American tomato moth. It is a serious pest of tomato crop in South and Central America, it spreads to Europe, Africa, western Asia and India. The invasive pest was first found to be occurring in Maharashtra state of India in the year 2014. In India this pest is mostly confined to large scale tomato growing areas such as Madanapalli region in Chittur dist. of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. This pest mostly restricted to members of Solanaceous family. It affects the plant parts such as leaves, stems, buds, young fruit, and ripe fruit. It can cause up to 90% loss of yield and fruit quality under greenhouses and field conditions.

Pest Description � Egg: Eggs are Small cylindrical, creamy

white to yellow 0.35 mm long. Tuta absoluta deposits eggs on the underside of leaves or

stems. Hatching takes place after 4-6 days. The egg colour varies from oyster-white to bright yellow.

� Larva: The first-instar larvae are whitish soon after emergence, becoming greenish or light pink There are usually four instars. Larval period lasts 10–15 days. Tuta absoluta has a high reproductive potential. Larvae do not go to diapause stage while food is available.

� Pupa: Pupation takes place within 10 days on the leaf surface, in mines or in soil.

� Adult: Adult moths are 5-7 mm long and with a wingspan of 8-10 mm, with silverish-grey scales, filiform antenae, alternating light or dark segments and recurved labial palps which are well developed. Adults are nocturnal and usually hide during the day between leaves. The pest may overwinter as eggs, pupae or adults. Adult female lays about a total of about 250 eggs during her lifetime. The total life cycle is completed in 30–40 days. There up to 12 generations per year. It is known to have many generations in a year and affects tomato



in all growing stages.

Host PlantsThe Pin worm or Leaf miner prefers solanaceous family members like Potato, Brinjal and Tomato. But Tomato crop is more preferred followed by Potato and Brinjal.

Nature of DamageTomato pin worm affects the Tomato plants right from seedling stage to ripening of tomato fruits. The pest affects leaves, stems, flowers, immature fruits and ripening fruits. The larvae of T. absoluta mine the leaves producing large galleries and burrow into the fruit, causing a substantial loss of tomato production in protected and open filed cultivations. The larvae feed on mesophyll tissues and make irregular mine on leaf surface. Damage can reach up to 100%. This pest damage occurs throughout the entire growing cycle of tomatoes. Tuta absoluta has a very high reproduction capability. There are up to 10-12 generations in year in favourable conditions. The larvae are very unlikely to enter diapause as long as food source is available. Tuta absoluta can overwinter as eggs, pupae and adults. Adult female could lay hundreds of eggs during her life time.

Symptoms of DamageThe symptoms of damage of Tuta absoluta leaf miner is differed with serpentine Tomato leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii). In case of serpentine leaf miner symptoms are observed majorly on upper surface of the leaves, but in case of Tuta absoluta leaf miner, the symptoms can be seen on both sides of leaves.

� Affected leaves exhibit white patches which later dries up leading to burnt appearance.

� Affected fruits shows fine pin holes on the site of entrance and exit, which leads to secondary infection and rotting.

� Affected stem dries up and droops down.

Management or ControlNo single method is effective for controlling Tomato pin worm or Tomato leaf miner. IPM

practices to be followed for effective control of this pest.

� Host Plant Resistance: Several solanum wild species found to be resistance against Tomato Leaf miner. Among those, Solanum pennelli is more promising, which can be used in breeding programmes for development of new varieties or hybrids.

� Physical methods: Using light traps is an effective method. In these 60 watts incandescent light attracts more adults of Tuta moth. This can be operated between 7.00 to 10.30PM, so that it avoids falling of beneficial Insects to the light trap. Light traps can be placed @ one bulb per 150 m2 area under greenhouse condition.

Pheromone traps can be used to monitor the activity of Insect. One pheromone trap can be placed per 300 m2 area under greenhouse condition.

� Biological Control: Egg parasitoid like Trichogramma pretiosm is found to be more successful Release @ 50,000 per ha 6 times at weekly interval.

� Use of Insecticides: Spray indoxacarb 14.5% SC @ 0.8 ml/l or flubendiamide 20% WG @ 0.2 g/l or novaluron 10 % EC @ 0.75 ml/l or carbaryl 50% WP @ 2g/l or chlorantranilioprole 18.5% SC @ 0.3ml/l or lambda-cyhalothrin 4.9% CS @ 0.6 ml/l of water

When the pest is in low incidence spray Neemzal @ 2ml per litre of water from seedling stage

Control for Open Filed Cultivation of Tomato � Destruction of crop residues. � Summer ploughing helps in exposing resting

stages of pests to sunlight, it helps in reducing the pest load in the succeeding crop.

� Light traps with 60 watts incandescent lights can be placed @ 8 no. per acre.

� Pheromone traps can be placed @ 5 no. per acre.

� Adopt chemical spray as above.

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30. Fruit of New World: AvocadoPOOJADepartment of Fruit Science, Dr. YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh-173230

IntroductionButter fruit or Avocado (Persea americana), belonging to the angiosperm family Lauraceae, is

a woody subtropical fruit tree. The avocado is a semi-evergreen tree that is known to shed some of its leaves in spring. Avocado is the only species that produces an edible fruit - a large fleshy berry.



The demand for this fruit has been increasing over the past few years. In international trade, it has become an important fruit. It is reputed as a nourishing food. It is a high energy fruit.

OriginIt was believed to be originated from Central America. It might have been introduced into India from Ceylon about 50-77 years back. It is being grown in hill slopes of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. Leading producer’s countries are Mexico, USA, Dominican Republic, Brazil, Columbia, Indonesia and South Africa.

Composition and UsesIt is one of the most nutritious fruits rich in fat, protein and minerals and low in carbohydrates. It can be safely eaten by diabetics. Its edible pulp has a nutty flavour and buttery texture. Fruit is used as a dessert in salads, ice creams and milk shakes. Immature fruits may have a bitter taste that may reduce on ripening. It is also rich in potassium, iron and vitamin B.

Soil and ClimateIt generally prefers well drained aerated acidic soils of sandy to loams with 4.5 to 5.5 pH. The West Indian race can tolerate pH of 7.6 to 7.9. The uniformity of the subsoil texture is very important. Avocados are sensitive to water logged conditions. The climatic requirements vary depending upon the race of Avocado. The Mexican is more cold tolerant. Guatemalan is intermediate and Indian is most tropically adopted. Fruits are very sensitive to freezing temperature and flowering is very much influenced by temperature. The optimum temperature is 28-31°C. Strong winds are very dangerous as the wood is soft and brittle. Cool moist subtropics are best for maximum production.

Cultivars: There are 400 known varieties in avocado which are classified into three horticultural races:

1. West Indian: No leaf scent, medium to large fruits, large seed, loose cavity, matures in 6 months. Varieties: Pollock, Simmond, Black prince, Peterson, Purple green.

2. Guatemalan: No leaf scent, moderate to large fruits, smaller seed, tight cavity, skin course materials in 9 months. Varieties: Taylor, Linda, Queen.

3. Mexican: Leaves scented, small fruit, large seed matures in 6 months. Varieties: Gott fried, Duke, Pernod.

4. Fuerte: It is a cross between Mexican x Guatemalan. Its fruits are pear shaped.

Flowering and Fruit SetAvocado flowers are entomophilies. Higher relative humidity may help in prolonging receptivity of stigma and retain viability of pollen. Temperature,

rainfall, humidity, nutrition (N, ca) and hormone levels in the plant affect fruit growth and development. Avocado cultivars are dichogamous in nature and are of two types namely:

A= Flowers functionally female in the morning and male in the next afternoon

B= Flowers functionally female in the afternoon and male in the next morning.

BreedingThe species is only partially able to self-pollinate because of dichogamy. This constraint, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated by grafting. Some breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollination are reduced.

The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A type of cultivar flowers opens as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B type of varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.

� A cultivars: ‘Hass’, ‘Gwen’, ‘Lamb Hass’, ‘Pinkerton’, ‘Reed’

� B cultivars: ‘Fuerte’, ‘Sharwil’, ‘Zutano’, ‘Bacon’, ‘Ettinger’, ‘Sir Prize’, ‘Walter Hole’Certain cultivars, such as the ‘Hass’, have a

tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold, the trees tend to produce profusely the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados can appear on the trees. Known in the avocado industry as cukes, they are usually discarded due to small size.

Cultivation Strategies

PropagationIn India, avocado is commonly propagated through seeds. The viability of seeds of avocado is quite short (2 to 3 weeks) but this can be improved by storing the seed in dry peat or sand at 5°C. Removal of seed coat before sowing hastens germination. In India most of the trees grown are seedlings in origin. The seeds taken from mature fruits are sown directly in the nursery or in polyethylene bags. When seedlings are 8-12 months old, are ready for transplanting. The seedling trees take more time to start fruiting and the yield and fruit quality is highly variable. Due to cross-pollination, there is great variability in the seedlings produced from seeds, it is impossible to obtain genetically uniform plant as indicated for the formation of commercial orchards. These seedlings plants take long time to produce first crop and fruit quality in



unreliable.Budding and grafting are the most popular

methods of propagation is essential to avoid these problems. Mexican stocks are best for rootstock purposes and dwarfing in effect. Popular Root stock selections are duke-6, Duke-7, G-6, Huntalas, Dusa and Latas. Mexican race can be propagated by cuttings of young plants also.

PlantingThe commonly recommended Spacing is 7m x 7m, but it may vary from 5m x 6 m and 6m x 12m on the squares. Different races with overlapping blooming periods should only be planted together. High density plantings of 800 trees/ha gave double yield than normal planting of 400 plants/ha.

Manuring and FertilizationsBasically, nutrient requirements of trees vary according to type of soil, varieties and spacing. Full bearing trees of 10 years may be given 200g N, 45gP and 165gK in addition to 50kg FYM. Graded doses can be given from early stages depending up on the growth of the plant. Fertilizer should be applied 30cm away from the trunk only.

IrrigationCommercially this fruit is successful if trees are irrigated regularly. Irrigation at 2% days interval will be optimum. Trees shows water stress suddenly by shedding fruits ad leaves. Sprinkler irrigation to

keep the top 60Cm soil moist is the best. To avoid moisture stress during winter season, mulching with dry grass/dry leaves is desirable. Flooding is undesirable as it promotes root rot incidence.

Training and PruningIt is better to train the plants to Pyramidal form. Avocado has a good natural shape. But regular mild pruning may be done to remove overcrowding, damaged & unproductive branches only. Unnecessary pruning lowers yield by eliminating potential flowers produced on young branches.

Harvesting and YieldThe regular harvesting starts from fourth year onwards. Fully mature fruits only should be harvested. The fruits are harvested in the month of August-September. Maturity can be known by change in color, size of fruit and reduce of glossy shine of the fruit. Average yield is 100-500 fruits per tree. Picking poles are used to harvest the fruits.

Ripening and StorageMature avocados ripen in about 5-10 days at 15-21°C. Ripening can be hastened with ethrel treatments. Mature avocados can be stored in controlled atmosphere with 9% Co2 & 1% 02 at 100°C for 60 days. Presently, there is no organized marketing system for avocado as the production is small and production areas are scattered.

20886

31. Bleeding in Coconut Palms: is it a Choas?P. LOGESHKUMAR1 AND K. ARUNKUMAR2

1 Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Entomology, 2 Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Spices and Plantation Crops, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

IntroductionBleeding in coconut palms is considered as a characteristic feature of an exudation of brownish liquid from the palm tree trunk. Bleeding in coconut palms are caused by the various biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic factors, so the care should be taken to know about the various bleeding symptoms caused for specific factors. In coconut palms mainly the bleeding is caused by the three factors viz., fungus (basal stem rot, stem bleeding disease), pests (Red palm weevil) and lightning thunders. In this chapter we will about to know some of the aspects of bleeding symptoms. There is often confused with the visualizing and finalizing the factor causing bleeding in palms and also leading to following up a wrong management strategies and control.

1. Basal stem rot/ Tanjore wilt: This is caused by the fungus Ganoderma lucidum and the outbreak is mainly caused in the summer months and with the sandy soils and sandy loam soil. This disease mainly initiates in the root portions causing the rot and gradually causing the stem bleeding in trunk. The gummy exudations start from the 3 feet below and then extends even up to 15 feet in affected trees. The bract mushroom a fruiting body is an important feature present in the affected trees. The trees showing this disease will slowly cause the lethality.

Management: Avoid flood irrigation and provide a round basin around the affected trees by which the affected spores are not been passed to the healthy palms present near. Drench the soil with 40 L of 1% Bordeaux



mixture and make it to soak in soil for about 15cm. Root feeding with Tridemorph 2ml/ L is essential. Application of neem cake for about 5 kg/ tree causes induced resistance and provides immunity for palm trees to resist the pathogens.

2. Stem bleeding: This is caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa, a fungal pathogen. It is also showing the formation of the gummy exudates and the brownish liquid. It generally starts from the base of the trunk and gradually spreads to upwards. The gummy exudations later forming a black encrustations and the brown orange margins are formed in the tree trunks. The death of the palms is quite faster when compared to that of basal stem rot.

Management: Remove the encrusted portions from the palm trunk and paint gently with Bordeaux mixture. After 2- 3 days apply coal tar over it. Please see to it that the chiseled portions are burnt out. For induced resistance apply neem cake at 5 kg/ tree with other organic amendments. Swab with Trichoderma

viridae for about 100gm/ L along with lime at 1 kg/ palm. Growing green manures such as sunnhemp, tephrosia, daincha which favors to suppress the fungal agents present in the soil. This method is more effective in the epidemic regions with both basal stem rot and stem bleeding diseases.

3. Red palm weevil: The insect pest red palm weevil Rhyncophorous ferreugineus also shows an exclusive bleeding symptom. The coconut palms infected with the weevils causes the oozing out of the brownish liquid and causes the longitudinal splits and from that extruded splits the fibrous matter is expelled out. Sometimes even a gnawing sound are been noted from the tree trunk.

Management: In case of the red palm weevil affected trees, chisel out the frass from the splits and pour or apply monocrotophos 1% at 1 L/ palm and then close it with the clay paste. Fermenting toddy or pineapple is used for trapping the adult weevils. Aggregation pheromone Ferrolure© at 1 trap/ 2 hectare.

TABLE 1: Visual symptoms

Basal stem rot Stem bleeding

Bractformations Black encrustations and the brown orange margins

Reddish fluid Black fluid and exudations



TABLE 2: Difference between two fungal diseases causing bleeding symptoms

S.No SYMPTOMSDISEASES PESTS

Basal rot Stem bleeding Red Palm weevil01. Bleeding Occurs gradually Occurs rapidly Rapidly on bore hole regions02. Bract formation Mushrooms are formed No mushroom like appearance No appearance03. Encrustations Not formed Formed in the trunk region Frasses are been seen in the trunk

with gnawing noise04. Death of the palm Gradually Quickly Quickly05. Season Summer months November All seasons

4. Lightning: In rare cases the bleeding may also note in the lightning and thunderstorms affected palm trees. The death of the plants is been suddenly occurred along with the bleeding symptoms with full lethality within fewer weeks.

ConclusionsIn this chapter it’s been clearly mentioned the nature of damage with the reference to the bleeding

in palm trees. While moving to the management strategies and by visualizing the symptoms present in the tree trunks the as mentioned measures are to be taken and protect the palms from various casual agents like fungus and weevil pests. While replanting, avoid replanting in the same spot. Consider treating or replacing infested soil. Avoid wounding and overwatering the palms in the epidemic regions.

20895

32. Microgreens: New Generation Smart and Super FoodSHAUNAK SINGH1 AND VARTIKA SINGH2

1M.Sc. (Agriculture) Horticulture in Vegetable Science, Department of Vegetable Science 2M.Sc. (Horticulture) Fruit Science, College of Horticulture and Forestry Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Ayodhya- 224229, Uttar Pradesh, India. *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionIndia is the second most populous country in the world and to feed such emerging large population, in context of nutritional security as we as healthy food India need a new generation smart food like microgreens which do not ensure only security of nutrition but also easy-to-use, chemical-free, safe and also packed with vitamins and minerals. Microgreens are fully developed cotyledon leaves. Microgreens are sources of bioactive compounds which provide additional nutrition and numerous health benefits as well as helpful in recovery of several diseases like cancer, heart diseases, alzheimer’s diseases, diabetes etc.

Eight Key Ways to Choose Microgreens1. Microgreens can be grown using lesser inputs

which is economically useful for persons, especially living in urban or per-urban areas where land is meager or limited factor.

2. Bioavailability of nutritional compounds at tiny stage of microgreens are much higher as compare to mature stage.

3. Seedling does not require any particular weather condition therefore can be grown throughout the year.

4. It excludes uses of fertilizers and pesticides. Therefore, chemical free in nature.

5. Microgreens are packed with minerals and considerably high percentage of vitamins like C, E, and K.

6. Microgreens are potential source of antioxidants.

7. Microgreens contain nine times higher nutritional level as compare to mature greens.

8. Conveniently suitable and easy to grow as they can be cultivated in diversity of locations including indoor, outdoors, greenhouses and even on windowsill of your home.

Potential Microgreens Vegetable Crops belonging to following Family

� Amaranthaceae: amaranth, beet, spinach and quinoa swiss chard.

� Chenopodiaceae: chenopod (bathua). � Apiaceae: celery, dill, carrot and fennel. � Cruciferae: cabbage, Cauliflower, watercress,

radish, broccoli and arugula.



Production Techniques

Growing MediaWide range of media can be used for production of microgreens which is easily available in India like peat moss, perlite, cocopeat, vermicompost, vermicultite, coir, wood fibre, rock wool, paper fibre, bark, sphagnum peat, etc. An adequate mixture of cocopeat, vermiculite and perlite in ratio of 2:1:1 is recommended for optimum growth and development of microgreens. Complete sterilization of media should be done before sowing of seeds to prevent any kind of contamination. Most efficient and common way of treating growing media is Heat pasteurization.

Sowing of SeedsFill up the given container or tray with growing media and water it lightly. Sprinkle the required seed on top of the soil evenly. Optimum spacing should be maintain for seed sowing. 10-15 seeds per square inch for smaller seeds and 6-9 seeds per square inch for larger seeds are recommended.

FIG. 1. Microgreens in trays.

AftercareOptimum moisture should be present in the growing

media. Avoid excessively wet and compactness of media. About 26±2ºC temperature is favourable for growing microgreens in plastic trays inside greenhouse. Seedlings should be watered twice a day regularly to keep moist till harvesting. Since microgreens are grown densely therefore thinning is not required during its cultivation. Weeds and diseases are hardly seen as sterilized media are used.

HarvestingFinal harvesting in tropical climate can be done 7-14 days after germination while 14-28 days in temperate region. Crops like alfalfa, water spinach, radish grow at faster rate while amaranthus green, carrot, green and black gram and sweet corn take longer time for their growth. Microgreens with attractive colour and flavour are cut with scissors along with stem as well as attached cotyledons. Good hygiene practices should be adopted while harvesting of crops to avoid further contamination. Microgreens are subjected to pre-cooling just after harvesting to extend its shelf-life. Then moisture is removed and packed in plastic container.

ConclusionMicrogreens are new era emerging class of vegetable greens tiny foods that has gained momentum in recent years. There is great emerging scope of microgreens cultivation in India in era of fast-growing population as it ensures nutritional security. Attractive colour and good flavor packed with minerals (iron, zinc, magnesium and copper) and considerably high percentage of vitamins like C, E, and K and bioactive compounds reduce risk of many dangerous diseases like cancer, heart diseases, alzheimer’s diseases, diabetes etc. It is one of the most profitable crops because it can be easily grown in small space making them an ideal crop for small farms and urban growers. Since the set-up cost is low and the growing cycle is quick therefore harvesting and selling of first crop can be done in just a couple of weeks.

ReferencesKoley, T.K.; Maurya, A.; and Singh, B. (2016).

Microgreens from vegetables: more nutrition for better health. New Age Protect Cultivation. 2(2):25–27

Koley, T.K; Singh, S.; Prasad, R.N.; Singh, B. (2016). Microgreens are new generation smart food. Indian Horticulture 61(1):3–4



FORESTRY20898

33. Bamboo Shoots: Healthy FoodCHICHAGHARE AR*

*Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, College of Forestry, KAU, Thrissur *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Introduction � Bamboo shoots are valuable in pharmaceutical

and food processing industries, can be processed into various beverages, health food and additives.

� Nearly edible bamboo shoots of 2 million tonnes per year were consumed in the world.

� Every year, bamboo shoots weighing about 20-30 million tonnes were canned for consumption (Chaudhary et al. 2012).

� In Asia, many countries like the Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and China commercially exploited this ethnic food.

� India ranked 2nd in bamboo shoots production after China but India unable to exploit it properly.

� Bamboo shoots were cooked, fermented, boiled, canned and dried to consume as food in many conventional cuisines and in various forms in India.

� Bamboo shoots are commonly used as food in tribal of northeast India and to some extent in coastal areas of peninsular India.

� Due to its high nutraceutical and therapeutic value, bamboo shoots gaining more popularity as healthy food for its benefits as an alternative crop.

FIG 1: Harvested bamboo shoots for sell in the local market (Chongatham et al. 2011); FIG 2: Medicine made from bamboo shoots; FIG 3: Canned bamboo shoots product

Suitable Species � National Mission on Bamboo Application

(MNBA) recognized 15 edible species that can be commercialized out of 148 species found all over India.

� Dendrocalamus asper, Guadua angustifolia, Meloncanna baccifera, D. strictus D. hamiltonii Dendrocalamus giganteus and Bambusa balcooa, are some common species for shoot production.

� Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus strictus are commonly used species for edible

bamboo shoots in peninsular India. � It was reported that the cultivation of

Dendrocalamus as per for shoot production is a highly profitable humid area due to taste, the volume of extractible shoots and ease in management.

Harvesting � Bamboo shoots emerge in the beginning of

monsoon season (June-July). � Edible shoots are harvested when they are

tender usually 1-2 weeks after emergence. � Generally harvested if shoot attained a height



of 15-30 cm depending upon the species and locality.

� Shooting season lasts for two months can be extended by management practices.

� Average 23 shoots weighing 30-50 Kg obtained from Bambusa bambos.

Limitations � Low shelf life: 9 days in water and 23 days in

brine � Bitterness in the shoots � Long processing period � high level of cyanogenic glucosides

“taxiphyllin” which produces HCN (100-1000 mg HCN per kg of the fresh shoot)

� Omogentistic acid – imparting disagreeable, pungent taste

Processing1. Conventional: fermentation, soaking in

water, roasting, boiling, blanching, canning, pickling salt pickling of sliced bamboo shoots etc.a) Bamboo shoots can be dried, marinated

and sauteed, which can be formed powders, nuggets.

b) Fermentation is very popular in NE India while soaking in water before cooking is followed in peninsular India traditionally.

c) HCN content in bamboo shoots can be reduced by steaming, treating with common salt, or boiling.

d) The boiling process degrades cyanogenic glycosides in bamboo shoots.

e) boiling bamboo shoots for 20 min at 98 °C removed about 70% of HCN and about 96% is removed by boiling at this temperature for a long interval (Ferreira et al. 1995).

f) Drying is the oldest and simplest food processing method in the food industry which reduces nearly 95% of the moisture content of dried bamboo shoots. dried bamboo shoot powder is directly used in various dry food items and preparing chutney and beverages.

g) Canning effective in preventing rancidity and preventing the growth of micro-organisms in bamboo shoots.

2. Advanced: vacuum freeze drying, vacuum cooling, superheated steam drying are cost-effective technologies for commercial scale.

IWST Technology for Bamboo Shoot Processing � Cut tender bamboo shoots into small pieces

and wash it in water. � Cook pieces into the household pressure

cooker for 15 min. and discard supernatant water or boil shoots with water for 30-45 minutes directly and the shoots can be directly

used for consumption. � This novel, fast, cost-effective and simple

method developed by IWST, Bangalore having minimal nutrient loss as compared to other methods.

Nutritive Value � Bamboo shoots are low in calories, high in

dietary fiber, and rich in various nutrients like amino acids, minerals, fats.

� The shoots are high in minerals, mainly potassium, calcium, manganese, zinc, chromium, copper, iron and lower amounts of phosphorus and selenium.

� With 17 different types of amino acids, juvenile shoots are a good source of thiamine, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin B6, Vitamin C, vitamin E, serine, threonine, asparagine, glutaminetyrosine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, phenyalanine, histidine and lysine, which is one of the essential amino acids, which is helpful for growth and development of children.

� Shoots also contain oxalic, citric and malic acid.

Medicinal Properties � Bamboo shoots having anti-aging, anti-

cancerous, anti-free-radical, antibacterial, antiviral and antioxidant properties.

� Different flavones and glycosides can be extracted to make capsules and tablets.

� Control high blood pressure and cardiovascular ailments.

� Regarded as a cheap immunity booster. � It is used as treating infections and as a

appetizer. � Silicious concretions found in the bamboo

shoots are called banslochan or bamboo manna and is known to be a good tonic for respiratory disorders in Ayurveda system.

� Bamboo sea salt obtained from shoots is an alternative to table salt in cooking.

ConclusionThere is a need for more research and development of appropriate and cost-effective technologies for the preservation and processing of bamboo shoots in various forms and promotion of a well-thought-out market or supply chain for the raw or processed bamboo shoots in India.

ReferencesFerreira, V.L.P., Yotsuyanagi, K. and Carvalho, C.R.L.

1995. Elimination of cyanogenic compounds from bamboo shoots D. giganteus Munro. Tropical Science., 35:342 - 346.

NMBA, The Bamboo Book FG 01 07/11. 2011. NMBA, TIFAC, DST, GoI, New Delhi, India.

Viswanath, Syam & Chandramouli, Sowmya. 2016. Cultivation prospects of edible bamboo shoots in



South India. IWST, Banglore.Choudhury, D., Sahu, J.K. and Sharma, G.D., 2012.

Value addition to bamboo shoots: a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 49(4): 407-414.

Chongtham, N., Bisht, M.S. and Haorongbam, S., 2011. Nutritional properties of bamboo shoots: potential and prospects for utilization as a health food. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 10(3): 153-168.

Kozukue, E., Kozukue, N. and Kurosaki, T., 1983. Organic acid, sugar and amino acid composition of bamboo shoots. Journal of Food Science. 48(3): 935-938.

Sang-A-Gad, P., Guharat, S. and Wananukul, W., 2011. A mass cyanide poisoning from pickling bamboo shoots. Clinical toxicology. 49(9): 834-839.

MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS20857

34. Plumbago rosea: A Versatile Medicinal Plant*1RAJESWARI E AND 2DR. DEEPA S. NAIR*1PG Scholar and 2Assistant Professor, Department of Plantation crops and Spices, College of Agriculture (Kerala Agricultural University), Vellayani, Kerala – 680656. *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionMedicinal plants are the prime source of effective conventional herbal drugs used in indigenous system of medicine. The world is enriched with a plenty of medicinal plants, which are in great demand worldwide. Most of these plants produce various bioactive compounds that play a dominant role in human health management. The bioactive principle is being utilised in the preparation of herbal formulations for pharmaceutical industry. Plumbago rosea (syn. Plumbago indica) is a potential ethno-medicinal plant used in the traditional system of medicine for treating many diseases.

Indian LeadwortPlumbago rosea L. commonly called Red chitrak is widely distributed in South-east Asia. It is a perennial shrub that grows up to 1.5m with semi-woody stems and flexible branches. Generally, it is grown as an ornamental plant in the gardens. The generic name Plumbago is derived from latin word “Plumbum” means “lead”, indicate its ability to cure lead poisoning or the ability of plant sap to create lead coloured stains on skin. It is known by various names like scarlet leadwort, Indian leadwort, rosy flowered leadwort, fire plant etc. due to its attractive red color inflorescence. It is widely used in Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Folk and Chinese medicines to treat various diseases.

Therapeutic ActionsPlumbago rosea is a multipurpose medicinal plant whose roots are being considered the most bioactive part of the plant. Roots are the essential ingredient of herbal mixtures in Ayurvedic

medicine. It is bitter and dry with stomachic, carminative and anthelmintic properties. It is also acrid, vesicant, stimulant, effective abortifacient and contraceptive. Heavy doses are unsafe and may, sometimes lead to death. It is used for curing various ailments such as dyspepsia, diarrhoea, colic, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, oedema, piles, intestinal worms, leucoderma and leprosy. The oil from the roots is used to treat arthritis, rheumatism and paralysis. Milky juice of leaves is applied externally to cure skin disorders. Plumbagin, a natural napthaquinone (5-hydroxy-2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone) is a principle active compound present in the roots which possess various pharmacological activities such as antimalarial, antimicrobial, anticancer, cardiotonic and antifertility actions. Plumbagin is responsible for the burning action of the root, causing blisters on the skin.

AgrotechniquesThe plant prefers a rich, moist well drained soil and thrives very well at a temperature range of 25-35oC. As it is a shade loving crop, recommended for intercropping in coconut and rubber plantations. Flowers are bright red in colour arranged in long terminal spikes. Flowering occurs throughout the year. It is a short-day plant, and hence, requires a prolonged dark period for the induction of flowering. Viable seeds are not produced in this plant; hence it is commercially propagated through stem cuttings. 2-3 nodded stem cuttings are planted in the nursery for rooting. The rooting occurs within one month of planting and around 80,000 rooted stem cuttings are needed for planting in 1 ha of land. They are planted in the main field



during the month of June-July. Farm yard manure @ 10 t/ha should be applied at the time of planting. NPK recommendation for P. rosea is 50:50:50 kg/ha. Entire P should be applied basally and N and K is given in two split doses, 2 months and 4 months after planting. Earthing up is done twice annually along with topdressing of fertilizers. Depending on weed growth, weeding has to be planned two or three times a year. Tuberous roots will be ready for harvesting at 18-24 months after planting and produce a dry tuber yield of 1400kg/acre.

PurificationCuring is the most important postharvest operation in Plumbago to reduce toxicity. Roots while harvesting causes blisters on the skin. In ayurvedic preparations, the roots are used only after purification/curing. After harvesting, the roots are made into pieces and put in 3-4 % lime solution for 2 h. The colour of lime water turns reddish due to dissolution of plumbagin from the roots. Roots are taken out, washed and kept in fresh lime water. The process is repeated until the

lime water turns white to get purified roots.

ConclusionHerbal medicines proves an important contributor to improve human health and wellbeing. Plumbago is one such widely accepted medicinal plant in traditional systems of medicines in many countries. Presence of wide range of biologically active phytochemicals indicates its future perspectives in pharmaceutical industry to bring out new innovations in medical field. Considering the immense medicinal and commercial potential of the species, we should bring utmost attention towards conserving this medicinal plant for mass production of quality herbal root drugs.

References1. NMPB [National Medicinal Plants Board]. 2008.

Agro-techniques of selected medicinal plants. Vol. 1. National Medicinal Plants Board, New Delhi. 262p.

2. Ravali, P. and Kumar, P. 2018. A review on different activities of medicinal plants of P. indica. World J. Pharm. Res. 14(3): 473-478.

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND PROCESSING19827

35. SPAWN: A Seed Material for Mushroom Production1RANGANATHSWAMY MATH 2ARJUNSINH RATHVA AND GAJANAN LAXMANRAO KADAMDepartment of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, AAU, Jabugam

Spawn: It is the vegetative mycelial network of mushroom fungi grown on grain based medium. It comprises of the mycelial network along with a supporting medium which provides nutrition to the fungus for its growth. It acts as a seed material for mushroom cultivation. The first-generation fungal culture is called the mother spawn.

Materials RequiredGrains (select good quality well filled bold grains), Polypropylene bags or conical flask/ glucose bottle, non-absorbent cotton, thread/ rubber band, vessel, cloth, pure culture of mushroom, fungicide (carbendazim / mancozeb).

Step for Preparation of SpawnTwo kg. of sorghum grains are first washed in tap water to remove chaffy and damaged grains. Sorghum grains are then boiled (Half cook) in water for 30 minutes in a vessel. Test the cooked grains by gently pressing them between fingers. Grains should slightly break and should not be sticky. Drain off excess water and grains are spread thinly over a cloth which previously soaked in a fungicide solution. Mix thoroughly 5 g of calcium

carbonate and 20 g of calcium sulphate for every kg of sorghum grains. This will help to maintain the pH of the medium. Fill the grains in glucose bottles or plastic bags (1/2 to 2/3rd level). Tightly plug the mouth of the bottles with non-absorbent cotton. Cover the cotton plug with the aluminium foil or paper and tie it around the neck of the bottle using thread or rubber band. Sterilize the bottles at 20 p.s.i. for 1.5 to 2 hours. Sterilized bottles are allowed to cool down overnight. After cooling, inoculate the bottles with pure culture of mushroom. Incubate the spawn bottles at room temperature. After 5-7 days of inoculation vigorously shake the bottle so that mycelium threads are broken and well mixed with the grains. In about 15 days complete growth of white mycelium covering the entire bottle can be seen.

Precautions to be Taken � Avoid overcooking of grains as it may lead to

splitting of grains. � Always dry cooked grains on cloth spread on a

raised platform or on a wire mesh tray. � Use only recommended dose of CaCO3 and



calcium sulphate for mixing with the cooked grains.

Characters of Good Spawn � There should be proper coating of the

mycelium around every grain used as substrate for spawn.

� The growth of the mycelium in the spawn

bottles should not be cottony or fluffy type. � The growth of fresh spawn is more or less

white. � There should not be any slimy growth in

the spawn bottles which is an indication of bacterial contamination.

� There should not be any greenish or blackish spot in the spawn bottles.

SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY19810

36. Problems and Ways to Overcome: Hybrid Seed Production in Sorghum and Bajra1BANGARU KIRANMAYEE AND 2BAGUDAM RACHANA1,2PhD scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad.

SorghumCytoplasmic male sterility is used for hybrid seed production in sorghum

Hot Water Treatment � The usage of hot water requires that the head

be drenched for quite some time, and at the correct temperature, so as to kill the male organs but not the female ones.

� Varieties respond variably to the present technique; thus, it is going to not be equally effective on all entries present in a cross block.

� Hence CGMS

Undesirable Effects of Cytoplasm � In sorghum, the cytoplasmic source combined

kafir was used aggressively but has the drawbacks like black glumes and chalky endosperm.

Cytoplasm fertility group

Source

Identity Race2 OriginA1

y IS 6771C D -IS 2266C G-C IndiaIS 2705C D SudanIS 7502C G Burkina FasoIS3579C C NigeriaIS 8232C (K-C)-C IndiaIS 1116C G IndiaIS 7007C G India

A2z IS 12662C G Nigeria

IS 2573C G SudanIS 2816C C Zimbabwe

A3z IS 1112C D-(DB) India

IS 12565C C Sudan

Cytoplasm fertility group

Source

Identity Race2 OriginIS 6882C K-C USA

A4z IS 7920C G Nigeria

9Ez IS 7218 NigeriaIS 112603C G Nigeria

A5z IS 7506C B Nigeria

A6z IS 1056C D India

IS 2801C D ZimbabweIS 3063C D Ethiopia

zD = Durra, G = Guinea, C = Caudatum, B = Biocolor, K = KafiryType member for each fertility groupSource: Adapted from Schertz )1994)

Synchronization of Flowering � In sorghum hybrid seed production, for

fertilizing the flowers of the female line, pollen has to be available from the male plants.

� If only the flowering in the female line syncs with the flowering in the male line, proper pollination and seed set in the female will be possible.

� Serious problem faced in hybrid seed production in sorghum is proper nicking or synchronization of flowering in the two parents, resulting in poor seed set.

� To overcome the same, staggered planting is followed such that they flower simultaneously. The other option is selective irrigation and fertilizer application whilst including foliar spray of urea.

Modifying Genes � These genes may subside the effectiveness of

cytoplasmic male sterility.



� During backcrosses, while transferring the male sterile cytoplasm, the nuclear genetic background may be disturbed causing some pollen production by the new male sterile lines.

� Knock out mutations or inactivate the expression of such genes.

Environmental Effects � Could lead to poor seed set. � Under such situations, alternative

emasculation method like TGMS can be deployed.

BajraCytoplasmic male sterility is used for hybrid seed production in bajra.

Undesirable Effects of Cytoplasm � Cytoplasmic-nuclear male sterility (CMS)

system in pearl millet has been extensively used quite for 30 years to breed male-sterile lines (A-lines) of grain hybrids.

� These hybrids have been developed on genetically diverse A-lines, but they all have a single CMS source, called A1 CMS system.

� Large-scale deployment of one CMS source makes pearl millet hybrid seed industry susceptible to disease and insect pest epidemics.

� The cytoplasm of Tift 23A1 has been extensively utilized in breeding programmes, but all went out of cultivation within about 5 years of their release thanks to high downy mildew susceptibility.

� Cytoplasmic diversification led to identification of several CMS sources.

Cytoplasm CMS lineA1(Tifton) Tift 23 AA2 (Ludhiana) L66AA3 L67AA4 ICMA-90111

Undesirable Effects of Restorer LinesThe Restorers available for a given crop, if used widely, may end in genetic vulnerability to major pests and diseases.

TABLE 1: Genetic models of fertility restoration in pearl millet, (Modified after Rachie and Majudas 1980)

Line Cytoplasm type Fertility restore genes

Tift-23A Tift-23B

S1 N

fr1fr1 Fr1Fr1 Fr1Fr1

L66A L66B

S2 N

fr1fr1 fr1fr1 Fr1Fr1

L67A L67B

S1 N

fr1fr1 fr1fr1 fr1fr1

L103A L103B

N N

Fr1Fr1 fr1fr1 Fr1Fr1

Tift-239R Tift-13R

N N

Fr1Fr1 fr1fr1 fr1fr1

Bil-4R Bil-GR

N N

Fr1Fr1 fr1fr1 Fr1Fr1

� There is a need to diversify the sources of restorers.

Synchronization of Flowering � Non-uniformity in flowering period of male

and female parent results in poor seed set due to lack of of pollen at the time of stigma receptivity in female parent due to the protogyny.

� To realize proper synchronization of flowering of male and feminine parents during hybrid seed production, staggered planting, chemical methods and cultural practices like application of additional dose of nitrogen through soil, spraying of urea, gibberellic acid, ABA, hydro priming and controlled irrigation are followed.

� Jerking is a process of discarding the early formed ear heads of the first formed tillers to facilitate uniform flowering in all the tillers.

20422

37. Genomic Selection for Crop ImprovementTHOTA JOSEPH RAJU1, DEVA PRASANNA ANGEL2 AND VIJAYALAKSHMI N3

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, Raichur 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, APGC, ANGRAU, Guntur 3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru

The rapid gain from selection and breeding program reshaping is facilitated through molecular marker technology, has been predicted for over two decades. Despite important strides in marker

technologies, the use of marker-assisted selection (MAS) has stagnated for the improvement of quantitative traits3. Current MAS methods are effective for the manipulation of large effect alleles



with known association to a marker, but ineffective for small effect alleles of quantitative traits. Two primary limitations of MAS for the improvement of polygenic traits are (i) the bi-parental mapping populations-based QTL mapping do not readily translate to breeding applications and (ii) biased estimation of QTL effects and small-effect QTL will be missed entirely as a result of using stringent significance thresholds. Association mapping (AM) also retains the disadvantage of biased estimates of QTL effect and therefore poor prediction of line performance4.

Therefore, to address these challenges new strategies called Genome Selection (GS) based on reduced phenotyping and selection is based on marker/genotypic profile was suggested. In genomic profile, the prediction model Genomic Selection is used to derive genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) for all the individuals of breeding population (BP) based on the genotypic and phenotypic data of training population4.

Even small effect QTL is captured and avoids biased marker effect, which is ray to the success of GS as prediction model, also incorporates all marker information. Several statistical approaches viz., Step-wise regression, Ridge regression-best linear unbiased prediction (RR-BLUP) and a Bayesian regression, kernel regression and machine learning methods (RF and SVM) and non-parametric regression models have been proposed for the prediction of GEBVs2.

Genomic selection rapidly gaining popularity in plant breeding, particularly for traits that are

difficult to measure. One such trait is Ascochyta blight resistance in pea (Pisum sativum L.). The best prediction accuracy achieved was 0.56, using Genomic Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (GBLUP) analysis with a data quality threshold of 70% (i.e., missing SNP data in <30% of lines). GBLUP and Bayesian Reproducing kernel Hilbert spaces regression (RKHS) are found to be better than the other models1. Accuracy of GEBV predictions using empirical data have been reported in wheat, maize, barley soybean, linseed, potato and Arabidopsis thaliana3.

GS is expected to accelerate the breeding cycle (selection gain per unit time) and change the role of phenotyping. GS may be regarded as a potent, attractive and valuable approach for plant breeding that leads to the next phase of MAS.

References1. Carpenter, M. A., Goulden, D. S., Woods, C. J.,

Thomson, S. J., Kenel, F., Frew, T. J., and Cooper, R. D., 2018, Genomic Selection for Ascochyta Blight Resistance in Pea. Front. Plant Sci., 9: 1-15

2. Heffner, E. L., Sorrells, M. E. and Jannink, J. L., 2009, Genomic selection for crop improvement. Crop Sci.,49:1–12.

3. Isidro, J., Jannink, J. L., Akdemir, D., Poland, J., Heslot, N. and Sorrells, M. E., 2015, Training set optimization under population structure in genomic selection. Theor. Appl. Genet.,128:145–158.

4. Jannink, J. L., Lorenz, A. J. and Iwata, H., 2010, Genomic selection in plant breeding: from theory to practice. Brief. Funct. Genomics.,9(2):166–177.

20425

38. Molecular Insights in Control of Sex Expression in CucurbitsVIJAYALAKSHMI N1., T. JOSEPH RAJU2, AND DEVA PRSSANNA ANGEL3

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, Raichur 3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, APGC, ANGRAU, Guntur

The successful selection of fittest survivors gradually branched into millions of organisms (animal and plant kingdom) by biological phenomenon (sexual reproduction) which leads to create allelic combinations by genetic diversity. There are two basic types of sexual reproduction: hermaphrodites and dioecism or gonochory (male and female sex organs on separate individuals). Most plants are hermaphroditic and animal kingdom is ruled by gonochory. In spite of this consensus, dioecy has found ways to establish its roots in plant kingdom within a specific confine.

The separation of male and female (Dioecy) reproductive organs is the ultimate phenomenon that not only ensue., trues avoidance of inbreeding but also facilitates optimal resource allocation between male and female sex organs. Dioecy is an outcome of two independent and simultaneous mutations for male and female sterility in the hermaphroditic developmental programme where almost all autosomes carry genes for androecium and gynoecium development, their expression being fine-tuned spatially during ontogeny (Honys and Twell, 2004).



Liu et al. (2008) reported that cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) predominantly controlled by two genetic loci (F and M), which served as the model system in flowering plants for sex expression. Ethylene is the major plant hormone that regulates sex expression in cucumber, which serves as both a promoter of femaleness via the F locus and an inhibitor of the male sex via the M locus. In support of this model, genetic, genomic and transcript analyses indicate that the F gene encodes a key enzyme in ethylene biosynthesis in regulating sex expression in cucumber.

Wang et al. (2010) concluded that ethylene perception is involved in the arrest of stamen development in female cucumber flowers through the induction of DNA damage. The promotion of female flowers in the monoecious cucumber plant is selective by ethylene was proved by this novel and perspective approach.

Miao et al. (2011) recorded the involvement of hexokinase in the shoot apex through a sugar signalling pathway under induction of various temperature regimes which elevates the levels of glucose and sucrose which enhances femaleness in cucumber.

Jessica et al. (2014) observed that floral primordial-targeted expression of ethylene biosynthetic gene (ACS) in melon (Cucumis melo), increased femaleness with AP3-driven expression of ACS, including in extreme cases like conversion from andromonoecy to hermaphrodite plant habit, loss of buds destined to be male flower, and ethylene-mediated regulation of key sex genes, support the concept of differential ethylene thresholds for sex organ promotion or inhibition during floral bud development in melon.

Tan et al. (2015) identified a novel allele (m-1), at the monoecious locus to control the bisexual flower in H38, which was due to a 14 bp deletion in the third exon of the CsACS2 gene encoding a truncated loss of function protein of the cucumber by 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase. This new allele provides a valuable tool in understanding the molecular mechanisms of CsACS2 in the relationships of sex determination, fruit shape and CsACS activities in cucumber.

ConclusionThe extensive sexual diversity of Cucurbitaceae species provides unique insights into revolutionary and developmental biology, provides novel opportunities for crop improvement. Cucurbit species show a range of evolutionary states from hermaphrodite to monoecious than to dioecious (back again), often with in a given genus or among subspecies of a single species. In recent years tremendous progress has been made in understanding genetic, physiological and molecular underpinnings of the capacity for unisexual flower development, especially through cloning of major sex expression of many genes from melon and cucumber.

References1. Honys, D. and Twell, D., 2004, Transcriptome

analysis of haploid male gametophyte development in Arabidopsis. Genome Biol., 5:1-13.

2. Jessica, A., Switzenber, G., Holly, A., Little and Rebecca Grumet, 2014, Floral primordia-targeted ACS (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase) expression in transgenic Cucumismelo implicates fine tuning of ethylene production mediating unisexual flower development. Planta, 12: 323-338.

3. Liu, S., Liang Xu, Zhiqi Jia, Yong Xu, Qing Yang, Zhangjun Fei, Xiangyang Lu, Huiming Chen and Sanwen Huang, 2008, Genetic association of Ethylene-Insensitive3-like sequence with the sex-determining M locus in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Theor. Appl. Genet., 117: 927-933.

4. Miao, M., Xiaguang Yang, Xiaoshuang Han and Wang, K., 2011, Sugar signalling is involved in the sex expression response of monoecious cucumber to low temperature. J. Exptl. Bot., 62(2): 797-804.

5. Wang, D., Feng Li, Qiao-Hong Duan, Tao Han, Zhi-Hong Xu and Shu-Nong Bai, 2010, Ethylene perception is involved in female cucumber flower development. The Plant J., 61: 862-872.

6. Tan Junyi, Qianyi Tao, Huanhuan Niu, Zhen, Z., Dandan Li, Zhenhui Gong, Yiqun Weng and Zheng Li, 2015, A novel allele of monoecious(m) locus is responsible for elongated fruit shape and perfect flowers in cucumber (CucumissativusL.). Theor. Appl. Genet., 128: 2483-2493.

20873

39. Seed Hardness Under Changing ClimateDR. ARCHANA SANYALICAR-CAZRI, Regional Research Station-Jaisalmer – 345001 Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Dormancy is a state in which seed is unable to germinate even under environment considered as favorable. Dormancy is an important trait in plant domain to survive under abrupt and harsh

environmental condition. Dormancy (Baskin and Baskin, 2014) can be classified into four main types, namely, physiological, physical, morphological and morpho-physiological with its variation. Climate



exerts a strong influence on seed dormancy and germination (Walck et al., 2011). Understanding the variation in dormancy in important traits, the mechanisms underpinning this variation, and how this variation affects the demographic responses and persistence of plant populations to projected climate change. These early life-history stages are subject to strong selection pressure, as dormancy break and germination at the wrong time, or under sub-optimal conditions, can cause a sharp reduction in fitness of plant progenies. Consequently, these stages are likely to be sensitive to changing climate (McLaughlin and Zavaleta, 2012).

Climate change projections indicate that many environmental factors, including mean air temperatures, average rainfall and events such as drought, fire and heat waves; will change in the future (IPCC, 2015). In order to cope with these changes, species survival will be dependent upon their ability to migrate to track the changing climate, pre-existing phenotypic plasticity and/or their ability to adapt to the new conditions they are experiencing. It is unlikely that many plant species will be capable of dispersal at a rate equivalent to that of projected climate changes (Morin et al., 2008) and, as such, they will have to either maintain traits that enable them to persist, or adapt to the new conditions.

To date, much of the research on the controls and variation in dormancy has been conducted on species with physiological dormancy mechanisms

and on agricultural species. This has shown that environmental factors have a key role in determining the prevalence of dormancy and associated traits (Baskin and Baskin, 2014). However, while physical dormancy (PY) or known as seed hardness has been relatively well studied in agricultural settings, much remains unknown about how and why PY varies inter- and intra-specifically in natural ecosystems. Physical dormancy is the result of an impermeable seed coat (testa) or endocarp which prevents water from reaching the embryo, as required for germination (Baskin and Baskin, 2014). Physical dormancy is a polyphyletic trait, resulting from convergent evolution, thus occurring throughout a variety of life histories and taxonomic lineages (Baskin et al., 2000). It is also prevalent within a number of ecologically important ecosystems worldwide, found in 18 angiosperm family. Any alteration of PY traits by projected environmental changes may affect the functioning of these long-term seed banks, but relatively little is known about the degree of variability in PY within wild species. While agricultural studies provide useful information for understanding PY, these species have undergone extensive breeding and selection processes, altering PY characteristics. Consequently, it is possible that the way they respond to climatic selection pressures during early life-history stages may differ to the response displayed by wild species.

FIG 1: Evolution of PY in Angiosperm family



Climate Change and Its Implications on PYAcross the literature, several factors have been identify to trigger the PY dormancy in seed. Evidence from heritability studies, based primarily on agricultural species, suggests that heritability (narrow-sense) for initial PY is high with a few major genes involved and a number of minor ones. Seeds produced under a higher maternal temperature, and low water availability, seem to produce seed lots with a higher initial percentage PY. The duration for which seeds are able to remain dormant affected by high maternal temperatures too. Further, the humidity experienced by the maternal plant, and in some cases by the seeds post dispersal, determines PY onset (Tozer and Ooi, 2014). Although the genetic influence on all the PY traits is far from understood, initial PY does seem to be dominant and heritable, at least in agricultural species. There is also some support for this from studies of species in natural ecosystems. However, while studies show a high genetic contribution to PY (at least initial PY), large variation in many other PY traits within a given seed lot is also often found suggesting that some PY traits display phenotypic plasticity. This may be the result of past selection to cope with the stochastic climates under which PY species often occur. Phenotypic plasticity may buffer some PY species against the increasingly variable climatic conditions projected for the future (IPCC, 2015), providing a mechanism for coping with changing environmental conditions, at least in the short term. The level of buffering will be dependent on the extent of the increase in climatic variation. If the traits are not plastic, or only slightly plastic, then adaptation will depend on whether PY change can keep pace with the projected rate of climate change. For ‘wild’ species in natural habitats, initial levels of PY, in particular, are less important, and understanding the impacts of climate change

on dormancy-breaking requirements and the resulting population dynamics are of much greater significance for predicting species’ persistence. Temperature, rainfall and humidity have all been shown to alter the ability of a seed in storage to maintain dormancy, and there is a significant chance that dormancy loss outside of optimal recruitment conditions may result. This could result in a much smaller seed reserve available for post-fire recruitment. Understanding the impacts of climate change on PY species in natural ecosystems will therefore depend on knowing if the variation in the conditions required to break dormancy is determined by a predominantly plastic response.

ConclusionVariation exists in the dormancy-breaking criteria for PY species, both intra- and inter specifically. Environmental conditions appear to play a major role in PY determination, particularly initial PY, although whether this is purely environmental or the result of phenotypic plasticity is uncertain. The PY literature is currently dominated by studies based on wild species, resulting in many of the genetic studies being based on inbred lines that have been subjected to years of artificial selection. There is also a strong bias towards annual species in the Fabaceae family (in particular the Papilinoideae clade), and a focus on the initial PY trait. While certain information can be transferred to natural ecosystems from these studies, there are limits. We therefore suggest that a key requirement of future study is to focus on species from natural ecosystems, with the aim to establish how PY traits, beyond that of simply initial levels of dormancy, vary in response to the different factors projected to change in the future. In particular, understanding how PY changes will affect natural seed-bank dynamics is critical for accurate modelling of population persistence in the future.

20439

40. GA Signaling and Role of Della Proteins on Seed GerminationTHOTA JOSEPH RAJU1, SUDEEP KUMAR E1 AND DEVA PRASANNA ANGEL2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, Raichur 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, APGC, ANGRAU, Guntur

Gibberellins (GAs) are produced by plants which belong to diterpenoid compounds family. The major bioactive GAs is GA1, GA4 and most agriculturally used is GA3 which affect wide range of processes during seed germination, plant development, leaf expansion, stem elongation to flower initiation and

development of flowers, fruits and seeds.DELLA proteins are regulators of GA signaling

which belong to a subfamily of the plant-specific GRAS protein (GAI, RGA and SCARECROW), acts as negative in GA receptor downstream in process of GA signaling. DELLA repressors



have C- terminal GRAS functional domain and N-terminal DELLA regulatory domain containing the conserved amino acid sequence (Asp-Glu-Leu-Leu-Ala). The first DELLA protein isolated was the ga-1(gibberellins deficient mutant) of Arabidopsis as inframe deletion motif and its orthologues in other species encode nucleus-localized proteins that act as transcription factor and appears to be negative regulators which includes several RGA (repressor-of-ga1-3), RGL1 (RGA-like1), RGL2 and RGL3 in the GA-signal transduction pathway.

ABA and GA act at different times and sites of seed life. The seedling growth from embryo is initiated after stimulation of GA signaling through active GA’s or biological inactive GA precursors, by triggering the aleurone layer cells which secrete hydrolytic enzymes (alpha amylase and beta amylase) are responsible for stored reserves digestion of starchy endosperm, in which complex carbohydrates, fats are broken down into simple soluble sugars and amino. The role of DELLA mediated GA signaling in relation to the gibberellin- stimulated synthesis and secretion of alpha- amylase in aleurone layers are explained by biochemical and molecular mechanisms.

Tyler et al. (2004) investigated DELLA protein-GA regulated seed germination by treating Arabidopsis seeds with GA treatment. Out of newly isolated repressors (rgl1, rgl2 and rgl3) from T-DNA insertion mutants, the major repressor in seed germination in transcription level expression is regulated by RGL 2 proteins. Also concluded that RGL 2 expressed proteins are rapidly degraded in by GA treatment imbibed seeds.

Penfield et al. (2006) showed DELLA mediated light, temperature and hormones response which breaks coat-imposed dormancy in Arabidopsis thailiana leading to radicle emergence by cotyledon expansion.

The role of DELLAs in seed fatty acid (FA) metabolism during embryogenesis and seed development of Arabidopsis thailana is explained through DELLA mutation or exogenous gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment which up-regulated transcription factors and the genes involved in the FA biosynthesis pathway. GDSL-type Seed Fatty Acid Reducer (SFAR) genes are enhancement of gibberellin (GA) signaling through DELLA (Chen et al., 2012).

Piskurewicz and Lopez-Molina (2009) reported that GA-signaling repressor RGL3, alter

the levels of GA and ABA in Arabidopsis which indirectly represses testa rupture during seed germination.

Shu et al., 2017 reported seed coat rupture represses during seed germination in soybean cultivars (ND 12 and HD 19) by NaCl treatment which in turn increases GA inactive gene and GmRGL transcription expression gene (DELLA) and decreases the GA / ABA ratio, levels of GA biosynthesis genes

ConclusionDELLA led a pivotal role in regulating multiple hormone signals and represent a central integrator of GA-dependent processes for seed germination, dormancy regulator, abiotic stress management and seed storage life as it integrates different signaling activities by direct protein–protein interaction with multiple key regulatory proteins by various pathways. These proteins much useful in overcoming the problem of preharvest sprouting in various crops during seed production.

ReferencesChen, M., Xue, D., Yang, Z., Zhong, W., Hua, S., Li,

Z., Wangli, G., Zhang, G., Peng, J. and Jiang, L., 2012, Seed fatty acid reducer acts downstream of gibberellin signalling pathway to lower seed fatty acid storage in Arabidopsis. Plant, Cell and Environment., 35: 2155–2169.

Penfield, S., Gilday, A, D., Halliday, K, J. and Graham, I, A., 2006, DELLA-mediated cotyledon expansion breaks coat-imposed seed dormancy in Arabidopsis. Current Biology., 16: 2366–2370.

Piskurewicz, U. and Lopez-Molina, L., 2009, The GA-signaling repressor RGL3 represses testa rupture in response to changes in GA and ABA levels. Plant Signal Behav., 4: 63–65.

Shu, K., Ying, Q., Chen, F., Meng, Y., Luo, X., Shuai, H., Zhou, W., Ding, J., Du, Y., Liu, J., Yang, F., Wang, Q., Liu, W., Yong, T., Wang, X., Feng, Y. and Yang, W., 2017, Salt stress represses soybean seed germination by negatively regulating GA biosynthesis while positively mediating ABA biosynthesis. Plant Sci., 8: 1372.

Tyler, L., Thomas, S, G., Hu, J., Dill, A., Alonso, J, M., Ecker, J, R. and Sun, T, P., 2004, Della proteins and gibberellin-regulated seed germination and floral development in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol., 135: 1008–1019.



20891

41. Quinoa: The Super GrainISLAVATH SURESH NAIK*Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS, Dharwad, 580005 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionQuinoa also called the super grain Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa wild.) is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to family Amaranthaceae and having its origin in the Pacific slopes of the Andes in South America. It has been cultivated and used by the Inca (ruling class) people since 5,000 B.C. It has good nutritive value. It is commonly called as quiuna, parka, dawe, chuppah and keenwah in different regions of the world. It is a pseudo cereal botanically related to Amaranthus (Amaranthus spp). Quinoa is a fast-growing plant and grows up to 2 metres tall with different types of leaves like ovate and rhomboidal in same plant and is similar in the appearance to common weed (Chenopodium album called as goosefoot or lambs’ quarter). It was found in North America and each inflorescence has many small achenes which are around 2 mm in diameter. It is an achene (seed like fruit with a thick seed coat) with different colours ranging from white, pale yellow, orange, red, black and brown. Quinoa has greater capacity of adaptation to soil pH, photoperiod, altitude etc. Quinoa can be grown from sea level to an altitude 3,900 meters above mean sea level and pH range of 6 to 8.5 and temperature from sub-tropical to tropical and humid areas. It is assumed to be a quantitative short-day species where the length of the vegetative phase not only depends on latitude of the origin and also depends on the day length.

Benefits/ImportanceQuinoa is rich in protein, dietary fibre, vitamin B and dietary minerals which is above those in wheat, corn, rice or oats. It is gluten free, after harvest the seeds are processed to remove the bitter tasting outer seed coat. Quinoa grain is used for human consumption, and also used in several food preparations like upma, whole grain as rice, pulao and flakes etc. Quinoa makes rich with nutrients and good for diabetic patients. It also provides protection against cancer and heart related diseases. The quinoa consists of high protein (14.1 g/100 g) higher than cereals and millets and with higher concentration of isoleucine, glycine, cystine, lysine, histidine and methionine. It also contains small amounts of Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Ca. The oil content ranges from 1.8 to 9.5 per cent and rich in essential fatty acids like linolate and linolenate.

In addition, quinoa seed is also rich in thiamine

(0.4 mg), riboflavin (0.39 mg), vitamin C (16.4 mg), folic acid (78.1 mg) and carotene (0.39 mg) in 100 g seed, respectively. (Anon., 2013). Quinoa is also having natural anti-oxidants like γ-tocopheral (2.6 mg), α-tocopheral (5.3 mg) in 100 g seed and also have phytoestrogens that prevent many chronic diseases and they prevent the feminine problems relating to hormonal imbalances caused in woman. Thus, the global interest generated following the declaration of 2013 as the “International year of quinoa”.

During green revolution many hybrids and varieties were released, but India’s ranking in hunger index was more, it could be compensated by one of the super grain crops called quinoa.

ConclusionThus, the India’s hunger index can be reduced with such underutilized crops which is having more nutrients and protein composition. Malnutrition can be eliminated with such high nutritious seeds which is also having essential amino acids. As this seed is having many health benefits and nutritional properties this seed is recognized as “super grain”.

ReferencesAtul Bhargava, Sudhir, S. and Deepak Ohri, 2005,

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa wild.). An Indian perspective. Industrial Crops and Products., (23):73-87.

Rishi, J. and Galwey, N.W., 1984, The Chenopodium grains of the Andes: Inca crops for modern agriculture. Adv. App. Biol., 10:145-216.



PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS19735

42. Organic Breeding: Priority to Quality than YieldMINAKSHI R. NEWAREDr. PDKV Akola Krishi Nagar, Akola Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

IntroductionHigh energy inputs are leading to decline in production and productivity. Problems of modern agriculture gave birth to various new concepts of farming such as organic farming, natural farming, bio dynamics agriculture, and do-nothing agriculture, eco-farming. Organic farming creates relationship between earth and man.

� Greater use of agrochemicals (Fertilizers & Pesticides)

� Green Revolution Technologies � Greater exploitation of irrigation potentials � Adaptation of nutrient responsive & high

yielding crop varieties

Organic Seed. The seed that has been multiplied under organic conditions at least for one generation is referred to as organic seed. It may be developed by organic or nonorganic breeding programme. The organic seed is relatively common.

Organic Varieties. Those cultivars that originate from organic plant breeding techniques are known as organic varieties. Organic varieties are limited in number.

TABLE 1: Difference between organic varieties and organic seed

Organic varieties Organic seed1. Originate from organic

plant breeding 1. Originate from organic

or non-organic plant breeding.

2. Tested always under organic conditions.

2. Multiplied at least for one generation under organic condition.

3. Number of such varieties is limited

3. Such seed is very common.

In the organic breeding, chemicals are not used neither in the development of varieties nor

in their testing. Breeding techniques that are free from use of chemicals are permitted for organic plant breeding. The entire evaluation of breeding material is carried out under organic conditions. In the organic plant breeding higher priority is given to quality of the product than yield. In the organic plant breeding programmes much emphasis is given in maintaining enough diversity in the varieties. Patenting of breeding material is not permitted because it will put restriction on free exchange of breeding material among breeders and farmers. Organic varieties are produced under certified organic plant breeding programmes.

The Need for Organic Plant Breeding � Respect for values such as sustainability,

biodiversity, regional development and multi-functionality. Plant breeding concerns, however, are a bottleneck in the further development of organic agriculture. Organic farming conditions demand varieties with different characteristics than conventional varieties. Conventional breeders are increasingly using gene technology to produce new, genetically modified varieties which are not allowed in organic farming.

� Conventional varieties are breed to tolerate monoculture, adapt to high input conditions, and are resistant against widely used synthetic chemicals (such as herbicides, fungicides etc.)

� Continued dependence on conventional breeding systems is therefore undesirable.

Organically Produced Seeds � Organic seed or plant materials capable of

satisfying the requirements of organic farming and have to be propagated under organic management for one generation, in the case of annuals, and for perennials, two growing periods, or 18 months, whichever is the longer, prior to being certified as organic seed and plant material.

Transition from Conventional to Organic VarietiesAn existing variety is organic after at least 3 years of maintenance under organic management. To be labeled as an organic variety, any existing variety, except those obtained by methods of genetic modification, may be certified as “organic” after



at least 3 years of maintenance (breeding) under organic management.

Organic Breeding vs Organic Farming � There is difference between organic breeding

and organic farming. � The organic produce is duly certified by

recognized certifying organization. The organic cultivation is also known as clean cultivation, natural cultivation, green cultivation or eco-

friendly cultivation. The organic produce is of two types, viz., organic certified A and organic certified B. These are defined below:– Organic A. The crop which is grown after

three years without the use of prohibited chemicals is called organic certified A.

– Organic B. The crop which is produced in the first and second year without use of chemicals is referred to as organic B.

FIGURE 1: The SATIVA model with contracts and co-operation among partnersTABLE 2: Differences between organic and non-organic breeding

Particulars Organic Breeding Non organic Breeding1. Breeding method used Those methods which don’t involve radiations

and chemicalsAll breeding methods

2. Major emphasis is on Quality Yield3. Competitiveness with weeds High Low4. Biodiversity High Low5. Uniformity of produce Low High6. Adaptation High (wide) Narrow7. Genetic base Broad Narrow8. Use of chemicals Not permitted Permitted9. Use of radiations Not permitted Permitted10. Insect control Genetic resistance, use of botanicals and bio-

agentsMainly by the use of insecticides

11. Disease control By Genetic Resistance By fungicides and pesticides12. Weed control By mechanical means By weedicides and mechanical means13. Nutrient supply By organic manures By mainly inorganic fertilizers14. Type of cultivation Sustainable Non sustainable15. Cost of cultivation Low High16. Environmental pollution Nil Very high



Main Objectives of Organic Breeding � Competitiveness with weeds. � Plant Stature. � Higher priority is given to quality than

productivity. � Higher emphasis is given to maintain

biodiversity in the variety. � Higher degree of resistance to biotic stresses

Common Objectives � Resistance to abiotic stresses � Resistance to lodging in cereals and sugarcane. � Non shattering habit in legumes. � Wider adaptability and stability in production. � Freedom from toxic substances. � High photosynthetic and nutrient uptake

efficiency. � Photo and thermo insensitivity. � Amenability to machine harvesting.

Techniques of Organic Breeding � Plant introduction � Selection � Hybridization � Biotechnology � Population improvement approaches

The marker assisted selection can be permitted if GMOs and radiations are not involved in marker production. The meristem culture can be permitted particularly because of its key role in virus elimination. Such as recurrent selection, biparental mating, diallel selective mating and disruptive mating can be used for developing superior inbred lines that can be utilized in hybridization programmes.

Techniques Not Permitted � Genetic modification or genetically modified

organisms. � CMS based hybrids without restorer genes. � Somatic hybridization or protoplast fusion. � Radiated mentor pollen for mutation

induction. � Mutation induction with radiations or

chemical substances.

Advantages of Organic Plant Breeding � It is used for developing cultivars and hybrids

suitable for organic farming. � Use of organic varieties is eco-friendly. � In organic plant breeding more emphasis is

given on improvement of quality rather than yield.

� In organic plant breeding use of chemicals is prohibited. As a result, there is no environmental pollution.

� Use of organic varieties will lead to sustainable agriculture.

� It promotes use of biological inputs such as organic manures botanical pesticides which do

not have any adverse effects on the ecosystem.

Disadvantages of Organic Plant Breeding � Induced mutations: Banning use of this

technique will have adverse effect on progress of plant breeding.

� Protoplast fusion: It has overcome the barriers of gene transfer between species and genera. Banning of this technique will act as a barrier in somatic hybridization.

� Genetically modified organisms: The ban on the use of GMO will have adverse effects in solving such problems.

� Tissue culture techniques: Bann on these techniques will prolong development of organic varieties.

� The CMS based hybrids: Bann on the use of this technique will adversely effect breeding of these crops.

� The well-known chemical colchicines: Banning the use of colchicines will have adverse effects on inter-specific hybridization.

� Banning above useful techniques/ chemical will prolong the period of developing organic varieties.

� The breeding efficiency will go down and breeding will be more expensive.

� Restriction on the exchange of material between traditional and organic breeding will have adverse effects in the progress of breeding.

Goals of Organic Plant Breeding � To breed varieties appropriate to human

nutritional needs. � To develop plant breeding directly linked to

local conditions thereby enhancing regional diversity.

� Using the insights of the biodynamic approach. � Under the concept of “intervention through

plant breeding,” � They intend to bring about mutual

development between human beings, the earth wand plant life.

ConclusionsOrganic plant breeding concept/ philosophy is well tested in some of the western countries, though the same is not known to most of the nations. With the organic farming there is very little scope for change and flexibility. Nationwide adoption of organic farming is not possible due to its high cost/ unavailability of organic resources, productivity etc., which will leave many more people hungry. In this context, renowned Agricultural Scientist and thinker Dr. M. S. Swaminathan (2003) said that, “a hungry man is an angry man”.



19777

43. Role of Pre-Breeding in Crop ImprovementKHUSHBU CHITTORADepartment of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur 313 001

Transfer of desirable traits and genes from un-adapted materials that cannot be used directly in breeding populations, to an intermediate set of materials that breeders can use further in producing new varieties for farmers is known as pre breeding.

Genetically uniform modern varieties, modern agriculture practices, evolving pest and pathogen populations and changing are serious threat to our rich biodiversity. Increased genetic uniformity, climate change and increased demand for food and nutrition necessitate the identification and utilization of diverse germplasm sources to develop new high-yielding cultivars with a broad genetic base. This factor also motivates the plant breeders to look for new sources of desirable genes. Wild relatives of any crop are great sources of genetic diversity for crop improvement. Pre-breeding provides a unique opportunity, through the introgression of desirable genes from wild germplasm into genetic backgrounds readily used by the breeders with minimum linkage drag.

Approaches of Pre-Breeding1. Introgression: Making crosses between the

donor and the recurrent parent.2. Incorporation: Incorporation refers to a

large scale programme aiming to develop locally adapted population using exotic / un-adapted germplasm.

3. Participatory plant breeding: make use of indigenous knowledge of farmer in association with breeders to develop new varieties using landraces.

4. Convergent breeding: transfer of gene from two or more donor species to a cultivated variety through simultaneous backcrossing.

5. Use of biotechnology in genetic enhancement through Marker-Assisted Selection, Somatic Hybridization and Doubled Haploids etc.

Applications of Pre-Breeding in Crop Improvement1. Broadening the genetic base of crops which

to reduce vulnerability to different biotic and abiotic stress.

2. Identification of important genes and transfer them from wild species to cultivated species helps them to cope with the changing climate.

3. Identifying desirable traits from exotic materials and transfer those genes into material which is more readily accessed by breeders.

Limitation of Pre-Breeding1. Lack of characterization and evaluation data

make it impossible to use this accession in the pre breeding

2. Linkage drag: High degree of difficulty and length of time often associated with separating the desirable genes from the undesirable ones.

3. Cross incompatibility in inter-specific crosses is the major factors which limits the use of different species in transferring gene of importance across the species.

4. Restricted genetic recombination in the hybrid population.

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44. Pearl Millet Biofortification to Thwart Deficiencies in Human DietsSONU GET* AND MADHU CHOUDHARY1Division of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Rajasthan Agricultural Research Institute, Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Durgapura, Jaipur, Rajasthan *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

India needs to move on the path of Bio-fortified Smart Foods, which is the only way to combat with malnutrition for exploding human population

and subsist during the current scenario of water scarcity and drought. Smart Foods are those cereals and pulses that provide the much more



nutrition. These are environment friendly and good for farmers as they have the potential to increase yields. Smart Foods include pigeon pea, finger millet, pearl millet and sorghum. Sorghum and millets are rich in calcium, vitamins and folic acid among other antioxidants to keep diabetes under control and degenerative diseases at bay. In recent context, our diet is mainly based on the Rice, Wheat and Maize. In agriculture research, for instance over 45 per cent of the private sector investment is on maize. It needs to incorporate the coarse cereals like Sorghum, Pearl Millet, Finger Millet and Legumes along with rice and wheat. The HarvestPlus programme for crop biofotifiction and the Millet Mission is the first step to use Smart Foods in India. Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is a staple food, particularly in Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka states of India. A widespread high alarming deficiency for iron and zinc were found in India. Therefore, future breeding strategies in pearl millet aimed to phenotyping for iron and zinc micronutrients to strengthen the pearl millet Biofortification. In biofortified pearl millet the iron and zinc concentration are reported 70-85 and 35-40 ppm, respectively (Huey et al., 2017). Research studies revealed that iron and zinc intake by children could be 8-9 mg/100 g and 4-5 mg/100 g, respectively which shows suitability of pearl millet for biofortification and meet requirement for iron and zinc up to 50% of the recommended dietary allowances (Kodkany et al., 2013). HarvestPlus challenge programme commended the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the All India Coordinated Pearl Millet Improvement Project (AICPMIP) for fixing the minimum levels of iron and zinc content as a basis for variety release in India.

ICTP 8203, was the first biofortified pearl millet variety released in 1988 which had the highest iron and zinc content of 67 and 52 mg/kg, respectively. Subsequently, ICMV 221 had been released in 1993 having iron and zinc content 61 and 45 mg/kg, respectively. Four hybrids viz., Ajeet 38, Proagro XL 51, PAC 903 and 86M86 had the highest iron content of 55-56 mg/kg and zinc content of 39-41 mg/kg. In 2014, Dhanashakti was released as a new version of ICPT 8203 having 9% increased iron content (71 mg/kg and 11% higher grain yield (2.2 t/ha) from ICPT 8203 with no alteration in zinc content (40 mg/kg) and it was rapidly adopted

by farmers for cultivation. Dhanashakti and the four hybrids Ajeet 38, Proagro XL 51, PAC 903 and 86M86 were included in the Nutri-Farm Pilot Program of the Government of India, launched in 2014.

ICRISAT characterized a large number of B and R lines with high levels of iron and zinc for producing hybrids with high levels of these micronutrients. Two hybrids (ICMH 1201 and ICMH 1301), developed using different parental lines, with high iron and zinc content have now been tested in a large number of multi-location trials, while many others are at different stages of testing. Based on the performance of field trials, ICMH 1201 had 75 mg/kg iron content (similar to the high-iron variety ICTP 8203) but had 3.6 t/ha grain yields (38% higher than ICTP 8203). ICMH 1301 tested in field trials and reported to had 77 mg/kg iron content (similar to ICTP 8203) and 3.3 t/ha grain yield (33% higher than ICTP 8203).

Researchers of AICPMIP, revealed that six hybrids and one open pollinated variety (OPV) with high iron content have been released so far at the national level through specially designed high-iron cultivar evaluation trials. She also explained that iron and zinc content and grain yield were the key targets for the immediate future breeding efforts. The biofortified pearl millet varieties and hybrids are based on existing natural genetic diversity in germplasm, therefore these are not a GMO crop and have no ethical issues in their release by policy makers and commercial cultivation by farmers. In India Smart Food and the ICAR-Nutri-Cereal campaigns were creating awareness about the nutritional value of biofortified crops.

ReferencesHuey, S. L., Venkatramanan, S., Udipi, S.A., et al.

2017. Acceptability of Iron- and Zinc-Biofortified Pearl Millet (ICTP-8203)-Based Complementary Foods among Children in an Urban Slum of Mumbai, India. Front Nutr; 4:1–10.

Kodkany, B. S., Bellad, R. M., Mahantshetti, N. S., et al. 2013. Biofortification of pearl millet with iron and zinc in a randomized controlled trial increases absorption of these minerals above physiologic requirements in young children. J Nutr; 143:1489–93.



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45. Linseed Oil: An Ayurvedic and Historical Medicine*RITIKA SINGH Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture, Abhilashi University, Chail Chowk Mandi -175028, Himachal Pradesh, India *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Linum usitatissimum is commonly known as linseed, alsi or flax. Being one of the oldest crops cultivated by man having it has 6,000–7,000 years of planting history. The name Linum originated from lin or “thread” and the species name usitatissimum is a Latin word meaning “most useful”. Linseed contains good percentage of oil varying from 33 to 47 per cent in different varieties. Its oil is the richest plant source of omega-3 (36-57%) and omega-6 (18-24%) (Flachowsky et al. 1997; Ganorkar and Jain 2013) fatty acids which are not synthesized in human beings and must be ingested in food. In ayurveda they are considered as Balya— provider of strength. It helps balance the Vata element and are very effective in treating different disorders. Linseed/ flax oil is traditionally used as medicine for the relief of skin irritation, inflammation and swelling etc. It provides essential fatty acids, proteins, vitamins, precious phyto-nutrients and health promoting lignans that prevent cancer.

Being rich in Omega 3 and Omega 6 acids, flax oil can be used to regulate cholesterol levels and are an essential medium to reduce the amount of bad cholesterol in the body and help you in having a healthy heart as it promotes healthy artery functioning and prevent heart-related problems, be it a heart attack or stroke.

Cancer after heart disease rank second as the most common cause of death. Presence of ample amount of antioxidants linseed helps to reduce the risk of cancer as it prevents healthy cells from turning into cancerous cells. It even has anti-inflammatory properties that may reduce the risk of developing various forms of cancer.

Flax fibers include both soluble Picchaila (lubricous), and insoluble dietary fibers. It regulates digestion by improving the nutrients absorption. Mucilage gums become viscous when mixed with water which function as laxatives

(Singh et al. 2011) The laxative helps smoothen the digestion process. It also keeps the stomach full for a longer span of time.

Being the richest plant source of the ω-3 fatty acid i.e. α-linolenic acid (ALA) (Gebauer et al. 2006) flax oil helps to promote and regulate overall brain health also known as Medhya (brain booster).

Youth is gift of nature but aging gracefully is an art. In Ayurveda, different flaxseed properties have been mentioned like Madhura (balances the skin pH), Balya (improves tensile strength or elasticity of the skin), Vranahrit (wound healing) it even improves moisture holding capacity of skin and removes skin blemishes. The omega-3 fatty acids in flaxseed oil contribute towards the same, it strengthens hair, reduce hair fall and promote overall skin health by keeping the skin hydrated, smooth, moisturized and prevent pollutants to enter the skin pores.

ReferencesFlachowsky G, Langbein T, Bohme H, Schneider A and

Aulrich K. 1997. Effect of fale flax expeller combined with short term vitamin E supplementation in pigs feeding on the fatty acid pattern, vitamin E concentration and oxidative stability of various tissues. Journal of Animal Physiology 78: 187-195

Ganokar PM and Jain RK. 2013. Flaxseed- a nutrional punch. International Food Research Journal 20:519-525

Gebauer SK, Psota TL, Harris WS, Kris-Etherton PM. 2006. n-3 fatty acid dietary recommendations and food sources to achieve essentiality and cardiovascular benefits. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83:1526–1535

Singh KK, Mridula D, Rehal J, Barnwal P. 2011. Flaxseed- a potential source of food, feed and fiber. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 51:210–222



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46. Genetic Use Restriction Technology and its Impact on the Farming CommunityISHWARYA LAKSHMI VG1 AND BASAVARAJ PS2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Dept of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 2Scientist, Plant Breeding, ICAR-NIASM, Baramati

Development of genetically modified crops with advances of modern plant technologies is considered as one of the alternatives for combating world hunger. This biotechnological innovation is considered to be a substantial benefit to both agriculture and society. However, there have been several environmental and regulatory concerns pertaining to the release of these crops. Genetic use restriction technology (GURT), on the other hand, also termed as suicide seeds and terminator technology, is a prominent proposed method for restricting the use of genetically modified plants by activating some genes only in response to certain stimuli, especially to cause second generation seeds to be infertile (Eaton and van Tongeren, 2002). This technology was developed and patented under an agreement pertaining to the cooperative research and development between the Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture and Delta and Pine Land company in the 1990s. This method provides specific genetic switch mechanisms that restrict the unauthorized use of genetic material (FAO, 2001) by hampering reproduction (variety-specific V-GURT) or the expression of a trait (trait-specific T-GURT) in a genetically modified (GM) plant.

At first, strips of DNA are introduced into the plant cells after which the plants are regenerated through tissue culture methods. The lethal gene has no chance of expression since the promoter is active only during a certain stage of seed formation in the plant. When the first-generation plants produce seeds, the blocking sequence is firmly in place to prevent the activation of lethal gene, thus, making the seeds form. After the first-generation seeds are matured, a certain chemical is applied which represses the protein by a third strip of DNA preventing it from repressing the promoter attached to a recombinase enzyme. Then, the mature seed cells produce the recombinase enzyme which removes the excision and blocks sequences in the first-strand of DNA. At this stage, the promoter becomes active making the lethal gene back to life. The chemicals produced disrupt the process of seed formation because of which the second-generation seeds will not be fertile.

The GURT is classified into two types namely, Variety-GURT and Trait-GURT. The Variety-

GURT, also known as suicide /gene technology/sterile seed, or terminator technology is designed is such a way that it controls the fertility of plant or development of seed through a genetic process initiated by a chemical inducer that allows the plant to grow and to form seeds, but will cause the embryo of these seeds to release a cell toxin that will prevent its germination even if planted again, thus making the next generation seeds to be not fertile. This allows the manufacturers to safeguard their intellectual property rights and avoid concerns related to GM seed dispersal. Trait-GURT on the other hand, is considered as the second generation of V-GURT. Also known as traitor technology, is designed to switch on or off a particular trait (such as abiotic stress tolerance, pest resistance, etc.) using inducible promoters regulating the expression of the transgene through induced gene silencing or by excision of the transgene using a recombinase enzyme (FAO, 2001). In this case, the genetic modification is activated by series of environmental factors such as heat (Jefferson et al. 1999) or a chemical treatment, making farmers to maintain the value-added traits of seeds (Eaton and van Tongeren, 2002).

For farming community, this technology may greatly affect the level of agricultural production and the farmer’s income. This will transform into non availability seed materials to the farmers. Also, it may equally affect poor farmers making them unable to maintain commercial varieties from their own seed stock and would be forced to return to the seed provider

AdvantagesPrime benefits of this technology include IPR protection, increase of genetic diversity within breeding programs, stimulation of private crop breeding research and development, transgene containment and production value from novel plant traits. It can also be used to limit the spread of genes from GMOs to other plants in the natural environment. This technology will encourage the private sector to invest more in research and development of pure line varieties and open pollinated varieties because in these varieties the farmers do not change the seeds each year. Also, farmers will use new seeds every year leading to maximum production.



DisadvantagesPotential risks associated with GURT adoption include the inter and intra-specific escape of GURTs into the environment (Lemaux, 2009), location specific and season bound varieties, chances of soil fauna and flora alteration by Tetracycline (chemical used to active the toxic gene). Other important risks and costs associated with GURTs include the liability for environmental damage, health risks, increased cost of seeds for farmers, reduced access and increased cost of genetic material for breeders, greater necessity of regulating and field monitoring of new GURT technologies along with greater corporate control over agriculture and a further contraction of agro-biodiversity.

ConclusionTechnological protection of genetic resources as well as innovations is the prime goal for which the technology was designed. However, its utilization would be further useful for preventing the undesired transgene flow into the environment and for obtaining specific agronomic/economic benefits. Accordingly, technical aspects of this technology design still need to be fine-tuned in a proper manner. These aspects need to be

taken into consideration before introducing the technology in the farms worldwide. Apart from this, like any other GMO, the impact of introducing terminator technology on the world’s biodiversity is completely not known. On balance, the developmental implications of GURTs pave a way for concern, particularly from the perspective of the more vulnerable and marginalized farmers. Also, countries like India and Brazil have passed national laws to prohibit the technology.

ReferencesEaton, D.J.F.; van Tangerine, Dr. F.W. 2002. “Genetic

use restriction technologies (GURTs): Potential economic impacts at national and international levels”.

FAO, 2001. Potential Impacts of Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURTs) on Agricultural Biodiversity and Agricultural Production Systems. Wageningen University Research Centre. The Netherlands.

Jefferson, R.A., Byth, D., Correa, C., Otero, G., Qualset, C. 1999. Genetic use restriction technologies: Technical assessment of the set of new technologies which sterilize or reduce the agronomic value of second-generation seed, as exemplified by U.S.

Lemaux, P. G., 2009. Genetically engineered plants and foods: A scientist’s analysis of the issues (Part II). Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 60, 511-559.

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47. Chromosome Manipulation: A Tool for Distant HybridizationRUKOO CHAWLAM.Sc. Research Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant breeding, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agriculture University *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionChromosome set manipulation is a technique to control the number and combination of a haploid set of chromosomes such that chromosomes are manipulated to change their mode of inheritance. Distant hybridization is mating between individuals of different species or genera which provides a way to combine diverged genomes into one nucleus. It breaks the species barrier for gene transfer and thus makes it possible to transfer the genome of one species to another, which results in changes in genotypes and phenotypes of the progenies. This technique plays crucial role in species evolution, enhancing the genetic diversity and in speciation since chromosome doubling of wide hybrids is responsible for the origin of many allopolyploid species. Therefore, it aids in crop improvement and saves time (shortening breeding cycles) over the traditional breeding methods.

Three Types of Chromosomal ManipulationBased on the chromosome behaviours of wide hybrids and the resulting chromosome constitutions in their progenies-1. Elimination of all alien chromosomes in order

to induce haploid crop2. Incorporation of all the alien chromosomes

by chromosome doubling in order to produce amphidiploid

3. Incorporation of single chromosome or chromosome fragment from a wild species into an existing crop

Haploid Production by Chromosome EliminationChromosome elimination of uniparental genome after fertilization of the egg by the sperm of another species results in haploid embryo formation only one of the parents. It was exploited by (H.



vulgare × H. bulbosum) (Kasha and Kao,1970) in barley termed as The Hordeum bulbosum technique involving selective loss of Hordeum bulbosum chromosomes. Sanei et al. (2011) studied the mechanism during early development

of and found that CENH3 plays an important role in chromosome elimination. CENH3 is loaded into the centromeres of H. vulgare but not of H. bulbosum, which is due to cell cycle asynchrony of the two parental genomes during mitotic G2 phase.

(SOURCE-INTERNET)

Unreduced Gametes and AmphidiploidIf chromosome elimination does not occur, wide f1 hybrids formed are usually amphihaploid with two parental genomes resulting in sterile gametes due to the absence of only one set of homologous chromosomes. Some f1 amphihaploids can also set grains by selfing and give rise to amphidiploids by spontaneous chromosome doubling which results from union of unreduced female and male gametes leading to the formation of a spontaneous amphidiploid. Unreduced gametes can be generated by a variety of cytological mechanisms. These defects include abnormal spindle orientation, defected synapsis, and omission of chromosome segregation at one of the two meiotic divisions. Zhang et al.(2011) described a simple method for synthesizing DHs (SynDH) especially for allopolyploid species by utilizing unreduced gametes. The method involves three steps:

� Hybridization to induce recombination � Interspecific hybridization to extract haploids � Spontaneous chromosome doubling by selfing

the interspecific f1’s

Alien IntroductionTranslocation lines have been recognized as means for providing the most promising pathway for the utilization of alien germplasm (Qi et al.2007). Centric translocations are most likely, however translocations in other positions are not common

because the homoeologous chromosomes for e.g. between wheat and alien species in wide hybrids show a low pairing level at meiotic metaphase I due to the action of pairing homoeologous (Ph) gene system in wheat.

Wheat–rye translocation chromosome (arrow) observed at mitotic metaphase in root-tip cells of the Syn-SAU-6/Qinling F2plant (SOURCE-INTERNET)



This system includes a major pairing gene, Ph1 on 5B (Okamoto 1957; Riley and Chapman 1958); an intermediate pairing gene, Ph2 on 3D (Mello Sampayo 1971; Sutton et al.2003). The defective Cdk-like genes are responsible for reducing Cdk-type activity, and this leads to the Ph1 effect. Translocated chromosomes occurred in meiotic metaphase I in hybrids can be transmitted into amphidiploids by the union of fertile unreduced gametes. Some synthetic hexaploid wheat Syn-SAU-6/Qinling F1 plants had relatively high seed set.

ConclusionWith the use of any of three methods, chromosome manipulation can be done in order to create genetic diversification as well as new stable wide hybrids. For doubling usually colchicine is

used but it is harmful so by using spontaneous chromosome doubling unreduced gametes (with somatic chromosome number) plays predominant role in polyploidization leading to the origination of both autopolyploids, such as potato (Peloquin et al.1999) and allopolyploids, such as wheat (Kihara and Lilienfeld 1949). Chromosome elimination is useful for haploid breeding like nowadays it is used for haploid wheat production by crossing wheat and maize due to elimination of maize chromosomes. Therefore, by exploiting the cytological mechanisms behind the chromosome manipulation stable and diverse hybrids can be formed.

ReferenceAlien Gene Transfer in Crop Plants, Volume

1(innovations, Methods and Risk Assessment) by Aditya Pratap and Jitendra Kumar

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48. Genetic Elimination of the Lectin in Soybean Seeds by Marker Assisted Selection by Specific DNA MarkerSHRINKHALA T. PAWALEAssistant Professor, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture Tondapur, Tal- Kalamnuri, Dist- Hingoli, Maharastra Pin 431701.

Introduction: Soybean is considered a high-quality source of oil and protein for food and feed. However, raw soybean cannot be used for monogastric animal feeding because of the presence of factors that decreases it nutritional value. Among the antinutritional factors present in the soybean seed, the Main ones as the Protease inhibitor and lectins (Pusztai et al., 1997; Armour et al 1998), Which affect the growth and or basal metabolism of different animal species. Another antinutritional factor in soybean seeds are the lectins. The antinutritional factor present in soybean seeds are the lectins. The anti-nutritional lectin activity is related to its ability to recognize and specifically link to carbohydrates in the membrane of the epithelium cells of the digestive tract. Most lectins are resistant to the proteolytic degradation in the small intestine and so they can exert their deleterious effects. The soybean lectin (SBL) is able to link to carbohydrate chains found in glycoproteins and glycolipids and present a strong affinity for N-acetyl-D-galactosamine and to a lower extent for D-galactose. This lectin–carbohydrate interaction will consequently result into changed morphology of the intestinal epithelium, as well as decrease in the digestion and absorption of nutrients (Schulze et al., 1995). SBL is glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 120 kDa with four similar subunits with molecular weights

of ca.30 kDa (Pull et al,1978). The recessive allele for the gene encoding lectin in soybean seeds (le1) has an insertion element (Tgm 1) of 3.5 kb in its coding region which prevents its transcription and consequently the accumulation of lectin in the seed. According to Okamuro and Goldberg (1992), the removal of Tgm1 from the mutant allele restore its ability to transcribed and expressed during the development of seed. The soybean breeding programs are usually for caused on yield and more recently attention has also been oriented towards quality improvement of soy derived product used for feed and food. Today the use of molecular markers can facilitate the selection of desirable traits in breeding programs. This selection consists of on the identification of the genomic regions that govern the expression of the traits of interest, with the aid of DNA markers. These markers have been proved to very efficient for aiding the introgression of single traits such as disease resistance (Alzate- Marin et al 1999). This study aimed to assist a backcross soybean breeding program with specific DNA markers designed to detect the absence of Kunitz trypsin inhibitor and lectin.

Material and Method

Genetic MaterialSelected the material F2 population of the negligible lectin containing variety and cross made between



lectin inhibitor expressing variety produce F1 and selfing of F1 to produce F2 population. The selected seeds backcross with the recurrent parent. The generation was also analyzed by SDS-PAGE to confirm the genotypes from F2 population.

Primers used for detection of lectin free genotype.

� Le1 forward: 5’-TGGGACAAAGAAACCGGTAG-3’

� Le1 reverse: 5’-CACATCCGTTAACATCGGTTT-3’

How to DNA Extraction and PurificationDNA sample were extracted from soybean seed by the method described by McDonald et al (1994) soybean seeds DNA extraction kit. The DNA amplified in a reaction mixture of 25 µ L contain: 50ng of genomic DNA, 1.0unit of TaqDNA polymerase, 10mMTis-HCL pH 8.0, 50mMKCl,0.4% TritonX-100,0.2mMof each deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate, 2mMMgCl2 and 0.6µM of each one of the specific primer’s pairs for amplification of the allele le1.

How to PCR reaction: The PCR reaction were performed in thermocycler model 1900 (perkin Elmer, Norwalk, CT, USA) The amplification conditions of the specific primer for lectin were as follows: 94°for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles of 94°for 30s, 45°C for 1 min and 30s, 72°Cfor 30s and one final step at 72° for 7 min. The amplification products were separated in 1.5 % agarose gel immresed in buffer 1X TBE (Tris –borate 0.09M,1mM EDTA). The gel was then stained with ethidium bromide (0.2g/mL)

How to Extract Seed ProteinTen mg of each seed were used for protein extraction with 500µLof 50mM Tris HCl buffer, pH8.2, containing 10 mMCaCl2. After centrifugation at 13,600g for 15 min, the supernant was used as SDS –PAGE analysis.

SDS-PAGE AnalysisSDS –PAGE was performed according to the discontinuous system proposed by Laemmali (1970), with some modification of conformation of each genotype. The separation gel constituted of 14% polyacrylamide in Tris HCl0.9M, pH8.8, containing 0.1% SDS. The stacking gel consisted

of 6% polyacrylamide in Tris- HCl 0.15M, pH6.8, containing 0.1%SDS. The electrophoresis conducted at 5 hours at 120V in Tris –HCl0.05 M buffer, pH 8.3, containing0.192Mglycine and 0.1% SDS. The proteins were visualized after staining with 0.15% Coomassie Blue R-250 in 45 % methanol and 9% acetic acid and destaining in a 7.5% acetic acid and 25% methnol solution

Which Kinds of Results ObtainedPlant showing the DNA band harbor the recessive allele; therefore, they can be either a heterozygote or a recessive homozygote. To specifically determine the genotypes of these plants, their phenotype was determined by analyzing their protein profile through SDS –PAGE.

Detection of X2 TestThe x2 test was perform for analyzing the observed frequencies for trait using segregating population and the specific primers for the respective. Result substantiate earlier reports that the absence of SBL governed by two genes.

The use of the molecular markers for gene introgression in breeding programs conducted through backcrossing is a good example of the genetic improvement assisted by molecular markers, specially when the traits are monogenic. In each backcrossing cycle, the progeny is analyzed for the presence of the marker associated to the trait of interest. In addition to monitoring for the presence of the allele of interest, the genotyping of the individuals by molecular markers allows for the selection of those which are genetically similar to the recurrent progenitor, and exhibiting minimum linkage drag (Visscher et al., 1996). For this reason, the required number of backcrossing cycles is highly reduced, therefore accelerating the development of improved variety. The selection assisted by specific molecular markers for the absence of SBL allowed the reducing one generation in each backcrossing cycle, actions for obtaining the improved soybean varieties. The segregation test confirmed that these traits are controlled by two genes that segregate independently. The selection efficiency reached 100% because in this case the markers are part of the recessive allele.



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49. Reverse Breeding: A Versatile Tool for Plant Breeding TechniqueSANDHYA1, MANOJ KUMAR2, AND PAWAN KUMAR3

1&2Assistant Professor, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Agricultural Research Station Ummedganj, Agriculture University, Kota (Rajasthan) 3Scientist, Indian Institute of Soil and Water conservation, Dehradun, (UK) *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionReverse breeding (RB) is a new breeding technique intended to create parental lines directly for heterozygous plant, one of the most sought-after plant breeding objectives. The approach is based on reducing genetic recombination by preventing meiotic crossing over in the selected heterozygous. Through engineered meiosis reverse breeding produces optimal complementary homozygous parental lines. Spores from the plants contain combinations of non-recombinant parental chromosomes that can be grown in vitro to produce homozygous double haploid plants. Complementary parents may be picked from these double haploid plants and used to permanently reconstitute the heterozygote (Kumari et al, 2018). Since fixing unknown heterozygous genotypes in conventional plant breeding is unlikely, reverse breeding could radically alter future plant breeding. This breeding approach has the key advantage that it enables the development of superior hybrid plants. Large number of plant population can be produced and better performing plants can be selected, screened and regenerated indefinitely without prior knowledge of their genetic constitution. The technique also will be particularly important for crops lacking comprehensive established breeding materials collections. One of the important purposes of plant breeding has been observation of the progeny usually hybrid (F1) is superior in scale, growth characteristics and comparative yield for their homozygous parents, known as the heterosis (Springer and Stupar, 2007; Fernandez-Silva et al., 2009). Hybrid breeding has always been more or less based on an error and trial strategy, as it is hard to predict which parental lines would offer the best offspring. Reverse breeding turns this century-long effort by beginning with superior hybrid selection followed by parental line recovery. It is an excellent tool for plant breeder, as it allows for much more effective and focused production of hybrid plants.

A barrier to achieving high levels of variation is the uncharacterized heterozygotes are difficult if reproduce by seeds. Favorable elite line with heterozygote allele combinations is lost in the

next generation due to trait segregation. Reverse breeding as a new plant breeding technique to directly produce homozygous parental lines from any heterozygous plant. Reverse breeding, meets the challenge of fixation of complex heterozygous genomes by constructing complementing homozygous lines. This is accomplished by the knockdown of meiotic cross over and the subsequent fixation of non-recombinant chromosomes in homozygous doubled haploid lines (Kumari et al. 2018). In reverse breeding a single plant is chosen because of its elite quality. Homozygous parental lines are derived from this plant by suppressing the natural genetic recombination. A genetic constitutional phase is used during reverse breeding to inhibit genetic recombination and thereby yield intermediate plants falling under GMO legislation.

Need of Reverse Breeding � To maintain the hybrid stability � Genetic gain of elite parental lines to improve

the efficiency of F1 hybrids � To enlarge uncharacterized heterozygote

breeding lines � To multiply a highly heterozygous plant from a

homozygous parental line.

Mechanism of Reverse BreedingReverse breeding has two important steps: Suppression of crossover recombination in a selected plant followed by double haploid regeneration from non-recombinant chromosomal spores. Therefore, the double haploid lines can be commercially used to recap the elite heterozygote. Although, reverse breeding can be applied to plants of known background. If crossing over is eliminated in the F1 generation rather than the F2 generation, reverse breeding can be used to generate chromosome substitution lines. These lines contain one or more chromosomes from one parent in the background of the other parent. By backcrossing the chromosome substitution lines to the original parental lines, one can obtain populations that segregate only for the heterozygous chromosome(s). Reverse breeding allows the re-shuffling of chromosomes between



two homozygous plants in all possible ways (Dirks et al. 2009). Reverse breeding relies on achiasmatic meiosis: Achiasmatic chromosomes (chromosomes that did not form crossovers) remain as univalent. Chiasmata that in bivalents promote segregation of homologues to opposite poles are absent in

univalent and the homologues may segregate to the same pole instead (non-disjunction). This leads to unbalanced chromosome numbers (aneuploidy) in the spores. Consequently, achiasmatic plants are highly sterile.

Effective Suppression of RecombinationReverse breeding relies on the effective suppression of meiotic crossovers. Therefore, genes that are essential in crossover formation but leave the chromosome structure intact are particularly useful. The knockdown of gene expression, essential for reverse breeding can be achieved by targeting genes using RNAi or siRNAs, which will result in predominantly post-transcriptional gene silencing. A crossover also generates two recombinant chromatids, which Fig. 1 The scientific implementation of the reverse breeding are not useful for RB. But since a crossover affects only half of the chromatids of the bivalent pair, the other two chromatids are non-recombinant, and useful. Consequently, half of the resulting spores are potentially useful for reverse breeding.

Doubled HaploidsDoubled haploid plants produced from achiasmatic meiosis that can be obtained from unfertilized ovules or from microspore and anther cultures. The efficiency of doubled haploid formation from haploid spores is species dependent. Development of reverse breeding is limited to those crops where doubled haploid technology is common in

practice. For the great majority of crop species this technology is well established and professional breeding companies routinely use such techniques in their breeding programs.

Applications of Reverse BreedingReverse breeding as a new idea introduced first time in 2009 has not yet come into commercial application, though several breeders have already embraced it at a research level. The potential is enormous and increasing interest in this technique-as breeder have pursued a consistent method for developing and maintaining superior hybrid in crops independently of access to the parental lines for several decades. It is expected to benefit breeding of important agricultural crops such as cucumber, onion, broccoli, cauliflower, watermelon, tomato, eggplant and many crops. Other important applications are as follows:

� Restoration of heterozygous germplasm: For crops where a large collection of breeding lines is still lacking, reverse breeding can go faster for the development of varieties. In these crops, superior heterozygous plants can be propagated without prior knowledge of their genetic constitution.

� Breeding at the chromosome level: Many



interesting characteristics in crops are based on polygenic gene interactions and very location on different chromosomes therefore, not easy to breed. Reverse breeding can be applied for these quantitative traits to an F1 hybrid of known parents and homozygous chromosome substitution lines provide novel tools for the study of gene interactions.

� Marker assisted breeding and reverse breeding: Especially in combination with genotyping, reverse breeding becomes a versatile tool. Evidently high throughput genotyping hasten the process of identification of complementing parents in populations of double haploids in early stages. It is also use in the study of gene interactions of the various heterozygous inbred families (HIFs) that can be produced by crossing and backcrossing products of reverse breeding. The screenings of population that separate for traits on a single chromosome allow the quick identification of QTLs. Such HIFs further aid the generation of chromosome specific linkage maps and the fine mapping of genes and alleles. Reverse breeding as such provide highly valuable insights into the nature of heterotic effects.

� Backcrossing in Cytoplasmic Male Sterility back ground: In several vegetable crops such as cabbages and carrots, breeders make use of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS). Presence of male sterility is a special challenge in this system. In this situation gynogenesis rather than androgenesis can be used to obtain double haploid plants. Gynogenesis has been found in several crops such as Brassica, maize, onion, sunflower, and barley. In cases where the efficiency of gynogenesis is too low, it is possible to cross the male sterile (A) lines with maintainer lines (B) that carry one copy of a restorer gene. The AB combination will be fertile and reverse breeding can be performed.

Therefore, it should be possible to use a restorer gene and a gene for crossover suppression in the same vector (both transgenes) and perform RB in a double suppressed (CMS and cross-over) background.

ConclusionsOver the past century, plant breeding has been a major contributor, improving plant varieties to cope with population growth. However, due to urbanization, agriculture has been pushed to ever more marginal lands, and yield increases have been plateauing in several crops. So, plant breeders will need to step up their efforts. We need another revolution. As a plant breeding technique, reverse breeding can be deemed more reliable, as its regulated deconstruction of complex genotypes into homozygous parental lines enables these lines to be further strengthened by conventional breeding methods.

ReferenceDirks, R., Dun, K. V., Snoo C. B.,1, Berg, M. V. D.,

Lelivelt, C. L. C., Voermans, W., Woudenberg, L., Wit, J.P.C., Reinink, K., Schut, J. W., Zeeuw, E. V., Vogelaar, A., Freymark, G., Gutteling, E. W., Keppel, M. N., Drongelen, P. V., Kieny, M., Ellul, P., Touraev, A., Ma, H., Jong, H. D. and Wijnker, E. (2009) Reverse breeding: a novel breeding approach based on engineered meiosis. Plant Biotechnology Journal. 7, 837–845

Fernandez-Silva, I., Moreno, E., Eduardo, I., Arus, P., Alvarez, J.M. and Monforte, A.J. (2009) On the genetic control of heterosis for fruit shape in melon (Cucumis melo L.). J. Hered. 100, 229–235.

Kumari, P., Nilanjaya and Singh, N. K. (2018). Reverse breeding: Accelerating innovation in Plant breeding. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry; SP1: 1811-1813

Springer, N.M. and Stupar, R.M. (2007) Allelic variation and heterosis in maize: how do two halves make more than a whole? Genome Res. 17, 264–275.

20845

50. Hybridization Techniques and ConsequencesDR. RANI A. JADHAVJunior Research Fellow, DBT-NBPGR Network Project on Linseed, AICRP on Linseed and Mustard, College of Agriculture, Nagpur (Maharashtra) *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Introduction: “The mating of two plants or lines of different genotype is known as hybridization”. In plants, crossing is done by placing pollen grains from one genotype i.e. the male parent, on to stigma of flowers of other genotype, i.e. the female parent. It is important to prevent self-pollination as well as chance cross-pollination in the female flower

parent. At the same time, it must be confirmed that the pollen from desired male parent reaches the stigma of female flowers for effective fertilization. The seeds and the progeny resulting from the hybridization is known as hybrid or F1. The progeny of F1, obtained by selfing or intermating of F1 plants, and the subsequent generations are termed



as segregating generations. The term cross is often used to denote the products of hybridization, i.e. the F1 as well as the segregating generations.

Objectives of HybridizationThe main objective of hybridization is to generate genetic variation. When two genotypically different plants are crossed, the genes from both the parents are brought together in F1. Segregation and recombination produce many new gene combinations in F2 and the later generations, i.e. the segregating generations. The degree of variation produced in the segregating generations would, therefore, depend on the number of heterozygous genes in the F1. This still, in turn, depend upon the number of the genes for which the two parents differ. If the two parents are closely related, they are likely to differ for a few genes only. But if they are not related, or are distantly related, they may differ for several, even a few hundred, genes. However, it is not likely that the two parents will ever differ for all their genes. Therefore, when it is said that the F1 is 100 percent heterozygous, it has reference only to those genes for which the two parents differ. The aim of hybridization may be the transfer of one or few qualitative characters, the improvement in one or more quantitative characters, or use of F1 as a hybrid variety. These objectives are briefly discussed below.

Combination Breeding: The key goal of combination breeding is the transfer of one or more characters into a single variety from other varieties. These traits may be governed by oligogenes or polygenes. The intensity of the character in the new variety is either comparable to or, more generally, lower that in the parent variety from which it was transferred. In this approach, increase in the yield of a variety is obtained by correcting the weaknesses in the yield contributing traits, e.g., tiller number, grains per spike, test weight is that for disease resistance. The backcross method of breeding was designed for combination breeding, and often pedigree method also fulfils the same purpose. In combination breeding, the genetic divergence between parents is not the major consideration. What is important is that one of the parents must have in a sufficient intensity the character(s) under transfer, while the other parent is generally a popular variety.

Transgressive Breeding: Transgressive breeding targets at improving yield or its contributing characters by transgressive segregation. Transgressive segregation is the production of plants in an F2 generation that are superior to both the parents for one or more characters. Such plants are produced by an accumulation of plus or favourable genes from both the parents as a must combine well with each other, and should preferably be genetically diverse, i.e., quite different. Like this, every parent is expected to contribute different plus genes which

when brought together by recombination give rise to transgressive segregant. As a result, the intensity of character in the transgressive segregant, i.e., the new variety, is greater than that in either of the parents. The pedigree method of breeding and its modifications, particularly the population approach, are designed for the production of transgressive segregants.

Hybrid Varieties: In most self-pollinated crops, F1 is more vigorous and higher yielding than the parents. Wherever it is commercially feasible, F1 may be used directly as a variety. In such cases, it is essential that two parents should produce an outstanding F1.

Types of Hybridization: The plants involved in hybridization may belong to the same variety, different varieties of the same species, different species of similar genus or species from different genera. Based on the taxonomic relationship of the two parents, hybridization may be classified into two broad groups:

1. Intervarietal and2. Distant hybridization

Intervarietal Hybridization: The parents involved in hybridization belong to the same species; they may be two strains, varieties or races of the same species. It is also known as intraspecific hybridization. In crop improvement programmes, this type of hybridization is the most frequently used. In fact, it is so common that it may often appear to be the only form of hybridization used in crop improvement. an example would be crossing of two varieties of wheat, rice or some other crop. This intervarietal crosses may be simple or complex depending upon the involvement of number of parents.

a) Simple Cross: It involves two parents which are crossed to produce the F1. The F1 is selfed to produce F2 or it is used in a backcross programme, e.g., A X B € F1 (A X B)

b) Complex Cross: In complex cross more than two parents are used for crossing to produce the hybrid, which is then used to produce F2 or is used in a backcross. Such a cross is also known as convergent cross because this crossing programme aims at converging, i.e., bringing together, genes from several parents into a single hybrid. A few examples of convergent cross are Fig. 1 as crop improvement progresses, the crop varieties would accumulate more and more favourable genes. This would lead to greater similarities between even unrelated varieties. In view of this, it may be expected that in future complex crosses would become more and more important. In breeding of highly improved self-pollinated crops like wheat and rice, complex crosses are a common practice today. Complex crosses would become routine in near future in the improvement of other



self-pollinated crops with the progress in the level of their improvement.

FIG 1. Complex crosses involving 3, 4 and 8 parents.Distant Hybridization: Distant

hybridization contains crosses between diverse species of the same genus or of different genera. When two species of the same genus are crossed,

it is known as interspecific hybridization; but when they belong to two different genera, it is termed as intergeneric hybridization. Mostly, the objective of this crosses is to transfer one or few simply inherited characters like disease resistance to a crop species. Sometimes, interspecific hybridization can be used for developing a new variety, e.g., Clinton oat variety was developed from a cross between Avena sativa x A. byzantina (both hexaploid oat species), and CO 31 rice variety was developed from the cross Oryza sativa var. indica x O. perennis. Almost all the present-day sugarcane varieties have been developed from complex crosses between Saccharum officinarum (noble canes), S. barberi (Indian canes) and other Saccharum species, e.g., S. spontaneum (Kans). The improvement in fiber length of Indian Cotton (Gossypium arboreum) has been brought about by crossing it with American cultivated Cotton; many improved varieties have resulted from such crosses. Intergeneric hybridization can be used to develop a new crop species, e.g., Triticale from a cross between Triticum sp. and Secale cereal (rye).

Steps Involved in Hybridization1. Choice or selection of parents2. Evaluation of parents i.e. by selfing and

studying the progeny3. Emasculation4. Crossing or pollination5. Bagging & Labelling6. Harvesting of F1 seed7. Raising F1 generation

20879

51. Sesame: Seeds and Oil Importance*PARAS1 AND SUNIL2

Ph.D. Research Scholar, 1Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 2Department of Agronomy, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar – 125 004, Haryana, (India) *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionSesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is considered as one of the most valuable oilseed crops known to humans. It belongs to the genus Sesamum of the Pedaliaceae family, includes 38 species and most of them are wild. According to evidences of archeological finding it is believed that sesame was first cultivated and domesticated into the Indian subcontinent during Harappan and Anatolian eras, thereafter, spread west to Mesopotamia before 2000 B.C. India, China, Central Asia, Near East and Ethiopia have been identified as the major centre of diversity for the sesame. Though there are no definite findings on the origin of sesame, Ethiopia is considered to be the center of origin of

cultivated sesame where both cultivated and wild forms of sesame exist.

Plant Type and Growing ConditionsSesame, in Hindi commonly known as ‘til’, is an annual herbaceous self-pollinating plant which generally shows indeterminate type of growth habit. However, varying degree of natural out crossing has also been reported (2-48%) depending upon the genotypes, environmental conditions and insect population. The growth period of sesame ranges from 75 to 150 days depending on the cultivars and the environmental conditions. The flowers are purple to whitish in colour while seeds are creamy-white to charcoal-black colour.



Sesame is cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa and South America. However, it is well suited to tropical climates with sandy and well drained soils with hot climate and moderate rainfall and humidity. Sesame is drought tolerant, due to an extensive root system but it requires adequate moisture for germination and early growth. It is extensively susceptible to water logging and heavy continuous rains at all the stages of development. India covers the second largest area under sesame cultivation (1.90 million hectares) next only to Sudan and is the world’s third largest producer of sesame, after Tanzania and Myanmar accounting for over 13% of the global annual production, followed by China, Sudan and Nigeria. Sesame is generally grown in all the parts of India from south to north and west to east. West Bengal is the leading producer followed by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.

Importance of Seeds and OilSesame seed is an important source of edible oil and is widely used as ingredient in food products especially in bakery and in various sweets such as sesame bars and halva (dessert). Sesame seeds are the excellent source of calcium and copper. They are also the rich source of manganese, iron, magnesium, zinc etc. The seeds of sesame contain substantial amount of oil (45-55%), protein (18-25%), carbohydrates (16-18%), antioxidants, fibers, phenolic compounds and also possesses considerable quantity of mineral nutrients, amino acids (tryptophan, methionine and valine), and different vitamins particularly vitamin B1 (thiamin) and niacin.

International food stores like Burger king and Mcdonald are using sesame for making sesame seed buns. Sesame seeds and oils are used in making various types of sweet dishes like crisps, gazaks, crackers, ckikkis etc. in north India during winter season.

Sesame oil is widely used for cooking purpose in Indian subcontinent. It is used by Japanese for fish cooking and acts as excellent salad oil. It is also used as a flavoring agent at the end of cooking.

Among the edible oils, sesame oil has the highest antioxidants including lignins and tocopherols content and possesses plentiful unsaturated fatty acids (83%-90%), mainly linoleic acid (41%-47%) and oleic acid (35% - 43%). Sesame seeds and sesame oil contain two unique substances: sesamin and sesamolin. Sesamin and sesamolin are special beneficial polyphenolic compounds also known as lignans and have been shown to have a cholesterol lowering effect, prevent high blood pressure and to increase vitamin E supplies in humans.

Sesamin in particular has also been found to protect the liver from oxidative damage. Sesame seed consumption appears to increase plasma gamma-tocopherol and enhanced vitamin E activity, which are believed to prevent cancer

and heart diseases. Gamma-tocopherol found in sesame is reported to prevent arteriosclerosis.

Sesamin helps to improve the action of various enzymes in the liver. These enzymes are relatively associated with the ability to lower down the toxic substances in the blood and thus helps in preventing the liver from any type of damage due to toxic substances. Both sesamin and sesamolin were reported to increase both the hepatic mitochondrial and the peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation rate. Researchers have shown that gamma-tocopherol at high concentrations blocks the formation of cancer cells and can hold or even prevent the disease like Alzheimer and Parkinson.

Sesame oil penetrates the skin easily during massage and enters the blood stream through the skin pores. It is considered natural UV protector because it protects the skin from harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation which may lead skin cancer. In children hair the oil is used to kill the infestation of lice. In the subcutaneous layer of the skin oil neutralizes the oxygen radicles.

Beside food, sesame seeds have also pharmaceutical value and are being widely used as active ingredients in various healthcare products including antiseptics, bactericides, viricides, disinfectants, moth repellants and antitubercular agents.

From the ancient time sesame seeds have also been used as an important part of various rituals. Sesame is considered as one of the purest forms of grains. According to old scriptures of Hindu religion sesame seeds are considered as the symbol of immortality because it is believed that sesame seeds were originated from the drops of sweat from God Vishnu. In Hindu religion black sesame seeds are considered more important for religious purpose so it is believed that donation of black sesame seeds on the occasion of Makar Sankranti removes all the negativity from house and life.

In future, it may also have potential industrial applications such as biofuel because excessive use of fossil fuel results various types of health hazards and environmental damage.



BIOTECHNOLOGY20593

52. Insect Cell Expression VectorsDR. POLOJU DEEPA 1 AND DR. KOPPU VASAVIResearch Scholar, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, GADVASU

Baculovirus expression systems are used to produce high levels of recombinant protein expression in insect cells. Baculovirus is present in invertebrates particularly insect species, their promoters are inactive in mammalian cells. Genome is closed circular double-stranded DNA. Baculoviruses are of 2 types: Nucleopolyhedroviruses and Granuloviruses Nucleopolyhedroviruses are used as expression vectors i.e. Autographa californica multiple Nuclear Polyhedron Virus (AcMNPV),

isolated from the larva of the alfalfa looper.

Virions Exist in Two Forms1. Budded viruses (BV)- Nucleocapsids

budded from host envelope involved in 2o infection

2. ODV (Occlusion Derived Viruses): nucleocapsids packed into polyhedra or polyhedrin matrix (occlusion bodies) involved in1o infection. Stable in the external environment.

Principle of Baculovirus Expression SystemP10 & polyhedrin proteins are needed to complete the infection cycle in larval population, but not required to produce BV’s. So, these polh and p10 promoters can be used to drive the expression of foreign genes in cultured cells. The naturally occurring polyhedrin gene within the wild-type baculovirus genome is replaced with a recombinant gene or cDNA. During the very late phase of infection, the inserted heterologous genes are placed under the transcriptional control of the strong polyhedrin or p10 promoter. Thus, recombinant product is expressed in

place of the naturally occurring polyhedrin protein.

Construction of Recombinant Acmnpv

Transfer Vector MethodThis method involves generating recombinant virus by homologous recombination Co-transfect the expression plasmid with a second plasmid containing viral genes in insect cell lines, Cotransfected cells produce virus & then amplified.

Bac-to-Bac Baculovirus Expression SystemIt is based on the site-specific transposition of



an expression cassette (pfast Bac with a gene of interest) into a baculovirus shuttle vector (bacmid) propagated in E. coli. The gene of interest is cloned into the pfast Bac vector. Expression cassette in pfast Bac is flanked by the left and right arms of Tn7. Cloned pfast Bac is transformed in E. coli host strain (DH10Bac) containing a baculovirus shuttle vector bacmid having a mini-attTn7 target site. Helper plasmid which allows transposing the gene of interest from pfast to bacmid (shuttle vector). Transposition occurs between the mini-att Tn7 target site to generate a recombinant bacmid. Identification by antibiotic selection and blue-white screening. PCR amplification is done by using the M-13 Forward and Reverse primers. High molecular weight mini prep DNA prepared & transfect insect cells with cellfectin reagent II. Incubate cells for 72hrs till we sign of viral infection. p1 stock is obtained and viral stock is amplified. A plaque assay can be performed to determine the titer of viral stock.

Baculodirect Baculovirus Expression SystemIt is fast and easy method. BaculoDirect linear DNA includes attR sites for rapid and efficient recombinational cloning with Gateway entry clone

Recombinant DNA is taken directly from the Gateway LR reaction mix and used to transfect insect cell (saving time). Purified virus can be isolated within one week. The reduction of hands-on time makes It ideal for high-throughput expression

DNA is linear, so the chance of generating non recombinant virus is minimized It is a simple, established protocol for high-throughput expression

Bac-N-Blue Baculovirus Expression SystemIt is designed for recombination with the pBlueBac and pMelBac vectors. Combination between homologous sequences, usually ORF603 and ORF1629, in the transfer vector and the linearized

DNA results in the propagation of only recombinant virus. Recombinant viruses have a full-length, functional lacZ gene that results in the production of blue plaques allowing for easy identification and purification. Bac-N-Blue linear DNA can be used with any polyhedrin promoter–based baculovirus transfer vector.

Drosophila Expression System (Des)(DES) uses the well-characterized Drosophila Schneider S2 cells and simple expression vectors to allow stable or transient expression of recombinant proteins. Stable S2 cell lines are generated by co transfection of a DES expression vector with a selection vector, pCoBlast or pCoHygro.

It has an inducible promoter (metallothionein promoter) Once the expression construct is inside the S2 cell, hundreds of copies of the expression plasmid containing gene of interest will spontaneously integrate into the genome. After a few weeks of selection, a polyclonal cell line that stably expresses high levels of protein is established.

Insect Cell Lines Used � Insect Species Cell Line � Spodoptera frugiperda (Fall army worm) Sf9 � Spodoptera frugiperda Sf-21 � Trichoplusia ni Tn-368 � Ovarian cells of the cabbage looper

(Trichoplusia ni) High -Five

ReferencesGuide to Baculovirus Expression Vector Systems

(BEVS) and Insect Cell Culture TechniqueA Guide for Baculovirus Transfection, Expression,

and Purification Using the Bac-N-Blue Baculovirus Expression System- Invitrogen Life technologies Instructional Manual

Protein expression handbook -Thermofisher ScientificTrends in Insect Molecular Biology and Biotechnology

-Dhiraj Kuma Chengliang Gong

20885

53. Application of Biotechnological Tools in Vegetable ImprovementNUPUR SAINIDepartment of Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, IGKV, Raipur 492012, India *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

AbstractIn order to meet the demand of continuously growing population and at the same time protecting horticultural crops from different type of stresses, insects, pests and disease the surge

for their improvement is increasing. However, the conventional breeding methodologies are time consuming and labor intensive. Further, they improve genome in an unpredicted manner which results in a greater number of generations



to assemble and fix the desirable traits required. In such circumstances biotechnological tools serves to be good alternative as it holds number of advantages over routinely used methods and reduces the chances undesirable linkage drags. Conventional biotechnological methods such as tissue culture, double haploids, molecular markers as well as new biotechnological tools (NBTs) such as RNA interference (RNAi), cisgenesis/intragenesis, and genome editing tools, like zinc-finger, Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) and CRISPR/Cas9 has opened up wide array of precise improvement of plants.

Keywords: Stress, Biotechnological tools, Transgenic

IntroductionAccording to the latest reports, vegetables are grown over 10.10-million-hectare area of India, with the production of 185.80 million tonnes (Anonymous, 2019). India is the largest producer of okra among vegetables and ranks 2nd in the production of pumpkins, squash and gourds, tomatoes, potatoes, onion, cauliflower, brinjal and cabbage in the world. The yield and quality of vegetables depend on its genotype, environmental conditions, and cultural practices. Abiotic stresses, such as high temperature, cold, drought and biotic stresses such as diseases, insect pest infestation strongly reduce their performance and causes yield losses ranging from 50% to 70% (Sharma et al., 2017). This surges the development of such vegetable varieties which can withstand such adverse conditions and results in minimum damage. The improvement of vegetable crops has until recently, been largely confined to conventional breeding approaches such as inter-specific hybridization, but they are time consuming and doesn’t offers complete guarantee of success even after spending so much time (Sharma et al., 2017). Further, they can’t keep the pace with increasing nation’s as well as global demand. So, there is an urgent need to adopt modern biotechnological tools which is a multidisciplinary and coordinated approach of improvement.

Different biotechnological tools available for vegetable improvement

1. Tissue culture: Tissue culture is one of the oldest and popular biotechnological tools used for vegetable improvement. They provide a wide scope for the rapid multiplication of true to types and virus free propagating material (Pandey et al., 2010).

2. Doubled haploids: Double-haploids generated using either pollen or ovule cultures are homozygous for all their genes. By ssing in vitro techniques development of pure line varieties or inbred parental lines are much quicker than conventional breeding. Androgenesis (regeneration from pollen)

has been successfully used for crops such as eggplant, pepper and wheat (Limera et al., 2017)

3. Cisgenesis: The term cisgenesis can be explained as the genetic modification of plants using genes that originate only from itself or from a species that can be crossed conventionally with this species. The added gene is an extra copy or natural variant of the existing genome.

4. Generally, fruit trees and vegetatively propagated crops such as potatoes are currently the primary target for cisgenic modification (Telem et al., 2013).

5. RNAinterface (RNAi): RNA interference (RNAi) is a sequence-specific gene regulation regulated by the introduction of dsRNA resulting in inhibition of translation or transcriptional. These RNAi are successfully used in enhancing shelf life of vegetables such as tomato, production of seedless vegetables like cucumber (Xiong et al., 2005). Further it helps in producing male-sterile plant varieties like tobacco and tomato through RNA interference (Saurabh et al., 2014).Commercial varieties of potato highly resistant

to three strains of potato virus Y (PVY) have been developed by using this technique only (Missiou et al., 2004). Further, transgenic tomato plants resistant to potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) were obtained by this (Schwind et al., 2009).

Gene Editing TechniquesGenome editing is defined as a process in which a specific chromosomal sequence is changed. This change can be due to an insertion, deletion and/or a substitution of at least one nucleotide.

Different type of recent techniques used in editing genome for improvement as per the requirements

� Zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs)– Zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs) have been

widely used for target specific mutagenesis to disrupt the normal functioning of gene and producing several gene knockouts (Bonawitz et al., 2018). ZFNs consist of zinc finger protein domains able to bind at sequence-specific, fused with nuclease domain for double strand DNA cleavage. In a study potato showed the possibility of overcoming self-incompatibility by S-RNase gene editing with the help of ZFNs (Ye, 2018).

� Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs)– Another widely used tool for genetic

engineering is transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs). They work as a eukaryotic transcription factors



by binding to the promoter region and activating gene expression (Khan et al., 2016). TALENs, are constructed by modifying transcription activator-like effector (TALE) domain repeats for desirable target recognition and are then fused with the FokI nuclease producing in a TALEN (Stephens and Barakate, 2017).

– In potato, disruption of vacuolar invertase gene by TALENs, showed improved storage and processing quality of tubers (Clasen, 2016).

� CRISPR-Cas9– CRISPR-Cas9 emerges out as one of

the powerful tools needed for precise genome editing tool which needs a guide RNA (gRNA) of ~20 nucleotides complementary to the gene of interest and a nuclease enzyme Cas9, which cuts 3–4 bases next to the protospacer adjacent motif. This motif is later repaired either by error prone non-homologous end joining or by homology directed repair pathway (Jaganathan et al., 2018).

CRISPR/Cas9 system has been successfully used for genome editing in several fruit crops, including apple, banana, cacao, citrus, grape, kiwifruit, and pear and vegetables such as tomato, potato, leuttce, cucumber, carrots, cabbage and chinese kale (Yu et al., 2017; Tian et al., 2018).

ReferencesBonawitz, N. D., Ainley, W. M., Itaya, A., Chennareddy,

S. R., Cicak, T., Effinger, K., & Pareddy, D. R. (2018). Zinc finger nuclease-mediated targeting of multiple transgenes to an endogenous soybean genomic locus via non-homologous end joining. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 56- 18

Clasen, B. M. (2016). Improving cold storage and processing traits in potato through targeted gene knockout. Plant Biotechnol. J. 14, 169–176.

Jaganathan, D., Ramasamy, K., Sellamuthu, G., Jayabalan, S., & Venkataraman, G. (2018). CRISPR for crop improvement: an update review. Front. Plant Sci 9:985.

Khan, Z., & Khan, S., Mubarik, Md., Sadia, B., & Ahmad, A. (2016). Use of TALEs and TALEN technology for genetic improvement of plants. Plant Molecular Biology Reporter, 016-0997-8.

Limera, C., Sabbadini, S., Sweet, J.B. & Mezzetti, B. (2017). New Biotechnological Tools for the Genetic Improvement of Major Woody Fruit Species. Front Plant Sci. 8:1418.

Missiou, A., Kalantidis, K., Boutla, A., Tzortzakaki, S., Tabler, M. & Tsagris, M. (2004). Generation of transgenic potato plants highly resistant to potato virus Y (PVY) through RNA silencing. Mol. Breed. 14:185–197.

Pandey, S. K., Sarkar, D., Sharma, S. & Chandel, P. (2010). Integration of somatic fusion into potato breeding: problems and perspectives. Potato Journal 37(1-2): 9-20.

Saurabh, S., Vidyarthi, A.S. & Prasad, D. (2014). RNA interference: concept to reality in crop improvement. Planta 239, 543–564.

Schwind, N., Zwiebel, M., Itaya, A., Ding, B., Wang, M. B., Krczal, G. & Wassenegger, M. (2009). RNAi-mediated resistance to Potato spindle tuber viroid in transgenic tomato expressing a viroid hairpin RNA construct. Mol Plant Pathol. 10(4):459-69.

Sharma, A., Aditika, Singh, H., & Kanwar, P. (2017). Vegetable Improvement in India; Recent Past, Present and Future: A Review. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 6(8): 3246-3255.

Stephens, J., & Barakate, A. (2017). Gene editing technologies – ZFNs, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9,” in Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences. (B. Thomas, B. G. Murray, and D. J. Murphyp eds.) (2 ed., pp. 157–161). Cambridge MA: Academic Press.

Telem, R. S., Wani, S. H. & Singh, N. B. (2013). Cisgenics - a sustainable approach for crop improvement. Curr Genomics.14(7):468-476.

Tian, H., Fu, D., Zhu, B., Luo, Y. & Zhu, H. (2018). Lycopene is enriched in tomato fruit by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated multiplex genome editing. Front. Plant Sci. 9, 559.

Xiong, A., Yao, Q., Peng, R., Li, X., Han, P. & Fan, H. (2005). Different effects on ACC oxidase gene silencing triggered by RNA interference in transgenic tomato. Plant Cell Rep 23:639–646.

Ye, M. (2018). Generation of self-compatible diploid potato by knockout of S-RNase. Nat. Plants 4, 651–654.

Yu, Q. H., Wang, B., Li, N., Tang, Y., Yang, S., Yang, T., Xu, J., Guo, C., Yan, P. & Wang, Q. (2017). CRISPR/Cas9-induced targeted mutagenesis and gene replacement to generate long-shelf life tomato lines. Sci. Rep. 7, 11874.



MICROBIOLOGY19996

54. Biocontrol of Plant Pathogens: A Microbial FormulationNISHA SHARMA AND NIVEDITA SHARMA*Microbiology section, Department of Basic Sciences, Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Nauni-Solan, H.P. - India *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Introduction: Plant diseases needs to be controlled to maintain the quality of food, feed, and fiber produced by plants around the world. Different approaches may be used to prevent, or control plant diseases caused by pathogens. Biological control is also referred to as “Biocontrol is an attractive alternative strategy to control of plant disease. Understanding the mechanism of biological control of plant diseases through the interaction between antagonists and pathogens may allow us to select and construct the more effective biocontrol agents and to manipulate the soil environment to create a well-suited condition for successful biocontrol.

Some General Terms Used1. Pathogen: Organism that has ability to cause

disease to its host. Example: Bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoa.

2. Plant pathogens: Organism that cause disease in plants including bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants

3. Antagonists: Microbes which negatively affect pathogenic organism are called antagonistsWhat is Biocontrol?: The term

“BIOCONTROL” have been used in different fields of biology such as Entomology and Plant pathology. Biocontrol is the basic idea of reducing pathogen or disease incidence by direct or indirect manipulation of microorganism. The organism that suppress the pathogens through antagonistic microorganisms is termed as Biological Control Agents (BCA). Antagonistic microorganisms like species of Trichoderma, Penicillium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas etc.

Properties of Biological Control Agents1. Non-toxic to human2. No pollution concerns3. Once colonized may last for years4. Host specific5. Only affect one or few species

Microbial By-Products Contribute to Pathogen Suppression

� Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) effectively blocks the cytochrome oxidase pathway and is highly toxic to all aerobic microorganisms. The production of HCN by certain fluorescent pseudomonads is believed to be involved in the suppression of root pathogens.

� Volatile compounds such as ammonia produced by Enterobacter cloacae were involved in the suppression of Pythium ultimum induced damping-off of cotton.

PGPRs as Biocontrol: � PGPRs produced some chemicals after

inoculation such as antibiotics, cell wall degrading enzyme, HCN. Biocontrol PGPR secretes siderophore against pathogens. This compound chelate iron as it binds to most of the iron make it unavailable to fungal pathogens. Iron deficiency cause growth inhibition in fungal pathogens.

� Inoculation with PGPRs effective in controlling the multiple diseases caused by different pathogens such as Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium), angular leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae) bacterial wilt (Erwinia tracheiphila).

Major Methods of Delivery of Biocontrol Agents � Seed treatment � Dipping � Irrigation dip � Foliar Sprays � Soil Drench

Advantages of Biocontrol in Plant Pathogens � Decrease disease intensity � Reduce the use of chemical fungicides � Play a key role in integrated disease

management � Safe for the users and the farming community � Provide natural long-term immunity to crops

and soil

Disadvantages of Biocontrol in Plant Pathogens � Pathogens may develop resistance to the



biocontrol agent � Pathogen replacement may follow control of

target disease pathogen � Seasonal/weather phenomena can make

biocontrol agent ineffective � Slow action � Storage problem

Conclusions and Future Perspective � Biological control involves the use of microbial

antagonists such as bacteria or fungi to suppress plant disease pathogens.

� Biocontrol have several importance and advantages over other control methods.

� Their mode of actions includes antibiosis, competition, parasitism and induced systemic resistance.

� There are however some limitations to the general use of biological control agents such variability in effectiveness, low spectrum action, short shelf life of products etc.

� Some of the commercially available biocontrol agents include Biosave, Kodiak, Mycostop etc.

� A biological control agent can be applied as seed treatment, root dip, soil or furrow drench, foliar sprays or through drip irrigation

� However, these BCAs are restricted to a few diseases and also are not so successful in field conditions, so research is going on for developing more effective strains that can withstand the various environmental stresses.

ReferencesJunaid, JM., Dar, NA., Bhat, TA., Bhat, AH. And Bhat,

MA. 2013. Commercial biocontrol agents and their mechanism of action in the management of plant pathogens. International Journal of Modern Plant & Animal Sciences 1: 39-57.

Lee BD, Dutta S, Ryu H, Yoo SJ, Suh DS and Park K. (2015). Induction of systemic resistance in Panax ginseng against Phytophthora cactorum by native Bacillus amyloliquefaciens HK34. Journal of ginseng research 39: 213-220.

Koutb M, and Ali E H. (2010). Potential of Epicoccum purpurascens Strain 5615 AUMC as a biocontrol agent of Pythium irregulare root rot in three leguminous plants. Mycobiology 38: 286-294.

20868

55. Mechanism of Biological Nitrogen Fixation and its ImportanceAMIR KHANPh.D. Scholar, Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Sciences and Humanities, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar (U. S. Nagar)-263145, Uttarakhand, India *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Nitrogen is a crucial element and abundant (about 78%) in Earth’s atmosphere. Nitrogen is a very essential building block of human body. It is primarily found in amino acids, nucleic acid, energy transfer molecules (ATP, ADP etc.) and is hence considered as a major nutrient. Atmospheric nitrogen is nonreactive and metabolically worthless for all. Chemically, atmospheric nitrogen converted into ammonia (NH3) through an energy requiring process called Haber-Bosh that involves formation of large amounts of CO2 which primarily causes global warming. Naturally, nitrogen fixation occurs via lightning in which nitrogen gets converted into NOx (nitrogen oxides). These oxides make acid (nitric acid or nitrous acid) upon reaction with water which gets percolated into soil where it is converted into nitrate and ultimately used by plants. However, some special featured prokaryotic microorganisms capable of fixing nitrogen reside in nature which can metabolize N2 into ammonia (NH3) through their specified machinery i.e. nitrogenase enzyme complex, a process called biological nitrogen fixation (BNF).

Mechanism and Bacterial Machinery for BNFThe process of biological nitrogen fixation begins when nitrogen fixing microorganisms come in close contact with plants root (except free living nitrogen fixer) by the attraction of root exudates. Then intercellular or intracellular root infection starts and an infection thread forms. Upon infection nodule formation process begins and a large number of bacteria colonize inside the nodule. Whereas, in case of infection in frankia, cell divisions triggered in root cortex are similar to the process in legume nodule formation. When hyphae get filled with microbes in branching infection threads, the microsymbiont starts to differentiate vesicles wherein nitrogenase is formed and nitrogen fixation takes place. The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen depends upon nitrogenase enzyme. The nitrogenase enzyme is fabricated by two metalloproteins. The first one is dinitrogenase, (molybdenum-iron protein) a 220,000 Dalton tetramer formed by two non-identical subunits (α2 and β2) of which, α subunits of MoFe protein are encoded by nif D and β



subunit encoded by nif K gene. Dinitrogenase protein contains two active metalloclusters. The 1st is P cluster containing 8 iron and 7-8 sulfur atoms (Fe8 S7-8) that act as intermediate electron acceptor and 2nd is iron molybdenum cofactor (FeMoco) containing 7 iron, 9 sulfur, 1 Mo and 1 molecule of homocitrate (Fe7S9Mo-homocitrate) which functions as site of nitrogen reduction. And the second is dinitrogenase reductase, (Fe protein) a dimer shaped, (68,000 Dalton) having identical subunits (γ2) encoded by nif H. Each polypeptide contains 2 iron and is organized into Fe4S4 cluster. The function of Fe protein is to bind and hydrolyze Mg ATP and transfer electrons from Fe4S4 to P cluster, which ultimately transfers electron to FeMoco cluster where reduction of N2 gas occurs. Likewise, nitrogenase also decreases protons to H2 gas consuming two electrons. Hence, each N2 reduction result with transfer of eight electrons and 16 MgATPs get hydrolysed. The collective reaction is:

N2 + 8H+ + 8e- + 16ATP ↔ 2NH3 + H2 + 16ADPTypes of BNF: The nitrogen fixation can be

done in free-living form, associative and symbiotic relationship.

� Nitrogen Fixation in Free-Living form: Many heterotrophic microbes reside in soil and fix huge amount of nitrogen from environment without any direct communication with other microorganisms. Instances of these sort of nitrogen-fixing microbes include species of Bacillus, Clostridium, Klebsiella, and Azotobacter. Some free-living micro-organisms those are having chemolithotrophic ability, can utilize inorganic composites as source of energy through metabolic activities. Free-living microbes contribute to around 20 kg/hectare/year nitrogen needs of agricultural cropping system (30-50% of the total needs).

� Associative Nitrogen Fixation: Azospirillum species those have the capability to form association with several plans of Poaceae (grasses) and agronomically vital cereal crops i.e. wheat, rice, oats, barley, and corn. These microbes fix significant amount of nitrogen with rhizosphere of plants root and support the plant growth and productivity. A potential of 52 mg N2/g malate have been documented by Stephan et al., (1979).

� Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: A number of microbes have been reported to fix nitrogen through partnership with a host plant, an activity called symbiosis. Plant part of symbiosis provides sugar, minerals from photosynthesis as root exudates to microbe for their energy metabolism and in return symbiotic microbes fix nitrogen and provide to the plants support for their growth and productivity.

Importance of BNFOptimum growth of plant for agricultural production requires proper cycling nutrients. However, availability of soil nutrients, especially nitrogen often limits agricultural productivity. Inspite of huge abundance of nitrogen in the atmosphere, it is not present in soil in available forms. Hence, input of nitrogen for plant growth and agricultural productivity hugely depends on application of synthetic fertilizers and biological nitrogen fixation. Manufacturing of synthetic N fertilizers requires excessive energy and great amount N-based fertilizer is subjected to losses, which can leach or runoff to water sources causing eutrophication. BNF reduces the dependence on nitrogen fertilizers for agriculture. As estimated, worldwide, BNF is responsible for producing around roughly 200 million tons of nitrogen on annual basis. Maximum proportion (around 50 %) nitrogen available in agricultural fields is contributed by BNF. Moreover, in mixed cropping systems, the nitrogen fixed biologically can also get transferred to non-legumes intercropped with legumes.

ConclusionBiological nitrogen fixation in plants is a sustainable source of nitrogen that saves us from huge expenditure of energy in synthetic production of nitrogenous fertilizers and also protects the environment from pollution occurring from them. BGF is especially very crucial in for areas which are hugely dependent on hybrid seeds and high yielding varieties of crops for agricultural production since they require substantial amount of nitrogen. There is a further need to focus on developing strategies for efficient use of nitrogen-fixing legume plants and selecting highly potential inoculants. Besides, strategies to make the use of non-legumes such as rice, wheat and maize for nitrogen fixation also need to be developed. Furthermore, concept of nitrogen fixation via artificial symbiosis with non-legume plants needs much investigation. Endosymbiotic and endophytic nitrogen fixation are the two approaches that have tremendous scope for further investigation.



PLANT PATHOLOGY19772

56. Respiration in Diseased PlantsP. VALARMATHI 1 AND D. LADHALAKSHMI2

1ICAR- Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Coimbatore 2ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR), Hyderabad

� When plants are infected by pathogens, the rate of respiration increases.

� Obligate & facultative parasites cause increase in respiration of affected tissues.

� Increase in respiration appears after inoculation, by the time of appearance of visible symptoms.

� It continues to increase during multiplication & sporulation of pathogen.

� After that, it declines to normal levels or to levels even lower than those of healthy plants.

� Resistant varieties: it increases more rapidly in infections but it declines quickly after reaches its maximum.

� Susceptible varieties: increases slowly after inoculation but it continues to rise & it remains at a high level for much longer periods.

Changes in Metabolism � Concentration or activity of several enzymes

increases � Accumulation & oxidation of phenolic

compounds are also greater. � Increased activation of Pentose pathway � Abolishment of Pasteur effect.

Mechanisms of Increased Respiration1. Uncoupling of oxidative

phosphorylation:a) 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP)- acts as

uncoupling agents in the respiration of healthy plants.

b) It prevents phosphorylation of ADP to ATP, while they stimulate respiration & its oxidative reactions.

c) It results in decreased energy output.d) Pathogens increase host respiration

by inducing uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation.

e) DNP is much less effective in diseased plants.

f) It results in the shift from glycolytic to Pentose pathway of respiration

2. Stimulation of metabolism:a) Growth is first stimulatedb) Protoplasmic streaming increases,

materials are translocated & accumulated in diseased parts.

c) Synthesis of new proteins & CHO takes place.

d) Energy required for these activities derives from ATP produced through respiration.

e) More ATP is utilized, the more ADP & inorganic phosphate are produced.

f) The increased levels of ADP and phosphate further stimulate respiration.

Activity of Enzyme Systems of the Host1. Increase in the activity of ascorbic acid &

polyphenoloxidase2. Several enzymes operating in Pentose pathway

appear to be activated in diseased.3. Increased activity of Enzymes in Krebs cycle.4. Activation of glycolic acid oxidase (it is early

product of photosynthesis).5. Glutamic - oxalacetic transaminase & glutamic

acid dehydrogenase, both are involved in amino acid biosynthesis.

6. Activation of ribonuclease- responsible for breakdown of RNA.

1. Powdery mildew: excellent experimental models to study the effect of pathogens on respiration.a) Infection by these fungi, increased

respiration can be detected/measured in the tissue.

b) When the powdery mildew fungus is stripped off the surface of the leaf, the increased respiration continues.

c) Because powdery mildews penetrate only the epidermal cells & then only to the extent of haustorial formation & membrane contact,

d) It has been concluded that, it is the host respiration that increases in diseased tissue

e) The increased in respiration is not due solely to pathogen metabolism.

2. Changes in Permeability Induced by Victorin:a) When susceptible oat tissues +

victorin, the toxin produced by the fungus Helminthosporium victoriae, & suspended and shaken in water,

b) they lost electrolytes much more rapidly than untreated controls.



c) Similar results were obtained with susceptible plants infected with H. victoriae but not with victorin-treated or inoculated, resistant plants.

d) These results provide further evidence of the specificity of victorin and its ability to produce all the symptoms of Victoria blight of oats.

e) They also suggest that changes in permeability, by affecting the salt balance of cells, may play a role in the augmented respiration characteristic of diseased plants.

3. Respiration rate of potatoes as affected by soft rot (Erwinia carotovora):a) During the storage of potatoes,

temperature and disease infestation -that influence the respiration rate & shelf life of the tubers.

b) Temperature itself affects the respiration rate but more importantly it can affect the development of disease.

c) The development of disease on the spore-contaminated tubers could be slowed by storage at low temperatures.

d) Even for the tubers with already developed disease, the progress of the disease can be slowed down by the low temperature environment.

e) On the other hand, high temperature facilitates the development of either spore-contaminated or disease-developed tubers.

f) Therefore, low temperature is important in potato storage in any circumstances

g) exposure to high temperature should be avoided for potatoes with possible spore contamination, to prevent the early development of the disease

20343

57. Tip Over/Rhizome Rot of Banana a Serious Threat to Banana CultivationK. DINESH1*, PULI SHASHANKA ROY2 AND AJIT KUMAR SAVANI3

1 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad-580005 2Department of Plant Pathology, Indhira Gandhi Krishi Vidya Peeth, Raipur 3Department of Plant Pathology, Assam Agricultural University-785013

IntroductionWardlaw and Mc Guire (1950) for the first time reported the bacterial nature of bacterial head rot or rhizome rot of banana from Honduras. Rivera (1978) reported two new bacterial diseases of banana pseudostem caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi pv. chrysanthemi and corm rot in bananas caused by Erwinia carotovora sub sp. carotovora from Cuba. Besides, with in a country also the causal agents vary, Edward et al. (1973) reported the tip-over disease of banana from Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh in India, the causal agents of both P. carotovorum (E. carotovora subsp. carotovora) and Dickeya sp (E. chrysanthemi), in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh (Snehalatharani and Khan, 2010), and P. carotovorum in Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Rajamanickam et al., 2018) were reported. In recent years it became a serious threat for banana cultivation in Karnataka.

Symptoms

Rhizome Rot / Tip OverIt weakens the rhizome or corm and pseudo stem. The affected young plants show leave yellowing and heart rot symptoms. The infected rhizome is cut open, yellow or brown coloured water soaked

bigger spots with dark brown margin can be seen. Severely infected rhizomes may have characteristic symptoms such as decay of corm tissues, cavity formation and brown ooze with foul smell. Severely affected plants may topple down at maturity due to rot of pseudo stem and bunch weight (Stover, 1972)

Causal OrganismsBoth Pectobacterium and Dickeya are the two major genera which cause rot diseases in banana and they belong to family Enterobacteriaceae and class Gammaproteo bacteria.P. CarotovorumThe bacterium is non sporulating, gram negative rod with peritrichous and facultative anerobic bacterium. It produces grayish white or cream to yellowish and mucoid raised colonies on Nutrient Agar and it forms characteristic pits on crystal violet pectate medium (Cuppels and Kelman, 1974).D. Paradisiaca and D. ZeaeBacterium is aerobic, rod, gram negative, peritrichous flagella and non-sporulating type. On nutrient agar, it produces fine granular, irregular colonies initially and they turn to grey



colour after 48 h and the colony centre rises after 96 h. The strain D. zeae was distinguished from D. paradisiaca as the former one able to grow at 39ºC and to catabolize cis-aconitate, myo inositol, mannitol and D-melibiose but the later one failed

EpidemiologyBacterial rot pathogens enter via wounds caused due to detachment of Senescent leaves and natural openings. The bacteria can spread through irrigation water, tools, equipments and propagation materials without expressing symptoms. Banana is having different genome groups (ploidy levels) and response of the genome to the pathogens also varied. Pathogenicity variation also observed among D. paradisiaca isolates as the isolates obtained from rhizome cortex could infect both rhizome and pseudostem whereas isolates recovered from pseudostem could only infect pseudostem.

ManagementFrequent visit to field at least once in two weeks is advised for early diagnosis and for taking up control measures in time.

A sanitation programme through ELISA based indexing of planting materials is recommended However, in case of D. paradisiaca, several stages of indexing (six indexing) were required as it could multiply in meristem tissue Continuous disinfection of tools in sodium hypoclorite (3.5%) during different stages of field operations.

Soil drenching with COC (0.3%,) and antibiotic 600 mg/l (Streptomycin sulphate 9%+Tetracycline hydrochloride 1%).

Mini scale application of Pseudomonas fluorescens cells, Bacillus subtilis and VAM fungus (Glomus fasciculatum) and bio-priming of banana with plant growth promoting bacterial strains (B. subtilis PP and CL3) during primary and secondary hardening (Rajamanickam et al., 2018) showed considerable level of disease control.

ReferencesCuppels, D., & Kelman, A. (1974). Evaluation of

selective media for isolation of soft-rot bacteria from soil and plant tissue. Phytopathology, 64(4), 468-475.

Edward, J. C., Tripathi, S. C., & Singh, K. P. (1973). Observations on a” Tip-over” disease of banana in Allahabad. Current Science, 42(19), 696-697

Rajamanickam, S., Karthikeyan, G., Kavino, M., & Manoranjitham, S. K. (2018). Biohardening of micropropagated banana using endophytic bacteria to induce plant growth promotion and restrain rhizome rot disease caused by Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. Carotovorum. Scientia horticulturae, 231, 179-187.

Rivera. D. N., 1978, Comparative study of two new bacterial diseases in banana growing areas of Cuba. Agrotecnia de Cuba, 10: 35-44.

Stover, R. H. (1972). Banana, plantain and abaca diseases. Banana, plantain and abaca diseases.

Snehalatharani, A., & Khan, A. N. A. (2010). Biochemical and physiological characterisation of Erwinia species causing tip-over disease of banana. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 43(11), 1072-1080

Wardlaw, C. W. and McGuire, L. P., (1950), Cultivation and diseases of banana in Brazil. Trop. Agri., 10: 192-197.

20367

58. Major Diseases of Groundnut and their Management: A Brief Review*TEJPAL BAJAYA1, MANISHA SHIVRAN2 AND RAMESH CHAND BANA3

1,2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, SKN COA, Jobner-303329, 3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, SKN COA, Jobner-303329, *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is primarily grown as oil seed kharif crop in India. It is also known as peanut, earthnut, monkeynut, goobernut and marillnut. de candolle (1886) declared its origin from Brazil (South America). The groundnut is mainly grown on a commercial scale in about 82 different countries in the world. In India, the total coverage area under this crop is about 5.31 million hectares and production 7.57 million tonnes with average productivity of 1424 kg/hectare (Anonymous,2017-18). Major groundnut growing states of India are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,

Rajasthan and Tamilnadu. Among these states, Gujarat stand first in production while Andhra Pradesh in area. Rajasthan alone contributes 13.72 % of the total groundnut production in India. Similar to all other crops, groundnut also suffers from various diseases caused by fungi and other microorganisms. Important diseases incited by fungi are collar rot (Aspergillus niger), early leaf spot (Cercospora arachidicola), late leaf spot (Phaeoisariopsis personata), rust (Puccinia arachidis) and root rot (Macrophomina phaseolina). The diseases, which affect the foliage



cause copious damage to tissues, interfere with photosynthetic process and cause severe losses in yield.

Collar RotIt is also called “Crown rot” disease of groundnut. It is caused by Aspegillus niger. It also called black mould and weed of laboratory. Now it has become an important disease of groundnut. In India first reported by Jain and Nema. The symptoms consist of rotting of seeds, pre-emergence soft rot of the hypocotyls and post-emergence collar rot of seedlings. Due to collar rot, there is girdling of the collar region and the leaves become chlorotic. This is followed by wilting and death of affected branches. The affected collar region becomes shredded, is soon covered with profuse and black growth of the fungus. For management of this disease, a combination of agriculture management practices and chemical control should be applied. Agricultural practices include use good quality undamaged seed, maintain field sanitation, adopt deep summer ploughing to kill soil borne plant pathogen, Follow crop rotation with non-host crops. Seeds should be treated with carbendazim @ 0.2 % e.i. 2 g/kg seed or Thirum (3 g/kg) and drench the crop with 0.1% solution (1g/litre) of carbendazim near root zone.

Leaf Spot / TikkaBased on the relative time of spot appearance, disease is categorized as (i) early leaf spot (ii) late leaf spot;

Early Leaf SpotIt is caused by Cercospora arachidicola and perfect stage of Mycosphaerella arachidicola. Time of spot appearance on about one month of plants. The spots produced by C. arachidicola are usually appear as reddish brown to black on upper surface and light brown on lower surface and spot size are bigger.

Late Leaf SpotIt is caused by Phaeoisariopsis personata and perfect stage of Mycosphaerella berkeleyii. Time of spot appearance on about two-month-old plants. The spots produced by Phaeoisariopsis personata are usually appear dark brown to black on both sides and spot size are smaller (1 to 6 mm in diameter). Contaminated seed and soil are the major source of infection of the pathogen. Disease is polycyclic in nature. Primary infection occurs through the conidia. Remove crop residues and burn. Follow crop rotation with non-host crop. Treat the seeds with copper sulphate solution (0.5%) for 30 min interval and spray the crop with systemic fungicide like Propiconazole (0.1%), Difenoconazole (0.2%).

RustIt is caused by Puccinia arachidis. The disease attacks all aerial parts of the plant. The disease is usually found when the plants are about 6 weeks old. Small brown to chestnut dusty pustules appears on the lower surface of leaves. The epidermis ruptures and exposes a powdery mass of uredospores. Corresponding to the sori, small, necrotic, brown spots appear on the upper surface of leaves. In severe infection lower leaves dry and drop prematurely. High relative humidity (above 85 per cent), heavy rainfall, low temperature (20-25˚C) proves to be favorable for the development of disease. Avoid mono-culturing of groundnut. Remove volunteer groundnut plants and reservoir hosts. Spray mancozeb 2 kg or Wettable Sulphur 3 kg or Tridemorph 500ml or Chlorothalonil 2 kg/ha. Grow moderately resistant varieties like ALR 1.



Root RotIt is caused by Macrophomina phaseolina. In the

early stages of infection, reddish brown lesion appears on the stem just above the soil level. The leaves and branches show drooping, leading to death of the whole plant. The decaying stems are covered with whitish mycelial growth. The death of the plant results in shredding of bark. The rotten tissues contain large number of black or dark brown, thick walled sclerotia. When infection spreads to underground roots, the sclerotia are formed externally as well as internally in the rotten tissue. Management options like deep summer ploughing and treat seeds with thiram or carbendazim 2g/kg or Trichoderma viride at 4g/kg. Spot drench with Carbendazim at 0.5 g/lit.

20561

59. Bacillus Spp.: A Promising Biological Weapons for Plant Disease ManagementHUMA NAZNEEN1, K. GREESHMA2 AND A. JAWAHAR REDDY3

1Ph. D Scholar, Plant Pathology, BCKV, Nadia, West Bengal. 2Ph. D Scholar, Plant Pathology, PJTSAU, Hyderabad, Telangana. 3Ph. D Scholar, Entomology, ANGRAU, Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh.

They are many pathogenic microorganisms present ubiquitous in nature affecting plant health; possessing major and chronic threats to sustainable food production and ecosystem stability worldwide. Currently, synthetic chemicals are the most widely used control method for plant disease management. However, the ongoing continuous use of pesticides and synthetic chemicals causes environmental harm. Controlling plant diseases in a biological way is gaining importance as it offers an alternative and supplement to synthetic chemicals. Microorganisms from diverse groups have successfully been used as biocontrol agents (BCA) due to their capacity of suppressing harmful microbes with various defense and plant growth mechanisms such as antibiosis, competition and resistance induction in the host plant. Among various microbes possessing the characters to suppress others, members of Bacilli such as Bacillus subtilis has more potential to thrive in a less conducive environment. In addition, they are capable of producing endospores to overcome and survive through adverse environmental conditions such as high temperature, ultraviolet radiation, desiccation, extreme freezing, chemical disinfectants, and scarce of nutrients. Due to the

outstanding capacity of bacillus to lie dormant for prolonged periods, it is one among the highly potent bacterial BCAs used for controlling principally rhizosphere pathogens and to a lesser extent foliar or leaf diseases of plants.

The determining factors for using these organisms for formulation are its capacity to tolerate extreme high temperatures, unfavorable pH, and lack of nutrients or water. During the unfavourable environmental conditions, the spores produced by the bacteria help these



microorganisms to survive in the phytosphere and ward off the growth of harmful microbes. It is also a producer of zwittermicin A, a potent antibiotic and antifungal compound, which has the strongest inhibition of germination of the cysts and elongation of germ tubes in Pythium torulosum. Plant growth promotion (PGP), antibiosis, competition for space and nutrients, lysis of pathogen hyphae, and induced systemic resistance (ISR) are the multiple mechanisms responsible for disease suppression by Bacillus. Many other effective strains of Bacillus have also been used for seed treatment, antibiotics, plant growth promotion, induction of systemic resistance, and

suppression of both root and foliar disease-causing organisms. Numerous efforts have been made to explore the genetic makeup of these beneficial Bacilli that encodes development of wide range of antimicrobial products. Significant number of polypeptides, polyketides and relatively other products have been identified and characterized by which they attain highly competitive edge in the plant rhizosphere or form biofilm on root surface. Continuous interest and effective research on this BCA in twenty-first century will make Bacillus-based formulations most widely used plant disease management tool.

20572

60. Quarantine in AgricultureDR. HARSHRAJ KANWAR AND DR. BRAJNANDAN SINGH CHANDRAWATSri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner, Jaipur

1. What is Quarantine? “Quarantine” derived Latin word Quadratum meaning forty. It means 40 days period which was arrived in 14th-15th centuries (Plague and cholera).a) Plant quarantine is defined because the

legal enforcement of the measures aimed to stop pests (Insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses, MLOs etc.) from spreading or to stop them from multiplying further just in case they need already gained entry and have established in fresh controlled areas.

b) To avoid the introduction of exotic pests, diseases and weeds from foreign countries or within country, legal restrictions are enforced commonly referred to as Quarantine. The pests and pathogen not only reduce the quantity but also destroy the quality of the produce to significant level.

2. Quarantine laws: It means the enforcement of the quarantine measures is supported by legal enactments.

3. Why Quarantine enforces in Agriculture: Pest and other microorganisms are known to attack various crops of economic importance. The importance of imposing restrictions on the movement of pest-infested plants or plant materials from one country to another. Plant quarantine is thus designed as a safeguard against harmful pests /pathogens exotic to a rustic or a neighborhood. Few examples of quarantine enforce in which first of all Phylloxera insect of grape vine was introduced into France from America in 1860 and after that San Jose scale insect spread into the US within the latter a part of the 18th

century and caused severe damage.4. Historically from time to time introduced

pests / pathogens have devastated crops and even created famine conditions in different parts of world.

5. In India 1914 (act 2 passed) entitled “Destructive Insect and Pests Act of 1914” (DIP Act, 1914) to prevent the introduction of any insect, fungus or other pests into the country. The legislative procedures in force now in different countries can be grouped into five classes:

6. International/ Foreign quarantine: Legislation to prevent the introduction of new pests and weeds from foreign countries.

7. Domestic/Home quarantine: Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pests, diseases and weeds from one part of the country to another.

8. Legislation to enforce farmers to apply effective control measures to prevent damage by previously established pests.

9. Legislation to check the adulteration and misbranding of insecticides and determine their permissible residue tolerance levels in food stuffs.

10. Legislation to regulate the activities of people engaged in pest control operations and application of hazardous insecticides.a) The International Plant Protection

Convention (IPPC) was established in 1951 under the aegis of FAO with the purpose of securing general and effective action to preclude introduction and further dissemination of pests/diseases of plants/plant materials/ soil etc.



b) The convention envisaged that the inspection of exportable plants/plant materials would be carried out and a phytosanitary certificate (PSC) be issued by technically qualified people.

c) Plant Quarantine Facilities in India: a) The important of import and export of plant commodities have been increased during the recent era; there is a distinct possibility of moving insect pests and diseases from their original native habitation to new location.

d) The government of India in 2003 has notification of a new plant Quarantine Order (PQ Order) to harmonized India’s regulatory frame work with the International Plant protection Convention

(IPPC) and internationally accepted standard and the tenets of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary certificate (SPS) agreement of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

e) Examples, likewise Cottony cushion scale, woolly aphid, San Jose scale, golden cyst nematode of potatoes, the giant African snail are some exotic pest introduced into India and cause extensive damage before the PQ Order 2003.

ReferencesKaruppuchamy, P. and Venugopal Sheela (2016).

Integrated Pest Management in Ecofriendly Pest Management for Food Security.

Milind S. Ladaniya, (2008). World fresh citrus trade and quarantine issues. In book: citrus fruit, pp 521-534.

20727

61. Nucleic Acid Isothermal Amplification Tools for Detection of Plant PathogensNAGESH1, AND AISHWARYARANI BASAVARAJ BALIGER2

1Ph.D. Scholar, College of Horticulture, Bagalkote. UHS, Bagalkote. Karnataka 2M.Sc. Student, College of Horticulture, Bagalkote. UHS, Bagalkote. Karnataka *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionPlant diseases are causing huge crop loss both in field and storage conditions affecting the economy of any country. Therefore, effective management practices are essential to bring down the crop losses and to device the effective management practices, proper detection and diagnosis are necessary. Nucleic acid amplification techniques are used as leading methods in detection and analysis using a small quantity of nucleic acids. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the most widely used method for DNA amplification, detection and diagnosis of diseases. However, it requires a thermocyclic machine to separate two DNA strands and then amplify the required fragment. Novel techniques viz., Loop-mediated Amplification (LAMP), Rolling Circle Amplification (RCA), Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA), Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), Helicase dependent amplification (HDA) are being used in molecular biology for amplifying DNA in isothermal conditions without the need of a thermocycling apparatus.

Sl. No. Platform Amplified component

Amplification catalyst

1. LAMP Probe Enzymatic2. RCA Probe Enzymatic3. NASBA Complementary

sequence of target (RNA)

Enzymatic

4. RPA Target and the complementary sequence

Enzymatic

5. HDA Target and the complementary sequence

Enzymatic

Loop-Mediated Amplification (LAMP)Loop-mediated amplification (LAMP) is an isothermal method that has been shown to display amplification levels that approach that of PCR. LAMP also achieves high target specificity and this is due to the fact that two sets of primers spanning 6 distinct sequences of the target are used that are forward primers and backward primers. Two primers in the forward primer set are named inner (F1c-F2, c strands for ‘‘complementary’’) and outer (F3) primers and similar in backward primer also. The DNA polymerase used is Bst DNA polymerase which having stand displacement activity hear tag polymerase is not used due to endonuclease activity.



FIG.1. Difference of Tag and Bst polymerases enzyme.

FIG. 2. Mechanism of Loop-mediated amplification (LAMP). Four probes (F1c-F2, F3, R1c-R2, R3) are used for this method. F1 is complementary with F1c (c stands for complementary sequence)

The LAMP reaction accurses in three steps such as Starting material producing step, cycling amplification step, elongation and recycling step. At around 60 0C, the F2 region of the inner primer first hybridizes to the target, and is extended by a DNA polymerase. The outer primer F3 then binds to the same target strand at F3c, and the polymerase extends F3 to displace the newly synthesized

strand. The displaced strand forms a stem-loop structure at the end due to the hybridization of F1c and F1 region. At the end, the reverse primer set can hybridize to this strand and a new strand with stemloop structure at both ends is generated by the polymerase. The dumbbell structured DNA enters the exponential amplification cycle and strands with several inverted repeats of the target DNA can be made by repeated extension and strand displacement. LAMP can amplify a few copies of the target to 109 in less than one hour, even when large amounts of non-target DNA are present. LAMP has been applied to detect a variety of viral pathogens. The major disadvantage of LAMP is that the design of the primer sets can be complicated, since 6 regions of the target are covered.

Advantage and Disadvantage of Isothermal Amplification Methods

Advantage � Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification

(NASBA), - amplification of more than 109 copies in just 90 min.

� Rolling circle amplification (RCA) for detection characterization and for recombination.

� Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is rapid, sensitive, can be seen by eye, making LAMP well-suited for field diagnostics.

� Nicking enzyme amplification reaction (NEAR) -extremely rapid and sensitive & detection of small targets.

� Helicase-dependent amplification (HDA) requires only two primers.

� Strand displacement amplification (SDA)-exponential amplification

Disadvantage � NASBA - specificity of the reactions is

dependent on thermolabile enzymes. � RCA - analysis of restriction fragments

generated mitochondrial sequences. � LAMP –many primers & not useful for

cloning.



20841

62. An Overview of QoI Fungicide: StrobilurinSNEHA SHIKHA*, AND BK NAMRIBOIPh.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, GBPUAT, Pantnagar-263145 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionFungicides are widely used in agriculture for the management of pathogens due to their quick and effective result. Many fungicides were developed and many are in the progress but due to their harmful and residual cause, some are banned by the government. Strobilurin represents one class of fungicide that was first time extracted from a small forest mushroom (Basidiomycetes) Strobilurus tenacellus. This forest mushroom commonly grows on pine cones. Due to the presence of beta-methoxyacrylic acid it shows some fungicidal activities and as per the order of discoveries of natural strobilurin names given as Strobilurin A, B, C and D. In the presence of light, the fungicide being unstable.

Synthetic StrobilurinWith the modification of natural strobilurin, the manufacturing of synthetic strobilurin accelerated with high efficacy and effectiveness. The first synthetic strobilurins was azoxystrobin that was introduced in the German market in 1996 and was first time marketed with the name “Amistar”. Active ingredients that are present in synthetic strobilurins are Azoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, fluoxastrobin, kresoxim-methyl, trifloxystrobin, picoxystrobin, mandestrobin, and metominostrobin that highly photos stable. Further, Amistar was marketed with the name Heritage in 1997 in the United States. After that, it was registered in countries for more than 50 crops. The manufacturing and marketing of the synthetic strobilurin done by the companies such as Syngenta, Bayer, Arysta, Cheminova, BASF with the trade name Abound, Amistar, Reason, Compass, Headline, etc.

Mode of ActionThis class of fungicides act on single site. It shows its fungicidal activity through the interfering the normal mitochondrial respiration of fungi. It binds to the quinol oxidation (Qo site) of cytochrome b that is the part of cytochrome bc1 complex. In fungi and other eukaryotes, this cytochrome bc1 complex

is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. When it binds to the Qo site of cytochrome b, it blocks transfer of electrons between cytochrome b and cytochrome c1, thus preventing the ATP production. So, it causes disruption in energy cycle within the fungus. As, it binds to quinol oxidation (Qo) binding site, it is also known as QoI fungicides.

The Spectrum of Activity and Compatible CropsThe QoI fungicides are broad spectrum with their activity against a wide array of diseases caused by fungus. Water molds, downy mildew, powdery mildews, leaf spots, and blighting fungi, fruit rotters, and rust are examples of diseases that can be effectively inhibited by this class of fungicides. Along with the wide array of the pathogen, it is also used on a wide of crops such as cereals, field crops, fruits, tree nuts, vegetables, etc.

MobilityIn this class of fungicides, some exhibits translaminar movement (across the lamina) while some exhibit both translaminar and systemic movement (plant vascular system). The fungicide azoxystrobin moves translaminar as well as systemically. The fungicides kresoxim-methyl and trifloxystrobin move translaminarly only. The fungicides that move the only translaminar is first redistributed when it is applied on the plant surface. Then it is absorbed by the waxy layer plant. Later through translaminar activity, it penetrates plant tissues. It is further redistributed on the plant surface and adjacent blades by limited vapor movement and reabsorption. Translaminar movement can take one to several days to be fully effective.

Advantages and Disadvantages1. Strobilurins are broad-spectrum, cost-

effective, rapidly degrading, and have rapid and highly efficient germicidal activities. Due to these several attributes, they are widely used on large scale. But long term uses of the QoI fungicide leads to environmental contamination, non-target toxicity and also damages the public health.

To overcome this disadvantage, various biotic and abiotic approaches are used for strobilurin degradation. These approaches include incineration, photodecomposition, adsorption, and biodegradation. In biodegradation,



different microbes such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Stenotrophomonas, Arthrobacter, Rhodanobacter, Cupriavidus, and Aphanoascus are effective in its degradation.

2. As the fungicide is known as “site-specific”, so mutation at the biochemical site (fungicide target site) results in the development of fungicide- resistant strain. Repeatedly application leads to the buildup of the fungicide-resistant pathogen. To overwhelm this problem of resistance FRAC (Fungicide Resistance Action Committee) has released several guidelines for deducing resistance risk such as:a) limit the number of applications,b) Limit the number of consecutive

applications,c) Use of two different fungicides mixture

solution,d) Use fungicide at the early stages of disease

development.3. It acts as both preventive and curative

fungicide.4. Several fungicides of this class are known

to cause growth-promoting effects. For

ex- fungicide Pyraclostrobin causes growth enhancement, delay leaf senescence, enhance stress tolerance ability, and improves quality. Kresoxim methyl (QoI fungicide) also causes some hormonal changes in the wheat crop which results in yield enhancement.

ReferencesVincelli, P. (2002). QoI (strobilurin) fungicides:

benefits and risks. The Plant Health Instructor.Feng, Y., Zhan, H., Huang, Y., Bhatt, P., & Chen,

S. (2020). An overview of strobilurin fungicide degradation: Current status and future perspective. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, 389.

Bartlett, D. W., Clough, J. M., Godwin, J. R., Hall, A. A., Hamer, M., & Parr‐Dobrzanski, B. (2002). The strobilurin fungicides. Pest Management Science: formerly Pesticide Science, 58(7), 649-662.

Nofiani, R., de Mattos-Shipley, K., Lebe, K. E., Han, L. C., Iqbal, Z., Bailey, A. M., ... & Cox, R. J. (2018). Strobilurin biosynthesis in Basidiomycete fungi. Nature communications, 9(1), 1-11.

Huang, W., Zhao, P. L., Liu, C. L., Chen, Q., Liu, Z. M., & Yang, G. F. (2007). Design, synthesis, and fungicidal activities of new strobilurin derivatives. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 55(8), 3004-3010.

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63. Means of Microbial Communication: Quorum SensingBHAGYAHREE BHATT1, SANGHMITRA ADITYA2 AND SURBHI SHARMA3

1 PhD Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar 2 PhD Scholar, Division of Plant Pathology, IARI, New Delhi 3 PhD Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Do Microbes Communicate?Yes, microbes do communicate and this process of bacterial cell to cell communication is called Quorum sensing (QS). Bacteria produce certain diffusible chemical signal molecules which act as language of communication for bacterial species. The signal molecules up-regulate their own synthesis and hence act as auto-inducers. In gram negative bacteria N-acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) are produced where as in Gram-positive bacteria oligopeptides are produced as signal molecules. Some other signalling compounds are also involved in quorum sensing. Furanosyl borate diesters, known as autoinducers-2 (AI-2), are produced by both Gram negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Microbes can have interspecific communication, intraspecific communication and even interkingdom communication.

Quorum SensingThe literal meaning of the word ‘quorum’ is minimum number of members of an assembly or society that must be present at any of its



meetings to make the proceedings of that meeting valid. The term quorum sensing was coined by E. P. Greenberg and colleague and is defined as “bacterial cell-to-cell communication system”. Diffusible, low-molecular-weight signal molecules regulates the process of Quorum sensing and it is a density dependent phenomenon, that is, increase in bacterial cell population density increases the concentration of signal molecule and it regulates various metabolic activities of microbes.

Need for Quorum SensingNow the question arises why do they need to communicate? Bacteria use QS systems to regulate many processes, ranging from metabolic and developmental mechanisms to virulence. QS System has been estimated to regulate 5%–25% of the genes of a bacterial genome. It regulates a number of biological activities in bacteria such as motility, pigment production, bioluminescence, plasmid transfer, expression of virulence, siderophore production, epiphytic fitness, and biofilm formation. It also plays an important role in survival of bacteria in both biotic and abiotic environment fluctuations by altering gene expression. QS-mediated biofilms formed in bacteria can tolerate up to 1000 times higher concentrations of antibiotics compared to other microbes. Thus, the phenomenon is of utmost importance. There are different Qs systems in different bacterial genera, LuxI/R QS system has been extensively studied in a large number of Gram-negative plant pathogenic bacteria. More than one AHL synthases can be encoded by bacteria, and may also possess more than one protein receptor molecules. Earlier it was believed that in mixed populations, bacterial species can detect and respond to its specific AHL molecule whereas later there were reports of interspecific signalling. The AHLs released by bacterial cells binds to the protein receptor molecule, a complex is formed which binds to specific promoters and triggers multiple gene expression.

Steps Involved in Quorum SensingThere are three main steps in quorum sensing regulation:1. Production of signalling compounds through

intracellular machinery and subsequent outward-bound transport. The signalling compounds may remain bounded to the bacterial surface or may be secreted to the environment.

2. Due to the continuous production of signalling molecules by increasing bacterial population, they start accumulating outside bacterial cells.

3. When the concentration of signalling molecules reach a specific threshold level, the intercellular receptors present on the bacterial cell surface or the intracellular receptors sense the signalling molecules and gene expression will be regulated.

Role of Quorum Sensing in Causing Diseases in PlantsVirulence is one of the most important factors required by pathogens to cause disease in plants and in case of many bacterial pathogens it is governed by the process called Quorum sensing. The expression of various genes in bacteria are governed by signalling molecules produced during Quorum sensing and as it is a density dependent phenomenon it will require a bacterial population to reach a specific threshold level otherwise the process of infection may not take place. Interactions of plant-associated bacteria with the hosts, including colonization, control of tissue maceration, antibiotic production, toxin release, and horizontal gene transfer are governed by the QS mechanisms. Mostly bacterial plant pathogens are gram negative and utilize the AHL-based QS systems for regulating virulence. Different pathogens have different Quorum sensing systems to synthesize their signal molecules. In bacteria Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum which causes soft rot and black leg in many crops, there are three LuxR homologs, namely, CarR, ExpR and VirR. The ExpR and VirR regulate production of plant cell wall degrading enzymes which are important pathogenicity factors. The pathogen produces an antibiotic called carbapenem which provides competitive advantage over other bacteria during infection. Similarly, ExpI/R QS system was found to regulate pathogenicity in bacteria Dickeya dadantii on potato tubers. Quorum sensing in Pseudomonas syringae subsp. syringae, regulates motility of bacteria and production of Syringomycin and Syringopeptin which causes chlorosis in plants. Thus, Quorum sensing plays an important role in virulence of plant pathogenic bacteria.

Interkingdom CommunicationMicrobes not only communicate amongst



themselves but can also communicate with plants through chemical signals, this process is called as interkingdom communication. Plants also secrete certain secondary metabolites that can trigger a bacterial response. Interkingdom signalling has mostly been studied in case of rhizobia legume symbiosis and between agrobacterial pathogens and their host. Plants seem to respond differently to AHL-biomolecules, which indicates the presence of different receptors or signalling cascade. Some plants such as rice, beans etc are reported to produce certain AHL- mimic QS molecules which binds with the receptors in bacterial cells and prevents signalling amongst bacterial cells. This prevents the expression of the virulence genes and thus prevents disease. Some phytohormones affect plant-microbe interactions by orchestrating host immune responses and modulating microbial virulence traits. Some AHLs also promotes plant

growth by affecting the balance between indole acetic acid and cytokinin.

ConclusionMicrobes communicate amongst themselves through Quorum sensing, which is also responsible for regulating various metabolic processes in bacteria. Bacterial cells can interact with other bacterial species and can also involve in interkingdom interaction through the process of Quorum sensing. Being a density dependent phenomenon, it requires bacterial population to reach to specific threshold level and then only the concentration of signalling compound will start the process of Quorum sensing. Different bacterial species contain different Quorum sensing systems which regulate the expression of different genes and even the survival of bacteria depends on them. Thus, this phenomenon is a gift to microbes and holds utmost importance for their survival.

20869

64. Remote Sensing Application in AgricultureSHALINI YERUKALA1 AND CHANDRAKALA JILLELA2

1Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA 2Department of Plant Pathology, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India

IntroductionRemote sensing is an essential tool used in scanning earth surface by satellite or high-flying aircraft to obtain knowledge or information from a distance without coming into direct contact of the object. Remote sensing follows aerial photography technique. This source of data information provided by remote sensing has opened a new dimensions and capabilities to get more efficient knowledge about earth resources. Currently remote sensing has great importance and widely used in ecological, agriculture research and management. Remote sensing with incorporation of new technologies, made it possible to be more efficient, accurate, speedy, and timely practical crop management tool. Moreover, remote sensing offers a non-destructive pathway providing periodic information in a systematic manner on global scale. Remote sensing can be utilized in agriculture for decision making in forming strategies for agriculture insect pests and diseases, precision farming,

Applications � Predicting and forecasting; early detection;

monitoring and timely management of plant diseases and insect pests in agriculture field.

� Prediction and forecasting of abiotic and biotic characteristics of field and its crops. Abiotic include temperature, humidity, and rainfall

etc. Biotic include predator, parasite, and pathogens etc.

� Detection of early infestation caused by plant pathogens or insect pests

� Speedy accurate location information about hot spots for pest infection and pest outbreak locations.

� Provide information and predictions of crop yields, agriculture crop production system and productivity, crop assessment.

� Monitor specific locations in agriculture filed based on climatic context.

� Irrigation management � Weed detection and management � Mapping of vegetation � Integrative technique of sample collection,

survey, acquisition of data, data storage, data retrieval, data processing, analysis, and information dissemination related to environmental variables.

� Helps farmers in maximizing environmental and economic benefits through wide area pest management by precision farming.

� Early warning and forecasting can minimize crop yield loses by optimizing pest control thereby reduce cultivation cost.



20870

65. Transkingdom RNA Trafficking and its Role in Disease ManagementDR SNEHA R. PATILAssistant Professor, Plant Pathology, College of Agricultural Technology, Theni *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

The world population is increasing each day. To meet the increasing food and energy demand of the fast-growing population it will be necessary to roughly double crop yields worldwide over the next 40 – 50 years, also each year pathogens and pests destroy 20 -40% of attainable crop production globally. To avoid pathogen and pest several methods have been used. like in olden days physical and cultural practices were followed then came the era when chemicals gained upper hand and then was the era of biological control agents. Now we have an integrated approach for the management of crop diseases. Recently there have been demonstrations that eukaryotic pathogens and pests can be inhibited by small RNAs by targeting their essential/ pathogenicity genes and this demonstration has raised the possibility that plants can be protected by a new generation of eco-friendly RNA based fungicides or insecticides which will be highly specific and can be easily adapted to control multiple diseases simultaneously. This novel strategy employs the recent discoveries that sRNAs can move across cellular boundaries between hosts and interacting pathogens and pests and induce gene silencing and also some pathogens and pests are capable of taking up RNAs from the environment and silence genes.

Small RNA and RnaisRNAs are non-coding RNA molecules less than 200 nucleotides in length. RNA silencing is often a function of these molecules with the most common and well-studied example being RNA interference (RNAi) in which the endogenously expressed miRNA or exogenously derived siRNA induce the degradation of complementary mRNA.

RNAi is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules. Andrew Fire and Criag Mello shared the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for their work on RNAi on nematode worm, Caenorhabditis elegans.

Conversation Between KingdomsCell to cell communication occurs between organisms that form pathogenic, parasitic or symbiotic relationship. Such communication involves transportation of regulatory molecules

across the cellular boundaries between the host and its interacting pathogens/ pests/ parasites / symbionts. Recently mobile sRNAs have been identified to function in communication between hosts and advanced pathogens / pests/ parasites.

Mobile cell non autonomous sRNAs that translocate within an organism have been observed in various plants and animal systems. Some sRNAs can even move across the boundaries between hosts and their interacting pathogenic, parasitic or symbiotic organism and trigger gene silencing in the non-related species. This mechanism is termed as cross kingdom or trans kingdom or cross organism RNAi. Also, some pathogens and pests are capable of taking up RNAs from the environment and this is termed as environmental RNAi.

These mechanisms enable the successful control of crop diseases by either transgene mediated cross kingdom RNAi or spray induced gene silencing in which spraying pathogen genes target the dsRNA or sRNAs on plant surface to suppress pathogen virulence.

Transkingdom RNA Trafficking and its Role in Plant Disease ManagementTrans kingdom RNA trafficking means siRNA will be transferred from one kingdom to the other. It is a kind of communication between two unrelated interacting organisms. Trans kingdom RNAi is bidirectional in nature i.e. RNAi derived from pathogen will suppress host immunity or the RNAi derived from host plant will suppress the pathogen virulence.1. Pathogen derived cross kingdom sRNAs

suppressing host immunity: Some pathogens produce siRNA that are capable of inducing gene silencing in the plants. A positive role of sRNAs in fungal virulence is supported by the fact that fungal sRNAs differentially accumulate during the infection process. These pathogen siRNAs will enter the plants and hijack the host Argonaute protein, the key protein in RNAi machinery to silence the important host immunity genes.

2. Host derived small RNA suppressing pathogen virulence: Plants produce siRNAs that are transported by unknown



mechanism to the interacting pathogen and pests. These siRNA upon entering the pathogen cell interfere with the pathogen’s Argonaute protein, the key protein in RNAi machinery to silence the important virulence or pathogenicity genes of the pathogen.

Host Induced Gene SilencingIn most of the cases artificially designed sRNA from plants are delivered into the interacting microbes. Such engineered RNA based communication is termed as host induced gene silencing (HIGS). HIGS has emerged as a promising strategy for crop protection. A wide range of transgenic crops expressing dsRNA targeting essential or

pathogenicity genes are more resistant to viruses, viroids, bacteria, fungi, oomycetes, nematodes and insects. The broad applicability of the technique supports a basic evolutionary conserved mechanism of sRNA trafficking.

In addition to its successful use in model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana Benthamiana, HIGS has been also successfully applied in important crops including wheat, barley, Medicago and banana to efficiently work against a variety of fungal and oomycetes pathogens such as Blumeria graminis, Puccinia tritici, Fusarium sp. and Phytophthora capsica. The use of HIGS to combat fungal pathogens caused alterations in fungal morphology, growth inhibition in plants and most importantly reduced the fungal virulence.

20878

66. Genetic Engineering of Plant VirusesANITA JATDivision of Plant Pathology, Rajasthan Agricultural Research Institute (SKNAU, Jobner) Durgapura, Jaipur *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Introduction: Genetic engineering is the direct genetic manipulation, modification of any organism’s using biotechnological tools. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.

History of genetic engineering: Genetic engineering as the direct transfer of DNA from one organism to another was first accomplished by H. Boyer and S. Cohen in 1972. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1983, using an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. China was the first country to commercialize a transgenic crop in 1993 with the introduction of virus-resistant tobacco. The first genetically modified food approved for release was the Flavr Savr tomato in 1994.

Why need of genetic engineering? Genetic engineering is the process of manually adding or deletion of gene in an organism. The goal of genetic engineering is to add one or more new traits that are not already found in that organism.

Tools used in genetic engineering: Polymerase Chain Reaction, Restriction Enzymes (Molecular Scissor), Gel Electrophoresis, Polymerases

Techniques used in Genetic Engineering1. Indirect method or vector method2. Direct method or vector less method: Gene

gun

Applications of Genetic Engineering � Crop improvement: Improved oil quality in

Soybean and Canola � Herbicide resistance: Cotton, Corn,

Soybean and Rice � Insect Resistance: Cotton, Corn, Tomato,

Rice and Potato � Virus resistance: Papaya, Squash and

Potato � Slow-ripening and softening: Tomato and

MelonAdvantages of genetic engineering: It

allows for a faster growth rate. It can create an extended life. Specific traits can be developed. New products can be created. Greater yields can be produced.

Disadvantages of genetic engineering: The nutritional value of foods can be less. Pathogens adapt to the new genetic profiles. There can be negative side effects that are unexpected. The amount of diversity developed can be less favorable.

Genetic engineering in plant viruses: Genetic engineering use for viral disease management in plants. Viral diseases are a major threat to agriculture in which resistant varieties against these viruses is one of the major challenges faced by plant virologists and biotechnologists.

What is the role of plant viruses in genetic engineering: A genetically modified virus is a virus that has gone through genetic modification for various biomedical purposes, agricultural purposes, bio-control and technological purposes.



Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes to improve organisms is usually obtained with biotechnology. One of the qualities of viruses have that make them attractive to genetic engineering is their ability attach to and invade specific cell and incorporate the DNA/RNA they are carrying into the host cell where it combines with the host cell’s DNA. This invasive quality viruses have provided scientists with a key to open the door to the DNA in the cell which they want to modify.

Use of genetic engineering: The potential of plant viruses as vectors for introducing foreign genes into plants. Genetic elements of plant viruses as tools for genetic engineering. Gene therapy and development of resistant varieties. Exploit natural forms of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to plants, or the ability of lentiviruses to transfer genes to animal cells. Control of virus attack by development of cross protection.

Need of viruses in genetic engineering: Viruses collectively can also be regarded as molecular tools. Plant viruses in their capacity to serve as gene vectors. Plant viruses do not integrate into the plant chromosome but express their genes upon infection. Plant viruses replicate to a very high copy number in infected cells. The most important benefit is that vectors represent a very fast procedure to assay the primary material. Large amounts of foreign proteins can be isolated within 1-2 weeks after inoculation of plants. A modification is desired, this can rapidly be introduced in the virus without the need for generating another transgenic plant line. Virus vectors also provide the flexibility to use the same vector in different plant species that serve as hosts for the virus to extend the host range of the virus by introducing genetic modifications of virus genes.

Mechanism to develop plant virus’s resistant gene: It is virus-derived plant resistance. Transgenic plants that express portions of virus genomes appear to be protected against virus infection. It includes

� Coat protein mediated resistance

� RNA interference mediated resistance � Gene silencing

Coat Protein-Mediated Resistance (CP-MR)The case of CP-MR to TMV is important because most of the earlier and more detailed work on CP-MR was done with TMV (Bevan et al., 1985, Powell et al., 1986). The most important agricultural application of Pathogen Derived Resistance (PDR) is CP-MR against plant virus diseases. The viral coat-protein gene transferred into plants make them resistant to virus from which the gene for the coat protein (CP) was derived.

Delay of disease development in transgenic plants that express the Tobacco mosaic virus coat protein gene

RNA Interference Mediated ResistanceThe first demonstration of RNAi-mediated virus resistance was shown by Waterhouse et al. (1998), against Potato virus Y (PVY) in transgenic tobacco plants. Resistance against PVY in transgenic tobacco plants expressing the PVY protease gene simultaneously in sense and anti-sense orientation was much higher than in lines expressing the same gene individually in either orientation. RNA interference (RNAi) is a natural process used by cells to regulate gene expression. The process to silence genes first begins with the entrance of a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecule into the cell, which triggers the RNAi pathway. The double-stranded molecule is then cut into small double-stranded fragments by an enzyme called Dicer. These small fragments, which include small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA).

RNAi mediated approach for plant virus management

Target plant Virus Targeted region References Barley, rice, maize Brome mosaic virus pds, actin 1, rubisco activase Ding et al., 2006 Rice Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV) RYMV (wt.CP) Kouassi et al., 2006 Rice Rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) RTBV-Os, RTBV-O-Ds Tyagi et al., 2008 Potato Potato virus X and Potato virus Y PVX-cp, PVY-Nib Bai et al., 2009 Tomato Tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) AC4 Praveen et al., 2010

Gene SilencingGene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the expression of a certain gene. Gene silencing can occur during either transcription or translation is often used in

research. Gene silencing is often considered the same as gene knockdown. When genes are silenced, their expression is reduced.

Future perspective and concerns: Although the various approach outlined can bring



significant economic benefits, several concerns have been raised. These concerns provide an opportunity for the acceptance and utility of newer approach for virus resistance. However, focus should be to develop novel mechanisms for viral disease resistance with better biosafety regulation under field conditions.

Conclusions: Genetic engineering remains an alternative and rapid method to transfer resistance genes into traditional cultivars, bypassing the long procedure of the appearance of undesired traits usually associated with it. Developing broad and durable resistance is the main objective in producing virus resistant transgenic plants. RNA mediated resistance is more durable and the method of choice for producing virus resistant plants for resistance against new strains of a virus.

ReferenceBai, Y., Guo, Z., Wang, X., Bai, D. and Zhang, W.

(2009). Generation of double-virus-resistant marker-free transgenic potato plants. Pro. Nat. Sci., 19(5): 543-548.

Beachy, R.N., Powell, A.P., Nelson, R.S., Rogers, S.G. and Fraley, R.T. (1986). Transgenic plants that express the coat protein gene of TMV are resistant

to infection by TMV. Molecular strategies for crop improvement, 48: 205-213.

Ding, X.S., Schneider, W.L., Chaluvadi, S.R., Mian, M.A.R. and Nelson, R.S. (2006). Characterization of a Brome mosaic virus strain and its use as a vector for gene silencing in monocotyledonous hosts. Mol. Plant Microbe Interact., 19(11): 1229-1239.

Kouassi, N.K., Chen, L., Sire, C., Bangratz-Reyser, M., Beachy, R.N., Fauquet, C.M and Brugidou, C. (2006). Expression of rice yellow mottle virus coat protein enhances virus infection in transgenic plants. Arch. Virol., 151(11): 2111-2122.

Powell, A.P., Nelson, R.S., Hoffmann, B.D.N., Rogers, S.G., Fraley, R.T. and Beachy, R.N. (1986). Delay of disease development in transgenic plants that express the tobacco mosaic virus coat protein gene. Sci., 232 (4751): 738-743.

Praveen, S., Ramesh, S.V., Mishra, A.K., Koundal V. and Palukaitis P. (2010). Silencing potential of viral derived RNAi constructs in Tomato leaf curl virus-AC4 gene suppression in tomato. Transgenic Res., 19(1): 45-55.

Tyagi, H., Rajasubramaniam, S., Rajam, M.V. and Dasgupta, I., (2008). RNA-interference in rice against Rice tungro bacilliform virus results in its decreased accumulation in to rice plants. Transgenic Res., 17(5): 897-904.

ENTOMOLOGY20286

67. Organic Pest Management: An Ecofriendly Strategy for Insect Pest ManagementPRAJNA PATIAssistant Professor (Agricultural Entomology), Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan University (SOA), Bhubaneswar, Odisha. S

Use of various cultural management practices in general and organic pest management in particular is gaining much more attention in management of insect pests. Cultural practices such as adjustment of sowing dates, use of insect resistant varieties and growing intercrops and trap crops are being followed depending upon the availability and efficacy of these methods in a particular location. Use of bio-control agents is quite promising and successful in green gram as it is eco-friendly and safe method. Apart from this, augmentation of natural enemies is available option in management of the pests.

Components of Organic Pest Management

Pests Management Strategies are Classified into Following Categories:1. Modification of cultural practices including

crop rotation, soil health management, use of insect resistant plants, etc.

Here, the major cultural practices include, use of resistant varieties, crop rotation, optimum date of planting/sowing, maintaining optimum plant density, balanced nutrient application, proper water management, sanitation to control weeds, intercropping and mulching, growing trap crops.

2. The conservation practices to restore the natural enemies through provision of hedge rows, shelter belts, etc.a) Hedge rows provides habitat for beneficial

organisms and wildlife,b) They act as wind barriers to slow down

soil erosion.c) Protect/act as a shelter belts for natural

enemies.3. Use of biological control agents such as insect



predators, parasitoids, insect pathogens by applying or releasing the agents through inoculate and inundated methods.a) These agents can be used as curative

control methods in case of sudden outbreak in the insect population.

b) Natural enemies such as Ladybird beetle, Lace wings, Dragon fly, Damsel fly, syrphid files, Spiders, Preying mantids, Assasin bugs, Myrid bugs etc., kill the harmful pests such as Aphids, white flies and mealy bugs.

c) Potential biological control agents like Bacillus thuringiensis (Effective against Lepidopteran pests), Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillum leccani and Beauveria bassiana (Coleopteran and Lepidopteran pests).

d) Insect parasitoids like Trichogramma spp. and Chelonis blackburni are effective against lepidopteron pests.

e) Trichoderma spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Bacillus spp. are effective against many diseases.

f) Entomopathogenic nematodes like Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Stenernema carpocapse effective against Coleopteran and Lepidopteran pests

4. Use of botanicals and their mixtures such as Panchagavya, Dasagavya and mineral oils as curative control measures.a) The use of botanicals and other

insecticides of mineral origin for the control insect pests can be used as last options in the organic agriculture, if all the earlier methods have been failed.

b) Karanj cake, neem cake & leaves, Clystanthus colinus, Mahua leaf extract is effective against may insects.

c) Leaf extracts of Datura stramonium O. sanctum and A. indica, Lantana camara, Sarphagandha are effective against many diseases.

d) Cow urine, Butter milk, Cow dung, Panchagavya (mixture of cow milk, curd, ghee, dung and urine supplemented with yeast and common salt), Dasagayva are proved to be effective against many insect and diseases.

5. Use of pheromones and another attractant.6. Some insects can make a sound as loud as a

chainsaw; others have striking colors. Many insects find each other over long distances by emitting chemical signals or ‘pheromones’ to attract individuals of the same species into an area so they can find each other to mate. The pheromone traps are used to disrupt mating and mass trapping and killing.

7. Use of organic pesticides and other permissible pesticides.

8. When nonchemical practices documented in the organic system plan are not sufficient to prevent or control populations of insect pests, synthetic substances may be applied to prevent, suppress, or control pests

Constraints in Organic Pest ManagementThe major constraints of plant protection in organic farming like high cost of organic pesticides inputs, no market for organic pesticides product, unavailability of organic pesticides inputs, less yield and no price advantage for organic product are found to be the major constraints.



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68. Myrmecochory: An Account on Egg Dispersal of Stick Insects by AntsNIDHEESH T. D.1*, KULDEEP SHARMA.2, HARSHA B. R.3 AND NIRANJANA G. N4

1Department of Agricultural Entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka 2Department of Entomology, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan 3Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK, Bengaluru, Karnataka 4Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionThe Phasmatidae is a family of the stick insects belong to the order Phasmatodea which contains some of the largest insects in existence. In India, there are occurrence of mainly 5 families with 146 species of stick insects. Phasmatidae family is having the highest number of species and majority of which are depending on ants for dispersal of their eggs. Dispersal is a mode of transportation of something from one place to another place. Myrmecochory is a seed dispersal mechanism used by certain plants that have evolved a mutualistic relationship with foraging ants (Giladi, 2006). It is a type of mutualism where both ant and plant get benefitted each other. The seeds of certain tree

species have a fleshy appendage on the end of the seed capsule known as an elaiosome (Ciccarelli et al. 2005; Sheridan et al. 1996). It is rich in lipids and proteins, act as chemical cue for ants and aid in seed dispersal. The elaiosome acts as a food reward that induces herbivorous/omnivorous ants to pick up and carry the seed back to the nest. The fleshy elaiosome is detached and eaten by ants, while the seed itself is left undamaged. The capitulum on the eggs of stick insect is having similar structure and function to elaiosomes on seeds. Capitulum and its composition solely attract ants by producing stimulus in the form of chemical cue. In this mutualistic behaviour both get benefitted wherein ants get food while insect eggs are dispersed.

FIG. 1: The mutualistic behaviour of stick insect; (1) Stick insect, (2) egg and (3) an ant carrying their eggs.

Biology of Stick Insect: In general, the female will lay in excess of 100 eggs, some species laying more than 1,000 eggs per gestation. The insect can lay the eggs in the soil or into hollow parts of plants, attach them to the different plant parts or drop them on the ground. These eggs resemble seeds they are small, oval and hard-shelled. Eggs dropped to the ground have large capitula that contain substances ants feed on. When ants find these eggs, they normally carry them to their nest and feed on the capitula without destroying the embryo. Eggs in the ant nest are thus protected against predators, and they hatch safely. This adaptation protects eggs from winter; they hatch when the weather warms up in spring.

Eggs can hatch after a period of few weeks to several months, depending on species and habitat. Nymphs look like adults but vary in colour and size. To escape from the predators, nymphs are able to shed off limbs - autotomy - and regenerate them during the moulting process. This ability lasts only until maturity. Walking stick bugs reach maturity after 3 months to a year. Female stick bugs are usually larger than males. Most male stick species have wings that enable them to fly in search of mates. In addition to camouflage, different adult stick insect species have other adaptations that enable them to escape predators. They include playing dead for long hours, swiping predators with spines on their legs and by emitting



an irritating, foul-smelling liquid. Due to the paucity of male walking stick bugs, these species reproduce through parthenogenesis; a process in which unfertilized eggs develop individually. This means that external eggs fertilization by the males is not a requirement for reproduction to continue. Unfertilized eggs hatch to resemble the females that produced them. However, some males exist and mate with the females.

Mutualism Between Ant and Stick Insect: Female stick insects are slow moving, often flightless insects and consequently have limited dispersal abilities. This is particularly the case with gravid females, which may be unable to fly even if they possess wings. Stick insect eggs are hard-shelled and often closely resemble seeds, a mimicry which may help reduce predation by insectivorous birds. They are laid singly, and are often simply dropped or flicked away by the ovipositing female. In many species the eggs have an appendage, the capitulum, which can be detached without reducing their viability.

How Ants get Benefited in Dispersal of Eggs � Lack lipid synthesis pathway

� Mainly for lipid consumption � Oleic acid 2.6 times more in elaiosomes than

seeds � Increase the hatching percentage

How Capitulum Helps Stick Insect Eggs � Protection from predators � Protection from bush fires � Displacement of eggs to different location � Avoid cannibalism � Protection from environmental factors.

ReferencesCiccarelli, D., Andreucci, A.C., Pagni, A.M. and

Gabari, F. 2005. Structure and development of the elaiosomes in Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae) seeds. Flora, 200: 326-331.

Giladi, I. 2006. Choosing benefits or partners: a review of the evidence for the evolution of myrmecochory. Oikos, 112: 481-492.

Sheridan, S.L., Iversen, K.A., Itagaki, H. 1996. The role of chemical senses in seed-carrying behaviour by ants: a behavioural, physiological and morphological study. Journal of Insect Physiology, 42: 149-159.

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69. Detection of Insect Pest in Storage*RICHA BANSHIWAL AND TARA YADAVDepartment of Entomology, Rajasthan Agricultural Research Institute, Durgapura, Jaipur (Raj.) 302018 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

When any kind of agricultural product is stored, either as pods or kernels, they are very much susceptible to insect attack. Mostly of insect pests in stored grain are weevils, beetles and moths. Detection of stored product pest is the quick and accurate process of preventing and controlling storage grain pest and avoiding the severe grain losses and unnecessary expensive treatments. Therefore, detection at low level infestation is very important to control insect pest at early stages. Currently, several detection techniques have been developed for insect detection in stored grain such as:

� Grain Probe Traps: They are cylindrical tubes with perforation in the upper section through which insect drop into the trap and are unable to escape because of the shape of receptacle. These traps have a pointed tip for the easy insertion into grain. Probe traps removed from the grain bin and inspected periodically to find the number and type of pests that have been captured. The rate of insect capture is depending upon insect species, grain temperature and type of grain.

� Sticky Traps: when trap surface is coated with a sticky substance (such as petroleum jelly or bird repellant) that prevent insect from leaving after landing on it called sticky trap. They should be suspended on the store roof, to hang above or between heaps or stacks of stored product. Limitation is having a short life span since their surface easily covered with dust.

� Light Traps: light traps are used to capture adult moth because they attract towards light. Ultraviolet (300-400 nm) and green light (500-550nm) are most preferred wavelength to attract insect pest of storage.

� Acoustic Method: In which, acoustic sensor uses sounds or vibrations generated by insects while moving, flying, and feeding for detecting them. Hidden insects within the grain can be detected acoustically by amplifying and filtering the sound generated by them. This technique can be used to detect the presence or absence of insects as well as larva also estimating the population density of insects inside the grain mass so that the level of



infestation can be judged. It has the efficiency to automatically monitor both internal and external grain feeding insects.

� Berlese Funnel Method: It based on the principle that insect moves away from the heat. Funnel takes at least 5 to 6 hours to determine the presence of insect in 1kg grain sample. The efficiency of berlese funnel is influenced by insect stage, size of grain sample, and moisture content of grain.

� Near Infra-Red Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIR): This is the fast, accurate and economical technique. It provides information which based on the reflectance properties of different substances present in a product. It relies upon the absorption of electromagnetic wavelengths in the range 780–2500 nm. Near-infrared spectroscopy System has also some drawback that it can’t discriminate between dead and live insect can’t detect low Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy.

� Pheromones: Pheromones are chemical signals from one organism that stimulate a response in another individual of the same species. These are used as trap called sex pheromones trap –They are chemical attractant enclosed in a plastic lure which slowly release the active ingredient over a period of several days to weeks or months. Traps having an adhesive coated surface or funnel shaped entrance for capturing large insect. Most common stored insect, for which pheromones are available, are the Rhizopertha dominica, Tribolium castaneum and Triboilum variabile. Hence, pheromones traps give the information of pest population density, they are several other factors which interpret their population estimation difficult, slow and complex. Temperature, rainfall, wind speed and wind direction effect by releasing chemical attractant from lures also insect flight.

� Machine Vision: In this machinery visual images and interpretive prints are used for detection. In which individual grain kernels are compared with the photographic print of the representative sample. It consists of high-speed integrated machine vision software used with a monochrome CCD (charge couple device) camera and a personal computer, these computerized image analysis has been

shown to have great potential for detecting and analyzing non-grain particles and insects in wheat. This method used efficiently for detecting Rhizopertha dominica adults with more than 90% accuracy in wheat bulk.

� X-ray Imaging: This technique is particularly effective for detecting internal infestations of stored grain. In which soft x-rays are used, which defined as electromagnetic radiation with wavelength ranging from about 0.1 to 10 nm. These are produced when high energy electrons strike a target material, like tungsten. Soft x-rays are extensively used in the fruit and vegetable industry to determine internal voids, defects and insect damage, they can also detect any kind of insect pest hidden in the stored grain. This technique has been demonstrated efficiently for the detection of major stored grain pests, such as Sitophillus oryzae, Rhizopertha dominica, Tribolium castaneum and Aspergillus spp. other than these, they can detect very acutely eggs and early instars of internal grain feeders which are otherwise difficult to detect.

� Electric Conductance: This technique detected hidden internal insect infestation in wheat kernels. It based on the principle of electric conductance and compression forces; conductance is monitored by measuring the voltage across the kernels. A low voltage measurement corresponds to low kernel resistance, which is typically high moisture content kernels. If a live insect is present inside a kernel, there is likely to be a large downward slope in the conductance signal. It based on the signal characteristics of the system and by computing the range of voltage levels in the conductance signal while the infested kernel is differentiated from sound kernels.

ReferencesKaushik, R. and Singhai, J. 2018. Sensing

technologies used for monitoring and detecting insect infestation in stored grain. International Journal of Engineering & Technology, 7(4.6):169-173.

Shah, M. A. and Khan, A. A. 2014. Imaging techniques for the detection of stored product pests. Applied Entomology and Zoology.



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70. Marker Aided Selection (MAS) Technique in Resistance BreedingBEERENDRA*, AND KV NAGARJUNA REDDYPh.D. Scholar, Dept. of Entomology, IGKV- Raipur, Chhattisgarh-492012

IntroductionThose characters which can be easily identified are called marker characters. Any genetic element (locus, allele, DNA sequence or chromosome feature) which can be readily detected by phenotype, cytological or molecular techniques, and used to follow a chromosome or chromosomal segment during genetic analysis is referred to as marker. Markers related to variations in DNA fragments generated by restriction endonuclease enzymes are called DNA markers or genetic markers.

Types of Marker: There are four types of markers.

1. Morphological Marker: Markers that are related to variation in shape, size, colour and surface of various plant parts are called morphological markers.

2. Biochemical Markers: Markers that are related to variation in proteins and amino acid banding pattern are known as biochemical markers, for example, isozymes and storage proteins.

3. Cytological: Markers that are related to variation in chromosome number, shape, size and banding pattern are referred to as cytological markers; for example, G banding.

4. DNA Marker: A gene or other fragment of DNA whose location in the genome is known is called DNA marker. For example- RFLPs, AFLDs, SSR, SSP etc.

Characteristics of Perfect Molecular Marker1. Markers should exhibit high level of

polymorphism.2. Marker should be co-dominant.3. The marker should be multi-allelic.4. There should be absence of epistasis.5. The marker should be neutral.6. Markers should be insensitive to environment.

Marker Aided Selection (Mas) TechniqueThe marker aided selection (MAS) assumes that the target gene is identified and selected based on the closely linked markers”.

Marker Assisted Breeding Schemes

1. Marker-Assisted BackcrossingIn backcross breeding, a useful trait is transferred from a donor parent into a recurrent parent, which is a superior variety deficient in this trait. The trait transferred from the donor parent is generally referred to as target trait or desired trait. The F1 from cross between the donor parent and recurrent parent and the subsequent progeny are backcrossed to the recurrent parent. As a result, the donor parent genome is progressively replaced by the recurrent parent, genome (Allard, 1960).Molecular Markers can be used to Achieve all the Three Objectives.1. Foreground Selection - Foreground

selection focuses on selection for the target gene, i.e., the gene being introgressed.

2. Background Selection- The background selection, on the other hand, is directed at the recovery of the recurrent parent genotype and is based on markers distributed over the entire genome.

3. Recombinant Selection- The term recombinant selection (Collard and Mackill, 2008) describes a special type of background selection that aims to eliminate the donor parent genome flanking the target gene.Thus, foreground and recombinant selections

relate to the chromosome having the target gene, while background selection is concerned with all the chromosomes of the genome.

2. Marker-Assisted Gene PyramidingGene pyramiding may be used to describe bringing together two or more genes controlling a single trait in a single line/ variety. Gene pyramiding is relatively straightforward when the same donor parent contributes all the genes. But when two or more donor parent have to be used, relatively simple strategies can be used for gene pyramiding.Strategy for Gene PyramidingIntrogression of two or more genes from a single donor parent is relatively simple: the donor parent is crossed with the recurrent parent, and the F1 and the subsequent progeny are repeatedly backcrossed to the recurrent parent. But when the genes to be pyramided are present in different donor parent,



they can be introgressed into a recurrent parent in one of the following three ways.

In the first approach, each donor parent is used in a separate backcross program with the recurrent parent to recover the target gene from each donor parent in the genetic background of recurrent parent either in heterozygous or homozygous state. These derived lines of recurrent parent are then crossed together to produce a complex hybrid. Finally, the pyramided version of recurrent parent having all the target genes is recovered from this hybrid by selfing coupled with selection.

In the second approach, all the donor parents are ordered into a single backcross program according to a suitable mating scheme. In the case of symmetrical mating scheme, the F1s from the crosses between different donor parent and the recurrent parent are crossed in pairs to ultimately produce a complex hybrid having all the target genes from the donor parent.

But in the tandem-mating scheme, the recurrent parent is first crossed with one of the donor parents. The F1 from this cross is now mated to the second donor parent and so on till all the donor parent are mated in succession to produce a complex hybrid. The complex hybrid obtained from either scheme is used in a backcross program with the recurrent parent to recover the pyramided version of recurrent parent (Servin et al., 2004; Ishii and Yonezawa, 2007).

3 Early Generation Marker Assisted SelectionOne of the most intuitive stages to use markers to select plants is at an early generation (especially F2 or F3). The main advantage is that many plants with unwanted gene combinations, especially those that lack essential disease resistance traits and plant height, can be simply discarded. This has important consequences in the later stages of the

breeding program because the evaluation for other traits can be more efficiently and cheaply designed for fewer breeding lines.

TABLE 1: Some insect-resistance achievements of Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) in India:

Crop Insect – Resistance GeneRice Brown plant hopper Bph1 and Bph2

Yellow stem borer Bt fusion -cry1AB/cry1Ac

Gall midge Gm1, Gm2, Gm4, Gm6 Cotton Bollworm cry1Ac, cry2Ac Chickpea Lepidoptera cry1Ac, cry1AbSoybean Lepidoptera cry1Ac+cry1Ab

Conclusion: Molecular marker technology can effectively supplement the crop improvement programs in a variety of different ways, including indirect selection for all kinds of traits like Marker assisted backcrossing, marker assisted gene pyramiding and early generation marker aided selection. Marker-assisted selection (MAS) makes selection independent of the phenotypic expression of the traits.

ReferencesAllard RW. (1960). Principles of plant breeding. Soil

Science, 91(6):414.Collard and Mackill. (2008). Marker-assisted

selection: an approach for precision plant breeding in the twenty-first century. Philosophical transactions of the royal society b biological sciences. 363: 557-572.

Ishii T and Yonezawa K. (2007) Optimization of the marker-based procedures for pyramiding genes from multiple donor lines: I. Schedule of crossing between the donor lines. Crop science. 47: 537–546.

Servin B, Martin OC, and Mezard M. (2004). Toward a theory of marker-assisted gene pyramiding. Genetics.168: 513–523.

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71. Eco-Physiological Phases of Insect DiapauseKIRAN K. G. N * AND MOGILI RAMAIAHPh.D. Scholar, Division of Entomology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi – 110012 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionDiapause is a period of arrested or suspended development during insect’s life cycle. Insect diapause usually triggered by environmental cues, like changes in light, temperature, or food availability. “State of arrested development in which the arrest is enforced by a physiological mechanism rather than by concurrently

unfavorable environmental conditions” (Beck, 1962). The word diapause was originated from Greek word “diapausis”, meaning “pause “. In 1893 William Wheeler coined the term diapause, while describing the different stages of embryo morphogenesis in grasshopper, Xiphidium ensiferum. Then in 1904, Henneguy pointed out that diapause was not a stage in insect development



but it is a condition of arrested growth in insect. Roubaud in 1930 coined the term “Pseudo diapause”. The phases of diapause were given by V. Kostal. The classic experiments by Fukuda (1951, 1952) and Hasegawa (1952) let the stage for the understanding and further development of diapause mechanism in insects (Richard et al. 1987).· Dormancy: Dormancy is a broad term

covering any state of suppressed development (developmental arrest) in an organism, which is adaptive and usually accompanied with metabolic suppression. The dormancy includes both diapause and quiescence. Both have arrested development while the later returns back to normal activity on return of favorable condition.

· Quiescence: Quiescence is the immediate response (without central regulation) due to limiting environmental factors below the physiological thresholds. It is the transitory interruption of development in response to adverse conditions. It is a less preparatory than diapause.

· Diapause: Diapause is a programmed interruption of the development. It is a preplanned program of progress which includes preparatory phase and exploitation phase. The major mechanism includes metabolic suppression and nutrient storage.

Life stages of insect and Diapause:

Instar Insect speciesEgg diapause Mulberry silkworm, Grass hoppers,

locustLarval diapause Pink bollwormPre pupal diapause Plodia interpunctellaPupal diapause Pieris brassicae, Red hairy caterpillarAdult diapause White grub, Epilachna, LeptinotarsaImaginary diapause Mosquitoes

Phases of Diapause: The different phases of diapause include pre-diapause, diapause and post diapause phase. Pre-diapause phase is the preparatory phase of diapause which senses the environmental stimuli and induces several genetic responses for further physiological modifications for diapause. Metabolic depression and storage of nutrients like lipids and carbohydrates play are the major activities in pre diapause phase. During the diapause phase the stored nutrients are used up for maintenance and metabolism during diapause while other normal metabolism of insects remains suppressed. The insect remains in the arrested stage during the entire phase of diapause. In post diapause phase the metabolic arrest is reduced and insect returns back to the normal development and metabolism. The whole diapause is genetically mediated and the successful completion of diapause relays on the quantity and quality of

nutrients storage.

Phases of Diapause (Kostal, 2006)I. Pre diapause (induction and preparation phase), II. Diapause (initiation, maintenance, termination and III. Post diapause: one by one briefly explained below:

(i) Pre diapausea) Induction phase: This occurs during

ontogenetic stage (which is genotype specific), when cues from the environment are received, transduced into the ontogenetic pathway results in switching from direct development to diapause (when the token stimuli reach some critical level). This stimulus triggers the switch from direct development to diapause pathways.

b) Preparation phase: This phase occurs where the two phases (induction, initiation) of diapause are split by a period of direct development through which the insect is covertly programmed for later expression of diapause. Physiological and behavioural preparations for diapause may be take place. During preparation phase, insects accumulate, store molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. These molecules will be used to maintain the insect throughout period and to supplement food for development following diapause termination. Diapausing puparia of the flesh fly, Sarcophaga crassipalpis increase the amount of cuticular hydrocarbons lining the puparium, results in reducing the ability of water to cross the cuticle.

(ii) Diapausea) Initiation phase: Photoperiod is most

important stimulus for initiating diapause. Direct development ceases and followed by controlled suppression of metabolic activity. Movable diapause stages may carry on with receiving food, energy reserves and convenient microhabitat. During this phase physiological preparations for the period of adversity may be arise and strength of diapause further increases.

b) Maintenance phase: Endogenous developmental suppress persists while the environment is favourable for insect development. Token stimuli (specific) may help to continue diapause. Metabolic activity rate relatively low to constant. Unspecified processes cause more or less gradual lowering of diapause intensity & decrease diapause activity (ends in terminating conditions).

c) Termination phase: Certain changes in environmental conditions accelerate the decrease of diapause intensity to its lower level. By the end of this phase, the insect reached state of physiological changes where



direct development may resume and restored.

(iii) Post DiapauseDevelopment and metabolism remain inhibited because of unfavorable environmental conditions. Insects become normal when favorable conditions reached.

ConclusionInsects clearly possess a range of coordinated and integrated mechanisms that have evolved to allow them to survive and flourish under potentially adverse environmental conditions. Diapause an important part of the life-cycle in many species of invertebrates. It is considered in ecological studies with the aim to model and predict population responses to the environment which changes either seasonally or linearly, on an evolutionary scale. Increasing precision in the knowledge of how the responses to environmental factors change at an individual ontogenetic level. Studies

of insect thermal relations have direct applications to numerous research fields, including pest management, cryopreservation and forensic entomology. Such studies continue to play a key role in forecasting the effects of climate change and prediction of potential impacts of agricultural pest species or disease vectors in the future.

ReferencesAndrewartha, H. G. 1952. Diapause in relation to the

ecology of insects. Biological Reviews, 27(1): pp 50-107.

Beck, S.D. 1962. Photoperiodic induction of diapause in an insect. Biological Bulletin, 122: 1.

Denlinger, D. L., Yocum, G. D. and Rinehart, J. P. 2012. Hormonal control of diapause. In: Gilbert, L.I. (Ed.), Insect Endocrinology. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 430-463.

Kostal, V. 2006. Eco-physiological phases of insect diapause. Journal of Insect Physiology, 52(2):113-27.

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72. Potential Threat of Desert Locust (Schistocera gregaria) to Indian AgricultureSONIYA DHANDA1* AND ANIL2

1*CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Department of Entomology. 2CCS Haryana Agricultural University Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding (Cotton Section) *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionIndia is the agrarian country where more than 60% of its people involved in agriculture and allied sectors directly or indirectly. Country’s economy is mainly depending on progress of agriculture sector. India produced a record high of 283 million tons of food grains during 2018-d2019 indicating the countries self-sufficiency in food production. Nevertheless, the growth in agricultural production needs to be sustained in coming years, but bringing additional land under cultivation is highly impossible. Thus, the focus has to be made on increasing production and productivity in limited land and resources to meet the ever-growing population of the country. On the other hand, intensive agriculture has brought serious problems of pest and diseases, abiotic stresses, environmental pollution under changing climatic conditions (Dhaliwal et al., 2004). Among the problems of agriculture, pest and diseases generally a significant problem causing epidemics in various regions of the country. Number of pests continuously affecting crops over the years and new pests are being introduced in one or the other way. Invasive alien species (IAS) are the potential threats to agriculture and cost billion dollars of

monetary losses in terms of production and quality losses. One such pest in desert locust (Schistocera gregaria) causing enormous damage to almost all the crops in many parts of the country especially the states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh are worst affected from last three to four years. The pest is polyphagous and migratory insect having the potential of large-scale destruction.

LocustsLocusts belong to family Acrididae, which includes most of the short-horned grass hoppers but locusts are different from grasshoppers because they can change their behaviour and physiology especially with respect to colour and morphology (Shape). Locusts have the ability to form swarms which contain thousands of millions of individuals and behave as one unit (Symmons and Cressman, 2001). They can fly rapidly across great distances in a short period of time destroying almost all the crops on their way. Desert locusts caused severe epidemics which threaten agriculture production in Africa, Asia and Middle East countries several times in past decades.



From Where Locusts Swarm Come?Among different breeding sites Africa, Middle East and India are main breeding area of locusts. In India the swarm originates in the desert area of Pakistan or Arabian Peninsula which are further spread to other parts of India through monsoon winds. Government organisation known as Locust Warning Organization generally monitors and destroys their breeding grounds every year. But during this year due to unexpected cyclones in the Arabian Peninsula and climate change aided their rapid spread and multiplication.

Biology of Desert Locust (S. Gregaria)Desert locust (S. gregaria) belongs to genus Schistocera, Sub-family: Cyrtacanthacridinae, Family: Acrididae, Superfamily: Acridoidea, Suborder: Caelifera, Order: Orthoptera. Desert locusts, like other locusts and grass hoppers have three stages of life cycle: egg, nymph (hopper) and adult. Female lays eggs in bare dry soil which hatch into larvae or nymphs called hoppers. Nymphs undergo six instarts/metamorhoposis/moulting with growth and development. The final moults from wingless fifth instar develop into winged adult which is called as fielging. In fielging stage the wings are very soft which will dry and get harden before it flies. The adults are initially sexually immature but eventually get mature, later on copulate and lay eggs. Locusts have two phases of life.1. Solitary.2. Gregarious

The individuals are in solitaries’ phase when locusts are present in small densities. As the number increases, the cluster gets dense and become gregarious. This phase of transition from solitary to gregarious and vice versa is known as transient phase. Gregarious phase is most destructive causes huge damage.

Locust Warning and ManagementAn early warning for desert locus is being used in India considering its importance. An account of the locust warning organization (LWO) was compiled by Ram Asre (2004). The Indian LWO is operates as centralized forewarning system for the desert locust to keep the state government and its authorities in attention to take regulatory and timely management measures. Regular survey and surveillance are conducted by desert area by LWO staff. LWO Field headquarters located and Jodhpur centres will analyses the data on various aspects taking weather data into consideration. This analysis will be helpful in forewarning and bulletins will be issued by Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Faridabad (DPPQS) after compilation of the data, every two weeks throughout the year.

ReferencesDaniel Uria, Historic swarm of locusts descends

upon India, destroying crops, May 27, 2020 available at: https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2020/05/27/Historic-swarm-of-locustsdescends-upon-India-destroying-crops/5971590625959

Dhaliwal GS, Arora R and Dhawan A (2004). Crop losses due to insect pests in Indian Agriculture: An update. Indian Journal of Ecology. 31(1): 1-7.

FAO. (2003). Emergency Prevention System (EMPRES) for Trans boundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases (Desert Locust Component) Central Region. Summary Report of the Evaluation Mission. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Maynard CN, Lecoq M, Chapuis MP, and Piou C. (2020). On the relative role of climate change and management in the current desert locust outbreak in East Africa. Global Change Biology, 26(7): 3753-3755.

Symmons PM and Cressman K (2001). Desert Locust Guidelines: Biology and behavior. Second edition Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome.

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73. Mycoherbicides: Weeds-Killing FungiCHANDRAKALA J1 AND SHALINI YERUKALA2

1 Department of Plant pathology, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, India 2Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA

IntroductionThe fungi which are used to kill the weeds selectively and eliminate them from the area, such weed killing fungi are known as mycoherbicides. These fungal pathogens are considered to be the only group of microorganisms with potential for the classical biological control of weeds.

Characteristics of Good MycoherbicideThey should be:1. Capable of abundant spore production2. Culturable in artificial media3. Stable in storage4. Genetically stable



5. Effective under field conditions6. Tolerant to variations in temperature7. Compatible with other chemicals or cultural

practices

Production of MycoherbicidesPlant pathogenic fungi that attack the target weeds is cultured in large proportion on suitable nutrient medium. The fungal spores are isolated from suitable nutrient medium and sprayed on a wide variety of plant species including weeds and main crops to access the host range of the fungus.

Methods of Application1. Inoculation or Introductive method:

The fungus is introduced randomly in the field and multiplied on target weeds to spread, which can persist in the attacked weeds for a long time in the form of spores till new weed appear. Ex. Cercospora rodmanii

2. Inundative method: Some mycoherbicides kill weeds and get destroyed. For this, a known volume of a mycoherbicide is diluted and sprayed directly over weeds. They cannot persist for the forth coming seasons. Ex. Phytopthora palmivora

Commercially available mycoherbicides

Trade name Pathogen Weed hostHakatak™ Colletotrichum

gloeosporiodesSilky Hakea

LuBao Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes

Dodder

DeVine® Phytophthora palmivora StranglervineABG-5003 Cercospora rodmanii Water hyacinthCASST™ Alternaria cassiae Coffee, SennaDr. BioSedge® Puccinia canaliculata Yellow

nutsedge

EXTENSION EDUCATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT20850

74. Information and Communication Technology in AgricultureSONAL ATHNERE1* AND KAMAL GARG2

1Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan-313001 2Ph.D. Research Scholar, Division of Agronomy, IARI, New Delhi-110012 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

Introduction: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is used as an overarching term incorporating all modes of transmission like electronic devices, networks, mobiles, services and applications which help to disseminate information with the help of technology. In the recent years, ICT has proved to be extremely beneficial for farmers including small land holders, marginalized and poor farmers, and helped them in marketing, precision farming and improved profits.

Framework of ICT Programmes in India

Role of ICT in Agricultural Development � Agriculture Information, Awareness and

Education using ICT. � Advanced information about adverse

weather condition, so that farmers can take precautionary measures.

� Real time and near real times pricing and market information.

� Information dissemination about various government schemes.

� Information regarding Agri-finance, Agri-clinics and Agri-business.

� Online Farmer Communities.

ICT Government Initiatives for Agricultural in India1. Kisan Call Centre: KCCs were commenced

on January 21, 2004 by the Department of Agricultural and Co-operation with the main intend of endowing extension services to the farming community in the local languages. The queries of farmers are tackled by agricultural graduates on help line, toll free number (1800-180-1551) in their local language. The agricultural scientists also visit the field in person to get an idea about complex agricultural problems to resolve them.

2. AGMARKNET: Agricultural Marketing Information Network (AGMARKNET) was commenced in March, 2000 by Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India with the aim of empowering decision-making ability of the farmers regarding selling of their produce.

3. Crop Insurance and MGNREGA benefits are now transferred through Direct benefit transfer benefits to rural people bank account directly with the help of Jandhan account- Aadhar number- Mobile (JAM Trinity)

4. Kisan suvidha app: It helps in providing information related to weather, input dealers,



market price, plant protection and Agro advisories to farmers. Unique features like extreme weather alerts and market prices of commodity in nearest area and maximum price in state as well as central have been added to empower farmers in the best possible manner.

5. Crop Insurance Mobile App: Innovative mobile application used to calculate the insurance premium for notified crops based on area, coverage amount and loan amount with multi language facility. Premium calculator, insurance company contact details also provided.

6. CCE AGRI: Revenue officials now use this android app to estimate crop damage and yield loss at 1100 locations in 12 states.

7. DD Kisan: 24*7 agriculture-based channel providing farming community information inclusive of research updates, extension advisories, market rates and weather updates.

8. Kisan Vani Programme on All India Radio: 96 FM/AM stations of All India Radio are broadcasting 30 Min programme six days a week from 6:30- 7:00PM. each station broadcasts separate programme in respective dialects.

9. e-NAM: National agriculture market for e-NAM is an online trading platform for agriculture commodities in India. the market facilitates farmers, traders and buyers with online trading in commodities. The market is helping in better price discovery and provides facilities for smooth transaction of their produce. In February 2018, some attractive features like MIS dashboard. BHIM and other mobile payments are added features to empower producers.

10. Farmers portal: Farmers portal is a one stop shop for farmers where can get relevant information on range of topics including seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, credit, good practices, dealer network, availability of inputs, agromet advisory etc., this information can be drilled down through the pictorial view of Map of

India placed On Home page as well.

Private Initiatives1. ITCs e-Choupal: e-choupal leverages

information technology to virtually cluster all the value chain participants, delivering the same benefits as vertical integration does in mature agricultural economies like the USA e-choupal makes use of the physical transmission capabilities of current intermediaries- aggregation, logistics, counter- party risk and bridge financing while disintermediating them from the chain of information flow and market signals.

2. iKisan: is an agricultural portal by Nagarjun group which provides detailed content on crops, crop management techniques, fertilizer and pesticides recommendation a lot of other agriculture related material in online.

3. mKrishi: a mobile agro- advisory system, initiative by Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) private sectors entity. The mKrishi platform harnesses five digital forces- social networks, mobility, analytics, cloud, and lot to create market and climate smart entities. It enables the use of predictive analytics for crop acreage and yield, crop health, soil status, weather and pest forecasts and resource quality assessment, helping farmers minimize risk.

4. Agrostar: provides genuine agricultural input to the farmers at their doorstep. It is a Pune based e-Commerce platform, directly linked to the farmers. Agrostar helps farmers to procure agricultural inputs such as seeds, plant nutrition, plant protection and agriculture equipment by simply giving a missed call on the company toll free number 1800 or through their mobile App to prevent hardship of unavailability of products.

5. Community radio: several NGOs and Farmers community has effectively utilized community radio to disseminate Agricultural information to farmers and Rural population. Suggestions for pest attacks, sharing success stories of farmers of that region has made a huge impact through this community radio. Besides all these advantages, decision support system through ITC- facilities farmer for planning type of crops, practicing good Agricultural Practices for Cultivating, harvesting, post harvesting and marketing their produce to get better results.



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75. Role of Ecofriendly Agricultural Practices used by Tribal Farmers in Crop Production for Sustainable DevelopmentSONAM UPADHYAYPh.D. Scholar, Department of Agriculture Extension, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Viswa Vidhyalaya, Krishi Nagar, Jabalpur Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

To an outstanding quantity, future meals security and economic independence of growing nations would rely on improving the productiveness of bio-physical assets via the utility of sustainable manufacturing strategies, via improving tolerance of plants to unfavorable environmental conditions and by way of lowering crop and publish-harvest losses caused by pest and illnesses. Indigenous agricultural practices can play a key position inside the design of sustainable and green agricultural systems, increasing the probability that the agricultural population will accept, increase and maintain innovations and interventions. Green and environmentally pleasant are synonyms used to consult items and services considered to inflict minimum or no harm at the environment. Tribal’ s commonly undertake their traditional strategies of farming which they get from their history and this farming network that’s because of their low financial and cognizance fame generally adopts low price farming practices. They deal with land as a mother so, they emotionally in addition to culturally connected with nature. So, it becomes necessary to have a better recognition approximately their volume of belief regarding green farming practices. The contemporary agriculture has been a success in meeting the accelerated meals needs of alarmingly developing populace. However, the trouble associated with modern agriculture like, the high fee of inorganic or chemical fertilizers and plant protection chemical compounds, stagnated yield degrees inside the recent years and the mounting health and environmental risks have compelled many farmers and scientists to consciousness interest on ecologically sound feasible and sustainable farming. To be able to mitigate those fitness dangers and convey out herbal balance and safety of ecosystem, natural motion has commenced in numerous elements of the arena, wherein no chemical fertilizers and plant safety chemicals are used in the cultivation of discipline vegetation, vegetables and culmination. Its miles ascertained that the indiscriminate use of agro-chemical substances and pesticides purpose adverse adjustments in the ecological balance. As a result, understanding the significance of green

practices of farming structures which can be environmentally sound, profitable manufacturing and preserve the social fabric of the agricultural network, this observe changed into undertaken to establish and decorate rural surroundings and agricultural practices.

HistoryThe eco-friendly agriculture movement was first recognized internationally in a joint study of the World Union and Future Harvest Foundation published in 2001 called “Common Ground, common Future”. The report was later expanded to become a book called “Eco-agriculture: Strategies to Feed the World and Save Wild Diversity”. (McNeely and Scherr 2001). Eco-friendly and environmentally friendly are synonyms used to refer to goods and services considered to inflict minimum or no harm on the environment. To make consumers aware environmentally friendly goods and services often are marked with eco-labels. Eco-friendly farming is the process of producing food naturally. This method avoids the use of synthetic chemicals and generally modified organisms to influence the growth of crops.

Aim of Ecofriendly PracticesThe aim of eco-friendly agriculture is to manage the resources of rural communities to improve their welfare, preserve biodiversity and ecosystem services, and develop more productive and sustainable farming system. Eco-friendly and environmentally friendly are synonyms used to refer to goods and services considered to inflict minimum or no harm on the environment. To make consumers aware environmentally friendly goods and services often are marked with eco-labels. Eco-friendly farming is the process of producing food naturally. This method avoids the use of synthetic chemicals and generally modified organisms to influence the growth of crops. This involves musing techniques to achieve good crop yields without harming the natural environment or the people who live and work in it. Eco-friendly agriculture, now emerging as a holistic approach to ecologically and socially responsible land use,



represents a vision of rural communities managing their landscape and resources to jointly achieve three goals:

� Enhance rural livelihood � Conserve or enhance biodiversity and eco-

system services � Develop more sustainable and productive

agricultural system

Ecofriendly Agricultural Practices � Agronomical Practices

– Early sowing– Nursery raising– Plant spacing– Hand weeding

� Seed management– Selection of suitable variety– Seed treatment– Grading of seed

� Soil management– Conservation tillage– Bunding

� Water management– Proper drainage– Selection of crop

� Use of Bio-fertilizer– Azolla– Azotobactor

� Integrated Nutrient management– FYM– Vermicompost– Green manure– Balanced dose of fertilizer

� Integrated Insect and Disease management– Use of light trap– Use of pheromone trap– Control insect by predators

� Storage– Storage at proper moisture– Storage structure– Use of treated bags

Ecofriendly Approaches for Farming System � Organic farming: It included farming

device that strives for sustainability, the enhancement of soil fertility and biological diversity whilst, with uncommon exceptions, prohibiting artificial pesticides, antibiotics, artificial fertilizers, usually modified organisms boom hormones. Natural farming is strategies, which involves cultivation of plants and rearing of animals in herbal methods. This method involves the usage of biological materials, avoiding synthetic substance to preserve soil fertility and ecological stability thereby minimizing pollution and wastage.

� Biological farming: Biological farming is a chemical unfastened approach of farming that

target improving the microbiology as a manner of increasing plant growth and produce yield. Biological farming includes (however is not constrained to): natural farming. Biological farming is using modern-day generation and new methods, but makes use of simplest those that don’t intervene with natural systems and do no longer reason damage down the road.

� Nature farming: Nature farming is a holistic approach wherein farmers are discouraged to buy market primarily based inputs like chemical fertilizers, chemical insecticides and many others. For growing flora within zero price range and endorsed to grow healthy soil with pleasant earthworms and thereby develop healthy plants. The ideas of nature farming utilize and adopts crop manufacturing to comply to these dynamic and balanced manufacturing systems in nature, which are an end result of the interactions of daylight, water, soil, animals, flowers, and microorganisms in herbal ecosystems. It is very vital to take a look at nature without being too confident of our expertise however with a modest, clean and pure kingdom of mind. Similarly, growing correct plants requires the improvement of love to the crops. Most effective with such love, a farmer can understand the requirements of soil and for crops to develop healthily, and hence carry out important control practices.

� Regenerative agriculture: Regenerative agriculture” describes farming and grazing practices that, amongst other blessings, opposite climate change by rebuilding soil natural count number and restoring degraded soil biodiversity – ensuing in each carbon drawdown and improving the water cycle. The key to regenerative agriculture is that it now not only “does no harm” to the land however honestly improves it, the usage of technology that regenerate and revitalize the soil and the environment. Regenerative agriculture leads to healthful soil, able to generating excessive great, nutrient dense meals even as simultaneously improving, instead of degrading land, and in the end leading to productive farms and healthy communities and economies. It’s far a dynamic and holistic, incorporating permaculture and natural farming practices, including conservation tillage, cover crops, crop rotation, composting, cellular animal shelters and pasture cropping, to increase food production, farmers’ income and in particular, topsoil.

� Permaculture: “Permaculture, firstly ‘permanent agriculture’, is frequently viewed as a hard and fast of gardening strategies, but it has in reality advanced into an entire design philosophy, and for some people a philosophy for lifestyles. Its central subject matter is the introduction of human systems which provide



for human wishes, however the use of many natural elements and drawing idea from natural ecosystems. Its goals and priorities coincide with what many people see as the middle requirements for sustainability.”

To Boost Agriculture DevelopmentAgriculture is an activity directly related to the use of natural resources. This is compounded by farming practices that pay little heed to the rules of ecosystem balance and environmental conservation, which will in turn have an impact on agriculture itself.

� Benefit local farming communities � Develop habitat networks in non-farmed

areas, � Reduce land conversation to agriculture by

increasing farm productivity � Minimize agricultural pollution

� Modify management of soil � Water and vegetation resources

ConclusionIn a healthy farming system, agriculture works in harmony with the natural environment. This started out with wholesome soil that stores water and vitamins and provides a solid base to help plant roots. In a sustainable system, soil; is saved in balance. Crops are circled thru the fields to replace nutrients in soil. In which there’s cattle, animal gaze the land, then waste from those animals is used to fertilize the soil. The idea is that as farmer take from the land in addition they supply again.

Natural, mechanical, bodily, and cultural practices of agriculture utilized in ecological agriculture. Due to the fact 1985 DAE has been running closer to development of this opportunity strategy and termed it as “green agriculture”.

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76. DAMINI: A Mobile Application on Lightning Location NetworkSHWETHA, N. V1. RAJATH H. P2, NANDEESHA, C. V3., AND ADARSH, N.4

1Assistant Professor of Agriculture Extension, College of Agriculture, Chamarajanagara, UAS Bengaluru 2SMS (Agrometeorology), ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chamarajanagara, UAS Bengaluru 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, JAU, Junagadh 4Agromet Observer, ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Chamarajanagara, UAS Bengaluru

IntroductionLightning may be a phenomenon that has not only fascinated but also scared mankind. Each second about 50 to 100 lightning strikes occur over the world. Lightning has been recognized as one of the most powerful, spectacular and all-pervasive atmospheric hazards that mankind has encountered throughout history (Shearman and Ojala, 1999; Cooray et al., 2007; Mills et al., 2010). Over the recent years lightning is identified as the single most killer over India than compared to all other natural disasters. There is an increasing trend in death. Recent data suggests, lightning alone account for about 2000 to 2500 deaths per annum in India. The population density, literacy rate and urbanization of the region along with lightning density and orography of the area play a major role in number of lightening deaths in the region. Maharashtra recorded highest deaths due to lightening in India. Lightening is also one of the leading causes of electric power breakdowns and forest fires. It can also cause damage to communication, computer equipment’s and aircrafts.

Thunderstorms and lightning being the quickly

evolving meteorological phenomenon, the precise forecast of those events remains a challenge. Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune an autonomous Institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences has installed a Lightning Location Network with about 48 sensors over various parts of the country which are connected to a central processing unit at IITM, Pune. This network provides exact information about lightning strikes and movement of thunderstorm path. The network is being expanded with addition of more sensors to extend its accuracy and reliability.

About ApplicationUsing this network, Earth System Science Organization- Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (ESSO-IITM) has developed a Mobile App, DAMINI -lightning. This app gives exact location of current lightning strikes, probable locations of impending lightning around area of 40 sq.km and movement and direction of thunderstorm. DAMINI also lists precautionary steps to be taken during lightning and a few general information on lightning. This app would indeed help in getting advance information about



impending lightning activity.

Lightening Risk Reduction When Outdoors � In forest: seek shelter in a low area under

thick growth of small trees. � In an open area: go to a low place such as a

ravine or valley. Be alert for flash floods. � On open water: get to land and get shelter

immediately.

If Lightning StrikeIf lightning strike you or someone you know, call for medical assistance as soon as possible. The following are the things you should check when you attempt to give aid to a victim of lightning.1. Breathing: if breathing has stopped, begin

mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.2. Heartbeat: if the heart has stopped,

administer CPR.3. Pulse: if the victim has a pulse and breathing,

look for other possible injuries.

Some Basic Do’s and Don’ts During ThunderstormDo’sIf you’re outdoor, seek shelter from lightning. If buildings are not available, you can find protection in a cave, ditch, or a canyon. All trees are not good cover, the tall trees will attract lightning.

� If you can’t find any shelter, avoid the tallest object in the area

� Stay or go indoor. If you here thunder, don’t go

outside unless absolutely necessary. � Get out of the water � When you feel electric charges- if your hairs

stand up or your skin starts to tingle, lightning may be about be strike you. Drop to the ground immediately.

Don’ts1. Don’t use any plug- in electric appliances like

hairdryers, electric toothbrushes or electric razors.

2. Don’t use the telephone during the storm. Lightning may strike the telephone lines outside.

3. Don’t use metal objects outside.

How to Access DAMINI ApplicationAll smartphone users can download DAMINI app at play store. The new users need to register by entering their name, mobile number, address, pin code and occupation. Later the registered users can get access their lightning forecast and early warnings.

ReferencesCooray V, Cooray C, Andrews CJ. 2007. Lightning

caused injuries in humans. J. Electrostat. 65: 386–394.

DAMINI application, Ministry of Earth sciences, Government of India

Shearman K.M., Ojala C.F. 1999. Some causes for lightning data inaccuracies: the case of Michigan. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 80: 1883–1891.

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77. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF): Benefitting Reply of Agriculture During COVID-19DHARMENDER SINGH1, DANGI POOJA ARUN1

AND PEEYUSH KUMAR JAYSAWAL2

1Research Scholar, Department of Extension Education, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana-125004, India. 2Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand-834006 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionAgriculture gained a respectable place as economic generating sector after the green revolution in the late 60s in India. Agriculture performs very well and generating employment for 50% population of India. Agriculture sector is the backbone of poor and lower-middle-class people. The ongoing financial crises around the COVID-19 have mostly affected migrant workers. During this challenging time how Indian agriculture responds to the problem of employment of millions of migrant

labors. To overcome this crisis Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) emerges as the most effective weapon. It is zero cost-oriented farming method. The phrase ‘Zero Budget’ means without using any credit, i.e. the cost of production should be zero, whereas ‘Natural farming’ means farming with Nature and without using any type of chemical in crop production. In other words, ZBNF is a set of natural farming methods where the cost of growing and harvesting plants is zero. The inputs used for seed treatments and for plant protection are



prepared with cow dung and cow urine. As names implies it requires almost no monetary investment and envisages the use of ‘Jeevamrutha’ and ‘Beejamrutha’. The main aim of ZBNF is to eliminate the use of chemical pesticides and uses biological pesticides, insecticides, maintaining the biodiversity of natural resources and promotion of good agronomic practices with the lowest cost of production. Farmers use cow dung, urine, neem plants leave, human excreta and such biological fertilizers for crop protection. Under such conditions, ‘zero budget’ farming promises to end a dependence on loans and drastically cut production costs, ending the debt cycle for desperate farmers.

Founder of ZBNFZBNF concept was firstly introduced by Shri Subhash Palekar in India, for which he was honored with Padma Shri in 2016 by govt. of India. Being dedicated towards the betterment of his village farm, after graduation, he experimented and revealed that continuous use of chemicals made the farm field barren land and kills all the beneficial bacteria of the land. So, he decided to find an optimal solution which is the ultimate solution of all these problems. In, 1986-88 Palekar researched on forest vegetation, and discovered that the natural system that work in forests have the potential to develop and nurture them, while maintaining many healthy ecosystems and after a huge effort in the fieldwork, he finally gave the formulae of ZBNF On 14 June 2017, Shri Subhash Palekar has been appointed as advisor to the state of Andhra Pradesh for Zero Budget Farming to encourage natural farming.

Findings of Palekar � Only, the dung from local, Indian cows is

effective in the re-enrichment of the barren soil. Dung from Jersey and Holstein cows is not as efficient. If one is falling short of dung from local cows, one may even use the dung from bullocks or buffaloes.

� Dung and urine of the black coloured Kapila cow is believed to be miraculous.

� To get the most out of the cow dung and urine, ensure that the dung is as fresh as possible and that the urine is as stale as possible.

� An acre of land requires 10 kilograms of local cow dung per month. Since the average cow gives 11 kilograms of dung a day, dung from one cow can help fertilize 30 acres of land per month.

� Urine, jaggery and dicot flour can be used as additives.

� The lesser milk the cow gives, the more beneficial its dung is towards reviving the soil

Significance of ZBNFIt also protects soil from degradation and helps

in retaining soil fertility and is climate change resilient. It has great significance in terms of cost, effect, biodiversity and recharging the natural resources.

BenefitsBesides, helping farmers to get rid of debt, this method of farming improves soil fertility, yield and quality of product obtained. It also improves the soil aeration and water holding capacity by making micro and macropores in the soil. Pest management method used in this, not only helps to get rid of pest damage but also, protect us from the hilarious side effects of chemical methods, such as magnification, pollution, carcinogenic. It is very helpful to get overcome financial crises which are main reason of thousands of suicides of poor farmers.

The Four Pillars of ZNBFJeevamrutha is for providing nutrient to the plants. It is made through the fermentation process. It provides nutrients in adequate amount, but most importantly, acts as a catalytic agent that promotes the activity of microorganisms in the soil. During the 48-hour fermentation process, the aerobic and anaerobic bacteria present in the cow dung and urine multiply as they eat up organic ingredients (like pulse flour). A handful of undisturbed soil is also added to the preparation, Jeevamrutha also helps to prevent fungal and bacterial plant diseases. Palekar suggests that Jeevamrutha is only needed for the first 3 years of the transition, after which the system becomes self-sustaining like forest.

How to Prepare JeevamruthaTABLE 1. Preparation of Jeevamrutha for one acre

Preparation of Jeevamrutha for one acre1 Water 200 lit.2 Cow dung 10 Kg3 Cow urine 5 – 10 lit.4 Jaggery 1.5 Kg5 Gram flour 1.5 Kg6 Soil H Handful

J Jeevamrutha Application: Apply the jeevamrutha to the crops twice a month in the irrigation water or as a 10% foliar spray.

Beejamrutha is mainly used for seeds treatments, seedlings or any planting material. Bijamrita is effective in protecting young roots from fungus as well as from soil-borne and seed-borne diseases that commonly affect plants after the monsoon period. It is composed of similar ingredients as jeevamrutha - local cow dung, a powerful natural fungicide, and cow urine, a strong anti-bacterial liquid, lime, soil.



TABLE 2. Preparation of Beejamrutha for one acre

Preparation of Beejamrutha for one acre1 Water 20 lit.2 Cow dung 10 Kg3 Cow urine 5- 10 lit.4 Lime 2 50 g5 Soil Handful

Beejamrita Application: as a seed treatment Add Beejamrita to the seeds of any crop: coat them, mixing by hand; dry them well and use them for sowing. For leguminous seeds, just dip them quickly and let them dry.

Acchadana - MulchingAccording to Palekar, there are three types of mulching:1. Soil Mulch: This protects topsoil during

cultivation and does not destroy it by tilling. It promotes aeration and water retention in the soil. Palekar suggests avoiding deep ploughing because it alters the nutrient-rich soil.

2. Straw Mulch: It uses the dry organic material which will decompose and form humus through the activity of the soil biota which is activated by microbial cultures.

3. Live Mulch: (symbiotic intercrops and mixed crops): According to Palekar, it is essential to develop multiple cropping patterns to get all essential elements to the soil and crops. For example, legumes are off the dicot group and are nitrogen-fixing plants. Monocots such as rice and wheat supply other elements like potash, phosphate and Sulphur.

Whapasa - MoistureIt is misconception that plants root requires a lot of water to germinate but Palekar challenges the idea. According to him, what roots need is actually water vapour. Whapasa is the condition where there are both air molecules and water molecules present in the soil, and he encourages reducing water requirement, irrigating only at noon, in alternate furrows ZBNF farmers report a significant decline in the need for irrigation in ZBNF.

Initiatives of Indian Government to Support ZBNF � Government of India has been promoting

ZBNF in the country through the dedicated schemes of Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) since 2015-16 and also through Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY).

� According to new guidelines of PKVY scheme during the year 2018, various organic farming models like Natural Farming, Rishi Farming, Vedic Farming, Cow Farming, Homa Farming, Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) etc. have been included wherein flexibility is given to states to adopt any model of Organic Farming including ZBNF depending on farmer’s choice.

� Under the RKVY scheme, ZBNF project

components are considered by the respective State Level Sanctioning Committee (SLSC) according to their priority/ choice.

� Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under Network Project on Organic Farming (NPOF) and All India Coordinated Research Projects (AICRP) on Integrated Farming Systems, has initiated an experiment on “Evaluation of zero budget farming practices in basmati rice-wheat system” at Modipuram (Uttar Pradesh), Ludhiana (Punjab), Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) and Kurukshetra (Haryana) from rabi 2017 to study the zero budget farming practices on productivity, economics and soil health including soil organic carbon and soil fertility.

� Nirmala Sitharaman said in her budget speech zero budget farming is already being practised in some states of the country. She said emphasis on zero budget farming will help double the farming income in days to come.

ConclusionThe ZBNF program mitigates several problems and it becomes most effective player in ongoing crises, because it helps in reduce poverty, promotes food security and gender empowerment, creates models for climate-resilient agriculture and stop the exploitation of natural resources, builds skills for sustainable development and conserves biodiversity. It could help India lead in promoting and implementing projects that are targeted at improving the lives of smallholders. It also brings strength in social and economic status of small farmers. A majority of respondents reported that by adopting ZBNF, over time they saw improvements in yield, soil conservation, seed diversity, quality of produce, household food autonomy, income, and health. Most experienced reduces cost of production and reduced the burden of debt, which is one of the major problems plaguing Indian farmers. The new system has freed the farmers from the debt trap and has instilled in them a renewed sense of confidence to make farming an economically viable venture.

ReferenceAnonymous, 2012. “Inspired by the Palekar model of

‘zero-budget natural farming’, GT Satish today, is a successful farmer in Chitradurga taluk, Karnataka’’ The Hindu.

Anonymous. 2013. Case study provided by La Via Campesina Contact [email protected].

Anonymous. 2016. “Venkaiah Naidu congratulates farmer on winning Padma Shri”. Indian Express.

Ministry of Agriculture. (2017). Annual Report 2016-17. New Delhi: Department of Agriculture, cooperation and farmers’ welfare.

Palekar, S.,2014. http://www.palekarzerobudgetspiritualfarming.org

Palekar, S. 2015. - http://www.palekarzerobudgetspiritualfarming.org/



Prasada, S. 2016. “Campaign to Reduce Use of Chemical Fertilizers Pesticides”. The Hindu

Sarma, Prasada. 2016. “Campaign to Reduce Use of

Chemical Fertilizers, Pesticides.” The Hindu, May 28. http://bit.ly/1tpq0rT.

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78. SWOT Analysis: A Management Tool for Agri-Business DevelopmentMUTTEPPA CHIGADOLLIPh.D. Scholar (Agril. Extension), Dept. of Agricultural Extension, CoA, GKVK, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore-65 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

IntroductionThe application of the SWOT Matrix grew out of research conducted at Stanford Research Institute in the 1960s, the need to find out why business planning failed thanks to funding from Fortune 500. Robert F. Stewart lead research team was assigned to discover ‘what went wrong with corporate planning’ and suggest solutions to overcome this crisis. This team has begun their research in the system by questioning what is good at present and what will be bad in the future. The good at present is SATISFACTORY, the good in the future will be an OPPORTUNITY, bad at present is a FAULT, and bad in the future is THREAT. This SOFT analysis later renamed as SWOT by Urick and Orr by replacing Faults to Weaknesses in 1964.

The process of liberalization and economic reforms, although it created enormous opportunities for the growth of many industries, also gave rise to new challenges for industries. Building competitive strengths, technology up-gradation and quality enhancement are the vibrant issues that need to be looked into, to build capabilities, to withstand emerging pressures, and ensure sustained growth. The entrepreneurs have to lay more emphasis on the quality of their production. The gospel truth is, ‘Better quality and Better productivity’. Therefore, entrepreneurs have to devote sufficient attention to Research and Development. Innovation is the real step towards continued progress. To innovate, an entrepreneur has to diagnose current situation. The diagnosis of the current situation is done by conducting an Internal Analysis and External Analysis. The joint analysis of the external and internal environment is called SWOT analysis.

Meaning and ConceptSWOT Analysis refers to identifying the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of an organization often in planning its future. The SWOT stands for S–Strengths, W-Weaknesses, O–Opportunities, and T –Threats. SWOT analysis

(or SWOT matrix) is a strategic planning technique used to help a person or organization in identifying strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to business competition or project planning. this can be applied at various levels. This investigation is undertaken by an organization either internally or externally or both.1. Internal Analysis: The internal organization

analysis will cover organizational position in relation to different functional areas like production, finance, marketing, R&D, Distribution, and so on. More specifically, this may look into a company’s sales volume, market share, profitability, and so on. This will reveal its strength and weakness.

2. External Analysis: The External Analysis will do the necessary scanning of the business environment to identify any threat and opportunities posed on the company, its products, or services. More specifically, this will include industry performance, competitive activity, and a review of the growth and decline of the user industries.

Let us understand the SWOT parameters one by one briefly.

� Strengths and Weakness: Every business needs to calculate their strengths and weaknesses intermittently. The management or an outside consultant reviews the business’s marketing, financial, manufacturing, and organizational competencies. In exploring its strengths and weaknesses clearly, the firm does not have to rectify all of its weaknesses nor rejoice about all of its strengths. They have to slowly overcome their weakness and convert it into its strength.– Strengths: are always the main assets

of every organization which would offer a competitive advantage for their growth and progress. For example, availability of infrastructure, adequate production capacity, skilled manpower, GMPs,



quality management, motivated staff, etc.– Weakness: Weakness is the liability

or limitation that creates a state of time and situation that will be a specific disadvantage for their growth and development. For example, rising cost of operation, non-availability of raw material, scarcity of capital, inadequate infrastructure, etc.

� Opportunities and Threats: An entrepreneur has to know the parts of the environment to monitor, if the business is to achieve its goals, one has to monitor key macro-environmental forces like demographic, economic, technological, political, legal, social, and cultural factors, and also significant environmental forces like customers, competitors, distribution channels, suppliers, etc. that affects ability to earn profits. The business unit should set up a marketing intelligence system to track trends and developments. For each trend or development, management needs to identify the implied opportunities and threats. An opportunity is an area of need in which a company can perform profitably. A threat is a challenge posed by an unfavorable trend or development that would lead, in the absence of defensive marketing action, to sales or profit deterioration.– Opportunities: The organization can

raise and achieve its specific objectives and mission in a given situation. For example, favourable government policy, availability of appropriate technology, staff training for increasing their technical efficiency, etc.

– Threats: Threat is the situation that blocks the capabilities of the organization to their growth and development for

meeting its ultimate goal. For example, Shortage of power, water, fuel, rejection by the market, tough competition, resource crunch, fiscal policy increasing taxes, imports, etc.

� Advantages of SWOT Analysis: It aids in the advance of new technology, new product, improvements in the production process, new short term & long-term goals, alternatives to threats can be selected and decided, prioritization of firm goals, major functions & sub-functions can be determined in working process & policy for meeting competitor’s strategies can be designed.

� Drawbacks of Swot Matrix: SWOT analysis reflects a person’s viewpoint as a pessimist sees a calamity in every opportunity an optimist always sees an opportunity in every calamity, Not Fixed- SWOT parameter, It is used as a guide and not prescription, needs to be conducted regularly, categorizing aspects as SWOT parameters might be very subjective as there is a great degree of vagueness in the market, the pace of change makes it difficult to anticipate developments, the evidence used in the analysis may be created on conventions that subsequently prove to be unfounded [good and bad] and it lacks detailed structure, so key elements may get missed.

ConclusionUnderstanding the concept of the SWOT matrix and its implementation in quality management is of immense importance in any organization for its growth and development. Then the swot analysis will help to formulate the short and long-term strategic objectives and the company objectives for the overall organizational development through an effective use of the available resources and obtaining the maximum return with minimum costs.

20871

79. Major Agriculture Reform 2020: Helps in Rising the Income of FarmersSUBHA LAXMI SAHOO1, AND ABHILASHA DEEPA MINZ2

1Ph.D. Scholar Dept. Extension Education, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. 2Assistant Professor cum Junior Scientist, Dept. of Agricultural Extension & communication, Birsa Agriculture University (BAU), Ranchi, Jharkhand. *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionIndia is an agriculture dominated country. About 70 per cent of the population in our county depends on agriculture but they are getting only Rs. 50,000

per annum which is very less and creates an alarming situation to increase the income of the farmers. So, in order to supplement the income major reform are made in the agriculture in this



year 2020. Mainly 3 reforms are made and the main focus is given for the creation of one nation- one market, promote free trading, contact farming, and remove restriction on storage.

The Farmers’ Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Act- 2020 the Main Concept is to Promote “On Nation-One Market”.

� Trade of Farmers’ Produce: In India Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) Act provide a good platform for the farmers to sell their produce at Minimum Support Price (MSP) declared by the Government of India in each year. APMC is most commonly called as Kisan Mandi, established by the state government in order to reduce the exploitation of the farmers by several intermediaries in getting good price for their produce. Each APMC had licensed traders and they have their own shop in the mandies. Only the licensed traders purchase the farmer produce and sell it to the several institutional traders like retailors and big traders. So, the licensed traders work as a middle man between farmers and big traders. But with the introduction of this new act the farmers can directly sell their produce to farm gate that means directly to the institutional traders who offer the best price without giving any market fee and no licensing is required for traders as found in case of APMC notified mandies. The farmers are also permitted for intra-state and inter-state treading activity without any barrier.

� Electronic Treading: Provide facility for electronic trading for direct online buying and selling through internet. Any individual has a permanent account number allotted under Income-tax Act, 2061 or such other document as may be notified by the Central Government or any farmer producer organization (FPOs) or agricultural co-operative society may establish and operate in electronic trading.

� Abolition of Market Fee: Market fee or cess or levy on the farmers, or traders or on electronic trading are removed.

The Farmers (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement on Price Assurance and Farm Services Act, 2020- Main Concept of this Law is to Promote “Contract Farming”.

� Farmer agreement: Under this act a formal written agreement (in local language) is made between farmer/ farmer producer organization (FPOs) and sponsor (the person who purchase the farm produce) in respect of any farm produce before the production activity. The agreement contains all the information related to supply inputs, technology, and extension services by the sponsor, use of input by the

farmers/ FPO, sell of produce by the farmers to sponsor, period of agreement, pricing mechanism etc. and this agreement is properly signed by both the parties. The agreement may be registered in the e-registry constituted by State Government as per the section 12 of the act.

� Pricing Mechanism: The price of the produce decided at the time of agreement. Sometimes the price of the produce linked to market price where there is large variation in price of product is seen but, in that case, a minimum guarantee price is maintained and a clear reference for the additional amount above the guarantee price is specified in the agreement. Further the process of price determination mention in the agreement.

� Dispute Resolution: The act provides a three-level dispute resolution mechanism by conciliation board, Sub- Divisional Magistrate and Appellate authority. At first for the settlement of dispute conciliation board is formed consist of representatives from both parties. If the dispute is not resolved within 30 days, then they will approach to sub-divisional Magistrate and if Sub-Divisional magistrate unable to settle the problem within 30 days board can approach the Appellate authority.

The Essential Commodities (Amendment) Act, 2020

� Regulation of Food Items: Under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 the Central Government has power to regulate the production, supply and distribution of essential commodities (such as drugs, fertilizers, pulses and edible oils, and petroleum and petroleum products). But with the amendment of this act in 2020 the central Government may regulate the supply of foodstuffs, including cereals, pulses, potato, onions, edible oilseeds and oil only under extraordinary circumstances which may include war, famine, extraordinary price rise and natural calamity of grave nature.

� Stock Limit: The stock limit shall be based on the price rise. A stock limit for any agricultural produce under this act 100 per cent increase in the retail price of horticultural produce and 50 per cent increase in the retail price of non-perishable agricultural foodstuff. The increased price calculated over the price prevailing immediately preceding twelve months, or the average retail price of the last five years, whichever is lower.

ReferencesDepartment of Agriculture, Cooperation &

Farmers Welfare, Government of India (2020) Guidelines for Farming Agreement, The Farmers (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement on Price Assurance and Farm Services Act, 2020.



Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, Marketing Infrastructure & Agricultural Marketing Reforms. Retrieved from http://agricoop.nic.in/sites/default/files/apmc.pdf

Ministry of law and Justice, Legislative Department, Government of India (2020). The Farmers’

Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Act- 2020. New Delhi.

Ministry of law and Justice, Legislative Department, Government of India (2020). The Essential Commodities (Amendment) Act, 2020 No. 22 Of 2020. New Delhi.

20887

80. Field Demonstration*SEEMA YADAV1 AND RAJENDRA JANGID2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agriculture Extension- SKNAU-Jobner 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Economics -SKRAU-Bikaner *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

AbstractField demonstration is an educational activity conducted in a systematic manner in farmer’s fields to show worth of a new technology or practice. “Seeing is Believing” is the basic philosophy of field demonstrations. The main objective of field demonstration is to demonstrate newly released crop production and protection technologies and its management practices in the farmer’s field under different farming situations and agro-climatic regions. Only proven technologies are selected for field demonstrations. Field demonstrations increase awareness and interest about new technologies. It shows the benefit of a new technology and helps convince farmers to try it. In addition, it also educates the farmers in term of input-output ratio and economic gains regarding net returns.

Field demonstration is one of the most important tools of extension. Field demonstration is an educational activity conducted in a systematic manner in farmer’s fields to show worth of a new technology or practice. “Seeing is Believing” is the basic philosophy of field demonstrations. The main objective of field demonstration is to demonstrate newly released crop production and protection technologies and its management practices in the farmer’s field under different farming situations and agro-climatic regions. Only proven technologies are selected for field demonstrations. Field demonstrations educate farmers through results obtained regarding varieties resistant to pest and disease, quality of the grains and overall higher yields. Field demonstrations increase awareness and interest about new technologies. It shows the benefit of a new technology and helps convince farmers to try it. In addition, it also educates the farmers in term of input-output ratio and economic gains regarding net returns. Primarily, there are two types of field demonstrations: (i) Single practice demonstration and (ii) Composite demonstration.

1. A single practice demonstration aims at proving the worth of a single practice such as effect of balance fertilizers in mustard crops, higher yields from newly released varieties, effect of irrigation at CRI stage of wheat, effect of new pesticide on fruit borer in gram, etc.

2. A composite demonstration is a combination of field-based result demonstrations and skill-oriented method demonstrations. Aim of composite demonstration to demonstrating the superiority of a package of practices in growing a field crop. For example, combined effect of irrigation and fertilizer application on grain yield and quality of a new gram variety may be demonstrated.Good field demonstrations lead to higher

adoption of demonstrated practices by the farmers as they developed the confidence amongst them in the practices demonstrated. Field demonstrations provide an effective learning situation as farmers, ‘See the crops themselves’, ‘interact with the scientists and extension workers on the fields’ and ‘get doubts clarified then’. It is essential that whatever demonstrations are conducted, they should be well planned and executes giving no chance to fail. One bad demonstration can disappear the impact of many good demonstrations. So, Scientists have to be very careful in planning and conducting the field demonstrations.

Steps in Conducting Field DemonstrationsA well conducted demonstration should help the scientists to changing attitude of farmers and extension workers and improve their knowledge, skills and understanding. The following steps need to be followed in conducting field demonstration.1. Planning Phase:

a) Know the Vicinity: The scientists need to develop an understanding of the farmers, their resources, farming systems and establish rapport with them.



It is essential to gather information on present level of use of inputs, cropping system and productivity of major crops of the area. There are different ways of knowing vicinity like; (a) Visiting villages and farmers. (b) Collection of information using PRA tools. (c) Meeting people individually and in groups. (d) Meeting opinion leaders. (e) Meeting with local extension workers.

b) Select Technologies: Select only proven technologies which have higher potentialities in terms of yield, quality, disease resistance and can fit in the existing farming systems and situations of the farmers. Technology should be recently released or such which are at advance stage of release. Be sure that the technology selected for demonstration is much superior than the technology being already in use.

c) Select Demonstration Site: Demonstration site should be easily accessible for the farmers and extension workers. Fields should be established to clearly show the differences between the new practice and existing farmer practice. Plots should be large enough to be believable e.g. minimum 10m X 10m. Field should represent fields in the areas. As far as possible, block of demonstration site should have a good number of farmers of all categories of land holding and status. Pay also attention to farm size, layout of the field, fertility status, soil type, irrigation facilities and drainage system.

d) Select Demonstration Farmers: A group of farmers land holdings in the selected demonstration block and who are willing to cooperate in the conduct of demonstration should be selected. Demonstration farmers should be selected finally by holding a meeting in the village where the purpose of demonstration should be clearly stated and suggestion sought from the farmers.

e) Finalize Package of Practices: This is an important step in planning the field demonstrations. Collect the new technologies from the ICAR Institute/SAU’s and ensure these technologies are frontier ones showing substantial increase in yields. Knowledge about farming conditions will be useful at this stage. This will help in understanding the level of farmers practices, resource base to sustain the technologies and their perspectives.

f) Prepare for Demonstration: Arrange critical inputs for the demonstration. Critical inputs are those agricultural inputs which are vital to help the selected

technologies to exhibit its production potentialities on farmer’s field and not earlier being used by the farmers. Arrange such inputs viz. seeds, fertilizers, farm equipments and other inputs in time. Other inputs should be arranged by the farmers. Ensure that the inputs which are to be given by the farmers are available with them. The farmers should never be given an impression that the demonstration is a means of receiving free inputs. Rather they should be educated to understand the educational value of such demonstration.

2. Conducting Phase:a) Layout of Demonstration: Guide

and assist the farmers in laying out the field. Training programme may be arranged for all farmers in whose plot’s demonstrations are to be laid. Keep the control plot if needed; otherwise treat all other neighboring plots as control plots. Set a publicity board on the fringe of the demonstration plot. Mention the details of the demonstration on the board.

b) Crucial Farm Operations: Ensure your presence at the time of important operations like, seeding, fertilizer application, irrigation, weeding, plant protection measures, harvesting, threshing and weighing of produce. Two things are important at this stage: (i) using demonstration for farmer’s training (ii) record keeping in demonstration. Each operation should be used as input of training of farmers. Encourage questions from the farmers at each of these operations. This will help in better understanding of each task.

c) Field Day: Arrange a field day to project the new technologies demonstrated in front of a large group of interested farmers. It is an intensive educational activity in which farm experts, extension workers and farmers are involved and learn from each other. Plan the field day when the crop is fully matured yet green. Keep explanations of technologies and demonstrated as simple. Ask the demonstration farmers to explain the story of demonstration one by one to the assembled group of farmers and extension workers. Farmer-scientist-extension workers discussion should be an important feature of the field day. Use the field day to informally collect feedback on technology and farmer’s need.

d) Harvesting: Arrange harvesting in the presence of identified groups of farmers. Ask the farmers to estimate



the yield and to say in what way the demonstrated technologies are superior than the earlier ones. Are they satisfied with the performance of the technologies? What lessons they have learned from the demonstration? Will they advise other fellow farmers to adopt this practice? Will it be more than what they used to get from their own practices? What are the difficulties in following the demonstrated practices? Idea is to ascertain as to what extent farmers are satisfied with the demonstrated technology and what is the possibility of their continued adoption of technology.

e) Follow-up Phase: Some farmers may come back to old practices in the absence of follow-up. They need information reinforcement, timely supply of inputs or guidance. Group approach in follow-up will give better results. It is better to link your follow-up programmes with the local institutions like Farmers Cooperative Society, Village Panchayat etc.

3. Record Keeping: There are two types of records which should maintain for each block demonstration.

a) Information Card: This card contains basic information about the demonstration site viz. previous varieties and crops grown, present productivity of crops, fertility of the plots, size of holdings of each farmer in the demonstration block, extent of use of inputs etc. It should also contain detail information of demonstration like size of block, variety of crop, seed rate, sowing date, irrigation schedule followed, inputs applied, intercultural operation performed, plant protection measures, date of maturity, date of harvesting, incidence of disease and pests and yields of crop etc.

b) Technical Report: The technical report should contain information on soil analysis, variety of crop, germination, plant population, pest and diseases, irrigation, fertilizer application, harvesting, final yield etc. It should also contain information on cost-benefit ratio of the demonstration. This will help to work out the economic returns. A favorable cost-benefit ratio will assure the extension officers and the farmers about the profitability of the technologies demonstrated

FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION20487

81. Milk and Milk Products: An Enterprise of SHGs for Balanced Foods during PandemicTARAK CHANDRA PANDA, AND SUSRITA SAHUScientist (Agril. Engg) Scientist (Home Sc), KVK, OUAT, Bargarh

IntroductionMilk is a nutrient-rich liquid food produced in the mammary glands of mammals. It is the sole source of nutrition for infant mammals immediately after their birth. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum having high level of antibodies which reduces the risk of many diseases. It is also rich in protein and good source of vitamins & minerals.

India is the world’s largest producer of milk contributing about 17 per cent of the total milk production globally. The per capita availability of milk in the country which was 130 gram per day during 1950-51 has increased to 374 gram per day in 2017-18 as against the world estimated average consumption of 294 grams per day during 2017. India also leads exporting skimmed milk powder along with few other milk products. Packaged liquid milk has been a key driver in the Indian

dairy industry where as value added products are promising a growth of 15 per cent to 20 per cent with expected growth in cheese, UHT milk, ice-cream and baby food segments. However, the ever-increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. This aspect can be solved out by involving more entrepreneurs especially women group in dairy sectors.

In the progress of our country the role of woman at all levels is an undisputable reality although the intensity of engagement varies on space and time. The vital role of women in agriculture, allied occupations and household activities has however been immensely underestimated and undervalued. In this context women SHG not only plays significant and crucial role in agricultural but also in allied sectors such as dairy processing etc.



During Covid lock down and shut down period, people were deprived of milk and milk products for their family due to shut down of both Govt. and private dairy plants, scarcity of labour and transportation problem. That could be managed if SHGs have managed to supply milk and milk products in their locality after processing. Milk contains some microorganisms when drawn from the udder, their numbers increase during subsequent handling. The common milk microorganisms grow best between 20 and 40 c. Bacterial growth is invariably accompanied by deterioration in market quality due to development of off flavors, acidity etc. Hence it is highly essential to use different processing methods for milk as per market demand.

Different Processing Methods1. Chilling: One method of preserving milk

is by prompt cooling to a low temperature. Chilling of milk means rapid cooling of raw milk to sufficiently low temperature so that the growth of micro-organisms present in milk is checked. In chilling process, the temperature of milk should be reduced to less than 10 degrees Celsius preferably 3 - 4 degree Celsius.

2. Pasteurization: Pasteurization is used to kill harmful pathogenic bacteria by heating the milk for a short time and then immediately cooling it. Types of pasteurized milk include full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium enriched, flavored and UHT. The standard high temperature short time (HTST) process of 72 °C for 15 seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in milk, rendering it safe to drink for up to three weeks if continually refrigerated.

3. Filtration: Microfiltration is a process that partially replaces pasteurization and produces milk with fewer micro-organisms and longer shelf life without a change in the taste of the milk. In this process, cream is separated from the skimmed milk and is pasteurized in the usual way, but the skimmed milk is forced through ceramic micro-filters that trap 99.9% of microorganisms in the milk (as compared to 99% killing of microorganisms in standard HTST pasteurization). The skimmed milk then is recombined with the pasteurized cream to reconstitute the original milk composition.

Ultrafiltration uses finer filters than microfiltration, which allow lactose and water to pass through while retaining fats, calcium and protein. As with microfiltration, the fat may be removed before filtration and added back in afterwards. Ultra-filtered milk is used in cheese making, since it has reduced volume for a given protein content, and is sold directly to consumers as a higher protein, lower sugar content and creamier alternative to regular milk

4. Creaming: Fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer within 12- 24 hours. The cream often is sold as a separate product with its own uses. Today the separation of the cream from the milk usually is accomplished rapidly in centrifugal cream separators. The fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk because fat is less dense than water.

5. Homogenization: This treatment is done in milk for prevention of cream layer separation out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbulence and cavitation. The exposed fat globules are vulnerable to certain enzymes present in milk, which could break down the fats and produce rancid flavors. To prevent this, the enzymes are inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immediately before or during homogenization. Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in the mouth than unhomogenized. It is whiter and more resistant to developing off flavors. Milk that has undergone high-pressure homogenization, sometimes labeled as “ultra-homogenized”, has a longer shelf life than milk that has undergone ordinary homogenization at lower pressures.

6. UHT: In this processing all bacteria are destroyed with high heat to extend its shelf life for up to 6 months, as long as the package is not opened. Milk is firstly homogenized and then is heated to 138 degrees Celsius for 1–3 seconds. The milk is immediately cooled down and packed into a sterile container. As a result of this treatment, all the pathogenic bacteria within the milk are destroyed, unlike when the milk is just pasteurized. The milk will now keep for up for 6 months if unopened.Milk Products Venture by SHGs: The

SHG can processes raw milk into an array of products including butter, cheese, cream, yogurt, ghee, khira, condensed milk, dried milk, ice cream etc. and produces various by-products including buttermilk, lassi, whey, toned milk, double toned milk and skim milk by following the abovesaid processing methods with the help of dairy processing machineries in a small scale commercial basis.

Suggestions1. More number of SHGs should enter into

dairy sector by covering activities such as enhancement of milk production, procurement, preservation, transportation, processing, preparation of different milk products and its marketing in their Block or Gram Panchayat with availing subsidy of different schemes of Govt.

2. Local people can be employed seizing labour migration to other areas.



Source: Diagram is adapted from Pal M. (2012)

ConclusionDairying is the only farm activity where one could get daily income or weekly income and market the product directly to customers without middlemen. Milk is the only farm product where one can get 80 per cent of the retail price. It was also observed that dairy processing for income generation if done in groups will be more beneficial as loss is minimum and profit earned could be evenly distributed. It is therefore recommended that dairy processing for income generation should be done in self-help groups. Women in SHG should be focused more in sharing of work such as procurement, processing, marketing of milk, handling bank issues of groups and to avail loan facilities etc. These groups can be

economically more empowered by selling of milk and its products of milk collectively to earn more profit.

ReferencePal M. (2012). Hygienic aspects of various milk

products. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.; 1-7

De S. (2001). Outlines of Dairy Technology. Oxford University Press. New Delhi, India

Hinrichs J. (2014). Mediterranean milk and milk products. European Journal of Nutrition. 43(Suppl. 1): 12-17.



FOOD TECHNOLOGY20901

82. Agro-Processing Industry: A Support System for Non-Farm Activities in Rural EconomyMOUSUMI MALOAssistant Director of Agriculture, Model Farm, Jayrambati - 722161, West Bengal *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

IntroductionThe agricultural sector performs a crucial responsibility in entire financial growth in the world as it is anticipated to guide towards a remarkable transformation of the economy through improvement in productivity. Agro-processing industry is an influential movement related to the agrarian sector and is conveniently dominated by small and medium scale firms which generally operate in the informal sectors of majority of the countries. Insufficient consideration or awareness about the agro-processing sector in the past placed both the cultivators and consumers at a detrimental situation which also distressed the rural economy throughout the globe. Agro-processing industries are currently designated as the ‘Sunrise’ sector of agrarian economy in view of its greater potentiality for growth and more favorably the socio-economic impression especially on employment as well as income generation. It is well suggested by some research documents that in most of the developed countries, up to 14% of total labour force are involved in this vital section either in a direct or indirect way. Notwithstanding, in our country, merely about 3% of the work force discover their employment opportunities in this industry disclosing its underdeveloped or rudimentary condition and enormous untapped capability for employment generation. Agro-processing sector can provide a gigantic role at universal level for marketing and supply of processed food, feed and a broadened range of other plant and animal products if properly developed. The significance of agro-processing industry was first detected and authenticated after the catastrophic famine of Bengal during 1870’s.

What is Agro-Processing Industry?An agro-industry is defined as an enterprise that processes biomass viz. agricultural raw materials including ground and tree crops as well as livestock and fisheries, to generate edible/usable produces and to improve storage and shelf life, augment effortlessly transportable forms, intensify nutritious value, and extract chemicals for additional advantages. Depending on the products

(edible or non-edible) obtained from this particular sector, the agro-industry can be categorized into agro food industry or food processing industry and agro nonfood industry. On the other hand, it is also referred to as a set of techno-economic activities which are accomplished for the purpose of preservation and better handling of agricultural produces and to make it usable as food, feed, fibre, fuel, fodder or industrial raw materials. Henceforth, the expansion of agro-processing industries contributes an essential linkage between farm and industrial sectors encompassing all the operations from harvesting stage until the materials reach to the end users in desired form, packaging, quantity, quality and price which help to accelerate agricultural development through the creation of backward linkages such as supply of credit, inputs and other production enhancement services in addition with forward linkages like processing and marketing, value addition to farmer’s produce, employment and income generation as well. An agro-processing sector can originate an unfamiliar requirement in farming community for more and more unique agricultural outputs, suitable for processing and may initiate new crop and livestock opportunities in favour of the peasants thereby motivating them for achieving better productivity, enhanced farm income and employment and furthermore the amplified possibilities of industrial development.

Importance of Agro-Processing Industry1. Agro-processing industry leads to the

reduction in post-harvest losses, food spoilage and wastage.

2. It has the potential to improve nutritional value and increase food safety or security from health and nutritional perspective.

3. Processed foods relish superior price stability in the international markets and consequently enlarge market possibilities for exports that contribute towards income security principally in rural communities, mostly engaged in farming activities.

4. The promotion of agro-processing also encourages employment generation globally for the rural people, and specifically for



women (Da Silva et al., 2009); contribute to enterprise development, diversification of rural economy, import substitution and many others.

5. It is the most significant sub-sector of manufacturing section, with food and beverages representing the largest component of processed commodities.

6. Additionally, it imparts a huge possibility of value addition to different agricultural commodities.

7. Certain important advantages of this industry are enhanced agricultural productivity, increased farm household income, year-round availability of affordable safe and nutritious food, job creation for rural and urban youth etc.

8. Production of fortified foods for vulnerable groups in society is another valuable aspect.

9. Agro-processing industry causes the establishment of indigenous food standards and reduces the import of similar or foreign foods and conserves foreign exchange.

Limitations of Agro-Processing IndustryA number of reasons may be proposed to explain the lower adoption of agro-processing industry which is listed below:1. Lack of agro-processing facilities, marketing

skills and modern equipments and also high cost of equipments

2. Agro-processors often receive limited information from extension officers

3. Lack of awareness and low access to adequate packaging materials

4. Though the sector of processing of food and beverages represents approximately 30% of manufacturing, poor linkage to agricultural raw materials results in little value addition thereby limiting growth and transformation of the economy

5. Non availability of adequate raw materials due to lack of capital, supporting machines/equipments, and absence of required

infrastructural facilities6. Fluctuations in prices of raw materials, absence

of information network and circumstantial need of purchasing raw materials from middlemen at higher rates

7. Non-availability of skilled labourers, poor quality of raw materials and no easy availability of bank credit

8. Poor electricity supply position, variability of prices of raw materials and purchasing of raw materials from distant market

9. Procurement of raw materials sometimes from informal trade channel, non-availability of strong supporting infrastructure and raw materials not adequately available in the state

ConclusionThe escalated and well-arranged investment with socio-economic advancement can foster innumerable opportunities, furnishing the foundation and assurance for expeditious development. At this platform, the production and processing of agricultural biomass involving its by products, for commercial and industrial purposes, is progressively viable for developing as well as developed countries; henceforth, the farm, forestry and industrial development can be amalgamated with the determination of optimum utilization of country’s biomass resources, leading to property or income generation, through the enlargement of agro-processing sectors. On the contrary, a massive transformation of sub-sectors of agro-industry can generate high value addition to the outflow of goods, correlating with higher levels of agricultural gross domestic product and rural incomes in most of the countries.

ReferencesDa Silva, C.A., Baker, D., Shepherd, A.W., Jenane,

S. and Miranda-da-Cruz, S. (2009). ‘Agro-industries for Development’. Published jointly by CAB International and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome.



ECONOMICS20647

83. Technical Efficiency of Paddy Farmers in Cauvery Delta Zone: A Comparative Study of Corrected Ordinary Least Square and Maximum Likelihood EstimatesR. VASANTHI1*, AND B. SIVASANKARI2**Assistant Professor (Mathematics), 1Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 2Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected]

AbstractThe study employed a corrected ordinary least square and maximum likelihood estimate approach to find the technical efficiency of the production of rice in the Cauvery delta zone of Tamil Nadu. The data collected for two years (2009-10 and 2010-11) under the Cost of Cultivation Scheme of Tamil Nadu Centre were used for the study. The results of OLS and MLE of technical efficiencies were compared. The result showed that 97% of farmers having their technical efficiency above 0.5 in maximum likelihood estimates but 88% of farmers were falls in this range in Corrected OLS estimates. The output oriented mean technical efficiency was found to be 81% in maximum likelihood estimates whereas 86% Corrected OLS estimates. This shows that Maximum likelihood estimates are more consistent over corrected OLS estimates.

Keywords: Canal Irrigation, Technical Efficiency, Corrected OLS, maximum Likelihood models

IntroductionRice is the stable food of over half the world’s population. Rice is one of the most important food crops of India contributing to 43 per cent of total food grains production in the country. The rice harvesting area in India is the world’s largest. The major rice growing States are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Bihar and Chhattisgarh, which together contribute about 72 per cent of the total area and 76 per cent of the total production in the country. In Tamil Nadu, rice is grown over an area of 18 lakh to 20 lakh hectares annually primarily in tank irrigated conditions.

The present study undertaken in Cauvery delta in the state of Tamil Nadu has estimated the technical efficiency in rice production under canal irrigated farms and comparison made among the Corrected Ordinary least square method and Maximum likelihood estimates. Technical efficiency is an indicator of the productivity of the

farm and the variation in technical efficiency can reflect the productivity difference across farms.

Sampling and Data CollectionCauvery delta zone was selected purposively for this study. The sample holdings for analysis in the present study were fixed ultimately based on the fact that these had grown paddy in the two years (2009-10 and 2010-11). The data collected under the cost of cultivation scheme were used. Under the scheme a stratified random sampling method was adopted. In Cauvery delta zone totally seven taluks were selected for the present study to represent canal irrigation. The number of farmers in canal irrigation is 109. Total number of samples cultivating paddy in both the years were fixed at 218.

Materials and MethodIn the present study, the corrected OLS technique were used to measure Technical efficiency of rice cultivating farms (V.P. Sharma, A. Sani, A.F. Lawal et al.). In analyzing technical efficiency, it is not the average output, but the maximum possible output obtainable from a given bundle of inputs, is of importance. The two OLS (Ordinary Least Square) approaches are Corrected OLS (COLS), developed by Winsten (1957) and Greene (1980) and Modified OLS (MOLS) by Richmond (1974). Both of these methods rely on OLS to estimate the production function parameters, but differ in their treatment of the OLS residuals. εi

A slightly different approach than OLS involves shifting the line towards the best performing company, which is called Corrected Least Squares methodology (COLS). In a general sense, COLS is merely a shifted average function. Two steps are needed, one to get the expected value of the error term and another to shift or to “center” the equation. The COLS estimator is obtained by turning the least squares estimator into a deterministic frontier model. This is done by shifting the intercept in the OLS estimator upward (for a production frontier) or downward (for a cost



frontier) so that all points lie either below or above the estimated function (G.S. Maddala)

The COLS procedure shifts the frontier up by the amount of the largest residual, thus generating a frontier that truly envelops the data. As an example, using our notation, at the first stage a (log-linear) production model such as the following would be estimated by OLS.

ln yi = β0 + Σβi ln xi + εi

In the second stage the residuals would be utilized to shift the frontier to envelop the data. The maximum residual is denoted as εmax = max (εi)

The COLS intercept would be estimated as,

βCOLS = β0 + εmax

This shifts the frontier up so that the observation coinciding with the largest positive residual will be on the frontier, with other observations under the frontier. Efficiency analysis in this approach can be viewed as a receiving efficiency scores relative to the fully efficient observation. Also notable is the fact that the COLS frontier does not necessarily bound the data from above as closely as possible (S.C. Kumbhaker et al.) as the corrected frontier is parallel to the OLS frontier by definition. The technical efficiency of production for the ith firm at the tth time period is given by

Results and Discussion

Empirical ModelIn the present study, both Cobb-Douglas production functions was initially considered to study the technical efficiency among rice farms.

j = 1,2,3,...5 (Cobb- Douglas type)

Σ+=jjjixylnln0ββ(Linear type) Σ=+=510iiizδδμWhere, y = Yield of paddy (quintal /ha)Seed (x1) = Quantity of seeds (kg. /ha.)Fer (x2) = Quantity of NPK nutrients (kg. /ha.)Lab (x3) = Human labour (hrs. /ha.)Mach (x4) = Machine hours (hrs. /ha.)Pes (x5) = Cost of plant protection (Rs. /ha.)Age (z1) = Age of the farmer in yearsFarm Size (z2) = Area in hectaresEdn (z3) = Education of the farmer (illiterate

(1), up to primary (2), up to secondary (3), up to collegiate (4) and post graduate (5)),

Household size (z4) = Size of the farmer’s household (number of family members)

Sea 1 (z5) = Season dummy variable indicating season 1 (June-Sept.); 0 otherwise.

Sea 2 (z6) = Season dummy variable indicating season 2 (Oct.-Jan.); 0 otherwise.

The Technical efficiency estimates based on the above input variables of canal irrigated paddy farms of COLS & MLE are presented in the following Table in the form of frequency distribution within a deciles range. The estimated mean output oriented technical efficiency is found to be 81% in corrected OLS method and 86% in Maximum likelihood estimates. Most farms were in the efficiency range of 50-60 per cent followed by 60-70 per cent in Corrected OLS estimates whereas in the case of Maximum likelihood estimates 80-90 percent followed by 90-100 per cent. It is also found that only 1.83 per cent of farmers were lies in the efficiency range less than 50 per cent in Maximum likelihood estimated, but in Corrected OLS estimates it is found to be 8.26 per cent farmers fall in that efficiency range.

Frequency Distribution of Technical Efficiency

Technical Efficiency

COLS MLE

Number of FarmsPercentage

Number of farmsPercentage

2009-10 2010-11 2009-10 2010-11<40 7 1 3.67 0 0 040-50 6 12 8.26 1 0 0.4650-60 30 51 37.16 3 1 1.8360-70 47 25 33.03 5 2 3.2170-80 17 11 12.84 9 19 12.8480-90 2 7 4.13 43 55 44.9590-100 0 2 0.92 48 32 36.70Total 109 109 218 109 109 218Mean TE 0.81 0.86

ConclusionIn terms of distribution of technical efficiency among the farmers, the result showed that 97% of farmers having their technical efficiency above 0.5 in maximum likelihood estimates but 88% of farmers were falls in this range in Corrected OLS

estimates. The output oriented mean technical efficiency was found to be 81% in maximum likelihood estimates whereas 86% Corrected OLS estimates. The study results also implied that the technical efficiency of farmers in canal irrigation under maximum likelihood estimates becomes relatively more consistent, comparing to the



corrected ordinary least square methods

ReferencesV.P. Sharma, K.K. Datta. Technical efficiency in wheat

production on reclaimed alkali soils, Productivity. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 1997; 38(2), 1-334.

A. Sani, A.A. Yakubu, H.M. Bello. Resource-use efficiency in rice production under small scale irrigation in Bunkure Local Government Area of Kano State. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied

Science. 2013; 18(2), 292-296.A.F. Lawal, A.A. Agboluaje, A. Liman. Profitability

and productivity of growers of new rice for Africa (NERICA) in the Southern Guinea Savanna of Niger State, Nigeria. PAT. 2013; 9 (2), 29-42.

G.S. Maddala. Limited Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics Cambridge University Press, New York. 1999.

S.C. Kumbhaker, C.A.K. Lovell. Stochastic Frontier Analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 2000.

20843

84. Agriculture as Employment Provider: Changing Trend (1991-2019)DINESHDepartment of Agricultural Economics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.

Indian agriculture contributes 2.4% in world agriculture but still India is also known as an agrarian country. With 520 million workers, the Indian labour force is the world’s second largest as of 2019. Out of it agriculture provides employment to 43 % of total population as per International Labour Organisation, 2019. Which shows the importance of agriculture as a source of employment to the second most populated country in world. Also, more than 80% rural Indian population depends on agriculture for their livelihood, which shows the importance of agriculture for Indian population. But the trend is changing which can be seen from year of liberalization 1991, when agriculture employed 62.56 % of the total population with 75% of the female and 58 % of the male employed in agriculture. Thereafter due to disruptive change in the policies and rise of service sector, agriculture sector compressed to the level such that it provides employment to 43% of the population and provide 17 % of country’s Gross Domestic Product. Hence, to bring the changing trend in employment provided by agriculture in limelight, this article took the time period from 1991-2019 and works on secondary data collected from the International Labour Organisation.

Trends in Percentage of Indian Population Employed in AgricultureAgriculture was a major source of employment in India as it employed more than half of the population till two decades starting from 1991 to 2010 as seen from the Table 1. Year 2011 seen as transition year in the trend as the percentage workforce employed in agriculture comes below fifty percent at a level of 49 % approximately. In later years work force employed in agriculture continue to decrease and constricted to the level

of 43% of the workforce remained employed in agriculture which is minimum in the study period. Despite the fact of declining trend in the workforce employed in the agriculture overall average for the study period is 54.41% or it employed more than 50% of Indian workforce during last 3 decades.

Table 1 depicts agriculture as the helping hand for the women labour force as agriculture on an average provided employment to 68.31% female population and 50.00% male population in India. In case of female employed in agriculture, year 2007 is the transition year as the percentage female employed in agriculture comes below 70% and similarly in case of male employment after year 2005 agriculture employed less than half of the male population in India. Gender parity in case of the labour force employed in agriculture favoring females more than males as it can be seen, during 1991-2019 agriculture employed more than 65% of the female population and in case of male employment it crosses merely 55% marks during initial three years.

Trends Assessment of Agriculture as Employment ProviderTrends assessment shown that the agriculture even though faces a declining trend in employment generation for the Indian population but it favors women more than men. Which makes agriculture as a source to improve socioeconomic status of women as it employed more than 60 percent of the women population which is even more than male employed in agriculture during the study period.



TABLE 1: Percentage employment provided by agriculture (1991-2019).

Year

Percentage of Female Employed

in Agriculture

Percentage of Male

Employed in Agriculture

Percentage of Total

Population Employed

in Agriculture1991 75.62 58.17 62.561992 75.55 57.99 62.411993 75.44 57.82 62.271994 75.46 57.66 62.181995 75.41 57.27 61.881996 75.46 57.00 61.701997 74.99 56.27 61.051998 74.84 55.81 60.671999 74.66 55.20 60.172000 74.39 54.56 59.652001 73.94 54.19 59.292002 73.28 53.60 58.712003 72.89 53.07 58.242004 71.73 51.39 56.732005 71.05 50.59 56.002006 70.44 49.87 55.162007 69.44 48.76 53.932008 68.00 47.61 52.582009 67.90 47.67 52.452010 66.98 46.91 51.512011 63.32 44.92 48.982012 59.96 43.52 47.002013 59.22 42.94 46.362014 58.62 42.49 45.84

Year

Percentage of Female Employed

in Agriculture

Percentage of Male

Employed in Agriculture

Percentage of Total

Population Employed

in Agriculture2015 58.35 42.38 45.672016 57.68 41.92 45.142017 56.44 40.89 44.052018 55.52 40.23 43.322019 54.53 39.32 42.38Mean 68.31 50.00 54.41

Source: International Labour Organisation

ReferencesCensus 2011., Primary Census Abstract, Registrar

General of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, http://www.censusindia.gov.

E. Krishna Rao, 2006. “Role of Women in Agriculture: A Micro Level Study.” Journal of Global Economy, Research Centre for Social Studies, Mumbai, India, Vol.2 (2), Page 107-118, June

Economic Survey (2017-18). New Delhi, Economic Advisory Wing, Ministry of Finance.

H. Plecher, July 2020.” Distribution of the Workforce across Economic Sectors in India 2019”, www.statista.com,

June 2020, “Employment in Agriculture (% of total employment) (modelled ILO estimate)”, ILOSTAT database, International Labour Organisation, data.worldbank.org

15 November 2018. “Move over ‘Sons of the Soil’: Why you Need to Know the Female Farmers that are Revolutionising Agriculture in India”, www.oxfamindia.org.

20847

85. Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs): Way of Uniting FarmersINDHUSHREE, A1 AND SARAVANA KUMAR, M2

1Department of Agricultural Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 2Department of Crop Management, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Kudumiyanmalai.

Agriculture in India is dominated by the marginal and small farmers with land holdings less than 0.5 hectare. They do not have the volume individually (both inputs and produce) to get the benefit of economies of scale. Besides, in agricultural marketing, there is a long chain of intermediaries who very often work non-transparently leading to the situation where the producer receives only a small part of the value that the ultimate consumer pays. Thus, being scattered and having low production, the bargaining power of small and marginal farmers is low and they are facing more

difficulties in marketing their produce and getting right price for the commodities. They are also highly affected by the weather and price uncertainties. As a remedy to this Farmer Producer Organisation is proposed, which tends to integrate the marginal and small farmers with the markets.

Farmer Producer OrganisationA Farmer Producer Organisation (FPO) is a legal entity formed by the farmers, which aims to ensure better income for the producers through an organization of their own and avail



the benefit of economies of scale. In India FPOs are formed under various initiatives of the Central Government (including Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium), State governments, NABARD, and other organisations. Each agency has its own criteria for selecting the project/promoting institution to support.

Becoming Member of FPOAll the farmers residing in the relevant geography, and producing the same or similar produce, for which the FPO has been formed, can become member. Membership is voluntary. The procedure for obtaining membership depends on the bye-laws of the FPO. The founder-members are those who were there at the time of formation of the FPO and other members join later. However, all members enjoy equal rights.

Essential Features and Activities of FPOAn FPO is a registered body and a legal entity and formed by a group of producers for farm and allied activities. It deals with business activities related to the primary produce and works for the benefit of the member producers. The ownership control is always with members and management is through the representatives of the members. A part of the profit is shared amongst the producers, while rest of the surplus is added to its owned funds for business expansion.

In-spite of having skill and expertise in

producing, primary producers generally need support for marketing of what they produce. FPOs basically aim to bridge this gap. Thus, FPOs take over the responsibility of any one or more activities in the value chain of the produce.

Benefits for the MembersFPOs help farmers to fetch better income by means of increasing their bargaining power and opening to wider market opportunities. By aggregating the demand for inputs, the FPO can buy in bulk, thus procuring at cheaper price compared to individual purchase and the bulk transports reduce the cost of transportation. FPO also aggregate the produce of all members and market in bulk, thus, fetching better price per unit of produce and provide market information to the producers. All these interventions will result in more income to the primary producers.

FPOs in IndiaAs per the report by NABARD, there are around 5000 FPOs in India, while SFAC reported 2146 FPOs. In India, the highest number of FPOs are in Tamil Nadu i.e., 170 FPOs followed by Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal and Rajasthan (Figure 1). Some of the prominent FPOs are Sahyadri Farmer Producer Company Ltd, Savitribai Phule Goat Farming Producer Company and Vasundhara Agri-horti Producer Company.

FIGURE 1 State-wise FPOs in India (Source: Data from SFAC)

Challenges to FPOsEven though there are thousands of FPOs in India, only few are successful in achieving their goals. Majority of these FPOs are in the nascent stage of their operations and require not only technical support but also adequate capital and infrastructure facilities including market linkages for sustaining their business operations.

Some of the major challenges faced by Indian FPOs are lack of/ inadequate professional

management, weak financials, inadequate access to credit, lack of risk mitigation mechanism, inadequate access to market, inadequate access to infrastructure, lack of technical Skills/ awareness

Sustainable FPOBuilding a sustainable FPO requires favourable ecosystem besides certain policy reforms particularly in the agricultural marketing systems. Some of the critical ecosystems include:



1. Policy Environment-Risk mitigation, licensing, agri-logistics, infrastructure arrangements, contract farming

2. Technology Support- Extension service, advisory, value addition, processing & marketing

3. Consumption/ production/ post production credit support- Banks/ financial institutions, NBFCs, Government institutions, Developmental Agencies, Corporates, etc.

4. Retail services/ Markets- Quality inputs, retail

marketing, spot markets (eNAM, APMC), future’s trading (NCDEX), linkages with agri corporates, exporters, direct marketing.As FPOs pave way for enhancing farmers’

income and enhancing agricultural growth, effective interventions in the areas of mass awareness building, institution development, forging linkages with the ecosystem, and digital monitoring are required to promote and build sustainable FPOs.

20864

86. Multidimensional Poverty and IndiaSNIGDHA MANAV AND DINESHDepartment of Agricultural Economics, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.

The COVID-19 pandemic has yet again shifted the focus on multidimensional poverty in India. India had done fairly well in reducing poverty since independence. Most countries of the world define poverty as a lack of money. Focusing on one factor alone, such as income, is not enough to capture the true reality of poverty. Multidimensional poverty measures can be used to create a more

comprehensive picture. They reveal who is poor and how they are poor – the range of different disadvantages they experience as well as providing a headline measure of poverty, multidimensional measures can be broken down to reveal the poverty level in different areas of a country, and among different sub-groups of people.

Findings (Global MPI: Indian Scenario)

Global Multi-dimensional Poverty IndexGlobal MPI is an international measure of multidimensional poverty covering 107 developing countries and was first developed in 2010 by Oxford Poverty and Human Development

Initiative (OPHI) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) for UNDP’s Human Development Reports. The Global MPI is released at the High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) on Sustainable Development of the United Nations in July, every year. It measures multidimensional



poverty across three key dimensions namely – health, education and standard of living, which consists of 10 indicators as shown below. NITI Aayog is the nodal agency for monitoring Global MPI in India.

Between 2005-06 and 2016-17, at least 271 million people were elevated out of multi-dimensional poverty according to India’s Voluntary National Review (VNR) of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). The estimates presented are drawn from the 2019 global Multidimensional Poverty Index that was released in July 2019. As per global MPI, over 640 million people across India were in multidimensional poverty in 2005-2006. The number of people living under poverty reduced to around 369.55 million by 2016-2017.

� In 2005-2006, 55.1 percent of the population lived in India under multidimensional poverty as per the study and in 2015-16, it came down to 27.9 percent.

� The intensity of deprivation was 43.9 percent in 2015-16 whereas the population under severe multidimensional poverty was 8.8 percent.

� 37.7 crore people in India lived under multidimensional poverty as of 2018, as per

the study. � the study also highlights the correlation

between multidimensional poverty and immunization. As per the study, 10 countries accounted for 60 percent, unvaccinated children including India.

Way ForwardThe impact of COVID-19 pandemic will be a huge blow to the development landscape across countries especially developing and under developed countries. As per the study, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, on average, poverty levels will be set back to 3 to 10 years. Based on the current scenario, it is imperative for India to maintain its progress on the multidimensional poverty front and endeavour its best way possible so that the population do not plunge back again into poverty. The crisis should be used as an opportunity to carry the best foot forward to pull back those under deprivation.

Referenceshttps://ophi.org.ukhttp://hdr.undp.org/en/2019-MPIhttps://pib.gov.inhttps://www.jagranjosh.com

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES20896

87. Nanotechnology: A New Frontier in Sustainable AgricultureRAVITEJA MACHANURU1* AND VENKATA NAGA SINDHUJA PADIGAPATI2

1PG Scholar, CESCRA, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012 2Young Professional-II, ICAR-NAARM, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana-500030 *Corresponding Author E mail: [email protected].

Within the epoch of climate change, agricultural systems across world are confronting several, exceptional concerns threatening global food security. Nanotechnology emerged as one of the key technologies in the 21st century A.D. that assures to aid conventional farming practices and render sustainable development.

Fertilizers contribute around 1/3rd of crop yield and the remaining is based on other agricultural input use efficiencies. Yet, the traditional fertilizers nutrient use efficiency seldom go beyond 30-42%. For instance, the traditional fertilizers efficiency remained very low such as for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium 30–35%, 18–20%, and 35–40% respectively for the past several decades.

Nanotechnology helps in improving crop production by strengthening the input use

efficiency and abating significant losses. Nano size materials provide wider specific surface area, fast mass transfer and easy attachment. Hence, submicronic or micronic particles are embodied into the agrochemicals by means of various mechanisms viz., absorption, capsulation, surface ionic attachment and entrapped in the nano-sized active ingredient matrix. Thus, they act as distinct agrochemicals carriers and enable the site-specific controlled release of nutrients with better crop protection. Therefore, nano fertilizers act as the source of balanced crop nutrition through direct internalization by avoiding the nutrient interaction of with soils, microorganisms, water and air. For instance, the capsulation of KNO3 by graphene oxide films significantly extends the nutrient release from the coated fertilizer.



Nano-biotechnology, connotes the knowledge of structural and genetic engineering approaches applied in agriculture through various means such as smart monitoring by nano-sensors, targeted gene delivery and nano-diagnostics for plant pathogen detection.

Nano-tools such as nano-sensors, helps in real time monitoring of agricultural fields and automation of irrigation system which assists the development of sophisticated agricultural farms through precise management of agricultural inputs and ensures eco-friendly agricultural practices.

Nano-engineering may act as cutting-edge tool for increasing crop production without compromising sustainability to achieve food security. In biotechnological practices, many challenges are encountered during the genetic material delivery by viral vectors specifically narrow host range, restricted size of inserted genetic material and passage of genetic material through the cell membrane. The low delivery efficiency of CRISPR/Cas9 system is a barrier thwarting its applications in genome editing. Engineered nanomaterials can be used in targeted delivery of CRISPR/Cas-mRNA, and single guide (sg) RNA for the crop genome modification. Nanomaterials could decrease the off-target modifications and boosts the specificity and efficiency of CRISPR/Cas systems. For instance, in genetic engineering, nano-SiO2 had been formulated to carry DNA sequences to the targeted crops viz. corn and tobacco devoid of other detrimental effects.

Besides, nanoparticle assisted delivery system tends to develop new crop varieties resistant to insects. Latest developments include chitosan NPs entrapped SiRNA delivery vehicles have permitted the specific control of targeted insect

pests as chitosan embedded with RNA efficiently penetrated through the insect cell membranes.

Nanomaterials such as multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) have ability to enter the seed coat and increase the capacity of water uptake and utilization, there by stimulating enzyme system which eventually improves germination and seedling growth in different crop species such as tomato, wheat, corn, soybean and garlic. At the same time, application of Zeolite, nano-SiO2 and nano-TiO2 also promotes seed germination in crop plants.

Nano-fertilizers can increase crop production in prevailing unfavourable conditions such as salinity stress, drought affected areas where the early crop maturity is an important facet for sustainable crop production. Metal oxide nanomaterials can effectively reduce the pests and diseases risks consequently curtailing the yield loss. Besides, nanomaterials are effective in remediation of heavy metals. Hence, the judicious use of nanomaterials can increase crop productivity sustainably keeping the environmental health undisturbed.

The significant effects of nanomaterials on plant growth under hostile environments can be partly elucidated by the increased antioxidant enzymes activity. Application of nano-SiO2 or nano-ZnO intensifies water and nutrient uptake, proline accumulation, and also enhances the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, glutathione reductase and nitrate reductase which eventually improves plant tolerance to extremities of the climate. Thus, various nanomaterials enhance the acclimation of crop plants to combat the progressive climate change and ensures the global food security.

ANIMAL DISEASES20858

88. Udder Affections in AnimalsDR. KOPPU VASAVI*, AND DR. POLOJU DEEPAResearch Scholar, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, GADVASU, Ludhiana *Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

1. Mastitis1. Clinical mastitis: Clinical signs like swelling,

heat, redness, presence of flakes in the milk /watery milk are noticed.a) Sub-clinical mastitis: No clinical signs

are noticed in the udder and milk is also normal without any flakes

b) Diagnosis of Subclinical mastitis: Based on history

c) Reduction in Milk Yield

d) Salty taste milke) Formation of thread after boiling of milkf) CMT test -California Mastitis TestProcedure- Collect the milk and add 1 to 2

drops of CMT reagent, formation of jelly indicates that the animal is affected with subclinical mastitis. No jelly formation indicates normal milk.

NOTE: Infield level any detergent can be used instead of CMT reagent.



Care and management:Teat dipping- pour povidone-iodine into tumbler/teat dipping instrument -immense all quarter teat after milking. Teat spray can also be used.

Treatment:a) Antibiotics for 1 weekb) Trisodium citrate given orally

2. LeptospirosisFarm animals presented with a history of the sudden drop of milk yield should be first suspected for leptospirosis, followed by subclinical mastitis. The Colour of the milk is reddish.

3. Physiological Udder OedemaMost commonly occur in first calving due to a sudden drop of blood into the udder, leads to seepage of oedema in the udder.

But the milk/colostrum is normal in color and consistency.

Upon palpation of the udder on the first day, it will be very hard in nature, swelling at the level of the umbilicus. After treatment for 1 or 2 days, it will be soft in consistency.

Treatment1. Furosemide-2 to 4 mg/kg of body weight2. Ice fomentation3. Dexamethasone injection

Udder oedema can be prevented by not allowing the calf to suckle the milk.

4. Haemagalactia: (Rose Milk)Commonly noticed in the recently calved animal because sudden withdraw of milk from the udder causes minute capillary damage.

Differentiate the mastitis milk & haemagalactia:

Mastitis milk HaemagalactiaCentrifuge: collect the milk in the test tube and centrifuge it. After centrifuge, the blood does not settle down and the milk color is red / rose color that positive for mastitis milk.

Centrifuge: collect the milk in the test tube and centrifuge it. After centrifuge, the blood settles down of the test tube with clean milk that indicates haemaggalcitae.

Treatment of HaemagalactiaStrip kit, Adrenochrome, Texableed, Styptochrome (2ml ampoule). If the animal is not responsible for the treatment for 2 to 3 days, Calcium borogluconate (I/V) is used.

5. Mycoplasma � No swelling but the milk is creamy, udder looks

like atrophied – indicate “Mycoplasma” � Milk is creamy in consistency without discoloration

also indicates Mycoplasma. � Line of treatment is 10 mg /kg.

6. Cowpox (Viral Disease) � Lesions will be pedunculated and reddish-brown � lesions are present only in the teat, not udder. � It’s a seasonal one. � In cattle teat – small spots are present around

the teat. � It affects all the animal, transmitted through

the milking.Treatment: any antibiotic ointment/

injection can be used. For prevention of secondary bacterial infection, injection form antibiotics like Streptopenicillin, Enrofloxacin are used

7. Bovine Ulcerative Mammilitis � It’s a condition of viral origin � Transmit to the other animal through milking � It causes an oral lesion in the suckling calf.

Treatment: any antibiotic ointment/injection can be used. For prevention of secondary bacterial infection, Injection form antibiotics: Streptopenicillin, Enrofloxacin are used.

Because this disease persists only 1 to 2 weeks (or) natural therapy like tamarind mixed with neem oils also effective.



8. IntertrigoThe inner aspect of the thigh region presence of moist eczema bilaterally /unilaterally.

It’s a bacterial origin. Here once the scab formation will occur peel off the skin – it’s a recurring one – ABST test is done and select the antibiotics.

9. Teat PapillomaIt is a viral etiological condition

Treatment � Anthiomaline inj. – 15-20ml orally weekly

interval � Dhuja ointment � Tincture dhuja – 25drops in 1tumbler of water

administer orally 5-6times /day.

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A Textbook ofA G R O F O R E S T R YPrinciples, Practicesand ApplicationsBy: Prof. KT Parthiban and Keerthika A

ABOUT THE BOOKWide range of textbooks on Agroforestry are available but most of them has not witnessed the recent advances made in Agroforestry which necessitated an advanced book in Agroforestry incorporating basic to the recent advances. Under such circumstances, the current book entitled Agroforestry- Principles, Practices, and Applications has been conceived and presented with 21 chapters.

NEW RELEASE

Language : EnglishISBN : 9788197377689

Edition : 1Year : 2021

Book Type : TEXTBOOKBinding: Paper Bond

No of Pages: 274Weight: 250 Gms

Book Size: AMERICAN ROYALPublisher : Agrobios (India)

MRP : 350.00

CONTENTS Agriculture and Agro Biodiversity Agroforestry: Basic Concepts Global and National Agroforestry Practices Agroforestry Classifications Multi-functional Agroforestry System Temperate Agroforestry Tree: Crop Interactions Allelopathy in Agroforestry Nutrient Cycling in Agroforestry Nitrogen Fixing Trees (NFTs) Multipurpose Tree Species (MPTs) Root Management in Agroforestry Industrial Agroforestry

Agroforestry and Climate Change Agroforestry for Wasteland Development Ecosystem Services and Agroforestry Innovations in Agroforestry Diagnosis and Design (D&D) in

Agroforestry Economic Analysis of Agroforestry Organizations involved in Agroforestry

Research and Development Policy Issues in Agroforestry References Annexure I Abbreviations

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