Climate Change and Agriculture - Agrobios Online

A Monthly Magazine of Agriculture and Biological Sciences

Visit us at: agrobiosonline.comÜ 779727 027003

ISSN 972-7027X

aoaoao

Issue No. 03 01 August, 2017 Pages: 148 ` 75.00Volume XVI

Climate Changeand Agriculture

V. Davamani, E. Parameswari, M. Dhivya, A. RathinasamyNE

W R

EL

EA

SE

N E W S L E T T E R

PDFDownload

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com

AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date: 01 August, 2017

VOL. NO. XVI, ISSUE NO. 03 3

August, 2017 / VOLUME XVI / ISSUE NO. 03

CHIEF EDITOR Dr. S. S. Purohit

ASSOCIATE EDITOR Dr. P. Balasubramaniyan (Madurai)

Dr. Tanuja Singh (Patna), Dr. Ashok Agrawal (Mathura) Dr. H. P. Sharma (Ranchi), Dr. Smita Purohit (Jaipur)

EDITORIAL OFFICE Agro House, Behind Nasrani Cinema Chopasani Road, Jodhpur - 342 003

Phone: +91-291-2643993, Fax: 2642319 E-mail: [email protected];

[email protected] Website: www.agrobiosonline.com

TYPESETTING Yashee Computers, Jodhpur

PRINTED BY Manish Kumar, Chopra Offset, Jodhpur

PUBLISHED BY Dr. Updesh Purohit, for Agrobios (India),

Behind Nasrani, Cinema, Chopasani Road, Jodhpur

RNI No.: RAJENG/2002/8649 ISSN: 0972-7027

Disclaimer: The views expressed by the authors do not

necessarily represent those of editorial board or publishers. Although every care has been taken to avoid errors or

omission, this magazine is being published on the condition and undertaking that all the information given in this magazine

is merely for reference and must not be taken as having authority of or binding in any way on the authors, editors and publishers who do not owe any responsibility for any damage or loss to any person, for the result of any action taken on the basis of this work. The Publishers shall be obliged if mistakes

brought to their notice.

SUBSCRIPTION RATES SINGLE COPY: ` 75.00

ANNUAL INDIVIDUAL: ` 750.00 ANNUAL INSTITUTIONAL: ` 1500.00

© The articles published in Agrobios Newsletter is subject to copy right of the publisher. No material can be reproduced

without prior permission of the publisher.

Issues of “Agrobios Newsletter” are mailed by ordinary post at Subscriber’s risk and our responsibility ceases once we hand

over the magazine to post office.

Note: “Agrobios Newsletter” does not accept unsolicited manuscripts and material and does not assume responsibility

for them. DATE OF PUBLISHING: 01 August, 2017

DATE OF POSTING 07-08 OF EVERY MONTH AT RMS POST OFFICE

Contents 1. DNA Barcoding in Plants ............................................. 5

Jyoti Singh, Datta P Kakade and Wallalwar M. R. 2. Molecular Markers ...................................................... 7

Devendra V. Rasam and Saurabh S. Kadam 3. Tilling in Functional Genomics .................................... 9

G. W Narkhede and Dr S P Mehtre 4. Enzymes Used in Genetic Engineering ...................... 10

Patel Prakash Kumar Kanjibhai and Patel Umang Mahendrabhai

5. Role of Plant Tissue Culture ...................................... 12 Disha Kamboj, Aditi, Priti, Sumit Jangra and Rahul Kumar Meena

6. RNA Interference in Plants ........................................ 14 Prabhukarthikeyan, S. R., Raghu, S and Mathew Seikholen Baite

7. Genetically Modified Food: Pros and Cons ................ 15 Mekala Srikanth, Telugu Ravi Kumar and Mohammad Shafiqurrahaman

8. Utilization of Plant Genome Sequencing in Crop Plants ....................................................................... 16 Kumar Nishant Chourasia and Deepak Koujalagi

9. DNA Fingerprinting: Molecular Basis of Biology ........ 17 Saurabh S. Kadam and Devendra V. Rasam

10. Bio Control of Post-Harvest Horticultural Crop Disease: Mechanism of Microbial Antagonists .......... 18 Ajinath Dukare

11. Microbial Mining: Using Bacteria to Mine Metals ...... 20 M. Shweta and Suma C. Kammar

12. Nanotechnology and its Implications in Agriculture ................................................................ 21 Prachi Singh, Rahul Singh Rajput, Pitambaraand Jyoti Singh

13. A Brief Note on Lentil Cultivation .............................. 23 Govind Kumar Bagri and Rajesh Kumari

14. Constraints in Rice Production .................................. 24 S. Kavitha and Bavajigudi Shobha Rathod

15. Agronomic Practices for Higher Production of Cotton ....................................................................... 25 Dr. Karmal Singh, Dr. A. K. Dhaka and Dr. Bhagat Singh

16. Effect of Weather and Climate on Incidence of Pest and Disease ...................................................... 26 Mundhe S. G., Khazi G. S. and D. A. Sonawane

17. Effect of Climate Change on Soil Properties and its Mitigation Practices ............................................. 28 Swetha Sudhakaran V., Rani Soundarya G. S. and Priya Patel H. G.

18. Agricultural Drought and its Management ................. 29 M. K. Nayak, Anil Kumar and Madho Singh

19. Nitrogen Fixing Biofertilizers and their Benefits ........ 30 P. Jayamma

20. Quality Standards of Organic Fertilizer/Manures for Organic Farming .................................................. 31 V. Visha Kumari, V. Girija Veni, G. Venkatesh and B. Kalaiselvi

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com

Publishing Date: 01 August, 2017 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER

4 VOL. NO. XVI, ISSUE NO. 03

21. Water Harvesting ...................................................... 35 Praveen Solanki and Shiv Singh Meena

22. Indigenous Knowledge of Rain Water Harvesting Systems of Rajasthan ................................................ 36 Sunil Kumar, Vikram Kumar and Rajesh Kumar Singhal

23. Use of Electromagnetic Radiations in Weed Control....................................................................... 38 Umesha C.

24. Site-Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM): An Approach for Optimizing Nutrient Use in Rice Production ................................................................. 39 Kadu J. B., Kondvilkar N. B., Meka V. V. I. Annapurna, Patil P. B.

25. Ratoon Management ................................................. 41 Rohit K. Patidar and Debabrata Nath

26. Nutrient Management for Sustainable Productivity of Coconut .............................................. 42 Sathya S., N. Akila and B. Kalaiselvi

27. Nutrient Management in Groundnut for Better Production ................................................................. 44 M. K. Tarwariya and Ekta Joshi

28. Importance of Crop Residues and Management Practices ................................................................... 45 R. Senthilnathan and M. Yuvaraj

29. Biopesticides: An Ecofriendly Approach..................... 46 B. Kumaraswamy

30. Trichoderma: A Versatile Bio-Control Agent .............. 47 B. B. Golakiya and M. R. Paneliya

31. Methods for Assessment of Nitrogen Requirement for Rice Crop ........................................ 49 Dhanalakshmi D. and Srinivasa Prasad L.

32. Mechanisms of Waterlogging Tolerance in Plants ..... 50 Y. Lakshmi Prasanna and P. Gowthami

33. Agro Physiological Basis of Yield Variation in Pulses ....................................................................... 53 Dharmendra Meena

34. Application of Plant Metabolomics in Plant World besides Basic Research ............................................ 55 Pooja Mankad and Mounil Mankad

35. Bael: A Minor Fruit Crop with Major Valuable Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Properties............ 57 Anjana Kholia and Murlimanohar Baghel

36. Ever Lasting Flower Statice ....................................... 58 Shivaprasad S. G. and Latha S.

37. Turf Grass Management ............................................ 59 Gawde N. V. and Bhondave S. S.

38. Method of Irrigation in Fruit Crops ............................. 60 V. A. Bodkhe, P. L. Deshmukh and K. N. Panchal

39. Therapeutic Gardening –Way of Healing the World ........................................................................ 62 Sanchita Ghosh, Ratna Priyanka R., Jiji Allen J. and Rajiv G.

40. Cauliflower and Tomato: Nutritional Vegetables for Kitchen Garden .................................................... 64 Bhallan Singh Sekhon and Harmanjeet Singh

41. Passion Fruit: An Income Generating Valuable Fruit for Processing Industry ..................................... 64 E. Premabati Devi, L. Netajit Singh, E. Bidyarani Devi and Deepshikha

42. Problems and Constraints in Fruit Production in Arid Region ............................................................... 66 Kuntal Satkar

43. Queen of Horticulture Crops ...................................... 67 N. Vairam

44. Apple Ber: An Elixir for Dry Land Horticulture ........... 69 G. Anupama and N. Ashoka

45. Mushroom Production: Importance and Cultivation Strategy .................................................. 71 Anupam Maharshi

46. Pre-Harvest Factors Influencing the Post-Harvest Management of Mandarin ......................................... 72 Swapnil D. Deshmukh

47. Use of Non-Chemical Methods for the Management of Post-Harvest Diseases of Papaya, Guava and Citrus ......................................... 73 M. L. Meghwal

48. Cisgenesis: An Alternative Approach for Crop Improvement ............................................................ 75 Asit Prasad Dash, Soumitra Mohanty and S. Routray

49. Application of Molecular Markers in Vegetable Crops ........................................................................ 77 Ravi Kumar Telugu, Mekala Srikanth, and Mohammad Shafiqurrahaman

50. Synthetic Biology Approaches in Agriculture............. 79 Varsha Gayatonde and Prudhvi Raj Vennela

51. Fig and Fig Wasp: A Story of Mutualism and CoEvolution ............................................................... 80 Ashrith K. N., Narayana Swamy K. C. and Indhushri Chavan

52. Stay Green: A Potentiality in Plant Breeding ............. 81 Ramya Rathod and Basavaraj P. S.

53. Mutation Breeding: Genetic Enhancement Tool for Crop Improvement in Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) ........ 83 Satyapal Singh and Parmeshwar Kumar Sahu

54. Strategies for Developing Green Super Rice ............. 85 Satyapal Singh and Parmeshwar Ku. Sahu

55. BMT Models in Plant Varietal Protection ................... 87 Dr. A. V. S. Durga Prasad

56. Intron Polymorphic Markers in Crop Improvement ............................................................ 88 Dr. A. V. S. Durga Prasad

57. Genotyping – By – Sequencing in Plant Breeding ...... 90 G. W. Narkhede and Dr S. P. Mehtre

58. Breeding for Herbicide Resistance Varieties ............. 91 Ingle A. U. and K. G. Kandarkar

59. Role of Host-Plant Resistance in Insect Management ............................................................. 92 Ingle A. U. and K. G. Kandarkar

60. Pigeon Pea Protein: Quality Nutrition in the Diet ....... 93 A. Thanga Hemavathy

61. Molecular Basis of Self-Incompatibility in Plants ...... 94 Namrata Dhirhi

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



62. Allele Mining: Its Approaches and Application in Plant Breeding ........................................................... 95 Mandakini Kabi, Bhabendra Baisakh and Swapan K. Tripathy

63. Ecological Influence on Quality Seed Production ....... 97 SP Monalisa and Mamata Behera

64. Role of Antioxidants in Relation to Seed Quality Enhancement ............................................................. 99 Himaj S. Deshmukh

65. Polymer Seed Coating: An Innovative Approach ...... 100 Chawhan R. G.

66. Seed Deterioration: Methods for Testing Seed Deterioration ........................................................... 101 A. D. Autade, Dr. S. B. Ghuge and D. S. Sutar

67. Pathogenesis-Related (PR) Proteins ........................ 102 Chirag Gautam, Dharam Singh Meena, Sahana N Banakar

68. Diseases of Tea and their Management ................... 103 A. G. Tekale, Dr. H. N. Kamble and K. N. Dhawale

69. Impact of Climate Change on Plant Disease ............ 105 Tushar V. Ghevariya and Patel Reena

70. LAMP – A New Technique for Detection of Plant Pathogens ............................................................... 106 Sangeetha Chinnusamy

71. Preexisting and Induced Structural Defenses in Plants against Pathogens ........................................ 108 Vinod Upadhyay and Akansha Singh

72. Role of Biofumigation in Soil Borne Pathogen Suppression ............................................................ 110 Diganggana Talukdar

73. Alien Pest Fauna ..................................................... 112 Rishikesh Mandloi

74. Insect MicroRNA...................................................... 113 S. Hemalatha

75. Insecticide Resistance in Insect .............................. 115 Ms. Chauhan, R. C. and Dr. C. U. Shinde

76. Management of Pink Bollworm in BT Cotton ............ 117 Konkani Pratibhaben P.

77. Role of Secondary Metabolites in Plant Defense ..... 119 S. Tripathy and L. K. Rath

78. Integrated Management of Rodent Pests in Agricultural Field ..................................................... 120 Devaramane Raghavendra and Ranvir Singh

79. Rodents: Important Species and their Management in Major Vegetable Crops .................. 122 Geet Gandhi, Bhallan Singh Sekhon and Harmanjeet Singh

80. Nematode Management Strategies ......................... 123 Akhilesh Jagre and Shanu Meshram

81. Aspiration of Agricultural Students in Tamil Nadu ... 124 P. Sivaraj

82. Traditional Handicrafts and Handlooms of Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh (Bhuttico) ..................... 125 Divya Sharma

83. Social Emotional Leadership ................................ 127 Dr. T. N. Sujeetha

84. Scenario of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) ..... 128 Dr. Sumit R. Salunkhe and Dr. Netravathi G.

85. Underutilized Fruits: An Option for Sustainable Livelihood and Income Security .............................. 129 Debjit Roy, Kaushik Das and Priyanka Nandi

86. Flavonoids as Nutraceuticals .................................. 130 Abuj Bhagyashree B., Rathwa Kalpana V. and Patre Pratiksha R.

87. Enzymes used in Food Processing .......................... 132 Pranjal S. Deshmukh

88. Potential of Millets: Nutrients Composition and Health Benefits ....................................................... 132 P. Swarna, R. Prasanna Lakshmi and P. Ganesh Kumar

89. Drugs from Fungi .................................................... 134 Dr. Manisha S. Shinde and Abuj B. B.

90. Main Pathogenic Micro-organisms and Chemical Hazards Associated with Milk and Dairy Products .. 136 Dr. Chopade A. A. and Shri. Patil R. V.

91. Livestock Farming Resilient to Climate Change ...... 138 Dr. D. Indira

92. Solar Schemes ....................................................... 139 Mahesh. M. Kadam and Ranjit Patil

93. Role of Plastic Mulching in Agriculture ................... 140 Vinodkumar S and Md Majeed Pasha

94. Efficient Puddling: Overview ................................... 141 Ramachandran S. and Sridhar N.

1. BIOTECHNOLOGY 15057

DNA Barcoding in Plants Jyoti Singh *, Datta P Kakade and Wallalwar M. R.

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, IGKV, Raipur- 492012

*Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: DNA barcoding is a molecular technology that allows a short genetic marker in an organism’s DNA to recognize it as belonging to a particular species. Identification of several species is done by amplifying, sequencing and

investigating the information from genic and/or intergenic identical target regions belonging to the extranuclear genomes. Whereas these sequences represent a small fraction of the total DNA of a cell, both chloroplast and

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



mitochondrial barcodes preferred for identifying plant and animal species, respectively, comprise sufficient nucleotide diversity to evaluate the taxonomic distinctiveness of the vast majority of organisms used in agriculture. A region of the mitochondrial gene COI (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) is used for barcoding animals. Cytochrome c oxidase is involved in the electron transport phase of respiration. COI is proving highly effective in identifying birds, butterflies, fish, flies and many other animal groups. COI is not an effective barcode region in plants because it evolves too slowly, but two gene regions in the chloroplast, matK and rbcL, have been approved as the barcode regions for plants.

DNA barcoding uses minor differences of nucleotides in the particular gene loci of different organisms as a key for the discrimination. The gene is sequenced to know the base-pair differences and then deposited in the barcode database, which is termed as DNA barcodes. These genetic codes could be accessed through a digital library and used to identify the unknown species by any scientist around the World. Ideal DNA barcode should be normally a uniform short sequence of DNA (400-800 bp), able to be simply generated and used to characterize all the living organisms. Pauls group was the first to design and use the short DNA sequences for biological identification at the University of

Guelph, Canada. DNA barcoding protocols are being used more and more in the food industry and food supply chains for food labeling, not only to support food safety but also to uncover food piracy in freshly commercialized and technologically processed products. Since the extranuclear genomes are present in many copies within each cell, this technology is being more easily exploited to recover information even in degraded samples or transformed materials deriving from crop varieties and livestock species. The strong standardization that characterizes protocols used worldwide for DNA barcoding makes this technology particularly suitable for routine analyses required by agencies to safeguard food safety and quality. Here we conduct a critical review of the potentials of DNA barcoding for food labeling along with the main findings in the area of food piracy, with particular reference to agrifood and livestock foodstuffs. Also the ultimate aim of DNA barcoding is to discriminate the species using an automated system, so that unexplored living organisms can be named as quickly as possible before it gets extinct. DNA barcode proved to be a promising tool to identify the species across all forms of life including animals, plants and microbes in a rapid and reliable manner.

An Ideal DNA Barcode should Possess the following Features

high inter and low intra-specific sequence divergence.

undergo universal amplification with standard primers.

technically simple to analyze.

short enough to sequence in one reaction.

easily alignable (few insertions/deletions). readily recoverable from the museum or

herbarium samples and other degraded samples.

Methodology

Voucher Specimen

(Pasport data Attitude/longitude of the sample)

DNA extraction Chloroplast

gene

DNA sequencing Trace file

Database of

Barcode Records

Collecting

(Immediate

Freez)

N

D3

C

OI

I

I

N

D2

N

D1

The Utility of DNA Barcoding

1. In determining the taxonomic uniqueness (e.g. goods, food and stomach extracts) and will help in preventing illegal trade and export of vulnerable species (e.g. fishes and

trees). 2. In the identification of juvenile specimens

(e.g. fish larvae). 3. Morphological characters are unable to

differentiate the species (e.g. red algal species), when the species have polymorphic

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



life cycles and displaying prominent phenotypic plasticity (e.g. Lamilariales).

Limitations

High rates of intra-specific deviation reported in geographically isolated populations (Hebert et al., 2003). It is the key challenge for the DNA barcoding initiative to monitor the existing species between the boundary and population. To solve this issue, widespread intraspecific sampling should be integrated in the reference database. The relevance of the reference DNA barcode database depends on the exhaustiveness

of intra-taxon sampling.

References Albert VA, Backlund A, Bremer K, Chase MW &

Manhart JR (1994). Functional constraints and rbcL evidence for land plant phylogeny. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 81: 534–567.

Hollingsworth ML, Clark AA, Forrest LL, Richardson J & Pennington RT (2009). Selecting barcoding loci for plants: evaluation of seven candidate loci with species-level sampling in three divergent groups of land plants. Molecular Ecology Resources. 9: 439-457.


Molecular Markers Devendra V. Rasam and Saurabh S. Kadam

College of Agricultural Biotechnology, Kharawate-Dahiwali

Polymorphism involves the existence of different forms (alleles) of the same gene in plants or a population of plants. These differences are tracked as molecular markers to identify desired genes and the resulting trait. Most organisms are diploid, meaning they have two copies of each gene — one from each parent. One gene usually dominates the other thus determining the inherited trait.

Why Marker?

A breeder aims to improve the resistance of a cultivated form. Therefore, he/she performs a cross between the susceptible cultivated forms with a wild form that possess the required resistance. However, at least 6 backcrossing steps are necessary and the resistance is difficult to detect.

DNA-Based Molecular Markers

Genetic polymorphism is classically defined as the simultaneous occurrence of a trait in the same population of two or more discontinuous variants or genotypes.

Although DNA sequencing is a straightforward approach for identifying variations at a locus, it is expensive and laborious. A wide variety of techniques have, therefore, been developed in the past few years for visualizing DNA sequence polymorphism.

Properties Desirable for Ideal DNA Markers

Highly polymorphic nature Codominant inheritance (determination of

homozygous and heterozygous states of diploid organisms)

Frequent occurrence in genome

Selective neutral behaviour (the DNA sequences of any organism are neutral to environmental conditions or management

practices) Easy access (availability)

Easy and fast assay

High reproducibility Easy exchange of data between laboratories.

Types and Description of DNA Markers Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

RFLP involves fragmenting a sample of DNA by a restriction enzyme, which can recognize and cut DNA wherever a specific short sequence occurs. A RFLP occurs when the length of a detected fragment varies between individuals and can be used in genetic analysis.

Advantages

Variant are co dominant

Measure variation at the level of DNA sequence, not protein sequence.

Disadvantage

Requires relatively large amount of DNA

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP)

AFLP, is a technique based on the detection of genomic restriction fragments by PCR amplification and can be used for DNAs of any origin or complexity. The fingerprints are produced, without any prior knowledge of sequence, using a limited set of generic primers. The number of fragments detected in a single reaction can be ‘tuned’ by selection of specific primer sets. AFLP technique is reliable since stringent reaction conditions are used for primer annealing. This technique thus shows an ingenious combination of RFLP and PCR techniques and is extremely useful in detection of polymorphism between closely related

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



genotypes.

AFLP Procedure Mainly Involves 3 Steps

a) Restriction of DNA using a rare cutting and a commonly cutting restriction enzyme simultaneously (such as MseI and EcoRI) followed by ligation of oligonucleotide adapters, of defined sequences including the respective restriction enzyme sites.

b) Selective amplifications of sets of restriction fragments, using specifically designed primers. To achieve this, the 5’ region of the primer is made such that it would contain both the restriction enzyme sites on either sides of the fragment complementary to the respective adapters, while the 3’ ends extend for a few arbitrarily chosen nucleotides into the restriction fragments.

c) Gel analysis of the amplified fragments: AFLP analysis depicts unique fingerprints regardless of the origin and complexity of the genome. Most AFLP fragments correspond to unique positions on the genome and hence can be exploited as landmarks in genetic and physical mapping. AFLPs are extremely useful as tools for DNA fingerprinting and also for cloning and mapping of variety-specific genomic DNA sequences. Thus AFLP provides a newly developed, important tool for a variety of applications.

Advantages

Fast And Highly variable

Relatively inexpensive

Disadvantage

Markers are dominant Presence of a band could mean the

individual is either homozygous or heterozygous for the Sequence - can’t tell.

RAPD (Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA)

Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA. It is a type of PCR reaction, but the segments of DNA that are amplified are random.

Advantages

Fast, Relatively inexpensive and Highly variable

Disadvantage

Markers are dominant and Data analysis

more complicated

Micro Satellite Polymorphism, SSR or Simple Sequences Repeat

Microsatellites, Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs), or Short Tandem Repeats (STRs), are repeating sequences of 1-6 base pairs of DNA.

The Microsatellite Application

Primers highly specific to sequences flanking the repeat are designed

Individual DNA samples are amplified Products compared by polyacrylamide or agarose gels using staining procedures

Recently fluorescently labeled primers are used and products are analyzed with laser technology (gel or capillary)

Differences in two samples are represented by size differences of amplified fragments

The size difference is the polymorphism Single-base pair polymorphisms can be detected.

Advantages

Many loci in the genome (goal: 30,000 in humans)

Randomly distributed in a genome Extensive polymorphism within a species

Many act as codominant markers Highly variable, Fast evolving, Co dominant

and Mulitplexing possible

Generally reproducible from lab to lab and Small amounts of target DNA needed Can be automated

Disadvantages

Null alleles at a specific locus result in a dominant marker and heterozygotes cannot be scored

Very high development costs and Relatively expensive and time consuming to develop

References Michaels, S.D., and Amasino, R.M. (1998). A robust

method for detecting single-nucleotide changes as polymorphic markers by PCR. Plant J. 14, 381-5.

Stam, P. (1993). Construction of integrated genetic linkage maps by means of a new computer package: JOINMAP. Plant J. 3, 739-744.

Williams, J.G.K., Kubelik, A.R., Livak, K.J., Rafalski, J.A., and Tingey, S.V. (1990). DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. Nucl. Acids Res. 18, 6531-6535.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com




Tilling in Functional Genomics G. W Narkhede1 and Dr S P Mehtre2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Botany (Genetics and Plant Breeding); 2Soybean Breeder and Officer In-Charge, AICRP on Soybean, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani

– 431402 (MS)

Tilling

TILLING (Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes) is a method in molecular biology that allows directed identification of mutations in a specific gene. TILLING was introduced in 2000, using the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana.

General protocol for the creation of a TILLING platform in plants includes the following steps:

1. Creation of Mutated Populations

Chemical mutagenesis

Development of M1 and M2 generations DNA extraction from individual M2 plants

Creation of DNA pools of 5–8 M2 plants Setting up an M3 seed bank

2. Detection of Mutations in a Targeted Sequence

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the targeted DNA segment using pooled

DNA as a Template

Detection of mutations using different procedures, e. g. cleavage by specific endonuclease,

denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) or high-throughput sequencing

Identification of the individual M2 plant carrying the mutation

Sequencing the target gene segment to confirm the mutation and to determine the type of nucleotide change

3. Analysis of the Mutant Phenotype

iTILLING

A new approach to the TILLING method that reduces costs and the time necessary to carry out mutation screening was developed for Arabidopsis and it is called iTILLING, individualized TILLING. In the traditional method, the M2 plants are grown in soil and DNA is isolated from them individually and then pooled in order to perform PCR-based mutation detection. With the iTILLING strategy, seeds from M1 are collected in bulk and cataloguing of the plants is not necessary. The M2 plants are grown one or two per well on 96-well spin plates on agar plugs and the tissue for DNA isolation is harvested directly from the plates using the Ice-

Cap method. The name Ice-Cap indicates that ice is used to capture the tissue samples. The roots of seedlings grow through the agar towards a second 96-well plate that is filled with water and, after approximately 3 weeks, reach the bottom of the second plate. The lower plate with the root fragments inside is then frozen and separated from seedlings. This plate serves as a platform for DNA isolation from the root tissue. The seedlings of plants remain intact. Isolated DNA is directly used as a template for PCR reactions and the mutation screening procedure can be performed. In the case of iTILLING, a high-resolution melt curve analysis of amplified fragments is performed in order to reveal mutations without using enzymatic cleavage and gel electrophoresis.

Since there are two plants grown in each well, the isolated DNA is already pooled 2-fold; therefore, the identification of mutations in both heterozygous and homozygous states is possible. When seeds are sown one per well, only heterozygous mutations can be detected. After the mutation is discovered, the corresponding seedling(s) is transferred from the 96-well plate to the soil and grown in order to characterize its phenotype and to produce further generations. The same strategy of pooling tissue samples instead of nucleic acid from individual plants in the 96-well plate followed by DNA isolation from the arrayed samples was recently reported in tomato plants as NEATTILL, a simplified procedure for nucleic acid extraction from arrayed tissue for TILLING. The iTILLING strategy is supplemental to the traditional TILLING approach. Although it reduces the investment required, it can only be performed for a small number of genes because the screening population used is of a short-lived nature and only plants with mutations that can be identified in a relatively short time can be grown to reach maturity and yield seeds for storage.

Ecotilling—Discovery of SNPs in Natural Populations

One of the first modifications of the TILLING strategy, called Ecotilling, was proposed by Comai et al. (2004). In this modification, mutation detection technology was used to discover polymorphisms in a natural population of A. thaliana. Instead of using pools of DNA

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



from mutagenised plants as templates, the DNA of A. thaliana ecotypes, each mixed with a reference Columbia ecotype DNA, was used.

The technology is applicable to any organism, including those that are heterozygous or polyploid. The next reports for a cultivated species appeared a short time later, and it was found out that this method could have practical applications in plant breeding, e.g. in the searching for resistance to new viruses or to create genetic diversity, which is important from an agronomic point of view. The wild relatives of cultivars, which have limited genetic diversity, could also be explored using this method and natural alleles could be detected. In the future, the genetic resources discovered by Ecotilling can be exploited in new cultivars. To date, many important EcoTILLed genes have been screened in natural populations of different species: FAE1 (fatty acid elongase 1), which is involved in the control of erucic acid synthesis in Brassica species, which encodes soluble starch synthase IIa in O. sativa (Kadaru et al. 2006 which is a very potent allergen for humans (Ramos et al. 2009); and Pina-D1 (puroindoline a) and Pinb-D1 (puroindoline b), which mainly condition kernel hardness through allelic variations in these genes in T. aestivum (Wang et al. 2008b). Another important target for agriculture could be a resistance to herbicides. Several classes of herbicides are known to inhibit the ALS (acetolactate synthase) gene. These highly selective ALS-inhibiting herbicides are very valuable for the weed management for a wide range of crops worldwide. Ecotilling was used for the detection of single nucleotide mutations in the ALS genes of sulfonylurea (SU)- resistant (R) Monochoria vaginalis (Pontederiaceae), a paddy

weed in Japan. Genomic DNA of an SU-R plant (target DNA) was mixed with the DNA of an SU-susceptible (S) plant (reference DNA). Ecotilling detected two nucleotide mutations in the ALS gene of SU-R M. vaginalis; this type of mutation has been reported to result in insensitivity to SUs in many weed biotypes.

Another valuable application of Ecotilling is searching for new virus-resistant alleles because natural populations are rich genetic resources and could be used to reach this goal. Translation initiation factors of the 4E and 4G protein families mediate resistance to several RNA plant viruses in natural crop diversity. Nucleotide changes in the genes eIF4E and eIF(iso) 4E of translation initiation factors have been detected in Capsicum annuum. Moreover, the utility of these new allelic variants have been demonstrated by testing them for PVY (Potato virus Y) resistance. Five new resistance alleles of the eIF4E gene have been detected. The same gene eIF4E, which controls resistance to MNSV (Melon necrotic spot virus), was screened in Cucumis species. One new allele from Cucumis zeyheri, a wild relative of melons, has been characterized and it may be responsive for resistance to MNSV. Ecotilling was also used to identify allelic variation within the powdery mildew resistance genes mlo and Mla in H. vulgare. This method not only confirmed the appearance of different alleles, but it also found that these differences can be used as a powerful genetic marker. Ecotilling offers the possibility of combining different mlo alleles with different Mla alleles in order to obtain cultivars with a more durable resistance. Ecotilling has also been used in Solanum tuberosum and Musa species diploid and polyploid accessions.


Enzymes Used in Genetic Engineering Patel Prakash Kumar Kanjibhai and Patel Umang Mahendrabhai

M.Sc., Agri., Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, N.M. College of Agriculture, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari

INTRODUCTION: Genetic manipulation, also called genetic engineering, refers to the alteration of the genes of an organism. It involves manually adding new DNA to an organism to add new traits. Examples of genetically engineer organisms include plants that are resistant to certain insects, plants that tolerate herbicides and crops with altered oil content. The ability to manipulate DNA in vitro depends entirely on the availability of purified enzymes that can cleave, modify and join the DNA molecule in specific ways. At present, no chemical method can achieve the ability to manipulate the DNA in

vitro in a predictable way. Only enzymes are able to carry out the function of manipulating the DNA. Each enzyme has a vital role to play in the process of genetic engineering. The various enzymes used in genetic engineering are as follows:

1. DNA polymerases 2. Reverse transcriptase 3. T4 polynucleotide kinase 4. Alkaline phosphatase 5. Topoisomerase 6. Nucleases

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



(1) DNA Polymerases

1. E. coli DNA polymerase I: Moderately processive polymerase, 3’->5’ proof-reading exonuclease,5’->3’ strand-displacing (nick-translating) exonuclease. Used mostly for labelling DNA molecules by nick translation. For other purposes, the Klenow fragment is usually preferred.

2. T7 DNA polymerase: It is highly processive, Strong 3 =>5’ exonuclease activity, approximately 1000-fold greater than Klenow Fragment. Useful for extensive DNA synthesis on long, single stranded (e.g. M13) templates. And labeling DNA termini and for converting protruding ends to blunt ends.

3. T4 DNA Polymerase: It is possesses a potent 3→5′ exonuclease activity on both ssDNA and dsDNA templates. It is the highest fidelity polymerase available. It can be used for labeling of 3′ ends of DNA by 5′ fill-in or the 3′ replacement or exchange reaction. It is also the enzyme of choice for site directed mutagenesis, because of the enzyme’s high fidelity and lack of strand displacement activity.

(2) Reverse Transcriptase

It is RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. It is Essential for making cDNA copies of RNA transcripts. Useful for Cloning intron-less genes. Also use for Quantitation of RNA. The discovery of reverse transcriptases altered molecular biology’s central dogma of DNA→RNA protein. It is two types.

1. AMV Reverse Transcriptase (Avian Myeloblastosis Virus Reverse Transcriptase: Is the enzyme of choice for templates with high degrees of secondary structure, as more structure can be melted at 42˚C. It is catalyses the polymerization of DNA using template DNA, RNA or RNA: DNA hybrids. It is preferred reverse transcriptase for templates with high secondary structure, due to its higher reaction temperature. Its relatively high RNase H activity limits its usefulness for generation of long cDNAs (>5kb).

2. Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus Reverse Transcriptase (M-MLV RT): Its relatively low RNase H activity compared to AMV RT makes M-MLV RT the choice for generation of long cDNAs (>5kb). However, for short templates with complex secondary structure, AMV RT may be a better choice due to its higher optimal temperature. It is less processive than AMV RT; more units of MMLV RT may be required to generate the same amount of cDNA.

3. Terminal transferase: It is template-independent DNA polymerase. Its

Incorporates dNTPs onto the 3’ ends of DNA Chains. Useful for adding homopolymeric tails or single nucleotides (can be labelled) to the 3’ ends of DNA strands (make DNA fragments more easily clonable).

(3) T4 Polynucleotide Kinase

It is Transfers gamma phosphate of ATP to the 5’ end of polynucleotides. Useful for preparing DNA fragments for ligation (if they lack 5’ phosphates). Useful for radiolabelling DNA fragments using gamma 32P ATP as a phosphate donor.

(4) Alkaline Phosphatase

It is Catalyzes removal of 5’ (and 3’) phosphates from polynucleotides. Useful for treating restricted vector DNA sequences prior to ligation reactions, prevents religation of vector in the absence of insert DNA.

(5) Topoisomerase

A restriction enzyme and ligase all in one. It is catalyzed ligation is extremely efficient (>85% of resulting plasmids are recombinant) excellent for library constructions. It Can be used to clone blunt ended DNA (PCR products, restriction digests), T-overhang PCR products (from Taq polymerase), and directional clones.

(6) Nucleases

1. Exonucleases: It is Remove nucleotides one at a time from a DNA molecule. It is three types. a) Bal31: Degrades both 5’ and 3’ ends of

DNA. Useful for generating deletion sets, get bigger deletions with longer incubations.

b) Exonuclease III: It is use for double-stranded DNA. It have 3’-5’ exonuclease activity and 3’ overhangs resistant to activity, can use this property to generate “nested” deletions from one end of a piece of DNA (use S1 nuclease to degrade other strand of DNA)

c) Exonuclease I: It have 3’-5’ exonuclease activity. Works only on single-stranded DNA. Useful for removing unextended primers from PCR reactions or other primer extension reactions.

2. Endonucleases: It Break phosphodiester bonds within a DNA Molecule.

Types of Endonucleases

Property Type I Type II Type III

Structure Enzyme complex of 500600 k dal composed of three separate subunits

Normally homodimers of 20-70 k dal

Heterodimers with subunits of 70 and 100 k

Dal

Compositio Multienzyme Separate M subunit

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com




n complex with R (endonuclease), M (methylase) and S (specificity) subunits

enzymes; endonuclease is a homodimer, methylase a monomer

provides specificity on its own; functions as methylase; as heterodimer with R subunit; functions as methylase-endonuclease

Cofactors Mg2+, ATP, S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) (needed for cleavage as well as methylation)

Mg2+, SAM (for methylation only)

Mg2+, ATP (for cleavage), SAM (needed for methylation: stimulate cleavage)

Recognition sites

Asymmetric, bipartite, may be degenerate; 1315 base pairs containing

Asymmetric, may be bipartite, may be degenerate;

Asymmetric,

uninterrupted, 5-6 nucleotide long with no


interruption of 6 to 8 base pairs

4 to 8 base pairs normally 180° rotational symmetry

rotational symmetry

Cleavage Non-specific, variable distance (100-1000 nucleotides) from recognition site

Precise cleavage within recognition site at defined distance

Precise cleavage at a fixed distance; 25-27 nucleotides from recognition site

Example Eco K Eco Rl Eco P1


Role of Plant Tissue Culture Disha Kamboj, Aditi, Priti, Sumit Jangra and Rahul Kumar Meena

Department of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology & Bioinformatics Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004

The exploitation of living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or “any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use” is known as Biotechnology. The term biotechnology was first given by Karl Ereky in 1919. Plant tissue culture is an aggregation of techniques used to assert or develop plant cells, tissues or organs under sterile conditions on a nutrient medium of known constitution. It employs culturing of plant organs and cells like roots, shoot tips and leaves in artificial nutrient media aseptically. That part of plant which is employed for culturing is known as explant. The plasticity and totipotency nature, allows whole plants to be redeveloped from any part of the plant. Plasticity grants plants to modify their metabolism for adapting and surviving in a specific environment and totipotency allows for maintaining its genetic makeup, thus the plant regenerated from any part of the plants will have the genetic constitution as that of the parent plant.

The plantlet will originate in vitro when supplemented with proper media and specific conditions. The composition of the media governs the growth rate and morphogenesis of the plant. Following are the four basic elements of culture media:

1. Major Elements or mineral ions, 2. An organic supplement providing amino

acids and vitamins 3. A carbon source; usually sucrose 4. Gelling agent, mostly agar.

Macronutrients like K, P, Ca, Mg, S, N required for plant nutrition and cell preservation and some of the micronutrients are also used as co-factors like Mn, Co, B, Mo, Cu, Zn, Cl, I. Meso-inositol and plant growth regulators (PGRs) are used as the organic supplements. PGRs are compounds, which, at very low concentration, are capable of amending growth or plant morphogenesis. The basic classes of phyotohormones used as PGRs in plant culture includes auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid, ethylene, polyamines and jasmonic acid.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Agar, a polysaccharide is used as gelling agent. Selection of media depends on plant species and specific explant. Most especially used media for tissue culture work is Murashige and Skoog (1962) media known as MS media. Other commonly used media include Gamborg’s B5, McCown’s woody plant, Schenk and Hildebrandt and White’s basal medium.

Auxins and cytokinins are the most widely used plant growth regulators and are usually used together. The ratio of the auxin to the cytokinin determines the type of culture established or regenerated. A high auxin to cytokinin ratio favours root formation, whereas a high cytokinin to auxin ratio favours shoot formation. An intermediate ratio favours callus production.

Callus: It is an, undifferentiated, unorganized mass of cells, formed when plant cells multiply in a disorganised way. The process where tissues and cells cultured on an agar media forms callus is known as callus culture. Its unique feature is that the abnormal growth has biological potential to develop normal root, shoots, and embryoids, ultimately forming a plant. Callus can be initiated in vitro by placing small pieces of the explants onto a growth-supporting medium under sterile conditions. Callus culture is often incubated in the dark as light can encourage differentiation of the callus. The callus formed using an original explant is called primary callus. Secondary callus cultures are initiated from pieces of tissue dissected from primary callus. During callus formation there is some degree of dedifferentiation (i.e. the changes that occur during development and specialization are, to some extent, reversed), both in morphology (usually composed of unspecialized parenchyma cells) and metabolism.

Protoplast Cultures: Protoplast is the living part of a plant cell, consisting of the cytoplasm and nucleus with the cell wall removed. These are isolated either from leaf mesophyll cells or cell suspensions. Two general approaches for removing the cell wall without damaging the protoplast includes mechanical or enzymatic isolation. Mechanical isolation, leads to lower yields, poor quality and poor performance in culture because of the substances expelled from damaged cells. Enzymatic isolation is followed in a simple salt solution with high osmoticum having cell wall degrading enzymes. Usually, a mixture of both cellulase and pectinase enzymes, of high quality and purity are used.

Some of the examples of plant species that have been regenerated from protoplasts are Cucumis sativus, Capsicum annum, Ipomoea batata, Glycine max, Chrysanthemum sp. These cultures are used for

a) studying many biochemical and metabolic analysis,

b) creating somatic hybrids, c) fusion of enucleated and nucleated

protoplasts for the formation of cybrids (cytoplasmic hybrids)

d) genetic manipulation e) sensitivity of drug

Organ Cultures: Those types of culture in which an organized form of growth can be continuously maintained. It includes the aseptic isolation of definite structures such as leaf primordia, immature flowers and fruits, and their growth in vitro. Differentiated plant organs can usually be grown in culture without loss of integrity. They can be of two types:

1. Determinate organs, destined to have a defined size and shape

2. Indeterminate organs, where growth is potentially unlimited.

Different names are given depending upon the organ used for the culture. For instance the culture of roots, endosperm, ovary, and ovule are called as root culture, endosperm culture, ovary culture etc. Skoog in 1944, was first to suggest that the organogenesis could be chemically controlled.

Shoot Tip and Meristem Culture: It is described as the culture of terminal (0.1-1.0 mm) portion of a shoot having the meristem (0.05-0.1mm) together with the primordial and stem tissue and developing leaves. The tips of shoots (containing shoot apical meristem) can be cultured in vitro, producing clumps of shoots from either axillary or adventitious buds. This method can be used for production of virus eradicated germplasm, and for clonal propagation.

Root Culture: Root cultures can be established in vitro from explants of the root tip of either primary or lateral roots. It is a type of culture which studies plant metabolic machinery or production of secondary metabolites. The growth of roots in vitro is potentially unlimited, as roots are indeterminate organs. These cultures are maintained in the liquid medium. Root culturing provides knowledge about carbohydrate metabolism, role of vitamins and mineral ions.

Anther and Pollen Culture (Production of Haploid Plants): Haploid plants are those which comprises of a single set of chromosomes (n) in the sporophyte in comparison with diploids having two sets of chromosomes (2n). The existence of haploid plants was reported by Bergner (1921) in Datura stramonium. Haploid tissue can be cultured in vitro by using pollen or anthers as an explant. Pollen contains the male gametophyte, which is termed the ‘microspore’. Both callus and embryos can be produced from pollen.

Guha and Maheshwari (1964, 1966) first

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



demonstrated the anther culture of Datura innoxia. Anther culture is a technique by which the developing anthers from unopened flower bud are cultured on a nutrient medium that develop into callus tissue or embryoids which lead to haploid plantlets either through organogenesis or embryogenesis.

Applications of Plant Tissue Culture

1. Clonal propagation/ Micropropagation: Multiplication of genetically identical copies of a cultivar by asexual reproduction is called clonal propagation. It is rapid process which has been adopted for commercialization of important plants such as banana, apple, pears, strawberry, cardamom, many ornamentals (e.g. Orchids) and other plants. These techniques are preferred over the conventional asexual propagation methods because of the following reasons: In it only a small amount of tissue is required (b) In vitro stock can be quickly proliferated (c) it is season independent. (d) Long term storage of valuable germplasm.

2. Somaclonal Variation: The genetic variations found in the in vitro cultured cells are collectively referred to as somaclonal variation and the plants derived from such cells are called as ‘somaclones’. Larkin and

Scowcroft (1981) working at the division of Plant Industry, C.S.I.R.O., Australia gave the term ‘somaclones’. These has been used in plant breeding programmes where the genetic variations with desired or improved characters are introduced into the plants and new varieties are created that can exhibit disease resistance, improved quality and yield in plants like cereals, legumes, oil seeds tuber crops etc.

3. Production of virus free plants: The viral diseases in plants transfer easily and lower the quality and yield of the plants, which is very difficult to treat and cure. But, it has become possible to produce virus free plants by tissue culture at the commercial level. This is done by regenerating plants from cultured tissues derived from a) virus free plants, b) meristems which are generally free of infection. c) meristems treated with heat shock (34-36OC) to inactivate the virus,

4. Production of synthetic seeds: In synthetic seeds, the somatic embryos are encapsulated in a suitable matrix (e.g. sodium alginate), along with substances like mycorrhizae, insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. These artificial seeds can be utilized for the rapid and mass propagation of desired plant species as well as hybrid varieties.


RNA Interference in Plants Prabhukarthikeyan*, S. R., Raghu, S and Mathew Seikholen Baite

Crop Protection Division, ICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

RNA silencing is a homology-based process that is triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which leads to the suppression of gene expression. It was initially discovered in plants and was thought to function as part of a defense mechanism against viruses. Subsequently it was shown to be a ubiquitous silencing mechanism that is present in all eukaryotes including protozoa, plants and animals. The term RNA interference (RNAi) was first coined for the phenomenon when it was observed in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. RNA silencing works on at least three different levels in plants: (i) cytoplasmic silencing by dsRNA results in cleavage of mRNA and is known as post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS); (ii) endogenous mRNAs are silenced by micro-RNAs (miRNAs), which negatively regulate gene expression by base-pairing to specific mRNAs, resulting in either RNA cleavage or arrest of protein translation; (iii) RNA silencing is associated with sequence-specific methylation of

DNA and the consequent suppression of transcription [transcriptional gene silencing (TGS)].

FIGURE 1: This model is based on the results of in vitro studies of RNA-induced gene silencing, or RNA interference (RNAi), in animal. Source: Nature Reviews Genetics (Waterhouse and Helliwell, 2003).

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Molecular Mechanism of RNAi

First, long dsRNA is recognized by a member of the RNase III family, Dicer, which cleaves it into small (21–25 nucleotides) fragments. These small RNAs are then incorporated into a complex

known as the ‘RNA-induced silencing complex’ (RISC). RISC is then targeted to degrade single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) in a sequence-specific manner; specificity being provided by the sequence of the small RNAs.

Use of RNAi for Virus Resistance in Plants

Name of virus Family Region targeted Results System used Genome

Potato virus Y Potyviridae HC-Pro Immunity Potato RNA

Mungbean yellow mosaic India virus (MYMIV)

Geminiviridae Bidirectional promoter Recovery from infection Vigna mungo

(black gram) DNA

African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV)

Geminiviridae Replication-associated protein gene

Reduced virus accumulation

Tobacco protoplast

DNA

Tomato yellow leaf curl

Sardinia virus Geminiviridae

Replication-associated protein gene

Poor resistance Tomato DNA

Pepper mild mottle virus

(PMMoV) Tobamoviridae Arbitrary sequence Block in viral infectivity Tobacco RNA

Tobacco etch virus (TEV) Potyviridae Arbitrary sequence No viral-specific symptoms appeared

Tobacco RNA

Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) Bromoviridae Arbitrary sequence Recovery from infection Tobacco RNA

Beet necrotic yellow vein

virus (BNYVV) Benyviridae Coat protein Tolerance Tobacco RNA

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) Tobamoviridae Replication-associated protein

Inhibition of TMV replication

Tobacco RNA

Abbreviation: HC-PRO, helper-component proteinase gene

Reference Waterhouse P.M. and Helliwell C.A. 2003. Exploring

plant genomes by RNA-induced gene silencing. Nature Reviews Genetics. 4, 29-38, doi:10.1038/nrg982.

7. AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 15108

Genetically Modified Food: Pros and Cons Mekala Srikanth1*, Telugu Ravi Kumar2 and Mohammad Shafiqurrahaman

1,2Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Vegetable Science, 3Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004


INTRODUCTION: The number of countries growing genetically modified crops has increased in recent years causing much debate over the pros and cons of these products. GM food will feed the world and promote better health and ecological welfare, while another side believes the food contains risks to human health.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) include crops, vegetables, and fruits that have been created using genetic engineering methods. This genetic makeup change can be done by incorporating genes from other organisms or changing the already existing genes, create new genetically-altered crosses with enhanced nutritional, productive and ecological value that is over expressing or silencing existing genes. This differs from traditional breeding in that genetic transference between unrelated species does not occur biologically in nature.

The process of combining inter-species

genes, which is called recombinant DNA technology, does not have the checks and balances that are imposed by nature in traditional breeding. Because of this, there is a risk of genetic instability. This means that no one can make any accurate predictions about the long-term effects of GMOs on human beings and the environment.

This is the crux of the matter in the ongoing debate of GMOs. Food is an emotional topic. It matters a great deal to all of us. We are what we eat after all. The subject is also of vested interest for the corporations that manufacture genetically modified seeds and agricultural technologies.

Pros of GM Food

Crops are more productive and have a larger yield.

A possibility that they could eliminate allergy-causing properties in some foods.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Inbuilt resistance to pests, weeds and disease.

More capable of thriving in regions with poor soil or adverse climates.

More environment-friendly as they require fewer herbicides and pesticides.

Foods are more resistant and stay ripe for longer so they can be shipped long distances or kept on shop shelves for longer periods.

This technique can be used to produce crops which can be used as vaccines.

Using this techniques pharmaceutical compounds can be produced in genetically modified food.

As more GMO crops can be grown on relatively small parcels of land, they are an answer to feeding growing world populations.

Cons Surrounding GM Food

Scientists can choose which genes to manipulate, but they don’t yet know where in the DNA to precisely insert these genes and they have no way of controlling gene expression.

Genetically modified crops pose a risk to food diversity as the plants are much more dominant.

Herbicide-resistant and pesticide-resistant crops could give rise to super-weeds and super-pests that would need newer, stronger chemicals to destroy them.

GMO crops cross-pollinate with nearby non-GMO plants and could create ecological problems. If this were to happen with GMO foods containing vaccines, antibiotics, contraceptives and so on, it would very well turn into a human health nightmare.

The claim of ending world hunger with GMOs is false. World hunger is not caused by a shortage of food production, but by sheer mismanagement, and lack of access to food brought about by various social, financial and political causes.

GMO technology companies patent their crops and also engineer crops so that harvested grain germs are incapable of developing.

GMOs are not the answer to world hunger

and health. Instead, we should focus on improving organic agricultural practices which are kinder to the earth and healthier for humans.

Crops produced using biotechnology will negatively impact the environment.

The long-term effects of foods developed using biotechnology are unknown

The shifts power from agriculture to biotechnology; this increase the dependence on industrialized nations by developing countries.

Examples of GM Food

1. Flavr Savr tomatoes, one of its gene, responsible for ripening is modified using genetic engineering technique so that the shelf life of tomato is increased, or in other words, the process of tomato ripening is slowed by genetic modifications by reducing the expression of an already existing gene.

2. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn, this corn is genetically modified by adding the virulent gene from the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis, these produce toxins which are toxic to the insect larvae which feed on the corn leaves, as a result insect are killed, hence the plant become insect resistant.

3. Golden Rice, in this case, two genes are introduced from daffodils and the third from the bacteria, this type of genetically modified rice contains a high amount of beta-carotene or vitamin A, hence it reduces the vitamin-A deficiency in rice consumers.

Regulatory Concerns

Genetically modified food before releasing into the market are evaluated by government food regulators on their effect in the body and also they evaluate the techniques used in the development of these products.

Genetically modified food needs to undergo rigorous safety assessments before they are offered to consumers.

Genetically modified food offered to consumers have their GM status identified on their label, to support consumer choice.

8. AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 15323

Utilization of Plant Genome Sequencing in Crop Plants Kumar Nishant Chourasia and Deepak Koujalagi

PhD Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, GBPUAT, Pantnagar-263145 Uttarakhand

A genome is an organism’s complete set of genetic material, including all of its genes. Genome sequencing is determining the sequence

of each and every base in DNA. Breakthrough in genome sequencing was achieved when Frederick Sanger, a British biochemist invented

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



chain termination method of DNA sequencing. There are basically three generation of sequencing platform but Illumina/Solexa Genome analyzer platform has mostly been used for sequencing of crop genomes. The first plant whose genome was sequenced is Arabidopsis thaliana and first cereal is Rice with the genome size of 125 and 420 Mb respectively (AGI Initiative 2000, Goff et al.,2002) while latest reported genome sequence is of Chenopodium quinoa using both Illumina and SMRT (Single molecule real time) technique (Momin et al.,2017).

The major utilization from crop genome sequencing projects is in identification of genes of economic importance, molecular marker discovery and its application in genetic mapping, and marker assisted selection, approaching from QTL to gene, studying pattern of evolution, domestication and population structure and in conservation and utilization of plant genetic resources.

The availability of high-quality whole-genome sequence assemblies for major crops creates a paradigm shifting change in how one should approach crop improvement. Breeders now have access to all of the many thousands of genes that make up an organism which helps in understanding of complex traits and its easy manipulation for improvement. The soybean genome was used to unravel the maturity locus E1 which has a major impact on flowering time (Xia et al.,2012) whereas in rice a major QTL Gn1a was identified which has a profound effect on grain yield (Bolger et al.,2014). Chickpea genome sequencing identified 76,084 SNPs in 15,526 genes and in Arabidopsis it was 79961 so this illustrates the potential of sequencing in identification of geneic/functional markers. In almost all the sequenced crop genome it revealed the genomic area which was mostly targeted during domestication by analysis of reduction in diversity coefficient, and the major traits which were affected is plant architecture, flowering and growth pattern.(Xu et al.,2017)

Genome sequencing has led to emergence of new field of pangenomics which shows a large amount of both sequence and gene variation even among individuals of same species. Rice sub1 gene is present in tolerant genotype and absent in the susceptible one (Schatz et al.,2014)

while re-sequencing project of 17 wild and 14 cultivated soybean genomes revealed that 10% of reference genome genes had SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) likely to have large functional impact (Lam et al.,2011). So these regions may be manipulated according to the need of breeder. In a nutshell, genome sequencing reveal the hidden picture of how one can design ideal crop structure according to need of the hour.

References AGI Initiative: Analysis of the genome sequence of

the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Nature 2000, 408:796-815

Bolger, Marie E, Bernd Weisshaar, Uwe Scholz, Nils Stein, and Klaus F X Mayer. 2014. “ScienceDirect Plant Genome Sequencing — Applications for Crop Improvement,” 31–37.

Goff, Stephen A, Darrell Ricke, Tien-hung Lan, Gernot Presting, Ronglin Wang, Molly Dunn, Jane Glazebrook, Xu, Dren. 2002. “A Draft Sequence of the Rice Genome (Oryza Sativa L. Ssp.” 296 (April): 92–100.

Lam, Hon-ming, Xun Xu, Xin Liu, Wenbin Chen, Guohua Yang, Fuk-ling Wong, Man-wah Li, et al. 2011. “Articles Resequencing of 31 Wild and Cultivated Soybean Genomes Identifies Patterns of Genetic Diversity and Selection” 42 (12). doi:10.1038/ng.715.

Momin, Afaque A, Sónia Negrão, Salim Al, Babili Christoph, Gehring Ute, Roessner Christian, Jung Kevin, Peter J Maughan, and Mark Tester. 2017. “The Genome of Chenopodium Quinoa,” 1–25. doi:10.1038/nature21370.

Schatz, Michael C, Lyza G Maron, Joshua C Stein, Alejandro Hernandez Wences, James Gurtowski, Eric Biggers, Hayan Lee, et al. 2014. “Whole Genome de Novo Assemblies of Three Divergent Strains of Rice, Oryza Sativa, Document Novel Gene Space of Aus and Indica,” 1–16.

Xia, Zhengjun, Satoshi Watanabe, Tetsuya Yamada, Yasutaka Tsubokura, Hiroko Nakashima, and Hong Zhai. 2012. “Positional Cloning and Characterization Reveal the Molecular Basis for Soybean Maturity Locus E1 That Regulates Photoperiodic Fl Owering” 109 (32). doi:10.1073/pnas.1117982109.

Xu, Xun, Xin Liu, Song Ge, Jeffrey D Jensen, Fengyi Hu, Xin Li, Yang Dong, et al. 2017. “Resequencing 50 Accessions of Cultivated and Wild Rice Yields Markers for Identifying Agronomically Important Genes,” 1–16. doi:10.1038/nbt.2050.

9. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 15196

DNA Fingerprinting: Molecular Basis of Biology Saurabh S. Kadam and Devendra V. Rasam

College of Agricultural Biotechnology, Kharawate-Dahiwali

The DNA fingerprinting unlike the usual fingerprinting which is based on the

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



morphological features and primarily restricted to humans is revealing the identity of an organism at the molecular level. In fact this is the technique of finding the genetic identity. This is primarily based on the polymorphisms occurring at the molecular level, that is on the base sequences of the genome. The fundamental techniques involved in genetic fingerprinting were discovered serendipitously in 1984 by geneticist Alec J. Jeffreys of the University of Leicester in Great Britain while he was studying the gene for myoglobin, a protein that stores oxygen in muscle cells. The technique crossed the arena of the scientific frontiers mainly with the application in the forensics. With advent of time, development of various techniques paved way for the use of this technique in different fields giving newer dimensions to this Technique. The DNA profiling is primarily used in plants for protection of biodiversity, identifying markers for traits, identification of gene diversity and variation etc. The most popular or widely used techniques used with relevant to plants are RFLP, RAPD, ISSR, SSR etc. A DNA fingerprint of an individual is prepared by digesting its DNA with a restriction enzyme. The knowledge and techniques of medical science applied to assist in the resolution of crimes, legal disputes, etc. constitute forensic medicine. DNA fingerprinting or DNA profile, is a highly sensitive and extremely versatile approach to solve such a problems of crimes/cases. DNA fingerprint of an individual is the description of specific allele present at a series of polymorphic loci in his/her genome. A polymorphic locus is that region of genomic DNA whose sequence is different in different individuals. The polymorphism of different DNA sequence may be studied either as RFLP or by PCR amplification.

DNA fingerprinting, a type of DNA forensic

technology, is a technique used to identify persons by analyzing DNA from their tissues. DNA fingerprinting is not a single process, but a collection of procedures for separating DNA from the cells in which it is found, slicing it up into various lengths, separating the resulting fragments by length, and finally identifying the resulting, fragments by the use of radioactive “probes” which recognize specific sequences of nucleotides. Because this analysis examines differences among sets of DNA fragments obtained by digestion with restriction enzymes, it is called restriction fragment length polymorphism (“RFLP”) analysis) DNA identification is a multi-stage process. First, DNA is extracted from the rest of the cellular material. The DNA is then digested by a molecule called a “restriction enzyme” which slices the DNA at specific points identified by particular base sequences. This creates a set of DNA fragments of varying size, each fragment having an identical base series at its ends. The next step is gel electrophoresis. The short fragments of DNA are placed in small wells along one end of a slab of agarose gel and an electrical field is applied across the gel. DNA has an electrical charge so the electrical field causes the fragments to move through the gel, from one end to the other. The small fragments move more quickly than the longer fragments. The electrical field is shut off after a certain amount of time, so the DNA fragments will have migrated to resting positions based on their size.

References Lander E. S. 1989. `DNA Fingerprinting on Trial’,

Nature, vol. 339, pp. 501-505. Sambrook, J., E. F. Fritsch and T. Maniatis 1989.

Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Edition. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.

10. MICROBIOLOGY 14514

Bio Control of Post-Harvest Horticultural Crop Disease: Mechanism of Microbial Antagonists

Ajinath Dukare

Scientist (Agricultural Microbiology), Horticultural Crop Processing Division, ICAR-CIPHET, Abohar. Punjab, India -152116

INTRODUCTION: Postharvest losses due to postharvest fungal decays of fruits and vegetables account for significant levels. According an estimates, about 20– 25% of the harvested fruits and vegetables are decayed by pathogens during postharvest handling management operations (Singh and Sharma, 2007). Postharvest losses are often more severe in developing countries due to insufficient storage and transportation amenities. Primarily,

synthetic chemical fungicides which are mostly used for controlling postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables are responsible for negative and harmful impacts of on environments, human and animal health’s, development of pesticide resistance in major pathogens and presence of toxic pesticide in commodities. Due to all these concerns, there is a strong public and scientific desire to seek safer and eco-friendly biological alternatives for reducing the decay loss in the

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



harvested produce. Among different eco-friendly approaches, use of the microbial antagonists like yeasts, fungi, and bacteria for post-harvest pathogen control is quite promising.

Biological control can be defined as the reduction in the population or disease/damage causing activity of a pest or a pathogen in its dormant state by one or more organisms that occur naturally or through manipulation of the environment or by mass introduction of antagonists in nature (Sterling, 1991). Various group of organism such as bacteria, viruses, fungi are being deployed for biological control of post-harvest crop pathogens. Various microorganisms have the ability to grow, survive and proliferate in post-harvest fruit surface can be utilized as best candidates for the biocontrol agents.

Selection Criteria for Ideal Postharvest Microbial Antagonist/Biocontrol Agents

A potential microbial antagonist should have certain desirable characteristics to make it an ideal bio agent. The antagonist should be: (i) Genetically stable; (ii) At low concentrations, effective against a wide range of post-harvest fungal pathogens; (iii) Ability to remain survive and active for longer time under adverse environmental conditions (iv) Simple and inexpensive nutritional requirements for growth and multiplication; (v) Economical to produce and formulate with long shelf-life period; (vi) Easy to deliver; (vii) Nonpathogenic for the human health and host commodity

Postharvest Biological Control: Mechanisms of Action

Several modes of action have been suggested by which microbial antagonists inhibit the growth of post-harvest pathogens. Still, competition for nutrient and space, parasitism and lytic enzymes production, production of antibiotics and induced systemic resistance are some mechanisms of the microbial antagonists by which they suppress the activity of postharvest pathogens on fruits and vegetables (Droby and Chalutz 1994). These mechanism have been are described below

Competition for Nutrients and/or Space

Competition for nutrients and/or space between antagonist microbes and pathogens considered as major mode of action by which microbial antagonists suppresses postharvest pathogens causing decay in harvested fruits and vegetables. These mechanisms have been demonstrated for various antagonist microorganisms such as, Aureobasidium pullulans, Debaryomyces hansenii, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, P. agglomerans and Rhodotorula glutinis. Iron competition is the mechanism by which Metschnikowia pulcherrima inhibit post-harvest

apple pathogens like Botrytis cinera, Alternaria alternata and P. expansum. Occupation of space through rapid colonization has been revealed major inhibitory mechanism of Candida saitona and Pichia guilliermondii against Penicillium digitatum on apple fruit.

Pathogen Growth Inhibition by Secretion of Antifungal Substances

The production of one or more antifungal compound is the one the major mechanism associated with the ability of bacterial and fungal antagonist to act as antagonistic agents against post-harvest pathogens. Suppression of the pathogens of harvested fruits and vegetables by microbial antagonists through production of antibiotics is another major mechanism. An antagonistic bacterium, Pseudomonas syringae, effective against Penicillium moulds in citrus fruit, produces antibiotics, syringomycin and Pseudomonas cepacia and Serratia plymuthica produce pyrrolnitrin. Bacillus subtilis, which are antagonists against major postharvest diseases of citrus fruit are known to produce antifungal compounds such as antibiotics, predominantly lipopeptides of surfactin, iturin and gramicidin S. Further, an antibiotic (pyrrolnitrin) producing Pseudomonas cepacia inhibit the growth of postharvest pathogens like Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum in apple.

Parasitism and Lytic Enzymes Production

The attachment and further degradation of fungal cell wall through production of cell wall lytic enzymes is another major mechanism by which biocontrol microorganism control the growth of pathogens in harvested fruits and vegetables. Various antagonist microorganisms are known to produce lytic enzymes such as β-1, 3-glucanase, exo-chitinase, endo-chitinase and proteinase. Strong attachment of microbial antagonist with enhanced activity of cell wall degradation enzymes may be responsible for enhancing the efficacy of microbial agents in controlling the postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables. This phenomenon was observed in Pichia guilliermondii, which are known to control the post-harvest pathogens viz, Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium spp. Direct parasitism via pathogen cell wall degradation was also reported as a major factor that allows Pantoea agglomerans to control Monilinia laxa (Aderh. & Ruhl.) Honey or Rhizopus stolonifer decay on stone fruits.

Induced Resistance in Fruit and Vegetables

Induction of pathogen defense resistance in the harvested fruits and vegetables by the microbial antagonists has been suggested as another way of microbial antagonists for controlling postharvest decay in harvested produce. The resistance induction is due to the antagonist

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



ability to elicit host plant defence responses. These biochemical defense responses associated with induced resistance includes: cell wall thickening by lignification process, production of defense enzymes (e.g., chitinases, glucanases, and peroxidases), pathogenesis related (PR) proteins, production of reactive oxygen species and accumulation of phytoalexins (antimicrobial low-molecular-weight substances). For example,

Candida famata (F35) stimulates the production of the defense related phytoalexins, scoparone and scopoletin against wound pathogen of oranges. Similarly, Pichia guillermondii has been shown to stimulate the production of ethylene in grapefruit and Candida oleophila was found to induce resistance in grapefruit against pathogen, Penicillium digitatum

Figure 1. Biocontrol mechanism of antagonist and its possible interactions with host and pathogen

Conclusive Notes

From above, it can be summarized and concluded that the activity of a post-harvest biocontrol agent seems to be primarily dependent on its ability to rapidly colonize the wound site and compete for nutrients and space, but may also depend on its ability to attach firmly to hyphae of the pathogen, produce cell wall degrading enzymes or volatile compounds, or induce host resistance.

References Droby, S., & Chalutz, E. (1994). Mode of action of

biocontrol agents of postharvest diseases. In C. L. Wilson & M. E. Wisniewski (Eds.), Biological control of postharvest diseases: theory and practice, pp. 63–76. CRC Press, Inc.

Singh, D., Sharma, R.R., 2007. Postharvest diseases of fruit and vegetables and their management. In: Prasad, D. (Ed.), Sustainable Pest Management. Daya Publishing House, New Delhi, India.

11. MICROBIOLOGY 15312

Microbial Mining: Using Bacteria to Mine Metals M. Shweta and Suma C. Kammar

Department of Agricultural Microbiology, UAS, Raichur-584102

Microbial mining is the extraction of specific metals from their ores through biological means usually bacteria. It is a technique used by the mining industry to extract minerals such as copper, uranium and gold from their ores. The basis of microbial extraction is that the metal sulphides, the principal component in many ores is not soluble but when oxidized to sulphate become soluble so that metal can be extracted. Microbial mining is a very attractive alternative to the conventional mining techniques and it is very desirable in today’s world due to the continued depletion of high grade reserves and so it allows the more economically extraction of minerals by from low grade ores, it also arise from the resulting tendency for mining to be extended deeper underground and also it is a

much more environmental friendly alternative to that of the conventional mining methods to which there is a growing awareness of the environmental issues associated with the smelting of sulphide minerals and the burning of sulphur rich fossil fuels and of course there is the enormous energy costs that is associated with the conventional methods. It also improves recovery rates, reduces capital and operating costs.

The bacteria involved in microbial mining are chemolithotrophic, means that is they obtain their energy from the oxidation of inorganic substances, autotrophic that is they utilize carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as the carbon source. They are Acidophilic and grow best in highly aerated solutions. ex: Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans,

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Acidithiobacillus caldus Leptospirillum ferrooxidans and Leptospirillum ferriphilum. B. megaterium, B. polymyxa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, Thermothrix thioparus, Thiobacillus thermophilica, etc.

Chemistry of Bioleaching

T. thiooxidans and T. ferrooxidans have always been found to be present in mixture on leaching dumps. Thiobacillus is the most extensively studied Gram-negative bacillus bacterium which derives energy from oxidation of Fe2+ or insoluble sulphur. In bioleaching there are two following reaction mechanisms:

Direct Bacterial Leaching

In direct bacterial leaching a physical contact exists between bacteria and ores and oxidation of minerals takes place through several enzymatically catalyzed steps. For example, pyrite is oxidized to ferric sulphate as below:

.

2 2 2 4 2 42FeS 7O 2H O 2 FeSO 2H SOT ferrooxidans

Indirect Bacterial Leaching

In indirect bacterial leaching microbes are not in direct contact with minerals but leaching agents are produced by microorganisms which oxidize them.

FeS2 + Fe2(SO4) 3FeSO4 + 2S° 2S° + 3O2 + 2H2O 2H2SO4

Oxidation of ferrous (Fe2+) to ferric (Fe3+) by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans at low pH is given below:

.

4 2 4 2 2 4 234FeSO 2H SO O 2Fe SO 2H O

T ferrooxidans

Conclusion: Microbial mining is an economically sound process with lesser environmental problem than conventional commercial application. It is being used worldwide to reclaim metals from abandoned old mine wastes and also to remove poisonous chemicals from old mine areas. In a country like India it has great national significance where there is vast unexploited mineral potential.

12. NANOTECHNOLOGY 15283

Nanotechnology and its Implications in Agriculture Prachi Singh1*, Rahul Singh Rajput1, Pitambara2 and Jyoti Singh1

1Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi - 221005

2Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, AAU, Anand - 388110 *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

The Royal Society defines: “Nanotechnologies are the design, characterization, production and application of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at nanometer scale.” (RSRAE, 2004). Nanoparticles are natural or manufactured particles with dimension in range of 1- 100 nm, they may exist as an unbounded or agglomeration of many particles. Matter such as gases, liquids, and solids can exhibit unusual physical, chemical, and biological properties at the nanoscale, differing in important ways from the properties of bulk materials and single atoms or molecules. Some nanostructured materials are stronger or have different magnetic properties compared to other forms or sizes or the same material. Others are better at conducting heat or electricity. They may become more chemically reactive or reflect light better or change colour as their size or structure is altered.

Sustainable agriculture demands minimum use of agrochemicals so as to protect environment and different species. Nanoagrochemicals, such as nanopesticides, nanofertilizers or plant growth stimulating nanosystems, has ability to enhance agricultural

production by increased solubility, enhanced bioavailability, targeted delivery, controlled release and/or protection against degradation resulting in the reduced amount of applied active ingredients and finally in a decrease of dose-dependent toxicity/burden. Major nanoformulation and its implication in agriculture is as follows:

Nanoherbicides

Encapsulation of herbicide in polymeric core shell NPs provides safer and convenient management of herbicides that promises environmental safety. The control of parasitic weeds with nanoencapsulated herbicides reduces, phytotoxicity of herbicides on crops. Development of a target specific herbicide molecule encapsulated with NPs is aimed at a specific receptor in the roots of target weeds, which enter into the roots system of the weeds and translocates to parts that inhibit glycolysis of food reserves in the root system, ultimately making the specific weed plant to starve for food and get killed. Nanoformulations of poly (ε-

caprolactone) containing the herbicide atrazine

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



were found to be effective for the control of the target Brassica sp and showed lower toxicity to the non-target organisms (Clemente et al., 2014). Encapsulated paraquat in the formulation of AgNPs in the chitosan matrix showed controlled-release properties and improved herbicidal activity against Eichhornia crassipes with 90% of release at 24 h without affecting soil macro and micronutrients, soil enzymes, soil microflora and seedling emergence and plant growth parameters of non-target plant Vigna mungo (Namasivayam et al., 2014).

Nanofungicides and Nanoantimicrobial Agents

Fungicides are extensively used in agriculture to control soil borne, seed borne or air borne fungal pathogens, because they can control a disease during its occurrence and development, increase productivity of crops and reduce blemishes. They also improve the storage life and the quality of harvested plants. Naturally, nanoformulations respecting the environment are preferred. Agents with fungicidal properties include natural or synthetic molecules, elements, inorganic-based compounds and metal complexes. Biosynthesized AgNPs were found to exhibit strong inhibitory effects against fungal plant pathogens such as Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, R. solani, M. phaseolina, A. alternata, Curvularia lunata, Botrytis cinerea, F. oxysporum, Pyricularia sp., Monilinia sp., Bipolaris sorokiniana and Colletotrichum coccodes (Gopinath et al., 2013 and Mishra et al., 2014).

Nanoinsecticides

Nanoemulsions, nan encapsulates, nano containers, and nano cages are some of the nanopesticide delivery techniques. Nano encapsulated insecticides for crops show increased effectiveness due to enhanced absorption into plants and decreased washing. They are designed to release active ingredient in specific environmental conditions or physiological environments, eg the stomach of an insect. These smart pesticides could provide more precise, controlled and effective use of pesticides and therefore potentially reduce the overall quantities of pesticide used. For example, pyridyl nanosuspension prepared using sodium alginate was 2- and 6-fold more effective as stomach poison against Helicoverpa armigera than the technical product and the commercial formulation, respectively (Saini et al., 2014).

Formulations of a-pinene and linalool (terpenes prohibiting feeding in several lepidopterous insects) with SiO2 NPs enhanced antifeedant potential of the individual terpenes against tobacco cutworm (Spodoptera litura) and castor Semi looper (Achaea janata) and longer shelf life for the terpenes were observed, whereby biological activity against S. litura

increased up to 25-fold (Usha et al., 2014).

Nano Fertilizer and Plant Growth Stimulating Nanoparticles

Nanofertilizers deliver nutrients to crops within NPs by controlled release, whereby nutrients can be encapsulated inside nanomaterials, coated with thin protective polymer film and delivered as particles or emulsions of nanoscale dimensions. Application of nanofertilizers reduces nitrogen leaching losses, emissions and allows long-term assimilation by soil microorganisms. The ability of some NPs to penetrate seeds or enter the root tissue indicate the possibility to develop new nutrient delivery systems that exploit the nanoscale porous domains on plant surfaces and show sustained release of nutrients on demand, while preventing them from premature converting into chemical/gaseous forms that cannot be absorbed by plants. Nanofertilizers can increase the efficacy of fertilizers, by reduced dosage and ensure controlled slow delivery of nutrients or plant growth stimulators to plants. Corradini et al (2010) used chitosan NPs in formulations of NPK CRFs using urea, calcium dihydrogen phosphate and potassium chloride as NPK fertilizer sources.

DNA and Gene Delivery using Nanoparticles

The ability to incorporate genetic materials such as plasmid DNA and RNA into functionalized NPs with little toxicity demonstrates a new era in delivering genes selectively to tissues and cells. Nanoparticle-mediated DNA delivery involves coating DNA molecules onto the NPs and delivery them directly into plant cells either by direct incubation for certain period for the uptake of NPs or by using apparatus like particle bombardment device or even directly injecting nanoparticle fluids into intact plant cells. After entering into the plant cells, DNA molecules will be released by NPs and integrate into the host genome (Torney et al., 2007).

References Clemente Z, Grillo R, Jonsson M, Santos NZ,

Feitosa LO, Lima R. Journal of Nanoscience Nanotechnology. 2014 (14): 4911-4917.

Namasivayam SKR, Aruna A, Gokila. Research Journal of Biotechnology. 2014(9): 19-27.

Gopinath V, Velusamy P. Spectrochim Acta Part A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 2013(106): 170-174.

Mishra S, Singh BR, Singh A, Keswani C, Naqvi AH, Singh HB. PLoS ONE. 2014; 9: e97881.

Saini P, Gopal M, Kumar R, Srivastava C. Journal of Environmental Science and Health part B. 2014(49):344-351.

Usha Rani P, Madhusudhanamurthy J, Sreedhar B. Journal of Pesticide Science. 2014(87):191-200.

Corradini E, De Moura M, Mattoso L. eXpress Polym Lett. 2010(4): 509-515.

Torney F, Trewyn BG, Lin VSY, Wang K. Nature Nanotechnology. 2007(2): 295-300.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



13. AGRONOMY 15093

A Brief Note on Lentil Cultivation Govind Kumar Bagri1 and Rajesh Kumari2

1Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 2Department of Plant Protection, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, UP

INTRODUCTION: Lentil is an important pulse crop and the second major source of dietary proteins (25%) after soybeans in human and animal diet. It is one of the oldest crops that originated in near east and mediterranean region. It was known to ancient in Egypt and Greece. It had spread to Europe, India and China and now it is introduced and cultivated in most subtropical and warm temperate region. Lentils remain stable in Middle Eastern and Indian diets, and one popular in the cuisines throughout the world. If you really want healthy hairs and scalp, then include lentil in your diet at least 3-4 times a weak lentil are rich in folic acid. The total area under lentil in India is 1.59 m ha with a total production 0.94 m t and 591 Kg/ha productivity. The extent of the damage to the crop due to the disease ranged from 20-40% annually from 20-24%. The crop is infected by a number of fungal plant diseases like anthracnose, aschochyta blight, root rot and seedling disease, botrytis gray mold, wilt, sclerotinia stem rot and stemphylium blight etc and out of which vascular wilt is the most devastating caused by several Fusarium species. Globally, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis is recognized the most important factor in reducing lentil production. The wilt disease occurs in fields in patches and originates either at early (seedling) crop stage or at reproductive (adult plant) stage. In seedling wilt sudden dropping followed by drying of leaves and the whole seedlings and apparently healthy looking roots with reduced proliferation. Adult maturity stage symptoms first appears during flowering to late pod filling stage, sudden drooping of top leaf lets of the affected plant leaflet closure without premature shedding apparently healthy looking root system with a slight reduction in the lateral roots. Seed from plants affected in mid-to-late pod filing stage are shriveled dried dull in appearance. Excessive use of agro-chemicals like fungicides may affect the soil health and lead to declining of quality of products. Hence, a natural balance needs to be maintained at all cost for existence of life and property. The obvious choice would be judicious use of agro-chemicals and more and more use of naturally occurring material in farming systems. It helps in maintaining environment health by reducing the level of pollution, human and animal health hazards, cost of agriculture production. Although

various fungicides have promising results in controlling the wilt of lentil but there is a problem of phytotoxicity and fungicidal residue leading to the environmental pollution. In recent times, there has been a worldwide sowing to the use of eco-friendly methods for protecting the crops from diseases.

Environment

As previously stated F. oxysporum is a common soil saprophyte that infects a wide host range of plant species around the world. It has the ability to survive in most soil arctic, tropical, desert, cultivated and non-cultivated. Though Fusarium oxysporum may be found in many places and environments, development of the disease is favored by high temperatures and warm moist soils. The optimum temperature for growth on artificial media is between 25-30 °C, and the optimum soil temperature for root infection is 30 °C or above. However, infection through the seed can occur at temperatures as low as 14 °C.

Prevention and Control

Cultural Control and Sanitary Methods Sowing date affects wilt incidence because it determines the growth stage of the crop that is at an optimum or near-optimum temperature for fungal growth. In India, delayed sowing reduces disease incidence, but late sowing dramatically reduces yield potential and its effect on disease development differs over locations and seasons. A crop rotation of 4-5 years reduces inoculum density in the field, but does not completely eradicate the disease. In India, cultivation of paddy or sorghum in the rainy season reduced lentil wilt incidence the following winter. Soil amendment with organic matter (wheat or barley straw) enhances antagonism by other soil microorganisms.

Biological control- Biological control is a desirable alternative to chemical control of vascular wilt. In India, Trichoderma viride, Streptomyces gougeroti and some species of bacteria were antagonistic to F. oxysporum lentis. Similarly, Trichoderma harzianum and T. koningii showed antibiosis and mycoparasitism. The addition of organic matter to the soil enhances the activity of the antagonists. Complete control of wilt was achieved when T. harzianum were used in combination with chopped wheat straw along with 1% N2 urea +

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



1% glucose +1% K2SO4 or 1% N2 urea + 1% K2SO4 + 0.001% MgSO4. Leaf extracts from different plant species including Ranunculus sceleratus, Impatiens balsamina, Lawsonia inermis, Mentha spicata, Adenocalymma allicium, and Artabotrys hexapetalus were reported to be fungitoxic against the causal agent.

Losess -Losses in lentil production would be incurred in the year of the outbreak. This not only includes lost production but also indirect

impact on other business sectors such as other agricultural enterprises, storage, transport, manufacturing and wholesale trade. This pest causes serious yield losses in those countries where the pathogen is known to occur. Complete crop losses may occur under favourable conditions of a warm, dry spring. In addition, screening of lentil breeding lines for resistance to fusarium wilt found that yield losses can range from 25-95% depending on the variety.

14. AGRONOMY 15271

Constraints in Rice Production S. Kavitha1 and Bavajigudi Shobha Rathod2

1Department of Agricultural Extension, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana and 2Department of Agronomy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the dominant staple food for more than 50% of world population and India ranks first in the world in terms of area of rice cultivation and second in productivity. The problems/constraints in rice production vary from state to state and area to area. The major rice growing areas are concentrated in Eastern region and this region is generally experiences high rainfall and severe flood almost every year. The loss to the rice crop is considerably very high. Besides, in upland areas the crop gets setback either from high rainfall or drought condition. It has also been observed that certain category of soils do not give the desired yield response to the balanced application of NPK fertilizers. The main reasons for this lack of response to the application of balanced fertilizers are associated with certain inherent characters of the soil. All these problems/constraints are affecting the productivity of the rice crops in different growing zones. In certain area, the availability of suitable high yielding varieties and quality seeds are also a problem. These problems/constraints are discussed below:

1. About 78% of the farmers are small and marginal in the country and they are poor in resource. Therefore, they are not in a position to use optimum quantity of inputs in their crops which are essential for increasing the productivity.

2. Often rice crop suffers with soil moisture stress due to erratic and inadequate rainfall. In upland soils rain water flows down quickly and farmers are not able to conserve the soil moisture. There is also no facility for life saving irrigation particularly in upland and drought prone rainfed lowland areas.

3. Intermittent soil moisture stress, due to low and erratic rainfall and poor soil problems are in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and some

parts of Uttar Pradesh. The problems of flash floods, water logging/ submergence due to poor drainage, low-lying physiography and high rainfall in submergence prone lowlands are in Assam, West Bengal, North Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Accumulation of toxic decomposition products in ill drained soils and soil iron toxicity in Assam are problems of low production of rice.

4. Continuous use of traditional varieties due to the non-availability of seeds and farmers lack of awareness about high yielding varieties (Upland, rainfed lowland and deep water areas).

5. Low soil fertility due to soil erosion resulting in loss of plant nutrients and moisture.

6. Low and imbalanced use of fertilizers, low use efficiency of applied fertilizers particularly in the North-Eastern and Eastern States.

7. Heavy infestation of weeds and insects/pests such as blast and brown spot and poor attention for their timely control (upland and rainfed lowland).

8. Poor crop plant population in case of broadcast sowing method resulting in uneven germination (upland and direct seeded lowlands). Delay in monsoon onset often results in delayed and prolong transplanting and sub-optimum plant population (Mostly in rainfed lowlands).

9. Poor adoption of improved crop production technology due to economic backwardness of the farmers (upland and lowlands).

10. Non-availability of bullock drawn or power drawn transplanter for timely transplanting of rice crop.

11. In upland rainfed rice crop is grown under rainfed conditions, the growth is mostly dependent on the vagaries of the monsoon.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



In the years of scanty or adverse distribution of rainfall, the crop fails owing to drought and in the years of heavy rainfall, particularly during blossoming, there is poor grain setting and also the matured grains germinate on the panicles.

12. In the high-rainfall region, the rain-water is lost rapidly through deep percolation, because of the upland location and loose texture of the soil. In these soils the plant nutrients applied through fertilizers are also lost rapidly and investment on fertilizers becomes risky. Further, low water retention capacity by the soil due to high permeability brings in moisture stress condition quickly after the cessation of rains.

13. In the low-rainfall regions, the crop suffers from iron and zinc deficiency in some soils, in the high-rainfall regions, diseases break out particularly Helminthosporium possibly due to unbalanced nutrient availability in the soils.

14. Generally, upland rice crop becomes ready for harvesting earlier in the season, there is much damage due to birds and rodents.

15. In acid, red laterite and lateritic soils, the following problems are encountered: a) Moderate to high acidity b) Deficiency of nutrients, because of there

soils are low in C, N and available nutrients.

c) Toxicity due to iron and in some soils due to aluminum and manganese.

d) P- deficiency and high P-fixing capacity which necessitate higher rates of application of P-fertilizers

e) Impeded drainage in certain areas.

16. The acid sulphate soils have been reported to occur on the west coast of Kerala. These soils are locally known as Kari, Karapadam, Kole, Pokkali and Swamp soils, depending upon their location. The presence of substantial amounts of organic matter in these soil results in the accumulation of large amounts of ammonical nitrogen, particularly in the ‘‘Pokkali” and ‘‘Swamp” soils, which might also prove toxic for the growth of rice plant. These soils contain low amount of phosphate and are likely to show up phosphate deficiency.

17. Saline and alkali soils mostly occur in the coastal districts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The problems of saline and alkali soils are given below: a) osmotic effect due to high concentration

of salts in the saline and saline-alkali soils.

b) difficulty in removal of salts by flushing from these lands in the coastal region because of heavy texture of the soil, lack of freshwater source, particularly in the north-western India, recharge of the salt from sub-surface to the surface soil due to capillary rise and periodic inundation with sea water.

c) toxicity due to high pH and due to the presence of sodium either as carbonate or as bicarbonate in the alkali or saline-alkali soils.

d) highly dispersed soil under alkaline or saline-alkali situation, where drainage becomes a problem.

15. AGRONOMY 15291

Agronomic Practices for Higher Production of Cotton Dr. Karmal Singh*, Dr. A. K. Dhaka and Dr. Bhagat Singh

Department of Agronomy, CCS HAU Hisar *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

The origins of cotton production and use go back to ancient times. The first evidence of cotton use was found in India and Pakistan, and dates from about 6,000 B.C. Scientists believe that cotton was first cultivated in the Indus delta. Today also Indian is the producer of cotton but the productivity of India is very low, similarly in India productivity of Northern region is very low as compare to Tamil Nadu. Farmers can increases their productivity of cotton crop by adopting better agronomic practices.

Cotton Field Preparation

Deep ploughing once in three years and two shallow ploughing every year are essential

during summer. 1 - 2 deep ploughing once in three years is necessary to control deep-rooted weeds and to destroy the pest larvae or cocoons. Some farmers graze animals in summer. Green manuring is also an important way of maintaining soil fertility, but this can be adopted only under irrigated conditions or under cotton-legume crop rotation. Sowing of cotton should be avoided in sandy, saline or waterlogged soils. Cotton should be sown on well drained soils.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Plant Population and Geometry

Varieties Seed rate

(kg/ha)

Spacing

(cm)

Plant population

Per ha.

American cotton 15-20 100x20

67.5x30

50000

49380

Desi cotton 10-12 67.5x30 49380

Hybrid 3-5 100x45

67.5x60

25000

24690

Bt Cotton

5 packets

100x45

67.5x60

25000

24690

Seed Treatment

Seed treatment is an important component for better crop production in any crop by doing seed treatment we can ensure the proper germination and also the initial better growth of the crop. Cotton seed should be treated with 10 ml of Chloropyriphos 20 EC in 10ml of water per kg of seed after that add 2 gm Bavistin per kg of seed, dry the seed in shade before sowing. Cotton seed should be sown 4-5 cm deep in the soil. Sowing of cotton from east to west direction will give higher yield as compare to its sowing from north to south direction.

Sowing Time

Cotton is grown in Kharif season in the Haryana. Time of sowing spread over a period of April to first fortnight of June. However, in case of American cotton optimum time of sowing is May for better yields. Delay in sowing results in yield reduction. Desi cotton should be sown in first fortnight of April to escape early burning of plant in sandy soils.

Fertilizers

For obtaining high yield in cotton fertilizers should be applied on soil test basis. However for Haryana condition, 90: 30: 30 (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium respectively) kg ha is recommended for American Cotton and 50 kg Nitrogen for desi cotton. In case of hybrid cotton

and Bt Cotton, 175: 60: 60 (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium respectively) kg/ha. Application of 10 kg/ha zinc sulphate is also recommended in all types of cotton. Full dose of Phosphorus, Potassium, and Zinc sulphate and 1/3rd part of nitrogen should be applied at the time of sowing of cotton. Second 1/3rd part of nitrogen fertilizer should be applied at the time of square formation and the remaining part of nitrogen should be applied at the time of flowering.

Irrigation

In cotton three or four irrigations are sufficient depending upon rainfall during the crop season. First irrigation in Cotton should be delayed as much we can so that better root development of the crop takes place. Moisture deficiency should not prevail during flowering and ball formation this situation will badly effect the seed cotton yield. Last irrigation should be applied when last 1/3rd of the bolls are opened after that no irrigation should be applied. To increase water productivity we can apply irrigation in cotton through bunds.

Weed Management

Cotton is a widely spaced crop hence weed problems are more in cotton. Weed management includes both chemical and mechanical weed control methods. One hoeing should be done before first irrigation with kasola after that after every irrigation hoeing is recommended till hoeing starts damaging the crop. Pre emergence application of 5 kg/ha of stomp is recommended in cotton.

Picking

Picking of cotton should be does in such a way so that moisture in cotton should be less and it should be clean so that the quality of cotton remains good.

We must follow the recommended package for the control of disease ant insect pests of the region.

16. CROP ECOLOGY 14366

Effect of Weather and Climate on Incidence of Pest and Disease

Mundhe S. G.1*, Khazi G. S.2 and D. A. Sonawane3 1M.Sc. Scholar, Department of Agril. Meteorology, 3Associate Professor, Department of Agronomy,

Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parhani

(MS) – 431 402 *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

Incidence of Pest and Disease

Considerable crop losses caused due to pests and diseases in the humid and sub humid tropics.

Many of the restrictions on productivity and geographical distribution of plants and animals are imposed by pests and diseases. The

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



geographical distribution of pests is mainly based on climatic factors. The climatic conditions show a gradient from place to place and there is a related gradient in the abundance of a particular pest / disease. The periodic or seasonal nature of incidence and out breaks of several pests and diseases of many crops can be ascribed to weather conditions as the triggering factors. These epidemics of diseases are principally weather dependent, either in terms of local weather conditions being favourable for growth and development of the casual organisms or the prevailing winds helping to disseminate airborne pathogens or spores of diseases such as mildew, rusts, scabs and blights.

The migration and dispersion of insect pests depend on the wind speed and direction besides the nature of air currents. Some plant pathogenic viruses suitable for the development of these vectors favor the transmission of such diseases. A surfeit of pests and diseases, which infest plants are kept in chock by seasonal fluctuations in atmospheric temperature or relative humidity and other weather factors. Insect pest outbreaks occur as a result of congenial weather conditions, which facilitate their un-interrupted multiplication. The weather and climate greatly influence the quantity and quality of food provided by the host crops to the associated species of pests. The abundance or otherwise of the pestiferous species is thus dependent on climatic conditions, indirectly also.

The surface air temperature, relative humidity, dew fall, sunshine, cloud amount, wind, rainfall and their pattern and distribution are the primary weather factors influencing the incidence or outbreaks of pests and diseases of crops. In the humid tropics, the weather variables namely air temperature, intermittent rainfall, cloudy weather and dewfall may play a crucial role in the outbreaks of pests and diseases. The impact of various weather components on pests and diseases is experienced in a location and crop specific manner.

Among the major pests associated with crops, insect, mite and nematode species are of a serious nature in terms of their abundance and damage potential. If the occurrence of pest / disease in time and space can be predicted in advance with reasonable accuracy on the basis of relevant weather parameters, appropriate and timely control measures can be programmed. Appropriate insecticide / fungicide interventions can certainly reduce the pesticide load in the environment and the related pollution and health hazards.

Plant Pathogens, Crop Hosts and the Environment

The study of plant disease often begins with a discussion of the “plant disease triangle”. The

three legs of the triangle – host, pathogen, and environment – must be present and interact appropriately for plant disease to result.

If any of the 3 factors is altered, changes in the progression of a disease epidemic can occur. The major predicted results of climate change –increases in temperature, moisture and CO2 – can impact all three legs of the plant disease triangle in various ways. Precisely predicting the impact of climate change on plant disease is tricky business.

Rising Temperatures will Affect Pathogens and Disease

Temperature has potential impacts on plant disease through both the host crop plant and the pathogen. Research has shown that host plants such as wheat and oats become more susceptible to rust diseases with increased temperature; but some forage species become more resistant to fungi with increased temperature. Many mathematical models that have been useful for forecasting plant disease epidemics are based on increases in pathogen growth and infection within specified temperature ranges. Generally, fungi that cause plant disease grow best in moderate temperature ranges. Temperate climate zones that include seasons with cold average temperatures are likely to experience longer periods of temperatures suitable for pathogen growth and reproduction if climates warm.

Changes in Moisture will affect Pathogens and Disease

Moisture can impact both host plants and pathogen organisms in various ways. Some pathogens such as apple scab, late blight, and several vegetable root pathogens are more likely to infect plants with increased moisture – forecast models for these diseases are based on leaf wetness, relative humidity and precipitation measurements. Other pathogens like the powdery mildew species tend to thrive in conditions with lower (but not low) moisture.

Rising CO2 Levels will affect Pathogens and Disease

Increased CO2 levels can impact both the host and the pathogen in multiple ways. Some of the observed CO2 effects on disease may counteract others. Researchers have shown that higher growth rates of leaves and stems observed for plants grown under high CO2 concentrations may result in denser canopies with higher humidity that favor pathogens. Lower plant

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



decomposition rates observed in high CO2 situations could increase the crop residue on which disease organisms can overwinter, resulting in higher inoculum levels at the beginning of the growing season, and earlier and faster disease epidemics

References Reiners, S and C. Petzoldt (eds). 2005. Integrated

Crop and Pest Management Guidelines for Commercial Vegetable Production. Cornell Cooperative Extension publication #124VG http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/recommends/

Shelton, A.M., W.R. Wilsey, and D.M. Soderlund. 2001. Classification of insecticides and acaricides for resistance management. Dept. of Entomology, NYSAES, Geneva, NY 14456.315-787-2352. http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/faculty/shelton/pdf/res_mgmt.pdf

Madden, L. V., Hughes, G. and Bosch, F. V., The Study of Plant Disease Epidemics, The American Phytopathological Society Press, St Paul, MN, USA, 2007.

Luck, J. et al., The effects of climate change on pests and diseases of major food crops in the Asia-Pacific region. Final Report for APN (Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research) Project, 2012, p. 73.

Evans, N., Baierl, A., Semenov, A. M., Gladders, P. and Fitt, B.D. L., Range and severity of a plant disease increased by global warming. J. R. Soc. Interface, 2007, 5, 525–531.

Savary, S., Ficke, A., Aubertot, J.-N. and Hollier, C., Crop losses due to diseases and their implications for global food production losses and food security. Food Security, 2012, 4, 519–537.

Gautam, H. R., Effect of climate change on rural India. Kurukshetra, 2009, 57(9), 3–5.


Effect of Climate Change on Soil Properties and its Mitigation Practices

Swetha Sudhakaran V., Rani Soundarya G. S. and Priya Patel H. G.

Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri

Soils are intricately connected to the climate system through the carbon, nitrogen and hydrological cycles. The major components of climate change that comes under consideration of soil are mainly enhanced CO2 levels, elevated temperature, dwindling rainfall or precipitation and atmospheric nitrogen deposition. These changes in climate impair the soil quality by altering the normal physical, chemical and biological property of soil which ultimately leads to soil degradation. Climate change slowly results the soil vulnerable to salinization, acidification, sodification, water logging and soil erosion which potentially pollutes the surface water bodies. The effects of climate changes on soil properties as following

Physical Property

Increased loss of CO2 from mineral and organic soils affects soil structure, stability, water holding capacity etc.

Lack of soil moisture causes increased evapo-transpiration from crop fields causes decline in crop production.

Loss of carbon from soil as greenhouse gases also effect the soil structure which is responsible for the movement of gases, water, pollutants, seepage, maintenance of water quality etc.

Chemical Property

Intensive rainfall facilitates the leaching of silica, basic cations from the upper layer of

the soil leads to the acidification of normal soil.

Submerged condition of land due to heavy rainfall turns the soil hypoxic. Under this condition redox status of the soil gets altered and elemental toxicities of Mn, Fe, Al and B that reduces crop production.

Cheluviation, ferrolysis and reverse weathering are some of the chemical processes occur in soil due to climate change.

Changes in soil pH due to climate changes causes soil deteoriation through salinization, sodification and acidification

Biological Property

Soil organisms and enzymes are the sensitive, reliable and early detectors of human management and climate change.

Soil organic matter is capable of acting both as sink and source of carbon during climate change.

Decrease in soil carbon through soil erosion, high temperature and various other climatic change hampers the soil microbial and enzymatic activity which plays an important role in nutrient cycling in soil.

Soil organisms restoring the polluting environment by their capability of decomposition, buffering capacity etc.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Management Practices

Mulching and minimum tillage practices helps to conserve soil moisture under higher temperature.

Land should be always covered with crop plants so that soil organic carbon can be maintained to a certain extent.

Careful planning of amount and timing of fertilizer, herbicide, pesticide application and various agricultural management practices.

Incorporation of organic manures as well as crop rotation in soil could helps to increase the amount of soil organic matter.

Using of buffer strips reduces the negative impacts on soil structure due to erosion and runoff.


Agricultural Drought and its Management M. K. Nayak, Anil Kumar and Madho Singh

Department of Agricultural Meteorology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004

Drought affects all parts of our environment as well as our communities. Different types of droughts have varying economic, environmental and social impacts. Approximately 16 per cent of India’s geographic area, mostly arid, semi-arid and sub-humid is drought-prone. Due to high temporal and spatial variability in rainfall and wide variations in physiographic and climatic conditions in the country, droughts are experienced in varying intensities (moderate or severe) almost every year irrespective of a good monsoon. Since 2001, the country has experienced three major droughts, in the years 2002, 2004 and 2009, severely affecting the various sectors and overall economic development of the country. Agricultural drought refers to circumstances when soil moisture is insufficient and results in the lack of crop growth and production. It primarily concerns itself with short-term drought situations. Agriculture can rebound or be impaired within a very short period of time depending upon the strength of drought conditions or rainfall events. In general drought to a crop is defined as a stage when the soil moisture in not sufficient to meet the evapotranspiration demands of the plants.

Causes of Drought

1. Onset of monsoon: In monsoon driven agricultural regions like India, the onset of monsoon itself indicates the probabilities of the occurrence of drought.

2. Soil Physical characteristics: It is well known that the water holding capacity of the soils depending upon the field capacity and wilting point of the soils. In general, heavy soils like clayey soils holds more moisture than light soils like sandy or sandy loam and hence drought occurs earlier in the light soils as compared to heavy soils. In view this, crops with higher water requirement like groundnut, soybean are preferred in heavy

soils rather than light soils. 3. Varietal characteristics: In a given crops

some varieties have deep rooted system and they are considered as drought resistant or drought tolerant as compared to shallow rooted crops. Hence, varietal recommendations are made considering both the duration as well as their drought tolerance, if drought is a recurring phenomenon in any given region.

4. Duration of water stress period and crop stage: The duration of water stress period at different crop growth stages also determines the drought occurrence in any given crop. It is clear that the reproductive stage of any crop is more sensitive for water stress than any other stages.

Drought Management

For assessment of drought and for developing mitigating techniques, a knowledge of the rainfall pattern, effective rainfall, water balance under different rainfall situations and also assessment of the water harvesting potentials during the drought years should also be assessed. Such climatic derived data base can help in developing contingent plans for mitigating the effects of water stress or drought at different stages of crop growth. Whatever, the intensity and whatever the crop growth stage effected due to drought, after assessment of the drought intensity, frequency as well as duration it should be managed properly. Also, there is tremendous potential for harnessing the Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK) for alleviating drought impacts. India is endowed with a rich repository of knowledge relating to cloud formation, lightning, wind direction, rains and drought which has evolved over centuries to perceive and manage natural disasters and extreme weather events by disaster prediction, response, mitigation, and effects of weather on

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



crops. Effective and timely coordination among various Ministries/ Departments/ Organizations can enhance the drought management results. The measures that can be undertaken at the national and regional level are as follows:

At National Level

Improvement in information and communication technologies in an integrated manner for tacking the multifaceted challenge of drought at various spatial scales;

Capacity enhancement for medium and long range drought forecasting;

Better coordination among ministries and departments;

Developing mechanism for context specific and need based forecasting including local language for better understanding.

At Regional Level

Enhancement of real time monitoring capabilities at a regional level through training and joint monitoring programs;

Improvement in methodologies and analytical tools for drought analysis and vulnerability assessment at local and regional level;

Organization of joint training programs to build human capacity in improved resilience towards drought;

Effective and collaborative implementation of drought relief programs;

Strengthening effective water and commodities supply system.

19. ORGANIC FARMING 15185

Nitrogen Fixing Biofertilizers and their Benefits P. Jayamma

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Food and Industrial Microbiology, College of Food Science & Technology, Pulivendula, Kadapa Dt.

Definition: Biofertilizers are the preparation containing microorganisms beneficial to crop production in terms of nutrient supply with respect to N and P which applied with seed or soil. Bio-Fertilizers may be broadly classified into Three Groups

Nitrogenous bio-fertilizers

Phosphatic bio-fertilizers. Organic matter decomposers

TABLE: 1. Common microorganisms as Nitrogenous Biofertilizers

Name of the Biofertilizer

Contribution Beneficiaries

Nitrogen

1) Rhizobium {Symbiotic}

Fixes 50-30 kg N/ha

Leaves residual nitrogen

Increase yield by 10 –30%

Maintains soil fertility

Pulses legumes: Cowpea, Green gram, Black gram, Pea, Gram

Oil legumes: Groundnut, Soyabean

Fodder legumes: Berseem lucern

Fodder legumes: Subabul, Shisan, Wheat, Jowar, Bajra, Maize

2) Azotobacter

Supplies 20-40mg N/g of carbon source

Promotion of growth

Mustard, sunflower, banana, sugarcane, grapes,

Name of the Biofertilizer

Contribution Beneficiaries

substances like vitamins, B Group, IAA and Gibberellic acid

10-15% increase in yield

Maintains soil fertility

Biological control of plant disease, suppresses plant pathogens

papaya, water melon, tomato, chilly, lady finger, coconut, spices, fruit, flower, plantation crops, forest sp

3. Azospirillum

Fixes 20-40kg Nitrogen

Results in increase mineral and water uptake.

Root development

Vegetative growth and crop yield.

Rice, sugarcane, finger, millet, wheat, sorghum, bajra etc.

4. BGA 20-30 kg N/ha in submerged rice fields.

Production of growth substances like auxins, IAA, gibberellic acid

Rice

5. Azolla Fixes 40-80 kg N/ha

Used as green manure because of large bio-mass

Rice

Benefits

1. Germination increase up to 20 percent. Improved seedling emergence and growth.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



2. Increase yield from 10 to 40 percent. 3. Improve the quality of fruit and keeping

quality. 4. Saving of 25 to 35 percent inorganic

fertilizers. 5. Increase the availability and up take of N and

P in plants. 6. Improve the status of soil fertility maintain

good soil health and crop productivity. 7. Higher population of beneficial micro-

organism in soil increase nutrient retention

and availability leading to improve yields. 8. Improve nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer

efficiency. 9. It is safe to handle and easy to apply. 10. Suppress harmful and pathogenic soil micro-

organism. 11. Composting waste matter and produce

organic manure. 12. They are compatible with organic manures,

fertilizers and agro-chemicals. 13. They are non- polluting and eco-friendly.

20. ORGANIC FARMING 15326

Quality Standards of Organic Fertilizer / Manures for Organic Farming

V. Visha Kumari1, V. Girija Veni1, G. Venkatesh1 and B. Kalaiselvi2 1ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad – 500 059

2ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Regional Centre Bangalore *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

According to Codex Alimenarius “organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity”. FAO defined “Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs”. India has a long history of traditional agriculture. It was initiated thousands of years ago when farmers started cultivation using only natural resources. Every farmer used this tradition until the introduction of fertilizers and pesticides in the 20th century. This is said to be the traditional agriculture of a country. There is a brief mention of several organic inputs in India’s ancient literatures like Rigveda, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Kautilya Arthasashthra etc.

Organic Manure/Fertilizers

Organic manure and fertilizers are one of the major components of organic farming. During conversion period, soil fertility can be improved and maintained initially through use of organic inputs. Well decomposed organic manure/ vermicompost, green manure and biofertilizers are used in appropriate quantity to improve the fertility level. Plant biomass, FYM, Cattle dung manure, enriched compost, biodynamic compost, Cow-pat-pit compost and vermicompost are key sources of on-farm inputs. Among off-farm inputs, important components are non-edible oil cakes, poultry manure, biofertilizers, mineral grade rock phosphate and lime etc. Loppings

from Glyricidia and other plants grown on bunds, on-farm produced compost and vermicompost, animal dung and urine and crop residue should form the major source of nutrient and concentrated manures such as crushed oil cakes, poultry manure, vegetable market waste compost and other novel preparations such as biodynamic formulations etc can be used in appropriate quantity. Use of high quantities of manures should be avoided (Amir and Fouzia, 2011).

Advantages of Organic Manures

Organic manure provides all the nutrients that are required by plants but in required quantities.

It helps in maintaining C: N ratio in the soil and also increases the fertility and productivity of the soil.

It improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.

It improves both the structure and texture of the soils.

It increases the water holding capacity of the soil.

Due to increase in the biological activity, the nutrients that are in the lower depths are made available to the plants.

It acts as much, thereby minimizing the evaporation losses of moisture from the soil.

Problems in Organic Manures/Fertilizer Quality

Immature Compost

Compost maturity is an vital aspect of compost quality. Immature compost may have an adverse effect on crops for several reasons, including the heat it generates as decomposition proceeds, the nitrogen taken up by microorganisms during the process of decomposition, and the presence of

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



phytotoxic compounds. Several parameters have been developed to determine the maturity of compost. A number of laboratory tests are used by commercial compost factories. One of the most common is determination of the C/N ratio. During composting, the content of total carbon decreases while that of total nitrogen increases, resulting in a fall in the C/N ratio. Other properties which give an indication of maturity include cation exchange capacity (CEC), chromatograms of humic substances extracted from the compost, ash content, and the level of volatile gases. However, some of these methods are best suited to particular types of composted materials. None of them can be universally applied with the same degree of success to any kind of compost.

Presence of Toxic Elements

A foremost problem in compost production is the occurrence of toxic elements which may be harmful to crop growth and/or human health. Municipal wastes and sewage are the two most plentiful sources of raw materials in industrialized societies. Both these often contain unacceptably high levels of heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium and lead. It is very difficult to remove a small percentage of toxic elements from compost, but if they are left in they are likely to contaminate the food chain. Food wastes and other by-products from agro-industrial processing may also contain toxic substances. Although livestock manure is a rich source of nitrogen, composted livestock wastes have special toxicity problems. Phytotoxic compounds such as volatile fatty acids are produced when animal waste is stored under anaerobic conditions, although they are thoroughly decomposed by aerobic composting. The importance of composting as a means of disposing of agro-industrial wastes is often emphasized. However, if the waste disposal aspect becomes too important, unsuitable materials may be used. Most organic fertilizer factories in India are fairly small, and many suffer from financial difficulties. Several surveys of compost quality in Asian countries have found that as much as a third of the compost products sold did not meet minimum standards.

Regulations on Compost Quality

Most of the compost used in the region is made by farmers on their own farms, from crop residues, livestock wastes and other farm by-products. Since farmers are in control of what goes into the compost, there seems no need to regulate their compost production for their own use. It is commercial compost production that needs to be regulated. Most Asian countries have some form of government control over commercial compost production, although the form it takes varies from one country to another.

In Japan, regulations governing compost limit only the maximum permitted levels for potentially dangerous elements such as cadmium, mercury and arsenic. For other qualities, the Japanese Government has adopted guidelines, rather than regulations, for quality control.

In India, for quality assurance the country has internationally acclaimed certification process in place for export, import and domestic markets. National Programme on Organic Production (NPOP) defines the regulatory mechanism.

Indian Fertilization Policy Standards

Biodegradable material of microbial, plant or animal origin shall form the basis of the fertilization programme.

The certification programme shall set limitations to the total amount of biodegradable material of microbial, plant or animal origin brought onto the farm unit, taking into account local conditions and the specific nature of the crops.

The certification programme shall set standards which prevent animal runs from becoming over-manured where there is a risk of pollution.

Brought-in material (including potting compost) shall be in accordance with given standard.

Manures containing human excreta (faeces and urine) shall not be used.

Mineral fertilizers shall only be used in a supplementary role to carbon based materials. Permission for use shall only be given when other fertility management practices have been optimized.

Mineral fertilizers shall be applied in their natural composition and shall not be rendered more soluble by chemical treatment. The certification programme may grant exceptions which shall be well justified. These exceptions shall not include mineral fertilizers containing nitrogen

The certification programme shall lay down restrictions for the use of inputs such as mineral potassium, magnesium fertilizers, trace elements, manures and fertilizers with a relatively high heavy metal content and/or other unwanted substances, e.g. basic slag, rock phosphate and sewage sludge

Chilean nitrate and all synthetic nitrogenous fertilisers, including urea, are prohibited.

In organic agriculture the maintenance of soil fertility may be achieved through the recycling of organic material whose nutrients are made available to crops through the action of soil micro-organisms and bacteria. Many of these inputs are restricted for use in organic production. In this table given below “restricted”

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



means that the conditions and the procedure for use shall be set by the certification programme. Factors such as contamination, risk of nutritional imbalances and depletion of natural resources shall be taken into consideration.

TABLE 1: Products for Use in Fertilizing and Soil Conditioning

Matter produced on am organic farm unit

1 Farmyard & poultry manure, slurry, urine Permitted

2 Crop residues and green manure Permitted

3 Straw and other mulches Permitted

Matter Produced Outside the Organic Farm Unit

1 Blood meal, meat meal, bone meal and feather meal without

Preservatives

Restricted

2 Compost made from any carbon based residues (animal

excrement including poultry)

Restricted

3 Farmyard manure, slurry, urine

4 Fish and fish products without preservatives

Restricted

5 Guano Restricted

6 Human excrement

7 By-products from the food and textile industries of Restricted

biodegradable material of microbial, plant or animal origin without any synthetic additives

Restricted

8 Peat without synthetic additives (prohibited for soil

conditioning)

9 Sawdust, wood shavings, wood provided it come from

untreated wood

10 Seaweed and seaweed products obtained by physical

processes, extraction with water or aqueous acid and/or

alkaline solution

Restricted

11 Sewage sludge and urban composts from separated

sources which are monitored for contamination

Restricted

12 Straw Restricted

13 Vermicasts Restricted

14 Animal charcoal Restricted

15 Compost and spent mushroom and vermiculate substances

Restricted

16 Compost from organic household reference

Restricted

17 Compost from plant residues Restricted

18 By products from oil palm, coconut and cocoa (including

empty fruit bunch, palm oil mill effluent (pome), cocoa peat

Restricted

and empty cocoa pods)

19 By products of industries processing ingredients from organic agriculture

Restricted

Minerals

1 Basic slag Restricted

2 Calcareous and magnesium rock Restricted

3 Calcified seaweed Permitted

4 Calcium chloride Permitted

5 Calcium carbonate of network origin (chalk, limestone,

gypsum and phosphate chalk)

Permitted

6 Mineral potassium with low chlorine content (e.g. sulphate of potash, kainite, sylvinite, patenkali)

Restricted

7 Natural phosphates (e.g. Rock phosphates)

Restricted

8 Pulverised rock Restricted

9 Sodium chloride Permitted

10 Trace elements (baron, In, Fe, Mn, molybdenum, Zn)

Restricted

11 Woodash from untreated wood Restricted

12 Potassium sulphate Restricted

13 Magnesium sulphate (Epson salt) Permitted

14 Gypsum (calcium sulphate) Permitted

15 Stillage and stillage extract Permitted

16 Aluminum calcium phosphate Restricted

17 Sulphur Restricted

18 Stone mill Restricted

19 Clay (bentonite, perlite, zeolite) Permitted

Microbiological Preparations

1 Bacterial preparations (biofertilizers) Permitted

2 Biodynamic preparations Permitted

3 Plant preparations and botanical extracts Permitted

4 Vermiculate Permitted

5 Peat Permitted

Source: National center for organic farming, DAC

“Factory” farming refers to industrial management systems that are heavily reliant on veterinary and feed inputs not permitted in organic agriculture

Standards to be used for Organic Fertilizer

Organic Agriculture uses a lot of inputs, which are basically organic in nature and are expected to be produced on the farm where the farming is being done. There is a wide variation in the quality of inputs that are currently used in organic farms. It is therefore important and necessary that efforts should be taken up develop standards for these inputs. An initial effort is being made here to do the same.

Compost

Compost is the most important input in organic agriculture. Various compost – making

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



techniques are available and different practices are in vogue.

a. Maturity: Several indicators are available to determine compost maturity. Presently the indicators to be applied are:

1. Compost must be cured for at least 15 days. 2. Compost will not reheat after the composting

process to greater than 200Cabove ambient temperature.

b. Trace Elements: Trace elements are defined as a chemical element present in compost at a very low concentration. The compost standards identify trace elements that are essential to plant growth in addition to identifying heavy metals which depending on their concentration in the soil could be harmful to human health and the environment.

c. Pathogens: Pathogenic organisms are sometimes present in the feed stocks used make compost. As result the compost may also contain pathogens. To reduce any potential health concerns, treatment processes as well as biological specifications have been identified. All the pathogens generally present in the compost feed stock get de-activated at a temperature of around 550 C. Hence it is recommended that:

Farm Yard Manure

Farmyard manure can be used directly in its natural form without any restrictions. There should be no contamination. The composting pits should be free from inorganic material, which is not generic to the manure like plastics, metals and dry cells. Care should be taken to avoid any contamination from heavy metals and plastics. Source of heavy metals is from municipal wastes, industrial wastes or from sub soils.

Poultry Manure: High nitrogen content in the poultry manure gives rise to the problem of nitrate leaching and contamination of ground water which in turn effects sources of drinking water with subsequent impact on the health of human beings particularly children.

Poultry Manure when Composted: In view of what has been mentioned above it is suggested that poultry manure should be used through compost rather than directly.

Green Manure and Green Leaf Manure: These are generally used directly on the soil. Care should be taken whenever the green leaves or branches are cut from the roadside trees, which attract the fuel residues like lead. It is suggested that the green leaves and branches are given a water wash before they are put on the soil or in the compost pit.

Biofertilizers

Rhizobium Azotobacter Azospirillum

Base Carrier based* in form of

Carrier based* in form of

Carrier based* in form of

Rhizobium Azotobacter Azospirillum

moist/dry powder or granules, or liquid based



Viable cell count

CFU minimum 5X107 cell/g of powder, granules or carrier material or 1x108 cell/ml of liquid.



Contamination level

No contamination at 105 dilution



pH 6.5-7.5 6.5-7.5 6.5-7.5

Particles size in case of carrier based

material

All material shall pass through 0.15-0.212mmIS sieve



Moisture percent by weight, maximum in case of carrier based.

30-40% 30-40% 30-40%

Efficiency character

Should show effective nodulation on all the species listed on the packet.

The strain should be capable of fixing at least 10 mg of nitrogen per g of sucrose consumed.

Formation of white pellicle in semisolid N free

bromothymol

blue

media.

*Type of carrier:- The carrier material such as peat, lignite, peat soil, humus, wood Charcoal or similar material favouring growth of the organism.

Crop Residue: While they are good source of manure and needed for soil building, there is a danger of contamination from bacteria and heavy metals. It is therefore suggested that crop residue should be used only after composting which will deactivate the bacteria like Salmonella and / or Aflatoxin. Where composting cannot be done, crop residues should be washed with water and then dried before they are used.

Kitchen Waste: This is very extensively used in organic farms. Kitchen waste may not be of organic origin. Hence, they should be used only when it is properly compensated.

Plantation By-products and Wastes: There is no restriction in using the by-products of existing organic plantation farms. Restrictions put when the plantation is under conversion. The plantation waste in that case should be used only

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



after composting. Oil Cakes: Traditionally, oil cakes have been

used as manures in cultivation. Unfortunately, presently all the oil cakes available are from the solvent extraction plants. These are known as de-oiled cakes, which always have the petroleum residue of about 0.2 percent. These cakes come inflake/chip. The residual petroleum gets reduced substantially if the cakes are powdered. It is therefore suggested that oil cakes should be allowed to be used only in powder form. It is also advisable to sprinkle water on these cakes while they are used.

Quality Control

Monitoring of Quality: Whether guidelines or regulations are the official safeguards of quality, these will only be observed if there is regular monitoring. In fact, without monitoring, regulations have little meaning. Sometimes fertilizer companies carry out their own monitoring. More often, there is some government department or official body which is responsible for the scientific analysis of compost samples. Often the collection of samples is done by local government officials, rather than the fertilizer factories themselves. This is to ensure that sampling is fair and adequate.

Labeling of Bags: Another basic requirement to maintaining compost quality is that bags of commercial compost should carry clear and informative labels. Good labeling of bags enables the consumer to compare different brands of compost in terms of their nutrient content and

other qualities, and not just in terms of their price. It also helps protect consumers from products made by substandard compost factories.

Conclusion: Growing awareness across consumers for quality/nutritious food, has led to the growth of organic farming which is economically viable due to reduction in the use of external inputs and increased use of farm organic inputs. This has greatest potential to benefit the soil health, farmer profits and consumer preferences. However, farmers should be trained in production and use organic inputs. The mandatory standards should be made aware before entering into the production to reap its full benefit.

References A.K. Dhama, 1996. Organic Farming for Sustainable

Agriculture by Agro Botanical Publishers (India)

APEDA. 2014. Agricultural and Processed food product Export Development Authority, Ministry of Commerce and Industries, GOI, www.apeda.gov.in.

Bhattacharyva, P. and G. Chakraborty. 2005. Current Status of Organic Farming in India and other Countries. Indian Journal of Fertilisers. 9, 111-123.

Krishna Chandra, 2005. “Production and Quality Control of Organic Inputs” pp 1-46.

Ramesh P, Panwar N R, Singh A B, Ramana S, Yadav SK, Shirvastava R and Rao A S. 2010. Status of organic farming in India, Current Science98(6):1190-1194.

21. WATER MANAGEMENT 15012

Water Harvesting Praveen Solanki1* and Shiv Singh Meena2

1Ph.D. Research Scholar Dept. of Environmental Science, 2Ph.D. Research Scholar Dept. of Soil Science; G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar-263145, India


INTRODUCTION: It is the collection and storage of rainfall from any catchment or watershed (topographically delineated area that is drained by particular location) followed by subsequent use with taking measures to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities to take place in the catchment. Rainwater harvesting in a given area depends on topography, soil type, depth, slope, vegetative cover etc. It largely depends on quantity and distribution of rainfall and will therefore, be more successful in areas where rainfall is sufficient. Recharge of ground water, which is concept of rainwater harvesting, utilizes the structures like pits, trenches, dug wells, recharge wells/shafts, bore wells, check dams and percolation tanks. Water Harvesting can be Undertaken by Variety

of Ways (1) Capturing runoff from rooftops, (2) Capturing runoff from local catchments, (3) Capturing seasonal floodwaters, (4) Conserving water through watershed management.

Significance of Water Harvesting

(1) Provide drinking water, (2) Provide water for irrigation, (3) Increase level of groundwater recharge, (4) Reduce storm water discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants, (5) Reduce seawater ingress in coastal areas.

Sources of Water

Rain is the first form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is a primary source

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



of water for us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary sources of water; hence recharge of these water sources on time is extremely necessary. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting means to understand the value of rain and to make optimum use of the rainwater at the place where it falls.

Water Recycling

Reusing and recycling alternative water supplies is a key part of reducing the pressure on our water resources and the environment. Helping us to adapt climate change and population growth. When considering alternative water supplies, you should choose the most appropriate water source, taking into account end use, risk, resource and energy requirements. Further information is available on the following alternative water supplies:

Rainwater: Using rainwater is an easy and effective way to conserve our water supplies and reduce the amount of mains water we use.

Greywater: Greywater (all non-toilet household wastewater) can be a good water resource during times of drought and water restrictions, but its reuse can carry health and environmental risks.

Treated Sewage: Recycling wastewater can ease the pressure on our water resources and avoid the need to discharge wastewater to the environment. Recycling wastewater can provide water that, with some management controls, is suitable for a wide range of uses including irrigation and toilet flushing.

Industrial Water: Reusing and recycling industrial water can ease the pressure on our water resources and avoid the need to discharge to the sewer and/or environment. With appropriate management, which may include treatment, industrial water can be used for a wide range of purposes including industrial uses (e.g. cooling or material washing) or non-industrial uses (e.g. irrigation or toilet flushing).

Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)

In urban areas where there’s not enough surface water storage, aquifers can provide a way to store excess water when it becomes available until the time it is needed.

Intentionally injecting or depositing water into an aquifer and then extracting the water for use at a later date is known as managed aquifer recharge (MAR). There has been an increasing interest in using MAR as a mechanism to store and later supply an alternative water source for various uses. For example, stormwater could be injected into an aquifer and then later reused for watering parks and gardens in drier seasons.

22. WATER MANAGEMENT 15162

Indigenous Knowledge of Rain Water Harvesting Systems of Rajasthan

*Sunil Kumar1, Vikram Kumar1and Rajesh Kumar Singhal2 1Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Science, BHU, Varanasi, India-221005 2Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Science, BHU, Varanasi-221005

*Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

Water, being a basic necessity for the survival of life has been saved, preserved, stored and revered by the residents of desert towns since time immemorial. Water crisis is the major problem of today’s world which could turn into water war any time. Rainwater harvesting has been an indigenous technology weaved seamlessly in any desert area around the world. Rajasthan stands out being a desert state where such structures have a history of their own with unique architecture and Neighbourhood development around. The structures constructed for rainwater harvesting have become focal points for many activities of a community. The architecture around many such structures shows the need for making water conservation much more than just a fulfillment of a need. These structures hold the erratic rainfall safe from

evaporative loses, seepage and salinization for whole year or more. Rainwater Harvesting has the following benefits

It recharges the ground water table.

This practice can be done on individual as well as community level.

It corrects the imbalance between water needs and availability.

Rain water is one of the purest form of water so it could be used with minimum treatment.

Indigenous Rain Water Harvesting Systems

Kunds / Kundis: A kund or kundi looks like an upturned cup nestling in a saucer. These structures harvest rainwater for drinking, and dot the sandier tracts of the Thar Desert in western Rajasthan and some areas in Gujarat. Essentially a circular underground well, kunds

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



have a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh across water-inlets prevents debris from falling into the well-pit. The sides of the well-pit are covered with (disinfectant) lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or at least a lid, to protect the water. If need be, water can be drawn out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of kunds depend on their use (drinking, or domestic water requirements). They can be owned by only those with money to invest and land to construct it. Thus for the poor, large public kunds have to be built.

Kuis / Beris: Found in western Rajasthan, these are 10-12 m deep pits dug near tanks to collect the seepage. Kuis can also be used to harvest rainwater in areas with meagre rainfall. The mouth of the pit is usually made very narrow. This prevents the collected water from evaporating. The pit gets wider as it burrows under the ground, so that water can seep into a large surface area. The openings of these entirely kuchcha (earthen) structures are generally covered with planks of wood, or put under lock and key. The water is used sparingly, as a last resource in crisis situations. Magga Ram Suthar, of village Pithla in Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan, is an engineer skilled in making kuis/beris.

Baoris / Bers: Baoris or bers are community wells, found in Rajasthan, that are used mainly for drinking. Most of them are very old and were built by banjaras (mobile trading communities) for their drinking water needs. They can hold water for a long time because of almost negligible water evaporation.

Jhalaras: Jhalaras are typically rectangular-shaped step wells that have tiered steps on three or four sides. These stepwells collect the subterranean seepage of an upstream reservoir or a lake. Jhalaras were built to ensure easy and regular supply of water for religious rites, royal ceremonies and community use. The city of Jodhpur has eight jhalaras, the oldest being the Mahamandir Jhalara that dates back to 1660 AD.

Nadis: Nadis are village ponds, found near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. They are used for storing water from an adjoining natural catchment during the rainy season. The site was selected by

the villagers based on an available natural catchments and its water yield potential. Water availability from nadi would range from two months to a year after the rains. They are dune areas range from 1.5 to 4.0 metres and those in sandy plains varied from 3 to 12 metres. The location of the nadi had a strong bearing on its storage capacity due to the related catchment and runoff characteristics.

Tobas: Tobas is the local name given to a ground depression with a natural catchment area. A hard plot of land with low porosity, consisting of a depression and a natural catchment area was selected for the construction of tobas.

Tankas: Tankas (small tank) are underground tanks, found traditionally in most Bikaner houses. They are built in the main house or in the courtyard. They were circular holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished lime, in which rain water was collected. Tankas were often beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep the water cool. The water was used only for drinking. If in any year there was less than normal rainfall and the tankas did not get filled, water from nearby wells and tanks would be obtained to fill the household tankas. In this way, the people of Bikaner were able to meet their water requirements.

Khadin: A Khadin, also called a dhora, is an ingenious construction designed to harvest surface runoff water for agriculture. Its main feature is a very long (100-300 m) earthen embankment built across the lower hill slopes lying below gravelly uplands. Sluices and spillways allow excess water to drain off. The Khadin system is based on the principle of harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this water-saturated land for crop production. First designed by the Paliwal Brahmins of Jaisalmer, western Rajasthan in the 15th century, this system has great similarity with the irrigation methods of the people of Ur (present Iraq) around 4500 BC and later of the Nabateans in the Middle East. A similar system is also reported to have been practised 4,000 years ago in the Negev desert, and in South-Western Colorado 500 years ago.

Bawaris: Bawaris are unique step wells that were once a part of the ancient networks of water storage in the cities of Rajasthan. The little

rain that the region received would be diverted to man-made tanks through canals built on the hilly outskirts of cities. The water would then

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



percolate into the ground, raising the water table and recharging a deep and intricate network of aquifers. To minimize water loss through evaporation, a series of layered steps were built around the reservoirs to narrow and deepen the wells.

Conclusion: Rajasthan is the largest state of India with an area of 10% of the total geographical area of the country and only 1% of the total surface water resources of the country. The traditional water harvesting bodies in

Rajasthan have been very different then the water features incorporated in design all over the world. Here the water becomes life of a community. It’s not a bare ornament but a live, breathing phenomena. With the growing water crisis, it’s the duty of an architect or a planner to design such rain water harvesting structures that people connect with them rather than considering them only as tanks. Only and only then such bodies can survive and thrive and solve the impending water crisis.

23. WEED SCIENCE 15103

Use of Electromagnetic Radiations in Weed Control Umesha C.

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, UAHS, Shivamogga

Electromagnetic Radiations

Self-propagating waves in a vacuum or in matter. All EM waves have the same structure they consist of an electric field E and a magnetic Held H vibrating in phase and perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM; EM waves differ by their frequency (f) or their wavelength (X) which are connected by the following expression:

X = c / f

THE FREQUENCY OR THE ROLE OF THE PHOTON; An EM wave carries energy, emitted

in the form of small indivisible quantities (called photons) individually transporting an energy Eph proportional to the frequency.

E p h = h f = h c / X

IONISING RADIATION; Small wavelengths —gamma rays, X-rays, UV and sometimes visible light, a photon has enough energy to extract an electron from the atom, If the extracted electron belongs to a molecule, ionisation will destroy a chemical bond, If the electron is part of a gene of a biological cell, the genetic code may be modified.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



NON IONISING RADIATION; longer wavelengths, i.e. visible light, IR, microwaves, radio and audio waves, The electric field of the EM wave makes the charged particles vibrate within the matter, without dissociating them from their chemical bond, The resulting internal friction leads to a release of heat directly inside the matter, The radiations will produce vibrations of the matter components and heat the medium, Small wavelengths are more difficult to obtain, require complex hardware and are often more expensive. Therefore, gamma ray or X-ray equipment generally requires a higher investment than IR or radio wave experiments

The type of interaction between the EM wave and the matter essentially relies on two factors: (1) the frequency of the wave

(2) The penetration depth of the wave in the medium.

For an EM wave to be effective in plant protection, several factors must be satisfied simultaneously:

1. The EM wave must eradicate the target without damaging the surrounding medium,

2. It must penetrate the ground or the plant to reach the target

3. The radiation source must be reasonable in terms of cost and ease of use,

4. The radiation source must be reasonable in terms of cost and ease of use,

Since this technique will not allow any

residues in the soil. Some of the trials have been conducted to use electromagnetic radiations in weed control.

In 1917 in UK a committee for Electro culture was established.

British Sugar Corporation and the University of Sheffield in 1980 developed weed beet control machine.

Increased public concern about herbicides in relation to food safety, farm workers health, biodiversity, and the environment in general have renewed interest in alternative weed control measures.

Physical weed control; Mechanical hoeing, harrowing, and brushing. (initiate new weed seed germination).

Thermal soil treatment methods; weed seeds are killed in a band through an energy-intensive surface steaming process.

THE BRITISH SUGAR CORPORATION WEED BEET CONTROL MACHINE DEVELOPED IN THE 1980 S

Trials showed was effective, but the size and weight of the equipment, the introduction of the ‘Weed Wiper’ using a rope wick applicator to wipe herbicides onto the weed beet and the lack of any environmental pressures thirty years ago, meant that the technique was not commercialized and no further machines were produced at that time.

24. SOIL SCIENCE 14925

Site-Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM): An Approach for Optimizing Nutrient Use in Rice Production

Kadu J. B., Kondvilkar N. B., Meka V. V. I. Annapurna, Patil P. B.

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, MPKV Rahuri, Maharashtra

What is Site Specific Nutrient Management

Many of nutrients required by rice plants come from soil. But the supply of nutrients is typically insufficient to meet the nutrient requirements for high rice yields. The use of fertilizer is consequently essential to fill the gap between the crop needs for nutrients and the supply of nutrient from soil and available organic inputs.

Principle of SSNM

Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM) is an approach to feeding rice with nutrients as and when needed. The application and management of nutrients are dynamically adjusted to crop needs of the location and season. The SSNM Approach Aims to Increase Farmers Profit through

1. Increased yield of rice per unit of applied fertilizer.

2. Higher rice yields 3. Reduced disease and insect damage.

The Features of Site Specific Nutrient Management

1. Optimal use of existing indigenous nutrient source such as crop residues and measures.

2. Application of Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium fertilizer is adjusted to the location and season specific need of the crop. a) Use of the leaf colour chart ensures that

nitrogen is applied at the right time and in the amount needed by the rice crop which prevent wastage of fertilizer.

b) Use of nitrogen omission plots to determine the P & K fertilizer required to meet the crop needs. This ensures that phosphorous and potassium are applied in the ratio required by the rice crop.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



3. Local randomization for application of zinc, sulphur and micronutrients are followed.

4. Selection of most economic combination of available fertilizer sources.

5. Integration with other integrated crop management (ICM) practices such as the use of quality seeds, optimum plant density, integrated pest management and good water management.

Why use Site Specific Nutrient Management

a) Nutrient use efficiency: Under current management practices, the rice crop takes up only one bag in three of nitrogen (H) fertilizer applied to the rice. Additionally, farmers often fail to apply Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), and Potash (K) in the optimal ratio to meet the need of rice plants. Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM) provides an approach for feeding rice with nutrients as and when needed.

b) Increase Profitability: The major benefit for formers from improved nutrients management strategy is an increase in the profitability or rice cropping. SSNM eliminates wastage of fertilizer by preventing excessive rates of fertilizer and by avoiding fertilizer application when the crop does not require nutrient inputs. It also ensures that N, P, K are applied in the ratio required by the rice crop.

When to use SSNM

Suitable target areas for the introduction of improved nutrient management strategy is likely to have one or more of the following characteristics. Insufficient or imbalanced use of fertilizer, resulting in the low attainable yield despite high yield potential find out about local fertilizer use from farmers’ fertilizer suppliers and extension worker.

Occurrence of Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

Occurrence of pest problems link to nutrient imbalance or over use of fertilizer (N) (e.g. sheath blight and rice blast) Inefficient fertilizer (N) we because of high total (H) rates or inadequate splitting and timing of application fertilizers. Evidence of strong mining of soil indigenous park.

Implementing SSNM

Once we have determined that implementing Site Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM) will be beneficial in a particular area, we should follow three main steps to carry out a successful extension campaign.

Step -1 Select an economic yield target: This is essential to determine the required application rate of N, P and K nutrients only it we know that yield increases we are targeting. We can determine appropriate nutrient application rate.

Select an economic yield target base on the following criteria. As a general rule, select our yield target i.e. based on the average yield of the past 3-5 crops (same season) pulls to 20% achievement as visible yield increase. Select a yield target of not more than 75-80% of the potential yield determined at experimental stations. If such information is not available, use the highest yields reported from farmers fields. Yield target that are too close to the potential yield may require excessive amount of fertilizer inputs and increase the risk of crop failure. Select a high yield target in the high yield season favourable climate conditions and a moderate yield target in lower yield seasons less favourable climate conditions and greater risk of the crop failure because of pest and disease.

Step - 2 Estimate soil nutrient supplies using nutrient omission plots only if we know that nutrients are deficient, as evidenced by given yield. Appropriate nutrient application rate will be calculated by subtracting the yield attained is nutrient deficient plot from the target yield for a crop identified in step-1, omission plots visually demonstrate to farmers the nutrient deficit in their fields. The required rate of ‘P’ & ‘K’ fertilizer can be calculated in area with no nutrients limitation. The use of omission plots consequently helps ensure that ‘P’ & ‘K’ are applied in the ratio required by the rice crop. Farmers themselves establish small omission plots embedded within their fields. In ‘P’ omission plots, in ‘K’ omission plots no K fertilizer is applied. But other nutrients are adequately supplied. The supply of soil nutrient can be estimated from yield in omission plots. Because the deficiency nutrient not supplemented with fertilizer limits plant growth and yield. At crop maturity, major grain yield from a central 2m x 2.5m are in an each omission plot. Cut all panicles and place them in a plastic sheet to prevent yield loss. Strip all the spikelet carefully, remove unfilled spikelets and spread the grass on the plastic sheet, dry the grain in the full sun light for one whole day to reach grain moisture content of about 12.6%. It may take 2-3 days to sundry the grain fully in a rainy season express grain yield (GY) in t/ha. Average the yield estimates obtained from 10-20 farmers’ fields for each omission plot type to obtained the average ‘N’ - limited yield (yield in F - plots) the average ‘P’ limited yield (yield in O ‘P’ plots) and the average ‘K’ limited yield (yield in O K Plots). 94 yield measurements in the omission plots indicate large differences in soil nutrient supply within particular area of your recommendation domain, consider dividing the domain into two or more areas as a rule of thumb. The average rule of omission plots should differ consistently by at least t/ha to justify two separate domains.

Step-3 Manage N, P and K nutrient inputs

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



based on fertilizer rates calculated from date gathered in steps-1 and 2. Once we have selected any yield target (Step-1) and estimate soil nutrient supply (Step-2) you can begin to manage N, P and K nutrient inputs. The management of N uses visual indicators of deficiency while the management of P and K primary involves preventing deficiency in the soil rather than treating observable deficiency symptoms in the crop.

Advantages of SSNM: Site specific nutrient management is a concept that can be applied to any field or any crop, while most often use of computer and satellite technology in the site specific nutrient management does not require special equipment and does not require a large farming operation. The technology tools certainly expand the capabilities for using site specific management.


Ratoon Management Rohit K. Patidar and Debabrata Nath

Division of Soil Physics, ICAR- Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal

Management of the Field after Harvest of the Plant Crop

Complete the following operations within 10 days of harvest of plant crop to obtain better establishment and uniform sprouting of shoots.

1. Incorporate the trash using trash shredder. 2. Follow stubble shaving with mechanical

stubble shaver. 3. Work with cooper plough along with sides of

the ridges to break the compaction and for large scale cultivation use tractor drawn off barrier.

4. The gappy areas in the ratoon sugarcane crop should be filled within 30 days of stubble shaving. The sprouted cane stubbles taken from the same field is the best material for full establishment. The next best method is gap filling with seedlings raised in poly-bags.

5. Apply basal dose of organic manure and super phosphate as recommended for plant crop.

Management of the Crop

1. 25% additional N application on 5-7 days after ratooning.

2. Spray Ferrous sulphate at 2.5 kg/ha on the 15th day. If chlorotic condition persists, repeat twice further at 15 days interval. Add urea 2.5 kg/ha in the last spray.

3. Hoeing and weeding on 20th day and 40th to 50th day.

4. First top dressing on 25th day, 2nd on 45th to 50th day.

5. Final manuring on 70th to 75th day. 6. Partial earthing up on 50th day. If junior-hoe

is worked two or three times upto 90th day, partial earthing up is not necessary.

7. Final earthing up on 90th day. 8. Detrashing on 120th and 180th day. 9. Trash twist propping on 180th day. 10. Harvest after 11 months.

Ratoon Management

Although sugarcane productivity has shown the increasing trend, a wide gap exists between potential (competition crops) and existing (Commercial plots) productivity levels. Ratooning constitutes around 50% of the total area under cane and ratoon productivity invariably falls below that of the plant cane, even though theoretically ratoon crops are expected to have higher productivity and early maturity than the plant crop. Several countries like Mauritius, Hawaii, U.S.A., South America, etc., rise multiple rations, thereby saving on the cost of the seed material, labor involved in planting and attaining much higher profitability per unit area compared to India, where we generally do not grow beyond one or two rations. Ratoon productivity has been proved to increase with proper management involving timely operations.

Hence for increasing the productivity of ratoon crop the following points should be taken into account:

1. Selection of sugarcane varieties which can give fair or better ratoon yield.

2. The crop should be timely (at optimum age) and plants should be harvested close to the ground.

3. The leftover of plants viz. dry leaves or cane trashes should be partially removed and make stubble shaving at ground level. If the preceding crop is infected with severe pest, diseases and weeds then burn the field soon after harvesting. The burning of trashes helps in destroying eggs, larvae of pests and inoculum’s of diseases, weed seeds etc.,. Burning evolves heat, which converts sucrose of stubbles into glucose for a quick sprouting of ratoons (tillers) during winter.

4. After stubble removal and burning of trashes the bunds should be destroyed and the field should be given irrigation and then inter cultivation by running wooden plough for

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



providing better aeration to roots, for making soil loose and for root pruning. This helps in a quick root production and sprouting of ratoons. This is termed as off-barring.

5. While doing off barring sow the recommended chemical fertilizers along with organic manures at the base of the ratoon stubble so as to have higher fertilizers use efficiency.

6. The gaps in the ratoon crop should be attended by using any of the following method.

7. With pre-germinated settling raised through polybag system

8. Taking the clumps from thickly populated area and filling the gaps

9. Removing the clumps from one side of the plots and the place vacated in the process may be replanted fresh.

10. When all the above-mentioned operations are over the field should be given irrigation according to the crop needs.

11. Trash mulching helps to check the weeds, reduce water requirement and as organic manure for soil.

12. The crop should be provided an efficient drainage for draining out excess water from the field.

13. The weed control, earthing up, hoeing and plant protection measures should be

followed as they are done in the planted crop.

Relative merits and demerits of ratooning

Merits Demerits

Cost of seed, seed bed preparation and planting is saved.

Ratoon crop utilizes the residual Fertility of the previous crop.

Ratoon crop matures earlier and helps in running sugar mills earlier. Thus the field is vacated earlier for the next crop.

The quality of the produce is superior to planted cane.

Total cost of cultivation is less as compared to the planted one.

The yield remains equal to the planted crop if due care is taken.

Ratoon crop is invariably attacked severely by insects, pests and diseases. Thus the yield is very poor.

The soil becomes poor in fertility when ratooning is done for more than two years.


Nutrient Management for Sustainable Productivity of Coconut

Sathya S.1, N. Akila1 and B. Kalaiselvi2

1Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Veterinary College & Research Institute Campus, Namakkal 2National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, RC, Hebbal, Bangalore-560 024, Karnataka,

India

Coconut is one of the important oil seed & cash crop for farming community. Continuous yielding without proper fertilization is the major reason for decline in yield of crops. The deficiency of nutrients severely affects the yield of crops. The common nutrient deficiency symptoms are given here under.

Nitrogen deficiency – Symptoms appear on older leaves. Dull green, yellowish, smaller leaves. Die back of twigs, thin and bushy appearance of tops. Vein chlorosis.

Phosphorus deficiency- Symptoms appear on older leaves. The leaves are small and narrow with purplish or bronze discolouration. Necrotic areas develops in leaves and fall off; flowering is affected.

Potassium deficiency - Slower growth, smaller leaves, twigs die peak, scorching of

leaf tips, small brown resinous spots on leaf. Small wrinkled spotted leaves. Small fruits, yellowing and bronzing of leaves become twisted, wrinkled and spindy twigs.

Manganese deficiency - Yellowish blotch near the base of leaf, midrib and the outer edge. The leaves become entirely yellow and defoliate.

Boron deficiency - Young and newly developing leaves become deformed called as little leaf. Leaflets become abnormal which do not split as usual. Leaves have a serrated zigzag appearance. The apical shoot exhibits blackening and death. Sterilizing and malformation of reproductive structures. Low and abnormal fruits & shedding of buttons.

To improve the yield of coconut as well as to

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



sustain soil fertility adoption of integrated nutrient management (INM) practice is inevitable. The INM practice is nothing but application of nutrients through combined way of

organic manures, inorganic fertilizers & bio fertilizers. The general fertilizers recommendation of coconut is as follows

Fertilizer recommendation of coconut (kg/tree/year or g/tree/year)

Nutrient sources/

Age of the trees

Organic manure

(kg/tree)

Inorganic fertilizers (kg / tree) Bio fertilizers (g/tree)

Farm yard manure

Urea Single super phosphate

Muriate of potash

Micronutrient mixture

Azospirillum Phosphobacteria

1year 10 0.308 0.50 0.48 1 50 50

2year 20 0.616 1.00 0.96 1 50 50

3 year 30 0.924 1.50 1.44 1 50 50

4 year 40 1.23 2.00 1.92 1 50 50

5th year on wards

50 1.23 2.00 1.92 1 200 200

Method of Fertilizer Application

Soil Application: Nutrients can be applied as single dose or applied in two equal splits during the month of June-July & December-January. Dig the pit to a depth of 6” in circular basin with the radius of 1.5 m from the base of the tree. The above mentioned dose of fertilizers should be applied in the pit & irrigate same. To avoid the volatilization loss of nutrients from the pit, pit should be closed with diggen soil or coconut leaves or paddy straw.

Green manuring with daincha can also be done instead of farm yard manure application. Green manure seeds should be sown around the tree @ 50 gram & incorporate in the same at flowering stage (Allow them grow in the field upto 45 days). Timely incorporation is the most important practice in green manuring; quite affect the decomposition rate & timely release of nutrient to the plant.

To improve the efficiency & availability of applied micronutrients, micronutrient mixture should be enriched with farm yard manure @1:10 ratio with friable moisture condition for one month under shade condition. To avoid moisture loss from the manure sprinkling of water should be done in morning or evening hours. After enrichment, it should be applied in the pit & irrigate the field immediately. Incorporation with the help of spade and other tools should not be done after application as it is immobile element in the soil. Incorporation may brought the nutrients to the lower layer from the upper part of soil & make them unavailable to

plants. Fertilizers like urea, super & potash were used as source of nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus & potassium respectively. Fertilizers should not be mixed & stored for long time. It creates chance for clogging & thereby hinders the feasibility of application & also makes harmful effect to the plant. It should be mixed & applied immediately to the field.

Biofertilizers should not be applied along with inorganic fertilizers & it will affect the longevity of beneficial organisms living in the biofertilizers. It should be applied along with farm yard &then irrigation has to be done.

Root Feeding with Micronutrients: To control the nutrient deficiency as well to improve chlorophyll content in the plant, root feeding with coconut tonic @ 200 ml / tree should be done once in six months. Coconut tonic consisted of all essential nutrients except Ca & P. It also consisted of growth regulator auxin & salicylic acid. To enhance the absorption rate by the plants, tonic should be tied (polythene bag containing coconut tonic) in newer roots as mentioned in the soil application of nutrients. The newer roots may be found around 1-1.8 m radius from the base of the tree based on the age of the tree. Root end should be sharpened & then tied with the bag containing coconut tonic.

From the above, it can be concluded that by practicing the timely & balanced fertilization through INM not only improves the crop productivity & also improve the fertility status of soil.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com




Nutrient Management in Groundnut for Better Production M. K. Tarwariya* and Ekta Joshi

Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Gwalior (M.P.)-474002, India *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

Groundnut or peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is also known as a ‘King’ of oilseed belongs to family Fabaceae. This is also known by various names such as earthnuts, peanuts, goober peas, pindas, jack nuts, pinders, manila nuts, and monkey nuts. Groundnut alone contributes 70% of the total edible oil production. Groundnut is a predominant oilseed crop, of which approximately 53% of total global production is crushed for high quality edible oil, 32% for confectionary consumption and the remaining 15% is used for food and seed production. Groundnut is a multipurpose crop which contain on an average 45 to 51% high quality hydrogenated edible oil, 25% dietary proteins, 24.2% soluble carbohydrates and minerals. The kernel is also rich in vitamin E, K and B groups. The calorific value of groundnut is 349 per hundred grams of seed. The groundnut oil cake contains 7 to 8% N, 1.5% P2O5 and 1.20% K2O therefore; it can be used as concentrated organic manure under the shortage of non-edible oil cakes in intensive organic farming.

Nutrient Management

Application of Micronutrients

Mix 12.5 kg/ha of micronutrient mixture developed by Department of Agriculture with enough dry sand to make a total quantity of 50 kg/ha.

Broadcast evenly on the soil surface immediately after sowing.

Do not incorporate micronutrient mixture in to the soil.

Nutritional Disorders

Zinc Deficiency

If soil analysis shows less than 1.3 ppm of zinc, soil application of 25 kg ZnSO4 is recommended.

Reduce ZnSO4 application from 25.0 kg ha-1 to 12.5 kg ha-1 if FYM is applied @ 12.5 t ha-

1.

For the standing crop, less than 39.4 ppm of zinc in leaves, foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 is

recommended – Iron deficiency: spray 1% FeSO4 on 30,

40 and 50 days after sowing. – Boron deficiency: Apply Borax 10 kg +

Gypsum 400 kg/ha at 45th day after sowing.

Application of Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum)

Apply gypsum @ 400 kg/ha by the side of the plants on 40th to 70th day depending upon soil moisture.

Apply gypsum, hoe and incorporate it in the soil and then earth up.

Avoid gypsum in calciferous soils.

Gypsum is effective in soils deficient in calcium and sulphur.

Application of gypsum at the rate of 50 % basal both in rainfed and irrigated condition reduces Khadhasty malady and pod scab nematode

Combined Nutrient Spray

Pod filling is a major problem especially in the bold seed varieties. To improve pod filling spraying of nutrient solution is to be given. This can be prepared by soaking DAP 2.5 kg, Ammonium sulphate 1 kg and borax 0.5 kg in 37 lit of water overnight. The next day morning it can be filtered and about 32 litre of mixture can be obtained and it may be diluted with 468 lit of water so as to made up to 500 litre to spray for one ha. Plano fix at the rate of 350 ml. can also be mixed while spraying. This can be sprayed on 25th and 35th day after sowing.

Application of Fertilizers (Irrigated)

Apply NPK fertilizers as per soil test recommendation. If soil test is not done, follow the blanket recommendation.

N P K Sulphur sludge

25 50 75 kg/ha 60 kg/ha

Fertilizers: NPK @ 40:40:60 kg/ha as basal

Apply borax @ 10 kg/ha as basal

Apply gypsum @ 200 kg/ha at peg formation stage

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



28. AGRICULTURE WASTE MANAGEMENT 13982

Importance of Crop Residues and Management Practices R. Senthilnathan1 and M. Yuvaraj2

1Assistant Professor- Department of Agronomy; 2Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Adhiparasakthi Agricultural College, Kalavai, Vellore

INTRODUCTION: After green revolution natural fertility of the soil has been degraded due to intensive cultivation, use of high doses of chemical fertilizers and insufficient use of organics i.e. farm yard manure, compost, crop residue, green manure, bio-fertilizers etc. At present time we face many challenges to achieve sustainable food security and quality of food material. In this regard, the impact of managing crop residues in conjunction with no-till (NT) farming and conservation agriculture (CA) cannot be over-emphasized. Land is a shrinking resource for agriculture and we have to produce more food to feed the increasing population of the country. For achieving sustainable food security to country, maintenance of soil health is essential.

What is Crop Residue Management?

Crop Residue Management (CRM) is a year-round conservation system that usually involves a reduction in the number of passes over the field with tillage implements and/or in the intensity of tillage operations, including the elimination of ploughing (inversion of the surface layer of soil).

Importance of Crop Residues

Plant residues include green plants and municipal wastes which serve as effective source of plant nutrients and humus in soil. Soil organic matter plays an important role in maintaining proper rhizosphere for better growth of the plants. In intensive agriculture, soil often gets sickness due to continuous use of chemical fertilizers. Organic manures are used to increase efficiency of fertilizers.

Crop residue Available in India

The crop residue available annually in India is approximately 329.58 Mt, out of which 187.48 Mt is available for incorporation, from which total NPK available from crop is 7.951 Mt (Gajendra singh tomar 2010).

Potential use of Crop Residues

At present day the crop residue used different purpose viz. livestock feed, mushroom culture, raw material for compost, biomass energy production, bedding materials for animals, raw material for industry, biogas generation, fuel, packing material and thatching of house.

Compost Making

The crop residues have been traditionally used for preparing compost. For this, crop residues are used as animal bedding and are then heaped in dung pits. In the animal shed each kilogram of straw absorbs about 2-3 kg of urine, which enriches it with N. The residues of rice crop from one hectare land, on composting, give about 3 tons of manure as rich in nutrients as farmyard manure (FYM).

Management Practices

Conservation Tillage: Conservation tillage systems include a variety of techniques, including “no-till” “minimum till” “ridge till” “chisel plow” and “mulch till.” The Soil Conservation Service (now called the Natural Resources Service) refers to these systems as “residue management.”

Recycling:

Recycling of crop residues - both directly, by leaving them to decay on field surfaces after the harvest or by incorporating them into soil by plowing, disking, or chiseling, and indirectly, by using them in mulches and composts or returning them to fields in animal wastes - has been practiced by every traditional agriculture.

Recycling Nutrients

Complete recycling of these residues and their eventual mineralization would supply approximately one-third of the nitrogen, between one-fifth and one-third of the phosphorus, and more than 100% of the potassium applied in inorganic fertilizers. But unlike nutrients from inorganic fertilizers, macronutrients in crop residues are not readily available. The high cellulose and lignin content of crop residues precludes rapid degradation.

Conclusion

At present the availability of organic manures are not sufficient to meet recommended level due gradual reduction of animal populations hence to meet this requirement crop residue management is the best way to mitigate this problem, by incorporating of crop residue it improves the soil organic matter and microbial population the soil, thus leads to sustaining the health of soil and yield of the crop.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Reference Gajendra Singh Tomar 2010. Agronomy Basic and

Applied. Published by Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.

Thanunathan K and Ravichandiran M 2000. Introduction to soil fertility. Published by

Educational Publishers Limited, Chidambaram. Palaniappan. S.P. and K. Annadurai 2008. Organic

farming Theory and Practical. Published by Scientific Publisher, India.

29. BIOCONTROL 15209

Biopesticides: An Ecofriendly Approach B. Kumaraswamy

M.Sc. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology, Dr. PDKV, Akola, Maharashtra-444104 *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Now a day’s organically cultivated fresh and processed food demand is growing and this will fulfill only if the biopesticides are used in place of chemical pesticide. Biopesticides are inherently less harmful than conventional pesticide and found to be equally effective for pest and disease management. Biopesticides are economical and long lasting. The residues in soil of these bioagent will also be useful to decompose organic waste and provide nutrition to the crop. In view of this an entomopathogenic fungus (Verticillium lecanii) and bioagent (Trichoderma) have been tested to see their efficacy for management of sucking pest and soil borne pathogens.

Biopesticide for Disease Control

Trichoderma

Trichoderma is a fungi, which grow saprophytically in soil have proved as an effective biocontrol agent of wilt diseases caused by soil borne plant pathogens worldwide are Pythium spp., Fusarium oxysporum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani and Phytophthora spp. Trichoderma spp. acts in three main ways.

1. Mycoparasitism: This is a complex process in which the Trichoderma spp. grow trophically towards hyphae of other pathogenic fungi, coil them and degrade their cell walls by means of enzymes, which limits the growth and activity of plant pathogenic fungi.

2. Antibiosis: Trichoderma spp. produce toxic, metabolite, like Trichodermin, Trichotoxin, Trichoviridin, Viridin, Emodin, Ergokonin, Gliotoxin, Gliovirin, Harzianum, Dermatin etc. which protect the seeds from soil borne pathogenic fungi, by forming a protective coating on them.

3. Competition: Competition for space or nutrients has long been considered one of the classical mechanism of biocontrol of Trichoderma spp. They have high rhizosphere competency and can easily colonize the roots. This may reduce the feeding site of fungi.

Application

Soil treatment: 1 to 2.5 kg powder + 25 to 30 kg FYM/ha

Seed treatment: 4 g/kg of seed Slurry treatment: 400 g/5 lit water (root dip

in solution for 5 min before sowing)

Table: Effect of Trichoderma seed treatment on disease management and yield of crop

Crop Treatment (4 g/kg seed)

Disease Percentage (%)

Growth inhibition (%)

Yield (kg/h

a)

Increased yield (kg/ha)

Tur Trichoderma

11.82 57.61 851 28.39

Control 27.91 610

Chickpea

Trichoderma

13.37 62.34 1064 29.88

Control 35.51 746

Blackgram

Trichoderma

20.11 40.00 671 23.25

Control 33.47 515

Biopesticide for Insect Control

Verticillium lecanii

The while halo fungus V. lecanii is an important biocontrol agent. It is active against more than 50 insect species mainly sucking pest -

Selective media: Sabouraud’s Dextrose + Yeast Extract Agar Medium.

Mode of Action

Fungi infect their hosts by active penetration of the insect cuticle by producing cuticle digesting enzymes (proteases, lipases, chitinase etc.) and to a lesser extent mechanical pressure rather than via the host digestive tract.

The main steps leading to the germination, infection and subsequent death of insects are:

Attachment of the infective unit (e.g. conidium or spore) to the insect cuticle.

In favourable conditions, the conidium germinates into a short germ tube which gives out small swellings called appressoria.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Appresorium attacks itself to the cuticle and sends out an infection peg into the host. The hyphae then penetrate the layer of integument by enzymatic dissolution of chitin and protein.

Ramify first in the cuticle and then reaches the haemocoel and internal organs. The invasion by the fungal mycelium continues until the insect is virtually filled with the fungus and becomes quick firm to touch.

Death of the insect occur conidiophore are then produced which erupt through the cuticle and produce spores on the outside of the insect. Production of infective units (conidia) on the exterior of the insect.

Pathogenicity

Aphids died and appear as white to yellowish cottony particles within seven to ten days of

incubation. Dosage: 2.5 - 5 gm/lit or 500 -750 grams in 200-300 lit of water/acre.

Advantages

Biopesticides are ecofriendly and economically viable, sustainable and not harmful to birds, beneficial insects and mammals.

Biopesticides are found effective against many diseases and pests.

Biopesticides are best suitable in IPM component.

Biopesticides are effective in very small quantity and do not leave residue, thereby avoiding environmental pollution problem.

30. BIOCONTROL 15261

Trichoderma: A Versatile Bio-Control Agent B. B. Golakiya1* and M. R. Paneliya2

1Department of Plant Pathology, 2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, JAU, Junagadh-362001


INTRODUCTION: Management of soil borne diseases is not easy as in case of foliar diseases. As a routine practices use of chemical fungicides is harmful for soil health and economically not viable. Now a day for management of soil borne diseases several non-chemical practices are advocated.

It is well established that the Trichoderma fungus is a very effective bio control agent against plant diseases, particularly soil borne pathogens. Weindling (1932) reported the parasitation by Trichoderma viridae of many fungi. In general it is used at low profile but it is very reliable method for management of soil borne plant diseases. It proved effective against soil borne plant pathogens like Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia spp, Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium spp. and Phytopthora spp.

Biology

It is free living fungus common in soil and root ecosystem.

Highly interactive in root, soil and foliar environment.

Fast growing at 25 -30° Temp. in vitro.

Conidia are round to oval in shape bear on highly branched, loosely or compactly tufted conidiophore.

General Characteristics

It is Very effective biological agent It is free living organism

Ubiquitous in nature

Highly proliferating

Eco friendly disease control Easily accessible from soil

Non phytotoxic

Systemic ephemeral Readily biodegradable

Cost effective Synergistic effect with organic material

Longer shelf life

Greater compatibility with some chemicals

Taxonomic Position of Trichoderma

Kulkarni and Sagar (2007) mentioned the Trichoderma as asexual stage and Hypocrea as sexual stage.

Position Asexual stage (conidia)

Sexual stage (ascospore)

Kingdom Fungi Fungi

Phylum Ascomycota Ascomycota

Sub-division Deuteromycotina Ascomycotina

Class Hyphomycetes Pyrenomycetes

Order Monilliales Sphariales

Family Monilliaceae Hypocreaceae

Genus Trichoderma Hypocrea

Mechanism of Action

Competition: For space and nutrients under specific condition do not get substrate

Supress growth of pathogen population e.g.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Soil treatment with Trichoderma harzianum spore suppressed infestation of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis (Perveen and Bokhari, 2012).

Mycoparasitism: A phenomenon in which antagonistic fungi parasitized other pathogenic fungi is known as Mycoparasitism. Hyphae of Trichoderma either grow along the host hyphae or coil around it during parasitism. E.g., T. harzianum and T. hamatum were mycoparasite of both Sclerotium rolfsii and R. solani.

Interaction during mycoparasitism generally operated by four steps namely: coiling of hyphae around the pathogen, Vacuolization, Penetration by haustoria and Lysis (Omero et al., 1999).

Antibiosis: It is the condition in which one or more metabolites excreted by an organism have harmful effect on one or more other organisms. In such antagonistic relationship one species produces a chemical substance that is harmful to other species without producer species deriving any direct benefit. E.g., Trichoderma secreted Trichodermin, Viridian, Trichothecin, Sesqiterpine etc.

Plant Growth Promotor: Trichoderma strain solubilize phosphates and micronutrients. The application of Trichoderma strains in rhizosphere of plant increases the number of deep roots, thereby increasing the plants ability to resist drought.

Methods of Application

1. Seed treatment: Mix 6-10 g of Trichoderma powder per Kg of seeds before sowing.

2. Nursery treatment: Apply 10-25 g of Trichoderma powder per 100 m2 area of nursery bed. Application of neem cake and FYM before treatment increases the efficacy.

3. Cutting and seedling root dip: Mix 10 g of Trichoderma powder along with 100 g of well rotten FYM per liter of water and dip the cuttings and seedlings for 10 minutes before planting.

4. Soil treatment: Apply 5 kg of Trichoderma powder per hectare after turning of sun hemp or dhaincha in to the soil for gree manuring or mix 1 kg of Trichoderma formulation in 100 kg of farmyard manure and cover it for 7 days with polythene. Sprinkle the heap with water intermittently. Turn the mixture in every 3-4 days interval and then broadcast in the field.

5. Plant treatment: Drench the soil near stem region with 10 g Trichoderma powder mixed in a liter of water.

Compatibility

Compatible with organic manure, biofertilizers like Rhizobium, Azospirillum, Mycorrhizae, Azotobacter, Bacillus subtilis, Phosphobacteria, Gliocladium virens and Pseudomonas

fluorescens. Trichoderma can be applied to seeds treated with Metalaxyl or Captan, Carboxin, Carbendazim but not Mercurials (Kulkarni and Sagar, 2007).

Advantages

Enhances yield along with quality of produce

Boost germination rate Increase in shoot and root lengths

Solubilising various insoluble forms of phosphates

Augment nitrogen fixing

Promote healthy growth in early stages of crop

Increase dry matter production substantially

Harmless to humans and livestock

Act against a wide range of pathogenic fungi Perpetuate themselves by producing ample

spores

Grow rapidly and quickly colonize the soil They can promote nutrient uptake and

enhance plant growth Provide natural long term immunity t crops

and soil

Disadvantages

Harmful parasite of mushrooms

Loses its effectivity (ability) if not placed in its native condition

It cannot be used as foliar spray

It do not grow in alkaline pH (above 8) Zone specific & slow growth

Precautions

Don’t use chemical fungicides after application of Trichoderma for 4-5 days

Don’t use Trichoderma in dry soil. Moisture is essential factor for its growth and survivability.

Don’t put treated seeds in direct sun rays Don’t keep the treated FYM for longer

duration

References Weindling, R. 1932. Trichoderma lignorum as a

parasite of other soil fungi. Phytopathology, 22: 837- 845.

Perveen, K. and Bokhari, N. A. 2012. Antagonistic activity of Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride isolated from soil of date palm field against Fusarium oxysporum. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 6(13): 3348–3353.

Omero, C.; Inbar, J.; Rocha-Ramirez, V.; Herrera-Estrella, A.; Chet, I.; Horwitz, B. A. 1999. G protein activators and cAMP promote mycoparasitic behaviour in Trichoderma harzianum. Mycological Research, 103: 1637-1642.

Kulkarni, S. and Sagar, S. D. 2007. Trichoderma – A potential biofungicide of the millennium. Bulletin published by the Dept. of Plant Pathology, U.A.S., Dharwad. pp. 1-20.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



31. CROP PHYSIOLOGY 15043

Methods for Assessment of Nitrogen Requirement for Rice Crop

Dhanalakshmi D.1* and Srinivasa Prasad L.2 1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture,

University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad-580 005, Karnataka, India

2 M.Sc. (Agri), Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur-584 104, Karnataka, India


Nitrogen is an indispensable element for optimum functioning of crops. The fact that high-yielding varieties of crops possess high yield potential is undoubtedly associated with their tendency to consume high dose of nitrogen. But the efficiency of utilization of added nitrogen fertilizer is very low, as applied nitrogen is subjected to various kinds of losses like leaching, volatilization and denitrification. The efficiency of applied N fertilizer not only depends on right quantity but also on right time, method of N application, crops and different genotypes of the same crops. So, the efficiency can be increased by synchronizing crop demand with nutrient

supply. The corrective N management methods employ diagnostic tools to assess soil or crop N status during the growing season. Leaf colour chart (LCC), Chlorophyll meter, Site specific nutrient management (SSNM) and Soil test crop response (STCR) are the promising tools developed in recent years for corrective N management in rice crop. N use efficiency can be increased by achieving Synchronization between crop N demand and soil N supply. Right rate, Right time and Right place are the basic principles one should follow to achieve Synchronization between crop N demand and soil N supply.

Formulae for N use Efficiencies

1. Agronomic efficiency (AEN) = -1 -1

-1

Grain yield kg ha in N fertilized plot – Grain yield kg ha in no N plot

Quantity of fertilize N applied (kg ha )in N fertilized plot

2. Recovery Efficiency (REN) =

-1 -1

-1

Total N uptake kg ha in N fertilized plot – Total N uptake kg ha in no N plot

Quantity of fertilize N applied kg ha in N fertilized plot

3. Factor Productivity for Applied N (FPN) =

-1

-1

Total Grain yield kg ha in N fertilized plot

Quantity of fertilize N applied kg ha

4. Physiological Efficiency (PEN) =

-1

-1

Grain yield in N control plot (kg ha )+AE

Applied N level kg ha

5. Nitrogen use Efficiency (NUE) =

Grain Yield kg

N applied kg

SPAD: Soil Plant and Analysis Development

STCR: Soil Test Crop Response

Leaf Colour Chart

Balaji and Jawahar (2007) reported that, application of N based on LCC critical value 4 produced higher grain yield of rice (6.36 t ha-1)

followed by LCC 5 and chlorophyll meter producing 5.78 and 5.64 t ha-1 respectively.

Application of green manure at the rate of 6.25 t ha-1 in combination with N application based on LCC critical value 5 had a massive increase in grain yield of rice by producing 8035 and 8238 kg ha-1 during 2000 and 2001 respectively (Ravi et al., 2007).

Chlorophyll / SPAD Meter

Peng et al. (1996) observed higher grain yield of rice (9.7 and 9.5 t ha-1) with SPAD Meter based N management at 35 and 37 critical values respectively over control.

Balasubramanian (2000) noticed higher grain yield of rice (7.1 t ha-1) and agronomic efficiency (51 kg grain / kg N applied) with application of N based on SPAD Meter critical value 35 as compared to farmers practice and control.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Site Specific Nutrient Management

Guanghuo Wang et al. (2001) revealed that, the average grain yield of rice increased from 5.9 to 6.4 t ha-1, while plant N, P, K uptake increased by 8 to 14 per cent with SSNM based treatment as compared to current farmers practice.

Nitrogen application based on SSNM with 115 ± 20 kg N ha-1 as well as real time N management using LCC critical value 4 registered the higher dry matter production, N uptake, N use efficiency and grain yield of rice (5.61 t ha-1) as compared to other treatments (Stalin et al., 2007).

Soil Test Crop Response

Subba Rao and Sanjay Srivastava (2000) observed higher grain yield of rice with STCR based target yield for 80 q ha-1 at Ferozepur (7480 kg ha-1) and Amritsar (6803 kg ha-1) respectively over farmers practice.

Sanjay et al. (2006) reported that, application of double the recommended dose of NPK and fertilizers for targeted yield of 10 t ha-1 through

100 per cent inorganic source recorded significantly higher grain yield of rice (10,133 and 10,102 kg ha-1) and returns per rupee investment (Rs.3.00 and 3.08) respectively.

Conclusion

1. LCC critical value 4 based N management is the optimal N fertilization strategy for rice, since it gives higher grain yield besides saving of N as compared to blanket N recommendation.

2. Nitrogen management using chlorophyll meter at critical value 35 recorded higher grain yield, straw yield and nitrogen use efficiency.

3. The higher grain yield of rice is obtained with SSNM treatment as compared to farmers practice.

4. STCR helps to generate numerous fertilizer adjustment equations for prescribing rates of N fertilizer application to obtain target yields of rice.


Mechanisms of Waterlogging Tolerance in Plants Y. Lakshmi Prasanna1 and P. Gowthami2

1Teaching Associate and 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Crop Physiology, Agriculture College, Bapatla

Waterlogging is defined as state of land in which subsoil water table is located at or near by surface with the result that the yield of the crop commonly grown on it is reduced well below for the land. It is a wide spread limiting factor for crop production throughout the world specially irrigated and high rainfall environments. Worldwide it has been estimated that approximately 10 percent of all irrigated farm land suffers from frequent Waterlogging, which may cause 20 percent decrease in crop productivity (Staples, 2001).

FLOODING INJURY: Moisture may injure or kill plants if present in excess, but this is actually due to lack of oxygen for root respiration is called flooding injury.

Hypoxia (partial oxygen deficiency) the reduction of oxygen below optimum levels is termed as hypoxia. It is most common form of stress in wet soils and occurs during short term flooding when roots are submerged under water but shoot remains in the atmosphere. Sediment can be considered hypoxic when its oxygen content is below 50 m.mol/m3.

Anoxia (lack of oxygen) It occurs in soils that experience long term flooding plants completely submerged by water. As a consequence, the soil tends to accumulate more reduced, and phytotoxic forms of mineral ions such as nitrite and ferrous ions. As the length of time a soil is flooded increases, the depth of hypoxic zone decreases and anoxia zone increases

Mechanisms of Waterlogging tolerance in plants: Waterlogging tolerance is defined as the survival or the maintenance of plant growth at high rates under waterlogged conditions relative to well drained conditions.

The mechanisms of waterlogging or hypoxia tolerance includes:

1. The maintenance of high internal aeration through constitutive aerenchyma and creation of an oxidized zone around root tips through radial O2 loss.

2. Metabolic adaptation that maintain energy production under hypoxia with the substantial storage of carbohydrates for fermentation under hypoxia.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Mechanisms of Waterlogging Tolerance in Plants

A. Morphological and Anatomical Adaptations

i) Root Growth and Development of Adventitious Roots

Flooding and ethylene production: Ethylene accumulates in flooded soils and in submerged plant parts to concentrations of 10 cm3 dm-3. This is accomplished by two mechanisms.

1. First the diffusion of ethylene from the root into the water is 10 times slower than its diffusion into air. This ethylene may be released into the internal aerenchyma channels and diffuse from the root to the shoot.

2. The synthesis of ethylene in the hypoxic root and in the aerobic shoot is increased.

Adventitious roots formation: Adventitious roots emerge from the submerged part of the stem in flooded plants, this is also an adaptive

mechanism allowing these new roots to replace the function of the original root system. Since these roots emerge and grow close to the water surface, and they are connected to the stem close to the site of aerenchyma formation, oxygen is more available to these roots than the original root system.

ii) Aerenchyma Formation and Increased Root Porosity

Aerenchyma formation: Ethylene initiates and regulates many adaptive responses that allow the plant to avoid anaerobiosis by increasing oxygen availability to the roots in a waterlogged soil, such as development of aerenchyma. Aerenchyma tissue in roots allows the roots to respire aerobically and to maintain growth under hypoxic conditions. Aerenchyma formation is one of the most important morphological adaptations for the tolerance to hypoxic or anoxic stress.

FIG. stages in aerenchyma formation in roots of Zea mays induced by partial oxygen shortage external to the root and mediated by increased synthesis of ethylene that in turn induces a form of programmed cell death in target cells of the cortex.

iii) Hypertrophied Lenticels

hypertrophy of secondary aerenchyma enhances formation of large cracks (i.e. hypertrophic lenticels) on the surface of stems and roots, and

the aerenchyma is exposed to the atmosphere through the lenticels which may facilitate O2

entry into the aerenchyma.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



iv) Barriers to Radial Oxygen Loss

Oxygen in aerenchymatous roots may be consumed by respiration or be lost to the rhizosphere via radial diffusion from the root. The flux of oxygen from roots to rhizosphere is

termed as radial oxygen loss (ROL) which usually oxygenates the rhizosphere of the plants growing in waterlogged soils. ROL decreases the amount of O2 supply to the apex of roots, the root growth in hypoxic or anoxic environment.

FIG. Differences in lysigenous aerenchyma formation and patterns of radial O2 loss (ROL) in rice roots under drained soil conditions and waterlogged soil conditions.

B. Metabolic Adaptations

i) Anaerobic respiration: Plant cells produce energy in presence of oxygen through aerobic respiration. In absence of oxygen cells undergo anaerobic respiration to fulfill the demand for energy. In the absence of an adaptive response, the flooded root cell rapidly depletes its available

supply of ATP. One supplemental source of ATP for the cell is accessed through a stimulation of glycolysis and fermentation, known as the Pasteur effect. Ethanolic Fermentation or lactate fermentation is the most important process by which NADH can be recycled to NAD+ during oxygen deficiency.

FIG. Shift of aerobic respiration to anaerobic respiration

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Anaerobiosis induced proteins (ANP) The identified ANP include sucrose synthase, phosphohexose isomerase, fructose-1,6-diphosphate aldolase, pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH).

ii) Increased Availability of Soluble Sugars

Due to shifting of energy metabolism from aerobic to anaerobic mode under hypoxia or anoxia the energy requirements of the tissue is greatly restricted as very few ATPs are generated per molecule of glucose. Maintaining adequate levels of readily metabolizable (fermentable) sugars in hypoxic or anoxic roots is one of the adaptive mechanisms to waterlogging.

iii) Antioxidant Activities

Waterlogging, ROS production and antioxidant activity: Exposure of plants to hypoxia or anoxia causes oxidative stress, which affects plant growth due to the production of reactive oxygen

species (ROS) such as singlet oxygen (1O2), superoxide radicals (O2.-), hydroxyl radicals (OH), per hydroxyl radicle (O2H.) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The main cellular components susceptible to damage by free radicals are lipids (peroxidation), proteins (denaturation), sugars and nucleic acids. To counter the hazardous effects of oxygen radicals, all aerobic organisms evolve a complex antioxidative defense system consisting of both antioxidants like ascorbate (AsA), glutathione (GSH), phenolic compounds, etc., and antioxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidases, glutathione reductase (GR) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX).

Strategies to manipulate the anaerobic response: The following approaches are the strategies to manipulate the aerobic response and improve the waterlogging tolerance in crop plants.


Agro Physiological Basis of Yield Variation in Pulses Dharmendra Meena

Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-263145, U.K., India


India is the largest producer of pulses in the world, both in quantity and variety. Once a net exporter it is presently one of the largest importers of pulses. Pulses are the primary source of protein for the poor and the vegetarians who constitute the majority of Indian population. While the traditional cropping pattern almost always included a pulse crop either as a mixed crop or in rotation, the commercialisation of agriculture has encouraged the practice of sole-cropping. Over the period from 1951 to 1992, the net per capita per day

availability of pulses has fallen from 60.7 grams to 33.4 grams. This is despite increases of area, production and yield of pulses during the same period. It is significant to note that almost all these increases had taken place during the first decade i.e. from 1950-51 to 1960-61 and that area, production and yield of pulses have either stagnated or declined since then. It is palpable that growth in production and productivity of pulses has lagged far behind the population growth during the past three decades. By the turn of the century production of about 22

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



million tonnes would be required to meet the consumption requirement of about 18.04 million tonnes. The country has to make a much more vigorous effort to bridge this gap and save the foreign exchange required to meet the demand through imports. Grain yield of legumes have not increased rapidly as those of cereal crops. Though pulses are grown in different seasons under varied agro climatic conditions, these are highly sensitive to environment. The pulses are characterised by low productivity, less stability in yield, less responsive to input and high instability. It is reported that pulse produced large no flower, but only a few of them produced pods and seeds. The per cent pod set may be as low as 10 -15 % in pigeon pea and 15-45 % in mungbean, cowpea and chickpea. Therefore, it appeared that there is high sink potential to give high yield in pulse, but it was not realised. Thus it is essential to study morphological, physiological and phonological features which limit the realization of potential of yields of pulses.

1. Phenology; pulses are c3 plant and has less photosynthetic efficiency due to photorespiration, suffer from inherently low yield potential and are a physiologically inefficient group of plant compared to cereals.

2. Germination and seedling growth; Pulse in generals, exhibit a very slow growth rate at germination and seedling growth.

3. Growth and leaf area development. Under rainy condition crop generally attains excessive vegetative growth, thus lodging may cause substantial loss in yield. So there is a need to develop an ideal plant type having stiff stem which resist lodging.

4. Leaf growth and leaf area. It is generally accepted that leaf area index either too large or too small at any growth stage did not benefit in yield improvements

5. Branching. Branch number in legumes plant is highly variable, and is an important determinant of grain yield. Low plant densities can be compensated by substantial branching.

6. Light interception. High yielding physiological characters associated with uniform foliar orientation in the horizontal plane, more dry matter accumulation and higher solar energy use efficiency.

7. Dry matter accumulation and partitioning. Dry matter accumulation is the result of balance between photosynthetic activity and respiratory loss. It is very low in chickpea and pigeon pea for a long time after planting. Selection for a high partitioning trait has apparently contributed to the development of higher yield potential.

8. Photosynthetic rates. Photosynthetic rate in

most of legume is low ranging from 20-30 mg CO2 dm2/hr. optimum temperature range from 25 to 30 0 C and light saturation occurs at 50000 lux. Being C3 plant, they have photorespiration in the absence of kranz anatomy.

9. Flowering and fruit setting. Pulses have capacity to produce large no of flowers bud and flowers, but relatively poor fruit setting. Flowers and fruit drop is the common features in pulses which cause poor sink realization.

10. Failure of pollination. Pulses are self-pollinated crop sometimes due to adverse climatic conditions at flowers developments, pollination may not possible. Thus pollinated flowers wither away before becoming fruits.

11. Hormonal or nutritional imbalance. Sometimes flowers abscise after pollination and fertilization. Thus shedding of flowers having ovules has been attributed to nutritional or hormonal imbalance in the plants.

12. Unfavourable weather condition. Climatic factors such as temperature cause poor pollen germination, hence insignificant fertilization in chickpea and similar effect is observed in mungbean due to water stress

13. Response to water availability. Pulses are mostly grown under rainfed conditions. Water stress leads to reduced LAI, pod numbers, pod weight and seed yield. Nodulation and nitrogen fixation are very sensitive to moisture stress.

14. Limited availability of assimilates. Excessive production of flowers and poor pod set in pigeon pea and chickpea is probably due to limited availability of assimilates flower drop in pigeon pea shows positive correlation with dry matter allocation to stem, root and leaf under normal sowing conditions. The retention and transformation of flowers into pods was predominantly determined by availability of assimilates.

15. Source sinks relationships. Most of pulse produces large number of flowers but only few of them produced pods and seeds. The per cent of fruit set can be low as 10- 15 in pigeon pea. In mungbean, cowpea and chickpea fruit set range from 15- 45%.

Conclusion

Increase in pulse production has to come either through expansion of area or through an increase in productivity, or both. Expansion of area is possible by substitution, by reduction in kharif fallows and by increase in double cropping. Bringing more area under pulses in the long run depends upon a favourable price regime (with less variability) and through technological breakthroughs that make higher yields realised

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



on the farmers’ fields. At present wide gaps exist between the yields of improved varieties on the research farms and those obtained on the farmer’s field. The new production technologies might not have reached the farmers in a

meaningful way or they might be inappropriate to the agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions of the farmers. These aspects need further in-depth investigation.

34. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 14998

Application of Plant Metabolomics in Plant World besides Basic Research

Pooja Mankad1 and Mounil Mankad2

1Senior Research Fellow, Department of Animal Breeding and Husbandry, 2Research Associate, Centre for Advanced Research in Plant Tissue Culture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand,

Gujarat

Next generation sequencing has played a pivotal role in developing and understanding the genomics of diverse species. Among which, sequencing of various plant species has collected huge amount information regarding the various novel genes and their interaction. Functional genomics has given rise to various omics studies which includes metabolomics too. Till date a large amount of metabolites has been identified, but still as new genomes are getting sequenced, the number tends to get increased in coming years.

Plant metabolomics has contributed immensely to the researchers and scientists in designing and targeting a specific metabolite for the crop improvement. Metabolomics not only shade light on the interaction of plant physiology and biology influenced by the small chemical molecules but also a major contributor in understanding the plant behavior in presence and absence of stressed conditions.

Plants as ‘Metabolite’ Factories

Plant growth, development and their by its response to external environment is under control of large numbers of structurally diversified and abundance metabolites. These metabolites are usually classified into primary and secondary metabolites depending upon the ultimate requirement for the growth and development of plant and crucial for existence of plants during various abiotic and biotic stresses, respectively. Between the two groups of metabolies, secondary metabolites are highly diverged across plant kingdoms which increases their scope of utilization by the plants to resist against various stresses as well as a valuable nutrition and energy sources for human beings and live stocks.

Plant metabolomic studies comprises of three stages (i) Sample preparation (ii) Data acquisition using analytical methods and (ii) Identification of compound using available resources. Sample preparation is one of the most

important step as plants possess many diversified compounds which includes variation in size, volatility, quantity, polarity, solubility and stability. Therefore, any extraction procedure should be stringent enough to cover all these chemical and physical properties of metabolites and should yield maximum recovery for its effective quantification using various platforms.

Different analytical platforms are available for identification and quantification of these metabolies. However, the selection of methods is also one of the major factors for metabolomics studies. A summary of available platforms is presented below:

Technique Sensiti-vity

Through put

Comprehensive ness

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)

Low Low-High

Low-High

Infrared Low High Low

Liquid Chromatography (LC) – NMR

Low Low High

LC- Mass Spectrometry (MS)

Medium High High

Gas Chromatography-MS

High High High

Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)- MS

High Medium High

LC-Electrochemistry-MS

High High High

LC-Ultraviolet Medium-High

High Very low

Metabolomics and Crop Improvement

Traditional crop breeding is depended upon phenotypic selection in plots and modern marker assisted breeding relies on genetic markers for crop improvement. However, both these approaches have their own limitations for their

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



effective utilization in crop improvement. Metabolomics coupled with the advantages of traditional and modern techniques can bring revolution in the field of crop improvement which is the need of time for both food and nutritional securities. Information obtained from mQTL and mGWAS will allow researchers and scientists to analyze the nature of quantitative traits of interest.

The major advantage with metabolomics is its ability to correlate the metabolites with each other and with agronmocially important traits and could therefore by more informative for elucidation of specific metabolite or pathway with yield or quality associated traits. These information will eventually leads to development of crops with more resilience towards various abiotic and biotic stresses.

Metabolic Engineering – The Ultimate Makeover of Plants

A plateau has reached for the chemical synthesis and modifications of existing of compounds which can be effectively utilized for betterment of living beings. Newer compounds identified from the plants may be regarded as the ultimate resource which can serve mankind as foods, nutrients and medicines. One of the best example was overcoming is development of golden rice for overcoming vitamin A deficiency in humans. However, structural complication and lack of detailed information regarding the metabolites and their corresponding pathways makes applications of metabolomics limited to a very few successful commercial products. With the recent technological advances in coming years the plant metabolomics may be able to increase the potential of practical applications through precise metabolic engineering. Schematic representation of plant metabolomics and its applications in plant improvement is shown below in figure 1.

Applications of Metabolomics in Plant Biotechnology

The modification of metabolism by biotechnological techniques is often utilized for the optimal production of plant metabolites,

which directly benefit human health and plant growth. Some of the recent examples are listed below in table 2

TABLE 2. Summary of applications, mQTL (metabolite quantitative trait loci) and mGWAS (metabolome-based genome-wide association study) studies in plant.

Organism Application/ Metabolite trait

Catharanthus roseus

Improvement of the production of anticancer indole alkaloid by overexpression of ORCA3 and G10H in C. roseus plants

Panicum virgatum Increased amounts of phenolic acids and a monolignol analog associated with more facile cell wall deconstruction

Solanum tuberosum

Increased drought tolerance by expression of trehalose-6-phosphate synthase 1

Oryza sativa Modulation of salt tolerance by reduction of OsSUT1 (O. sativa sucrose transporter 1) expression

Arabidopsis thaliana

Distinguish transgenic and non-transgenic plants

Solanum lycopersicum

Higher accumulation of flavonoids and thus nutritional value in tomato plants carrying a mutation in HP1/LeDDB1 gene

mQTL study


Tocopherol, Metabolome, Flavinoids,

Brassica napus Glucosinolates

Zea mays Primary metabolites

O. sativa Metabolome, Lipids

S. lycopersicum Metabolome, primary and secondary metabolites

Triticum aestivum Metabolome

mGWAS study


Brached-chain amino acids, Glucosinolates, Metabolome

Zea mays Metabolome, Carotenoid, Tocochromanol

Solanum tuberosum

Primary metabolites

O. sativa Secondary metabolites, Phenolamides

S. lycopersicum Metabolome

Conclusions and Future Perspectives: With the growing interest in the use of metabolomic technologies for a wide range of biological targets, plant metabolomics have dramatically improved in recent years. The combination of the capabilities of available analytical platforms for the analyses of complex samples, together with the integration of metabolomics with other “omics” and functional genetics, is able to provide novel insights into genetic and biochemical aspects of cellular function and metabolic network regulation. Even though it has some limitations currently, it is no doubt an

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



important tool that is revolutionizing plant biology and crop breeding. Therefore, future studies in this area will focus on both directions: one is the improvement of the metabolomic

platform to facilitate the accurate and effective identification and quantification of as many as possible metabolites.

35. HORTICULTURE 14388

Bael: A Minor Fruit Crop with Major Valuable Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Properties

Anjana Kholia1 and Murlimanohar Baghel2 1Department of Horticulture, GBPUAT, Pantnagar 263145, 2Division of FHT, IARI, New Delhi


INTRODUCTION: Bael (Aegle Marmelos) is an important minor fruit crop of India. It is known as Bengal quince, Indian quince and golden apple. It belong to family Rutaceae to which the whole citrus group belong and also the wood apple. Baelis considered as a sacred tree, its trifoliate leaf offered to lord shiva. It’s slow growing, spiny trees usually found in waste lands and generally used as a wind break near the field boundaries. Bael is a very hardy fruit crop which tolerant to high salinity of the soil, therefore consider as preeminent fruit crop for arid and semi-arid region. Its fruits are round to oval in shape, green at early immature stage and turn yellow when mature. Its fruits are botanical hard shelled berries. Among the different important minor fruit crops of India like Aonla, Jamun, Ber, Phalsa, kronda etc. bael hold a promising place with its amazing nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical properties too.

Nutraceuticals and Pharmaceutical Properties of Bael

According to ICMR, Bael fruit is the richest source vitamin B2(1191mg/100g) followed by Papaya and banana, deficiency of vitamin B2(riboflavin) leads throat swelling/soreness, a swollen tongue, skin cracking, dermatitis, and anemia. Bael fruit consist of considerable amount of mineral, protein, carotene, flavoring compounds and many more nutraceuticaly active compound. Not only the bael fruits but the whole Baeltree acquires a range of medicinal properties. Its different parts utilized in medication are root, leave, bark etc. It possesses antidiarrhoeal, anti-diabetic, antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, antiviral, radio protective, anticancer, chemo preventive, antipyretic, antigen toxic, ulcer healing, diuretic, antifertility and anti-inflammatory properties.

Antidiabetic Activity

In present there are number of health problems are prevailed, diabetes is among one of them which is emerged as a major health issue with great concern as the number of people suffering

with this malady. Diabetic mellitus is a very commonly occurring metabolic and chronic disease that occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or either when the body cannot efficiently use the insulin produces by it. Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreas that regulates blood sugar. The hyperglycemia, or raised level of blood sugar, is a common consequence of uncontrolled diabetes and with time leads to serious damages to many systems of the body, specifically the nerves and blood vessels. In the year 2014 it was estimated that, about 8.5% of adults aged 18 years and older had suffered from diabetes. In 2012 diabetes was the straight cause of 1.5 million deaths and high blood glucose was the cause of another 2.2 million deaths. Bael exhibits the astonishing antidiabetic or hyperplasic activity due to the presence of certain bioactive compounds. A lot of research had been conducted in past to prove the antidiabetic activity of bael.

Mode of Action for Antidiabetic Activity

The Fig 1. diagramaticaly indicating the mode of action of Bael extract as antidiabetic activity as it is increased the insulin release by beta cells, glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and decreases the blood glucose level.

FIG 1. Diagrammatic representation of the possible antidiabetic activity of bael (Maity et al.2009)

Conclusion: Modernization playing an adverse role in the changing the life style of people, the stress schedule, unhealthy diet, fast food consumption etc. leading drop in health and rising the health related negative issues. As

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



people are getting aware about their health, they also realizing the importance of the natural products. Including Bael and its by product in daily diet definitely help to keep them self-healthy. There are number of by product available in market containing bael leaf, fruit etc. as its ingredient. Bael sherbet was popular among old age people. Therefore, it can be correctly said that though Bael is a minor fruit crop but it holds the major valuable nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical properties which can be utilized in better way to make the well health of people. At the same time it is also important to mention that no commercial Bael orchards available in our country. Therefore popularization of Bael diverse significant properties leads to increase in its demand for consumption, processing and utilization in

pharmaceutical industries. All these sooner or later positively enhance its area under production.

Reference Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes

mellitus and its complications. Part 1: Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. World Health Organization, Geneva, 1999. Report Number: WHO/NCD/NCS/99.2.

Pllab, Maity., Hasand, Dhanajay., Bandopadhyaya, Uday and Misra, Dipak.2009. Biological activity of crude extract and chemical constituents of bael. Indian. J. of Exp. Biology.47:849-861

Nigam, V. and Nambiar, V. S. 2015. Therapeutic Potential Of AegleMarmelos (L.) Correa Leaves as an antioxidant and anti-diabetic agent: A Review. Inter. J. of Pharma Sc. and Research.6: 611-621


Ever Lasting Flower Statice 1Shivaprasad S. G. and 2Latha S.

1M.Sc. (Horticulture) Dept. of Floriculture, 2Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Horticulture 1College of Horticulture, University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shimoga,

2College of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad-580 005

Statice is scientifically called as Limonium aragonense. Limonium is a genus of 120 flower species. Members are also known as Sea Lavender or Marsh-rosemary. Limonium is belongs to the family Plumbaginaceae. Sea-lavenders normally grow as herbaceous perennial plants, growing 10-70 cm tall from a rhizome; a few are woody shrubs up to 2 m tall. Many species flourish in saline soils, and are therefore common near coasts and in salt marshes, and also on saline, gypsum and alkaline soils in continental interiors.

Several species are popular garden flowers generally known to gardeners as statice. They are grown both for their flowers, and for the appearance of calyx, which remains on the plants after the true flowers have fallen are known as “everlasting flowers”.

The flowering stems bearing only small brown scale-leaves (bracts). The flowers are produced on a branched panicle or corymb, the individual flowers small (4-10 mm long) with a five-lobed calyx and corolla, and five stamens; the flower colour is pink, violet to purple in most species, white or yellow in a few. Many of the species are apomictic. The fruit is a small capsule containing a single seed, partly enclosed by the persistent calyx. Several species are popular garden flowers; they are generally known to gardeners as statices. They are grown both for their flowers, and for the appearance of the calyx.

Varieties: Blue Cloud’ has pale blue blooms. ‘Violetta’ grows 1 to 1.5 feet tall with deep

purple-pink blooms. ‘Collier’s Pink’ has pink blooms. ‘Robert Butler’ has blue-purple blooms.

Statice is propagate by seed, division or separation - Sow seeds in the spring, barely covering them. Plants take 3 to 4 years to establish. Make root cuttings in early spring. Difficult to divide. Divide in very early spring. Use care, as the roots are long and easily

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



damaged. It requires full sun, shade from hot afternoon sun in very hot climates.

Seedlings are transplanted when they attain 4-5cm. Flower quality, spike length, weight, etc… is more in mid-july to early August sowing, Spacing 60 X 30 cm. Provide space between plants for adequate air circulation to reduce diseases. Usually does not need staking. Deadhead to prolong bloom. Leave the attractive stems and flower heads for fall and winter interest, and cut back in spring. Plants don’t need dividing. Leave clumps undisturbed except to propagate.

Flowers are harvested as cut flower as the head starts opening. A slight angle cut is given as near as possible at the base of stem. The yield

varies from 7-8 cut flowers/plant/year. Cut flower can be stored for 2-3 weeks at 20. The vase life of flower is 1-2 weeks in fresh arrangement. Always make cuts with a sharp knife or pruners and plunge flowers or foliage into a bucket of water.

Store in a cool place until you are ready to work with them, this will keep flowers from opening. Always re-cut stems and change water frequently. Washing vases or containers to rid of existing bacteria helps increase their life, as well.

Cut flowers make excellent dried flowers. Good dried flower candidates hold their color, form, and often fragrance once dried upto one year or more. Harvested flowers are hanged upside down in warm ventillated area for 1-2 weeks.


Turf Grass Management Gawde N. V.1* and Bhondave S. S.2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, J.A.U., Junagadh-362001 (GJ) 2Former M.Sc. Student, Department of Horticulture, M.P.K.V., Rahuri-413722 (MS)


Turfgrass Irrigation

Frequent light irrigation is better than copious flooding after long intervals. Labours as well as water can be saved to a considerable extent if sprinklers are used. The winter dew is important & each morning the dew should be brushed into the grass by drawing a hosepipe over the grass, before the dew evaporates. Stagnation of water should be avoided. Early Morning is Best (4:00 a.m. - 9:00 a.m.) for irrigation. Mid-afternoon irrigation is wasteful and not environmentally responsible.

Nutrition

Good green color is best indications of healthy lawn. For these required compost is @ 1kg/ sq.m., bonemeal – 1kg/10 sq.m., Amm. Sulphate 1kg/50 sq.m. followed by watering. Fermented compost liquid form applied twice a year with water can or by siphoning. (Oct & May- June). Timing is depend on species of grass. In cool season grasses applied in fall season (5°c) whereas in warm season grasses applied in summer season (10°c).

Fall season: September is most important month. It is late season where the time of the final mowing. It is actually the spring fertilization i.e. it metabolized by the grass and stored as carbohydrate reserves which is ready to support spring growth.

Summer season: After growth has resumed in springtime “flush” of growth and its use as slow-release form of nitrogen.

Aeration

A method of improving soil infiltration & air penetration of compacted soil. Small holes about 10cm deep & 10-15cm apart may be made. It is very helpful in heavy clayed soil. Cores of soil removed using aerifying machine called a plunger or core aerator. Holes may left to fill up naturally or plugged by top dressing material. Aerate a lawn when it is actively growing.

Rolling

Objectives: To help the grass anchor itself securely & to keep the surface levelled.

It should be avoided when the soil is wet. Very light rolling @ levelling of the soil & once after the lawn has just established. In light sandy soil rolling after each weeding helps to keep surface levelled.

Thatch: An accumulation of old dead grass; bits of unraked leaf & other plant material above the soil.

Excessive thatch reduces oxygen & moisture entry into the soil also it harbors pest & diseases. Dethatch when grass is actively growing. Warm season grass species produce more thatch than cool season species. Simple thatch rake or motorized dethatcher used for dethatching.

Turf Grass Mowing

Sharp blade is essential. Dull blade can contribute to disease problems if bruises and frays the ends, it will providing entry site for pathogens.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Turf Grass Mowing: One Third Rule

This rule says that you should never remove more than one-third of the leaf blade during any one lawn mowing. For example, the recommended mowing height for Kentucky Bluegrass is 2 inches. Therefore, the height of the grass should not exceed 3 inches before it is mowed back to 2 inches.

Care: Moving techniques use to minimize soil compaction. Grass not mowed when it is wet, wet lawn mowing lead to soil compaction. Mowing area in one direction one time & at right angle. Mower with sharp blade used at each mowing.

A large lawn moved in spiral pattern. Compaction reduced through aeration, topdressing, & rotation of mowing pattern.

Soil Top Dressing

The ratio of soil, sand & sieved leaf mould is 1:2:1 used for the soil top dressing. It should cover 2-3 cm layer. Required material is 1kg/1m to cover a depth of 2cm. It helps to improve renovation of stolon or rhizomes, fertility status & level the ground.

Growth Regulators

Definition: An organic compound, natural or synthetic, that when present in small amounts results in a change in plant growth and development.

Advantages: It suppresses the seed heads & vegetative growth. Also it enhance the turf grass quality and reduce maintenance cost.

Precautions: Apply only on well-established grass and actively growing grass.

Ethaphon: (3.4 l /acre): It requires 7-8 days for effect and reduces growth rate.

Amidoclor: (2.5 l/acre): It is absorbed by roots. It is use on non-residential & low

managed areas. Immediate irrigation should be followed. It may cause some yellowing. It also controls broad leaf weeds.

Paclobutrazol: (0.5-1 l/acre): It is absorbed by roots. It is used on over seeded greens for turf enhancement. Do not apply to saturated soils.

GA: (10g a.i./acre): Promote the growth. Prevent discoloration during cold stress & light frosts.

Flurprimidol: (1 l/acre): It is absorbed by roots. It suppresses the growth but does not control the seed heads.

Micronutrient for Turf

Boron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper, Iron, & Sulfur are the nutrient used in small quantities.

Boron: Essential for cell division & development, root growth. – Source: Borax – 11% boron

Manganese: Activate essential enzyme, important in photosynthesis – Deficiency: Slow growth

Zinc: Promote seed development, formation of growth hormone – Source: Zinc sulphate - 22.5% zinc

Copper: Important in photosynthesis, protein metabolism. – Deficiency: Grass blade being limp. – Source: Copper sulphate – 25% copper.

Iron: Important in chlorophyll formation. – Deficiency: Yellowing of leaves – Source: Ferrous sulphate- 19% Fe, 19%

S.

Sulphur: Green color, shoot growth, constituent of protein – Deficiency: Yellowing of older leaves – Source: Gypsum- 18.6% S


Method of Irrigation in Fruit Crops V. A. Bodkhe1*, P. L. Deshmukh2 and K. N. Panchal3

1&3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, M.P.K.V., Rahuri, Maharashtra-413722. 2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, P.D.K.V., Akola, Maharashtra-444104.


The growth and productivity of a fruit plants as well as profitability of the orchard enterprise depend on the moisture relations and irrigation practices. Irrigation is very important in fruit crops as sufficient moisture must be maintained in the soil for obtaining the optimum yield of good quality fruits. For a profitable fruit production from orchard, a well-planned irrigation system and efficient water management practice having utmost importance.

The aim of irrigating a fruit tree should be to wet the entire root zone without allowing any wastage of water beyond the root zone. The irrigation systems have to be properly devised so the water requirement of the trees is met at the minimum expenditure without any wastage of water. By definition, irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. And efficient water management refers to artificial application of water i.e. irrigation in crop root zones in case of soil moisture deficit and removal of water i.e., drainage from the root zone in case of excess so as to provide the crops a most optimum soil moisture regime for best production. Various factors such as soil type, crop type, planting density, water quality, irrigation equipment and economic factors such as the capital and operating costs will all determine the ultimate decision for choosing the type of orchard irrigation systems.

The choice of the irrigation method depends on the following factors

1. Size, shape, and slope of the field. 2. Soil characteristics. 3. Nature and availability of the irrigation water

supply. 4. Types of crops being grown and age of the

trees. 5. Initial development costs and availability of

funds. 6. Preferences and past experience of the

farmer.

Thus the system of irrigation must be decided in relation to varying orchard condition. There are different methods of irrigation in fruit crops and every method has some advantages and disadvantages.

Irrigation water can be applied to crop lands using one of the following irrigation methods:

1. Traditional /Surface irrigation a) Uncontrolled (wild or free) flooding

method b) Border strip method c) Check basins method d) Modified/ring basin e) Furrow method f) Pitcher Irrigation

2. Advanced / Pressurized Methods a) Sprinkler irrigation b) Trickle (Drip) irrigation

3. Talca Irrigation Management System (TIMAS) a) Partial Root Zone Drying (PRD) b) Bubbler irrigation.

Surface Irrigation

In all the surface methods of irrigation, water is either ponded on the soil or allowed to flow continuously over the soil surface for the duration of irrigation. Although surface irrigation is the oldest and most common method of irrigation, it does not result in high levels of performance. This is mainly because of uncertain infiltration rates which are affected by year-to-year changes in the cropping pattern, cultivation practices, climatic factors, and many other

factors. As a result, correct estimation of irrigation efficiency of surface irrigation is difficult. Application efficiencies for surface methods may range from about 40 to 80 per cent.

A. Uncontrolled flooding: This system is very simplest and easiest to practice. The water is allowed for irrigation without making any beds, basins or any other structure. In “uncontrolled”, wild or free flooding, water is applied/ flooded to the orchards without any preparation of land and without any levees to guide or restrict the flow of water on the field. The advantage of this method is the low initial cost of land preparation. This method is suitable when water is available in large quantities, the land surface is irregular, and the crop being grown is unaffected because of excess water. In this method, water is brought to field ditches and then admitted at one end of the field thus letting it flood the entire field without any control. Uncontrolled flooding generally results in excess irrigation at the inlet region of the field and insufficient irrigation at the outlet end. Application efficiency is reduced because of either deep percolation (in case of longer duration of flooding) or flowing away of water (in case of shorter flooding duration) from the field. The application efficiency would also depend on the depth of flooding, the rate of intake of water into the soil, the size of the stream and topography of the field. This method is not economical as well as not suitable for the crops which are very sensitive to water logging like papaya.

B. Border Strip Method: This is a controlled surface flooding method of applying irrigation water in the orchard. In this method, the farm is divided into a number of strips. These strips are separated by small ridge or raised area. Water from the supply ditch is diverted to these strips along which it flows slowly towards the downstream end and in the process it wets and irrigates the soil. When the water supply is stopped, it recedes from the upstream end to the downstream end. The border strip method is suited to soils of moderately low intake rates and low erodibility. This method, however, requires preparation of land involving high initial cost.

C. Check-basin Method: The check basin method of irrigation is based on rapid application of irrigation water to a level or nearly level area completely enclosed by dikes. In this method, the entire field is divided into a number of almost levelled plots surrounded by levees. This method is suitable for a wide range of soils ranging from very permeable to heavy soils. The farmer has very good control over the

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



distribution of water in different areas of his farm. Loss of water through deep percolation (near the supply ditch) and surface runoff can be minimized and adequate irrigation of the entire farm can be achieved. Thus, application efficiency is higher for this method. Besides, there is some loss of cultivable area which is occupied by the levees. Sometimes, levees are made sufficiently wide so that some “row” crops can be grown over the levee surface.

D. Furrow Method: Previously furrow system of irrigation is attributed as one of the best systems for irrigating the mature trees. This method is also practiced in newly established orchards. This method is an alternative to flooding. In this method of irrigation, the entire land surface is to construct in small channels along the primary direction of the movement of water and letting the water flow through these channels which are termed furrows or corrugation. Furrows are small channels having a continuous and almost uniform slope in the direction of irrigation. Water infiltrates through the wetted perimeter of the furrows and moves vertically and then laterally to saturate the soil. Furrows are used to irrigate crops planted in rows. Furrows necessitate the wetting of only about half to one-fifth of the field surface. This reduces the evaporation loss considerably. However, the depth, length and width of furrows depend on nature of the soil and spread of root system of the fruit plants. Furrows provide better on-farm water management capabilities for

most of the surface irrigation conditions and variable and severe topographical conditions. For example, with the change in supply conditions, number of simultaneously supplied furrows can be easily changed. In this manner, very high irrigation efficiency can be achieved.

E. Ring basin method: This is very useful method of irrigating the young tree in the orchard. In this method, a circular ring in the periphery is prepared to irrigate the plants. While preparing, care is taken that ring is prepared away from tree trunk towards outer periphery of the tree. In between two ring-basins, a sub channel connecting the ring basin of the tree is prepared. The water flow through central channel and move ahead naturally after flooding two ring basins at a time.

F. Pitcher Irrigation: This system is very suitable for those areas where water scarcity exists. The pitcher filled with water buried in the periphery of individual tree where feeding roots are confined. It is similar to drip irrigation but less expensive to install. The pitchers are the round earthen containers used in rural areas for water storage, ranging from 10 to 20 liters in capacity. This kind of irrigation is ideal for saplings, promoting deep root growth. Soluble fertilizers can also be mixed with water and applied through the pitcher. If the water used for irrigation has high salinity, the pitcher location should be changed in every 3 years. To increase the depth of irrigation, a wick can be added to the pitcher.


Therapeutic Gardening –Way of Healing the World Sanchita Ghosh*, Ratna Priyanka R., Jiji Allen J. and Rajiv G.

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, HC&RI, TNAU, Coimbatore *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

What is Therapeutic Garden?

The therapeutic benefits of a peaceful garden environment have been understood since ancient times. Over the past decades many people have become aware of the positive benefits of human interactions with plants and gardens. The recent surge of interest in this relationship in combination with a great increase of horticultural activities in treatment programmes have led to use of numerous terms for this programme and activities such as therapeutic horticulture, garden therapy and therapeutic gardening. The increasing numbers of garden being built at healthcare facilities signals an ever expanding interest in the healing garden and

therapeutic garden. This type of garden is designed for different target groups like Alzheimer patients, children with learning disabilities and Schizophrenic persons.

History

Around 500 BC the Persian begins creating garden to please all of the senses simultaneously by combining fragrance, beauty, music, and cooling temperature of garden. In 1812 Dr. Benjamin Rush professor of Institute of Medicine and Clinical Practice, Pennsylvania published his book, ‘Medical Inquire and Observation upon Disease of Mind’. In this he stated that digging in a garden was one of the activities that recovered patients from their mania. In 1973 a group of

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



horticultural therapy professionals established the Council for Therapy and Rehabilitation through Horticulture (NCRTH). In 1988 the organization changed its name to American Horticultural Therapy Association.

Type of Gardens

1. Healing garden 2. Therapeutic garden 3. Horticultural therapy garden 4. Restorative garden

Benefits of Therapeutic Garden

Improve concentration

Improve goal achievement Improve social integration

Increase self-esteem

Reduce stress Improve mood

Decrease anxiety Alleviates depression

Some basic Guidelines for Developing a Therapeutic Garden

The garden should be easy to comprehend and navigate

The garden should offer contrast which provides relief from stressful environments

Encourage wildlife (birds, butterflies, small animals, etc.) in the garden

Reinforce the cycle of life through plants which provide seasonal change

Urban noise such as traffic, machinery, air-conditioning units, and loud voices are all considered negative distractions in a healing garden

Some types of therapeutic gardening are mentioned below:

Meditation Gardens

Meditation garden layout should be as simple and uncluttered as possible. Some possible layouts are a circle which represents the cycle of life, a square representing universal order, or symbols such as a Celtic knot which represents a journey. It is necessary to provide an area of lawn or some type of seating suitable for sitting for long periods of time. Including water feature breaks monotony. It is better to use cool colours (violet, blue, green) instead of clashing colours while selection of planting material.

Alzheimer’s Treatment Gardens

This type of garden is to be developed based on target people. Paths should be a continuous level loop without dead ends which may frustrate dementia residents. Provide non-poisonous plants. Plants and other elements should be utilized in such a manner that they stimulate memory, conversation, and activity. It is important to create a calm environment by using

subdued colors, textures. Provide landmarks such as sculpture, a profusion of flowers, or a water feature to help orient the users of the space.

Gardens for the Visually Impaired

Garden can be laid out with straight edges and right angles. Avoid curves and intricate patterns. Provide landmarks or reference points to assist in orientation. Examples of landmarks are: scented or tactile plants, sound elements such as wind chimes or running water, or path materials such as gravel or bark. Use vivid colors and bold materials as reference points for people with partial sight. Color contrast can be used for containers, pathways, fences, gate latches, steps, and other things the gardener might have trouble finding or noticing. It is useful to use fragrant climbers and shrubs to various locations to direct them while walking. Use texture changes in paths to indicate changes in direction.

Plants Suitable for Therapeutic Garden

Scented flowers Scented Climbers

Lavendula officinalis

Rosa damascena

Mathiola incana

Centaurea cyanus

Lonicera japonica

Hiptage benghalensis

Solanum jasminoides

Trachelospermum jasminoides

Scented shrubs Anti-stress herbs

Gardenia jasminoides

Cestrum nocturnum

Murraya exotica

Jasminum sambac

Ocimum sanctum

Passiflora sp.

Rosmarinus officinalis

Piper methysticum

Conclusion: The concept of therapeutic garden is well developed in developed countries. Some of the famous gardens are Enid Haupt Glass Garden, New York was built in 1959. It has combining horticultural therapy with medical therapy. Joel Schnaper Memorial Garden, New York is the recipient of the 1995 Therapeutic Garden Design Award by the AHTA and the 1995 Merit Award for Design from the ASLA. Elizabeth & Nona Evans Restorative Garden, Ohio is combining landscape design and modern medical technology in a public setting. It is the recipient of the 2005 Therapeutic Garden Design Award by the AHTA and the 2006 Honor Award in Design from the ASLA in India awareness regarding the miraculous works of therapeutic garden is less. However, now a days the hospitals both in private sector as well as public sector are concentrating towards growing plants and developing gardens in hospital premises. For example the authorities concerned have decided to create two green pastures and plant herbs on the premises of Civil Hospital, Gurgaon. Tata Medical Centre Cancer Hospital, Kolkata, Indian Ayurvedic Hospital and Research Ltd., Coimbatore etc. have beautiful gardening.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com




Cauliflower and Tomato: Nutritional Vegetables for Kitchen Garden

Bhallan Singh Sekhon1* and Harmanjeet Singh2

1Ph.D. Scholar, 2M.Sc. Scholar, Department of Vegetable Science and Floriculture, CSK HPKV, Palampur (H.P.) - 176062


Growing your own vegetables is both delightful and gratifying. Kitchen garden is the best place for this act. Now the question is what kind of vegetables one should grow? The best answer is to grow vegetables of high nutritional value, as mostly preferred by layman, are Cauliflower and Tomato. Today, both these vegetables are gaining popularity among consumers as these contain potent anti-cancerous compounds like Sulphorphane and Lycopene, respectively. Further, cauliflower is abundant in vitamins (C, B, A, K) and minerals like phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, magnesium and molybdenum. Further, it is a low-calorie food with good dietary fiber. It also helps in preventing cancer on the account of the presence of compounds like singrin, glucobrassicin, glucoraphanin, gluconasturatian S-methylcysteine sulfoxide etc. Further, presence of selenium in cauliflower along with vitamin C, strengthen our immune system. Research on nutrition led to development of Pusa Betakesari, first ever indigenously bred bio-fortified beta carotene (800 – 1000 µg/100 g) rich cauliflower variety which helps to tackle beta carotene deficiency related malnutrition problem in India.

Tomato is also called as “Protective food” on the account of presence of vitamins, minerals and lycopene thus helping in prevention of cancer, coronary heart diseases and cataract. It is also nutritionally valuable for its high provitamin-A and vitamin C content. The pulp and juice of tomato is digestible, promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. In terms of value, it comes next only to potato and sweet

potato in India, but as a processing crop, it ranks first among vegetable crops. Research on nutrition led to development of Pusa Red Plum, Vitamin C rich variety thus helping to combat malnutrition problem. Further, Fresh tomatoes and tomato extracts have been shown to help lower total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides. In addition, tomato extracts have been shown to help prevent unwanted clumping together (aggregation) of platelet cells in the blood thus lowering risk of heart problems like atherosclerosis. From above discussion, Cauliflower and Tomato could be considered as suitable vegetables for kitchen gardening on account of their immense nutritional and medicinal properties.

TABLE 1. Nutritional value of the cauliflower and tomato per 100 g

Constituent Cauliflower Tomato

Protein 1.92 g 0.9 g

Niacin 0.507 mg 0.594 mg

Riboflavin 0.060 mg 0.019 mg

Thiamin 0.050 mg 0.037 mg

Vitamin C 48.2 mg 13 mg

Vitamin E 0.08 mg 0.54 mg

Sodium 30 mg 5 mg

Calcium 22 mg 10 mg

Iron 0.42 mg 0.3 mg

Magnesium 15 mg 11 mg

Manganese 0.155 mg 0.15 mg

Zinc 0.27 mg 0.17 mg


Passion Fruit: An Income Generating Valuable Fruit for Processing Industry

E. Premabati Devi1, L. Netajit Singh2, E. Bidyarani Devi3 and Deepshikha4

1Assistant Research Scientist, Wheat Research Station, Vijapur, S.D.A.U., Gujarat; 2Ph. D Scholar, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat; 3Ph. D Scholar, A.A.U., Jorhat, Assam; 4Junior

Research Officer, G.B.P.U.A.T., Pantnagar, Uttarakhand

Introduction: Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) is famous for its pronounced flavor and aroma,

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



belongs to family Passifloraceae, and is a native of Brazil. In India, it is also cultivated in many parts of Western Ghat such as Nilgiris, Wynad, Kodaikanal, Shevroys, Coorg and Malabar as well as Himachal Pradesh and its commercial cultivation are quite prominent in North Eastern States like Manipur, Nagaland and Mizoram. The passion fruit vine is shallow rooted, woody, perennial, climbing by means of tendrils. The fruits are nearly round to oval in shape with a tough rind which is smooth and waxy. The colour of fruits may vary according to variety like yellow (Passiflora edulis var. flavicarpa), purple (Passiflora edulis var. sims) and hybrid of purple to yellow.

Climatic condition: It prefers tropical to subtropical humid climate and grows well up to 2000 m altitude with an annual rainfall of 1000 to 2500 mm. The optimum temperature requirement is 200 to 300C but the vegetative growth and flowering get restricted below 150C. It grows best in light sandy loam soils with pH of 6.0-7.0 and good drainage. A soil type with sufficient quantity of moisture, rich in organic matter and low in salts is considered as suitable for its cultivation.

Nutritional importance: It is a good source of Vitamin A and also contains fair amounts of sodium, magnesium, sulphur and chlorides. Commercial processing of yellow passion fruit yields 36% juice, 51% rinds and 11% seeds. The leaves are used as a vegetable in the hills of North Eastern India. Its rinds have very low pectin content (2.4 %) and its rind residue contains about 5-6% protein and could be used as filler in poultry and stock feed. The seeds yield 23% oil which is similar to sunflower and soybean oil and accordingly has edible as well as industrial uses.

Physio-Chemical Properties of Ripe Passion Fruit

1. Average Fruit Weight (g) - 43.18

2. Volume of the Fruit (ml) - 48.40 3. Juice (%) - 31.31 4. Specific Gravity - 0.892 5. TSS (Brix) - 14.70 6. Acidity (%) - 4.42 7. Ascorbic Acid (mg/100 g) - 26.80 8. Carotenoids (ug/100 g) - 308.55 9. Fruit length (cm) - 4.48 10. Fruit diameter (cm) - 4.49

Products: The fruit is valued for its pronounced flavor and aroma which helps not only in producing a high quality squash but also in flavoring several other products. The juice are quite known for its excellent flavor with delicious, nutritious and liked for its blending quality. The juice is extensively used in confectionery and preparation of cakes, pies and ice cream. There is very good demand of juice/concentrate in foreign markets. Passion fruit juice also used in making sauce, gelatine desserts, candy, ice cream, sherbet, cake icing, cake filling, meringue or chiffon pie, cold fruit soup, or in cocktails. The seeded pulp is made into jelly or is combined with pineapple or tomato in making jam. Swiss processors have marketed a passion fruit-based soft drink called “Passaia” for a number of years in Western Europe. Costa Rica produces wine sold as “Parchita Seco.”

Medical uses: Boiled extract of fresh tender leaves are prescribed as a remedy for diabetes, hypertension, diarrhoea, dysentry, gastritis, abdominal flatulence and as a liver tonic. Leaves extract of yellow passion fruit can kill cancer cells in vitro since it has carotenoids and polyphenols. The leaves contain the alkaloids, including Harman, which has blood pressure lowering, sedative and antispasmodic action. The flower of passion fruit has a mild sedative and can help to induce sleep and also has been used in the treatment of nervous and easily excited children, bronchial asthma, insomnia, nervous gastrointestinal disorders and menopausal problems. Besides, flower is sometimes used as a mild hallucinogen. The juices are recommended as a digestive stimulant and treatment for gastric cancer. In pharmaceutical industry, especially in Europe, there is currently a revival of interest for the use of glycoside, passiflorine, especially from purple passion fruit as a sedative or tranquilizer. Italian chemists extracted passiflorine from the air-dried leaves.

Since passion fruit is an upcoming valuable crop in most of North Eastern States so there is a need for developing proper linkages with processing industries by providing the financial facilities for proper utilization of post-harvest fruit management.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com




Problems and Constraints in Fruit Production in Arid Region Kuntal Satkar*

*Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Post Graduate Institute, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (Maharashtra), Pin-444104.


Indian agriculture is predominantly a rainfed agriculture under which both dry farming and Dryland agriculture included. Dry farming was the earlier concept for which amount of rainfall (less than 500 mm annually) remained the deciding factor for more than 50 years. In modern concept, Dryland areas are those where the balance of moisture is always on the deficit side. In other words, annual evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation.

Rainfed agriculture is being adversely affected by four-fold problems of land degradation, slow climatic change, degeneration of bio-diversity due to open grazing and poverty driven over utilization of natural resources. All these problems together lead to increasing challenges for sustainability of dryland crop production. These problems can be reversed, stopped, or at least reduced if the farming community can be motivated to adopt appropriate technologies developed by the National Agricultural Research System (NARS). This is possible only if an economy driven enterprise is the template of the farming system in vogue in these areas. This means that a farmer should receive higher and staggered income from the holding. The redefined agro-horti system is unique as it focuses on assisting farmers in creating a situation where they are managing their own natural resources including livestock in a sustainable productive way, and making them less dependent on outside labour and forest areas. In order to meet the challenges and the vagaries of monsoon, to evolve suitable technology to minimize such risk and to achieve stability in the dryland areas and consistent with the policy of conservation and desirability of preserving the integrity of the ecosystem, the alternate land use systems in the form of agro-horti system could be suggested.

It has now been recognized that handy horticultural crops must be incorporated into cropping system in dryland. Vegetable farming in our country has been an age-old enterprise of small and resource poor farmers who represent the major share in dry land areas. Because of quick growing and short duration characters, vegetable crops easily fit in the system well. Owing to perennial nature and deep root system of fruit trees, these are able to utilize the

moisture commonly stored in deeper soil profile, they easily adapt to the marginal agro-ecological conditions such as undulating uplands, gullied and ravined lands, mining and industrial waste lands and poor sandy plains and can thus ameliorate the degraded ecology. On proper establishment fruit trees sustain the income of growers by providing permanent and assured income from fruits, fuel wood, and fodder. The trees also provide nutritive product to alleviate the problem of malnutrition and improve health standard of the people.

Production Constraints

Nearly two third of a total of 169.65 million ha land under arable area and permanent crops in India is rainfed. The productivity of horticultural crops in dryland is, however, very low, extremely irregular, and variable depending upon the extent and pattern of rainfall. Besides water scarcity the other production constraints in drylands are;

1. Abiotic stresses due to extremes temperature and atmospheric humidity,

2. Biotic stress due to damage caused by wild animals, rodents, birds, insect, and diseases.

3. Poor, degraded and marginal soil condition, 4. Difficult condition to execute agro

techniques, and 5. Difficulty in post-harvest handling and

marketing owing to limited and inefficient transport and market infrastructure.

Scientific management for efficient utilization of the resources, particularly water, can significantly improve and stabilize the productivity of horticultural crops in drylands.

Selection of Crops

In dryland areas, crops should be able to complete maximal vegetative growth and reproductive phase during the period of maximum water availability.

During the monsoon up to September starting from May in south India and from July in North India, soil and atmospheric moisture stress is low. The fruits such as ber, guava, pomegranate, custard apple, Indian gooseberry and sour lime, depending upon the aridity of location, conform to this prerequisite. The crops must have xeric characters, eg. deep root system

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



(as in mango, ber, walnut), summer dormancy (as in ber), high bound water in the tissues (as in cactus, pear, fig), reduced leaf area (as in Indian gooseberry), leaf surface having shrunken stomata, thick cuticle wax coating and pubescence (as in fig, ber, phalsa, tamarind), and ability to adapt shallow soils, rocky, gravelly, and undulating wastelands (eg. pomegranate, aonla, cashew, Buchanaria lanzan). In high rainfall areas, crop selection is based on the resistance to disease and pests owing to high humid conditions and adaptability to water stagnation.

TABLE 1. Different crops suitable for arid land

Rainfall (mm)

Plains Plateaus and sub mountain regions

>500 Khejri, Ber, Phalsa, Indian fig, Karonda, Lasora

Custard apple, Bael, Karonda, Jamun

500-1000

Ber, Aonla, Jamun, Wood apple, Custard apple, Wild date palm, Indian almond, Guava, Sour lime, Lemon, Mango, Tamarind

Ber, Custard apple, Wood apple, Karonda, Indian almond, Mango, Cashew, Tamarind, Sour lime, Lemon, Grape fruit, Pomegranate

>1000 Mango, Litchi, Jack fruit, Mandarin, Avocado, Tamarind, Jamun, Mahua, Kokum

Mango, Jack fruit, Guava, Tamarind, Mahua, Cashew nut, Cherry, Pomegranate

TABLE 2. Popular cultivars of fruits in Dryland areas

Crop Cultivars

Ber Gola, Mundia, Kaithi, Banarasi, Early umran

Aonla Kanchan, Krishna, Balawant, NA-6, NA-7

Pomegranate P-23, P-26, IIHR Selection, Mridula

Custard apple

Balanagar, Mammoth, Red Sitaphal

Guava Allahabad Safeda, Sardar, Kohir Safeda, Safed Jam

Crop Cultivars

Papaya Pusa Delicious, Honey Dew, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Giant

Bael NB- 5, NB -9

Sapota Kali patti, Cricket Ball

Fig Poona, Blackqsehiq

Mango Banglora, Neelam, Kesar, Bombay Green

Over 30% of rural families in India are living in poverty due to small holding size and low soil productivity, resulting in uneconomic agriculture. As many underutilized tree species are tolerant to harsh agro-climatic conditions, agri-horti-forestry has been promoted using these tree species on degraded hilly terrains in the Western Ghats region of Gujarat and Maharashtra. While accepting various plant species for cultivation, the major concerns of the farmers were adaptability, higher returns, short gestation period, availability of superior quality germplasm, easy access to post harvest facilities and assured markets. Farmers preferred local species due to their utility and marketability. To ensure higher yields and superior quality of the produce, selection of elite germplasm, domestication through standardization of cultivation practices and facilitation for supply of planting material are essential. It is further necessary to increase the demand for the produce by exploring their uses, creation of awareness among consumers and establishing a good distribution network. Intercrops like food grains, vegetables and medicinal herbs not only generated additional income but also reduced risk in case of failure of underutilized crops. As promotion of underutilized crops without market linkage is risky, it is advisable to introduce such crops on a small scale with other well-known crops and expand the cultivation with increases in demand.


Queen of Horticulture Crops N. Vairam

Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Imayam Institute of Agriculture and Technology, Thuraiyur, Trichy-621 206.

Queen of Flower: Rose- Rosa spp. Rosaceae, 2n=14

Queen of Vegetable: Bhendi-Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench, Malvaceae, 2n= 130

Queen of Fruits: Mangusteen-Garcinia mangostana, Clusiaceae, 2n=16

Queen of Beverage: Tea-Camellia sinensis, Camelliaceae (Theaceae), 2n=30, 45, 60

Queen of Spice: Cardamom-Elaetria

cardamom, 2n=48

Queen of Flower: Rose

The rose is a woody perennial that was originally from China but is now grown across the world. It is characterised by wide range of colours and sizes. Roses thrive in sunny, well-drained soil. They particularly like clay soils and it is best to grow roses away from other plants so their roots are not disturbed. Species, cultivars and hybrids

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



are all widely grown for their beauty and often are fragrant. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers that can reach seven meters in height. There are multiple superior ovaries that develop into achenes. The rose is the emblem of England and the national flower of the United States. It is the official flower of New York state; the wild rose, of Iowa; the prairie rose, of North Dakota; and the American Beauty, of the District of Columbia. Practical uses of roses, besides their importance as a source of perfume, include a delicate-flavored jelly made from the fruits, called rose hips, of some wild species.

Queen of Vegetable: Okra/Bhendi

Okra, also known as “lady’s fingers” and “gumbo,” is a green flowering plant. Okra belongs to the same plant family as hibiscus and cotton. The term “okra” most commonly refers to the edible seedpods of the plant. Abelmoschus esculentus is cultivated throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world for its fibrous fruits or pods containing round, white seeds. It is among the most heat- and drought-tolerant vegetable species in the world and will tolerate soils with heavy clay and intermittent moisture, but frost can damage the pods. Okra has long been favored as a food for the health-conscious. It contains potassium, vitamin B, vitamin C, folic acid, and calcium. It’s low in calories and has a high dietary fiber content.

Queen of Fruits: Mangusteen

Unique for its appearance and flavor, mangosteen is often revered as “the Queen” of tropical fruits, particularly in the South-East Asian regions. This exotic, round, purple color fruit is quite popular for its snow-white, juicy, delicious arils all of the Asian countries, and in recent years by the European and American fruit lovers as well! Mangosteen is good source of vitamin-C and provides about 12% of RDA per 100 g. Mangosteen plant is an evergreen, upright

tree reaching about 20- 60 ft in height. It commonly found in tropical rainforests of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines as well as in some cultivated orchards in Sri Lanka, and India, where annual precipitation and relative humidity are favorable for its growth. Fresh purple fruits can be available in the markets from June until October.

Queen of Beverage: Tea

Tea is an aromatic beverage commonly prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis, an evergreen shrub native to Asia.

After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world. There are many different types of tea; some teas, like Darjeeling and Chinese greens, have a cooling, slightly bitter, and astringent flavour, while others have vastly different profiles that include sweet, nutty, floral or grassy notes. Tea originated in Southwest China, where it was used as a medicinal drink. It was popularized as a recreational drink during the Chinese Tang dynasty, and tea drinking spread to other East Asian countries. The astringency in tea can be attributed to the presence of polyphenols. These are the most abundant compounds in tea leaves, making up 30-40% of their composition. Caffeine constitutes about 3% of tea’s dry weight, translating to between 30 mg and 90 mg per 8-oz (250-ml) cup depending on type, brand and brewing method. Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline, which are stimulants, and

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



xanthines similar to caffeine.

Queen of Spice: Cardamom

Cardamom is a seed pod, known for centuries for its culinary and medicinal properties. This aromatic spice is native to the evergreen rain forest of southern Indian Kerala state and grown in only a few tropical countries. The seed pods possess camphor like intense flavor and commonly employed in spice mixtures in sub-Himalayan plains of India, Pakistan, Nepal and China. This exotic spice contains many plants derived chemical compounds that are known to have been anti-oxidant, disease preventing and health promoting properties. The spicy pods contain many essential volatile oils. Cardamom is a good source of minerals like potassium,

calcium, and magnesium. Additionally, it is also an excellent source of iron and manganese. These aromatic pods are rich in many vital vitamins, including riboflavin, niacin, vitamin-C that is essential for optimum health.


Apple Ber: An Elixir for Dry Land Horticulture G. Anupama1 and N. Ashoka2

1Assistant Horticulture Officer, Horticulture Training Centre, Munirabad -583233 2Assistant Professor of Agricultural Economics, College of Horticulture, Munirabad -583233

Apple Ber is a Thailand variety fruit and it is also known as the Indian jujube or Chinese date. The taste of this Apple Ber is Sweet, Crispy & Juicy. The weight of each fruit is around 100-200 gm. It appears to be like green Apple. That is the reason it is named as Apple Plum or Apple Ber. Its farming is currently trending and it has lots of advantages over traditional Plum farming. Unlike Indian jujube, it is almost spineless. Apple ber is commonly cultivated in Thailand and Bangladesh. In Bangladesh it is known as BAU Kul. It is believed to be introduced from Thailand.

Unlike the local and hybrid variety, the speciality of the new variety is the size of the fruit which is bigger; it tastes very sweet, is drought resistant, consumes less water and requires less insecticides and is sustainable in hot temperature too, having a life of 20 years, while the yield is high. The cost of the saplings are Rs. 35/- and approximate establishment cost per acre of apple ber ranges from Rs. 70,000 to Rs. 80,000. This plant starts giving fruits after 6-8 months of plantation. Generally the height of the plant would be ranging between 10-15 ft. About 450 to 500 plants can be accommodated in an Acre. Apple Ber fruits are juicy and delicious same as apple. It gives fruits twice in a year and the Plums are produced mainly during December to January. This tree gives 25-30kg fruits during first year and in the second year it gives 45-50 kg fruits. It is a new variety in the present market and it is attractive too. In all the urban habitations and metro cities in India these fruits can be sold. Hyderabad is one of the famous

markets for Apple Ber. The grade one (big sized) fruits are sold in the Hyderabad market at Rs. 35 a kg; the second grade, which are small in size, fetches between Rs. 20 and Rs. 25 per kg,”

The plant life is about 20 years and can be propagated through seed and also can be multiplied by cuttings of half-ripe wood. The cuttings should be 10-12 cm long and preferably with a heel. The cuttings are planted in July-August and are easy to plant. Layering is also feasible. Grafting by the skilled professionals may deliver higher fruit yield. Fruits are big so Labor expenses less for harvest. Natural Pollination is possible and it is disease Free. This is Germ Resistant and the fruits have more Shelf Life. The price is higher when compare with any traditional fruit varieties. Two times yield in a year and the crop time can be adjusted based on the market demand.

Medicinal Use

The fruit has been used in traditional medicine as an emollient, expectorant, coolant, anodyne and tonic. It also has been used as an antidote for aconite poisoning. It is given to relieve abdominal pains during pregnancy and can be applied to wounds when used in a poultice. The leaves can be used as a laxative and for throat problems as a decoction and the same liquid can also be used for skin problems. The roots have wound healing properties too.

Medical researchers have found a “new” flavonoid in Ber called zivulgarin and trials are underway to discover how it might benefit us. Oleamide found in an extract of Zizyphus jujube

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



has been found to help fight Alzheimer disease and help the cognitive processes. It has been found that there is saponins in the leaves and vitamin C in the form of ascorbic acid in the fruit, as well as the B-complex vitamins, thiamin, riboflavin and pectin. It has immune stimulant, antioxidant and wound healing properties and pectin is known to be useful in cases of diarrhea. The fruit also helps lower cholesterol levels and blood pressure. Some of the triterpenoic acids isolated from the fruit are also believed to be useful in fighting cancer and HIV.

It is good not only for its nutritional benefits but also for those with digestive problems. Vitamins A and C along with all the calcium that is present in the Apple Ber fruits which are responsible for their nutritional value. Along with that, Ber fruits are also known to contain 18 of the 24 essential amino acids that the body needs.

Health Benefits of Apple Ber Fruits

1. Known for its anti-cancer properties: Apple Ber fruit is full of anti-oxidants. And where there are anti-oxidants, there can’t be any free radicals, the elements that are responsible for causing cancer. This fruit is therefore known to prevent cancer. Recent experiments proved that it was especially effective in preventing leukemia, the most violent form of cancer.

2. Aids in weight loss: While these fruits don’t have weight reducing properties in themselves, they make for a great snack if you’re trying to lose weight. They have no carbohydrates or fats and are abundant in fiber. This makes them highly nutritional while not adding to weight when eaten as snack. Hence it is a great substitute for fatty foods that we usually snack on.

3. Strengthens the immune system: The high amounts of Vitamin C and Vitamin A that are present in these fruits make it a great anti-oxidant which also helps boost the immune system activities of the body. And this helps us fight diseases more effectively keeping seasonal colds and fevers at bay.

4. Keeps teeth, bones and muscle healthy: Apple Ber fruit is rich in calcium, the basic mineral that constitutes the teeth, bones and muscles. Making these fruits part of our regular diet helps us strengthen the bones, muscles and teeth thereby. This reduces the chance of bones getting fractured easily. It

can also help keep the teeth stronger thereby reducing the risk of decay and cavities.

5. Helps keep skin healthy and young: Vitamin C helps slow ageing process because of the anti-oxidants that are present in it. Apple Ber fruit, which is loaded with Vitamin C helps greatly in slowing the ageing of the skin thereby keeping it healthy and shiny for a long time. Although wrinkles are inevitable with age, we can delay the process by making this fruit as part of our diet.

6. Soothes the nervous system with its sedative properties: Apple Ber fruit is known to have innate sedative properties. Sedatives can be of great help in soothing the nervous system and thereby helping with nervous disorders like anxiety and insomnia. It also helps in treating more serious disorders like psychosis and epilepsy.

7. Helps aid digestion: Apple Ber fruit is known to aid with digestion and absorption. It is especially helpful for people who have been suffering from digestive problems, constipation and flatulence. It acts as a mild laxative and hence should not be taken by patients suffering from diarrhea.

8. Helps soothe sore throats: Apple Ber fruit extracts are used to soothe the pain and ache that comes with sore throat. When combined with ginger or mint and consumed in the form of a potion, the fruit juice soothes the throat.

9. Recent research indicates that Apple Ber fruit could help fight Alzheimer: Recent experiments have indicated that Apple Ber fruit can help fight Alzheimer by helping fight cell degeneration and aiding in cognitive functioning of the brain. This is going to be a great breakthrough in the field of Alzheimer if further studies confirm this and it can be used in for treating Alzheimer.

Care must however be taken not to consume more than the required or prescribed doses of Apple Ber fruit juice as it can induce diarrhea and cause abortions when taken by pregnant women.

Other Uses: Wood from the trees is used by villagers to make agricultural implements as it is hard and durable, while the leaves are used as fodder for sheep and goats, so all parts of the tree are useful and well utilized.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



45. MUSHROOM 15321

Mushroom Production: Importance and Cultivation Strategy Anupam Maharshi

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi - 221005


INTRODUCTION: Agaricus bisporus commonly known as white button mushroom is most popular mushroom variety native of grassland of Europe and North America. Mushrooms have been devoured as food by mankind since time immemorial after collecting from the forests. The primal evidence of commercial cultivation of A. bisporus was made by French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in 1707. The success to isolate pure culture through tissues and spores was the turning point in the process of commercial mushroom production in world. A. bisporus is now cultivated in at least seventy countries throughout the world including India. However, commercial production of white button mushroom was initiated in the hilly regions of the country (17- 18°C) like Chail (Himachal Pradesh) Kashmir and Ooty (Tamil Nadu). Mushroom cultivation slowly spread to North western plains of India (seasonal crop during winter). In Rajasthan, production of mushroom started in 1980. Mushrooms are the health food of the world. In India, its production was limited to the winter season earlier, but with introgression of new technologies it is produced throughout the year in small, medium and large farms, adopting different levels of technology. Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are the major button mushroom producing states in India.

Economic Importance

Mushrooms are highly proteinaceous food. Protein in mushrooms has 60-70 % digestibility and having most of the essential amino acids. The white button mushroom is sold as fresh mushroom or is canned and made into soups, sauces and other food products. It has medicinal properties also. Button mushroom having retene supposed to have an antagonistic effect on some forms of tumours. Analysis of fresh button mushrooms show that they contain 90 to 93 per cent moisture, 28 to 42.5 per cent crude protein, 8.3 to 16.2 per cent crude fibre, 9.4 to 14.5 per cent ash, 59.4 per cent carbohydrates and 3.1 per cent fat. Mushrooms are good as nutritious food for all ages and under all conditions of health. Mushrooms contain lysine and tryptophan amino acids that are generally deficient in various cereals. The fat contain is low but is rich in

linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid. Button mushrooms are fairly rich in vitamins and minerals. The mushroom having high amount of vitamin B especially and potassium. Raw mushrooms are naturally cholesterol, fat, and sodium free.

Agro-Climatic Requirements

Button mushrooms are grown seasonally and in controlled environment cropping houses i India. The growers can grow an average 3-4 crops of white button mushrooms in a year also depending upon the type and cultivar. It requires 20-280 C temperature for vegetative growth (spawn run) and 12-180 C for reproductive growth. It also requires 80-90% relative humidity and proper ventilation during cropping. Seasonally, it is grown during the winter months in the north-west plains of India and for 8-10 months in a year on the hills. However, as with advancing the technology it is now possible to cultivate this through and anywhere in India.

Cultivation Technology

Process of mushroom cultivation is divided into the six steps:

1. Spawn Production: Spawn is produced from fruiting culture / stocks of selected strains of mushrooms under sterile conditions. The spawn should be of good quality in terms of flavour, texture and size apart from having potential for high yield and longer shelf life.

2. Compost Preparation: The substrate on which button mushroom grows is mainly prepared from a mixture of plant wastes (cereal straw/ sugarcane bagasse etc.), salts (urea, superphosphate / gypsum etc), supplements (rice bran/ wheat bran) and water. In order to produce 1 kg. of mushroom, 220 g. of dry substrate materials are required.

3. Spawning: The process of mixing spawn with compost is called spawning. The different methods followed for spawning are given below: a) Spot Spawning

i) Surface Spawning b) Layer Spawning

4. Spawn Running: After the spawning the compost is filled in polythene bags (90x90 cm., 150 gauge thick having a capacity of 20-

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



25 kg. per bag)/ trays (mostly wooden trays 1x1/2 m. accommodating 20-30 kg. compost) / shelves which are either covered with a newspaper sheet or polythene. The fungal bodies grow out from the spawn and take about two weeks (12-14 days) to colonise.

5. Casing: The compost beds after complete spawn run should be covered with a layer of soil (casing) about 3-4 cm. thick to induce fruiting. The casing material should be having high porosity, water holding capacity and the pH should range between 7-7.5. Peat moss which is considered to be the best casing material is not available in India.

6. Fruiting: Under favourable environmental conditions viz. temperature (initially 23 ± 20

C for about a week and then 16 ± 20 C), moisture (2-3 light sprays per day for moistening the casing layer), humidity (above 85%), proper ventilation and CO2 concentration (0.08-0.15 %) the fruit body initials which appear in the form of pin heads start growing and gradually develop into button stage.

Varieties / Strains

Scientists of Horticulture Research Station of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University at Vijayanagaram, Ooty released the two strains of button mushrooms Ooty 1 and Ooty (BM) 2 in 2002. In India S-11, TM-79 and Horst H3 are the strains which are mostly cultivated.

46. POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 15257

Pre-Harvest Factors Influencing the Post-Harvest Management of Mandarin

Swapnil D. Deshmukh

Ph.D. Scholar, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola

Nagpur mandarin is the finest mandarin in the world. Vidarbha region of Maharashtra state produces the best quality mandarin fruits so it is called as California of India. There are mainly two bahar in mandarin i.e. Mrig bahar and Aambia bahar, fruits are ready for harvesting from the month of February-March and November- December respectively. Once the fruits are harvested, then the overall quality of fresh fruits can hardly be improved. The final market value of the produce depends upon the grower’s ability to apply best available pre-harvest technology and subsequent harvesting and then postharvest technology.

The pre-harvest technology, like use of fertilizers, pest control, growth regulators, climatic conditions like wet and windy weather and tree conditions, influences the fruit potentiality for storage by modifying physiology, chemical composition and morphology of fruits. In pre-harvest treatment, if the spray (10 ppm) of Gibberellic acid is done at colour break stage, it delays colour development, maintain firmness, thereby allows to extend harvesting period. Similarly, the use of potassium fertilizers extends the shelf life of the fruits.

Maturity – (Harvest Maturity and Physiological Maturity)

1) Harvest Maturity: A critical time for producers is the assessment of right maturity, as to when to harvest a crop. Normally, any type of fresh produce is ready for harvest when it has developed all ideal conditions for consumption. This condition is usually referred to a harvest

maturity. Harvest maturity of horticultural produce depends mostly on the purpose and distance of market for which they are harvested. The deciding factors of harvest maturity are appearance (colour, size, and shape), texture, glossiness, hardness, pulpiness, smell (aroma or odour), and tastes (sweetness, sourness, bitterness).

2) Physiological Maturity: In physiological sense, however, maturity refers to attainment of final stage of biological function by a plant part or plant as a whole. Thus the physiological maturity differs from harvest maturity.

The maturity of harvested fruits has an important role on shelf life, quality and market price. Hence, certain standards of maturity must be kept in mind while harvesting the fruits. However, the most commonly used measures to access maturity for harvesting the Mandarin is peel colour. Fruits are considered mature, if they have a yellow orange colour on 25% or more of the fruit surface. Fruit quality for harvesting depends upon TSS (Total soluble solids contents, sugar) and acidity of the juice. The juice should have a TSS of 8.5% or higher. TSS content is determined by squeezing a few drops of juice on a hand-held refractometer.

3) Harvesting: Mandarins are mostly hand plucked, using ladders rested on bamboo support, to prevent the tearing of branches bearing fruits. The quality of the produce is greatly affected by the damages/injuries during the harvesting. Therefore, great care should be taken during harvesting/plucking the fruits.

The plucking of fruits should not be carried

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



out during wet weather or early morning when fruits are turgid and can easily be bruised, leading to decay during subsequent handling. Mandarin fruit tend to “plug” when snapped from the tree, i.e., a piece of the peel from the fruit remains attached to the stalk. It is preferable to use clippers to clip the fruit from the tree to avoid damage. The other cause of deterioration in the fruit quality is harvesting of immature or over mature fruits. Similarly, fruits are spoiled when they are harvested by pulling the fruit, causing rupturing of the peel of loose skin of the fruits. Harvested fruits need careful handling, till they reach the consumers.

4) Harvesting Stage: Generally, the Mandarins are harvested in February-March and November- December for Mrig bahar and Aambia bahar respectively. The colour of the rind also indicates the time of harvesting of the fruits. The criteria, depending on colour of rind for assessing the fruit maturity in some of the states are as under. Specially for Nagpur mandarin colour change stage i.e. colour changes from green to orange.

5) Harvesting Technique: Suitable application of harvesting technique is very important to prevent the losses during post-harvest handling. Fruits should be clipped in such a way that the button remains intact with the fruits. Sometimes, longer stalk portion of the clipped fruits left during harvesting, pierces into other fruits and causes injuries in them that paves the way for attack of wound pathogen. Therefore, while clipping the stalk should be cut close to the fruit, so as to preclude it from puncturing the rind of other fruit during harvest and handling.

6) Precautions during Harvesting: Harvesting is considered to be the most important factor, governing the postharvest

management. Therefore, following precaution should be taken during harvesting.

1. Harvesting should be done by using appropriate instruments like clippers or by carefully twisting and pulling the fruit from the tree.

2. The harvesting under wet conditions should be avoided, since wet fruits are more susceptible to microbial growth and soil particles may cling to wet crops, exposing them to soil-borne rot organisms.

3. Harvesting of fruits is best done in the late morning, because in the early morning the oil glands of the fruits are full and cause immediate discolouration.

4. Care should be taken at the time of plucking the fruit that the button remains attached to the fruit.

5. Stalk left on the fruit should be cut off close to fruit because they can puncture other fruit, causing injury and fruit spoilage.

6. The tree should never be shaked to harvest the fruits. Do not allow the fruit to fall on the soil, as the impact leads to mechanical injury that makes fruit more prone to decay.

7. After harvesting, fruits should never be left in direct sunlight and must be kept in the shade.

8. To avoid contact with the soil, the harvested fruits should be carefully put into padded field crates, well-ventilated plastic containers, or picking bags.

9. Picking bags made with a quick-opening bottom, should be either strapped around the waist or put over the shoulder of the picker.

10. Picking bags should be so designed to empty from the bottom so that fruits can roll out of the sack onto the bottom of a larger field container or atop fruits already present.

47. POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT 15278

Use of Non-Chemical Methods for the Management of Post-Harvest Diseases of Papaya, Guava and Citrus

M. L. Meghwal

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur. 313001. *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: India is the second largest producer of fruits contributing 10 per cent of the total world production (Anon., 2003). However, 50 per cent of the total fruit production in the country is lost due to wastage caused by many biotic and abiotic factors. Post-harvest diseases in fruits represent one of the most severe causes of loss in production. One of the challenges being

faced by our fruit industry is the enormous post-harvest loss nearly 20-25 per cent of perishables due to post harvest diseases in India (Sharma and Maskhoor Alam, 1998). Careless harvesting, processing, packing, storing, transportation and handling etc. further facilitate the entry of certain pathogens. Use of pesticides is a common practice to prevent post-harvest diseases to

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



increase shelf life of the fruits. Excessive use of the pesticides has threaten the life by entering in the food chain and residues in almost all the food materials and soft drinks. The non-target effect is another cause of concern of pesticide application as it is disturbing the ecosystem and indirectly contributing in resurgence of resistant races of the pathogens.

Papaya, guava and citrus are highly perishables in nature. They are mostly attacked by Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Phytophthora sp., Alternaria sp., Colletotrichum sp., Phomopsis sp., Lasiodiplodia sp., Pestalotia sp. and Xanthomonas sp.

Loss and Incidence

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides alone causes 100 per cent disease incidence among different fruit rot pathogen in papaya crop in Brazil (Doihara and Silva, 2003).

Patel and Pathak (1993) reported incidence of Rhizopus rot of guava i.e. 4.1 and 3.8 per cent at Udaipur and Ahmedabad markets, respectively.

Verma and Tikoo (2004) observed 10.89 per cent loss in fruits due to black mold in acid lime from Jammu market. Bamba and Sumbali (2004) recorded 22.03 per cent loss in fruit yield due to different fruit rot pathogens in sour lime from Jammu market.

Non-Chemical Methods

Packaging, Transportation and Storage

Singh and Thakur (2003) revealed that maximum fruits were damaged in gunny bags and bamboo baskets during transportation, while minimum rotting was observed when fruits were stored in wooden boxes under cold condition (40-50C) in citrus. Rodov et al. (1995) reported that young (mature green, approx. 6 months after anthesis) fruits had minimum (25%) post-harvest decay as compared to old (yellow, approx.11 months after anthesis) fruits (58%).

Physical Methods

Irradiation: Brodrick et al. (1976) found that papaya cv. Papino treated with hot water (500C for 10 min.) + 75 krad gamma rays then stored for local market (200C) and export market (110C, 3 wk then 200C) require more days to obtain 25, 50, and 75 per cent non marketable fruits over control.

Gupta and Chatrath (1973) found progressive decrease in the germination of the conidia of C. gloeosporioides and length of germ tube with increase in the dose of gamma rays above 10 krad. Irradiation of fruits with gamma rays at a dose of 100 krad after 5, 18 and 24 hours of inoculation gave good control of the disease. Pre inoculation irradiation treatment with gamma rays at the same dose was not

effective in controlling the anthracnose fruit rot of guava.

Borthakur and Kumar (2000) found that Barmasi lemon treated with 25 krad gamma radiation gave significantly less per cent of decayed fruits with minimum colour changes after 70th day of storage. Mahmood (1972) observed that the sour rot of lemon could be controlled upto 200 krad irradiation dose without any organoleptic changes in the fruits.

Hot Water Treatment: Hot water treatment at 540C for 3min showed maximum reduction in all the major diseases of papaya (Coney and Faries, 1979). Hot water treatment at 500C for 2 min. gave cent per cent control of green mold rot in Kinnow fruits upto 90 days in storage (Singh and Thakur, 2002).

Forced Hot-Air Treatment: Nishijima et al. (1992) reported that significantly lowest C. gloeosporioides (3.0%), Botryodiplodia theobromae (1.0%) and Mycosphaerella sp. (3.0%) fruit rot was recorded in hot-air + single hot-water dip treatment (48.50C for 3-4 hrs. + 490C for 20 min.) in papaya over other treatments.

Plant Extract

Yadav and Majumdar (2004) reported Aloe barbadensis (100% conc.) was found best among all the plant extracts under study to inhibit the mycelial growth (3.25mm) of Lasiodiplodia theobromae in guava fruits.

Dry leaf extract of neem at 5 x 104 μg/ml successfully controlled green mold and stylar-end rot of citrus as pre-inoculation treatment (Kaur and Verma, 2004). Meena and Shah (2005) found that neem leaf extract showed 55, 62 and 68 per cent mycelial inhibition of Phomopsis citri at 100, 250 and 500 ppm, respectively over control.

Essential Oils: Arya (1988) found that mustard oil and eucalyptus leaf extract at 25 and 50 per cent gave 10 and 50, and 14 and 40 per cent control of Phomopsis fruit rot of guava, respectively over other treatments.

Homeopathic Medicine: Khanna and Chandra (1977) found pre-inoculation treatment was more effective than post-inoculation treatment with arsenicum album potency 181 and Kali iodatum potency 87 giving 0 per cent rot of guava fruit against Pestalotia psidii. Khanna and Chandra (1989) reported only castor adjuvant was highly effective in improving the efficacy of Kali iodatum potency 87 for the rot of guava caused by Pestalotia psidii.

Bioagents: Yadav and Manjumdar (2004) reported Gliocladium virens showing maximum inhibition of mycelial growth of the fungus Lasiodiplodia theobromae in guava fruits.

Garg et al. (2004) found bioagent Streptosporangium pseudovulgare of cow dung

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



origin showing anti-pathogenic nature against the anthracnose disease of guava fruits.

Chalutz and Wilson (1990) revealed that Debaryomyces hansenii inhibits the growth of green mold and blue mold of pummelo orange. Sharma (1993) reported Bacillus sphericus as a very effective antagonist against Alternaria citri and Penicillium italicum as compared to Candida sp. Smilanick and Denis (1992) revealed that Pseudomonas cepacia act as a superior bioagent in controlling green mold of lemons.

Resistant Cultivars: Dantas and Lima (2001) screened 125 accessions against Phytophthora sp. Out of which only 9 and 5 hybrids of papaya were found tolerant and moderately tolerant, respectively.

Mehta et al. (1987) revealed that out of 146 hybrids screened against anthracnose fruit rot of guava, forty hybrids remained free while 47 entries showed resistance against the disease.

Kishun and Chand (1987) studied reaction of citrus germplasm against Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri under natural conditions

during 1983-1985. Out of which Seedless lime (acid lime clones) remained free and Lime karma (citrus rootstock) showed resistance.

Conclusion: The public demand for reduced use of pesticides in our food and the environment has caused an energetic debate over the safety of our present control practices for post-harvest diseases. Non-chemical control of post-harvest diseases is one of the desirable approaches. Many non-chemical methods like bioagents, plant extract, homeopathic medicine, oils, physical methods and use of resistant cultivars are the enormous sources which are economically and environmentally safe.

References Anonymous (2003). India 2003: Annul Pub. Ministry

of Information and Broadcasting Government of India. New Delhi, pp. 127-129.

Arya, A. (1988). Indian Phytopath., 41 (2): 214-219. Bamba, R. and Sumbali, G. (2004). J. Mycol. Pl.

Pathol., 34 (2): 611-614. Borthakur, P.K. and Kumar, R. (2000). Haryana J.

Hort. Sci., 29 (1-2): 65

48. PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS 14868

Cisgenesis: An Alternative Approach for Crop Improvement Asit Prasad Dash1*, Soumitra Mohanty2 and S. Routray3

1Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, OUAT, BBSR, Odisha 2Assistant Agriculture Officer, Dept. of Agriculture and Farmers’ Empowerment, Govt. of Odisha

3Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Entomology, OUAT, BBSR, Odisha *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: The implication of molecular biology in crop improvement is now more than three decades old, which made the crop improvement programme easier by overcoming various limitations of conventional breeding approaches. Among those, transgenic techniques enable the breeder to introduce foreign genes from a cross incompatible species into the plant genome, offering a great scope in various crop improvement programmes. The foremost outcome is the development of varieties resistance against various biotic and abiotic stresses. However the worthiness of GM techniques for developing highly reliable and good quality food supply to the world has been set off by public worries about the security of the derived food and their resulting products. Most particularly, the controversy has spotlight on the probable unpredictable hazards arising from the agglomeration of certain new substances in crop plants that confers toxicity, allergy and genetic threats in the human nutrition. Hence to overcome these drawbacks a new vista for engi-neering crop plants using the DNA from a sexually compatible donor plant is practised known as cisgenesis.

Definition: It simply refers to genetic modification using one of the techniques of recombinant DNA technology, but using no “foreign” DNA; in other words, the manipulation is done using DNA entirely from the same species as the host plant, or a species that is closely related enough to be sexually compatible. Therefore, it is not really a new technique. The use of the term is an attempt to distinguish GM plants or other organisms produced in this way from transgenics that is GM plants that contain DNA from unrelated organisms.

Schouten et al. (2006) introduced the term cisgenesis and defined cisgenesis as the modification in the genetic background of a recipient plant by a naturally derived gene from a cross compatible species including its introns and its native promoter and terminator flanked in the normal sense orientation. Since cisgenes shared a common gene pool available for traditional breeding the final cisgenic plant should be devoid of any kind of foreign DNA viz., selection markers and vector- backbone sequences.

Ample varieties of plant genes having agronomically desirable traits have been

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



identified due to the advancement of plant molecular biology resulting in divergence of imperative gene sources and will eventually improve the gene discovery process by ongoing genomic research (Holtorf et al., 2002). The application of genome sequencing in crop plants like rice, maize, potato, and the development of efficient gene isolation techniques like map- based cloning and allele mining brought a new-fangled part of research in plant breeding by utilizing the cloned native genes (Jacobsen and Karaba, 2008). During the last few decades, a variety of indigenous genes, coding for valuable traits like disease resistance and quality, from crop plants and their wild relatives have been isolated, characterized ably and introduced into the genetic background of elite germplasm. These native genes, isolated from the crop plant itself or from other cross compatible species, are currently referred as cisgenes to distinguish such group of genes from the transgenes (Table 1). In cisgenic approach as there is no introduction of new gene class from cross incompatible species, hence the existing genetic variation symbolize the one which are applied in conventional breeding programme which have been safely used since decades.

TABLE 1. Engineering Crop Plants through Cisgenesis

Species Trait Gene Donator

Apple Apple Scab Resistance

HcrVf2 Malus floribunda

Apple Induces anthocyanin accumulation/red apple fruit colour

MdMYB10 Malus domestica

Barley Phytase activity HvPAPhy a --

Barley Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE)

gTIP2 and gGS1a

--

Rye-grass Drought tolerance

Lpvp1 Lolium perenne

Poplar Gibberellin metabolism

PtGA20ox7, PtGA2ox2, Pt RGL1_1, PtRGL1_2 and PtGAI1

Populus trichocarpa clone Nisqually-1

Potato Late blight resistance

Rpi-blb1, Rpi-blb2,

Rpi-blb3

Solanum bulbocastanum


Rpi-vnt1 Solanum venturi


R2, R3a, R3b, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, R10, R11

Solanum demissum


Rpi-pra1 Solanum papita

Potato Late blight Rpi-sto1 Solanum

Species Trait Gene Donator

resistance stoloferum


Rpi-ber1 Solanum berthaultii


Rpi-pnt1 Solanum pinnatisectum

Potato Nematode resistance (G. rostochiensis)

Gro1-4 Solanum tuberosum

Strawberry Fruit rot (Botrytis cinerea)

PGIP --

Source: Telem et al., 2013

Advantages of Cisgenesis over Conventional Breeding

One of the most important drawback of conventional breeding is linkage drag. Some of these unwanted genes affect the normal features of the crop as they may engage in the production of diverse kinds of toxins or allergens. In vegetatively propagated crops like potatoes and apples, their heterozygous nature further brought impediment in successful transfer of traits of interest (Jacobsen and Schouten, 2007). Hence, direct transfer of desired genes through cisgenesis into an existing variety without altering any of the properties enviable for the consumers can be accomplished.

Cisgenesis also maintains original genetic make-up of plant variety which is not possible through hybridisation methods while transferring a gene of interest from one cultivar to other. Since the key purpose of cisgenesis is to transfer disease resistance genes to susceptible varieties, it lessen substantial pesticide application. As a result, there is decline in the input costs of the farmers and decreased pesticide leftovers on the plants and also in their products, which is mostly favoured by the consumers.

Moreover this is a time saving approach, where the gene of interest is introduced into the genome of the recipient plant within a short period of time unlike conventional hybridization programmes that demands several backcross to get rid of undesired genes.

Disparity between transgenesis and Cisgenecis

Each pertinent technique used in transgenesis can be employed to produce cisgenic plant. However, the key disparity lies in the source from where the gene of interest is obtained and largely it is discussed below.

In cisgenesis the gene of interest is acquired from a cross compatible species, where as in case of transgenesis the source is an unfamiliar species. Consequently, cisgenesis admire species barriers, which is not witnessed in case of transgenesis.

Cisgenesis does not make any change in the gene pool of the target plant and add any

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



supplementary characters. However transgenic technology can widen the genetic resource of the recipient plants by introducing genes from other organism.

Cisgenesis does not harm nontarget species and there is no environmental hazards and potential allergens associated with cisgenic food and feed, which is the major drawback of transgenic plants. Here lies the significant distinction between cisgenic and transgenic technology.

Therefore, the vigilant introduction and release of cisgenic plants to reach the consumers provide equal security as those plants produced by traditional methods. In this concern of food security, the authorities should consider cisgenic plants equally as traditionally bred plants.

As a result, lawmakers and the competent authorities began to consider much on the safety for thoughtful delivery of transgenic crops into the environment and have mounted under the frame of biosafety regulations to control the possible supposition. However the authorities consider cisgenic plants equally as traditionally bred plants.

Limitations of Cisgenesis

Although cisgenics technology is exhibiting considerable advantages over the transgenic counterpart, but still there are a few limitations associated with this technology. Compared to

transgenesis, one of the disadvantages shared by cisgenesis is that characters outside the sexually compatible gene pool cannot be introduced. Furthermore, development of cisgenic crops involves extraordinary proficiency and time compared to transgenic crops. Therefore, the required genes or fragments of genes may not be readily accessible but have to be isolated from the sexually compatible gene pool (Holme et al., 2013).

References Holme, I. B.; Wendt, T.; Holm, P.B. 2013. Current

developments of intragenic and cisgenic crops. ISB News Report, pp. 1-5.

Holtorf, H.; Guitton, M. C.; Reski, R. 2002. Plant functional genomics. Naturwissenschaften, 89, 235-249.

Jacobsen E.; Karaba N. Nataraja. 2008. Cisgenics - Facilitating the second green revolution in India by improved traditional plant breeding. Curr. Sci., 94(11), 1365-1366.

Jacobsen, E.; Schouten, H.J. 2007. Cisgenesis strongly improves introgression breeding and induced translocation breeding of plants. Trends Biotechnol. 25,219-223.

Schouten, H.J; Krens, F.A.; Jacobsen, E. 2006. Cisgenic plants are similar to traditionally bred plants: international regulations for genetically modified organisms should be altered to exempt cisgenesis. EMBO Rep., 7, 750-753.

Telem R.S.; Wani S. H.; Singh N.B.; Nandini R.; Sadhukhan R.; Bhattacharya S. and Mandal N. 2013. Cisgenics - A Sustainable Approach for Crop Improvement. Current Genomics, 14, 468-476.


Application of Molecular Markers in Vegetable Crops *1Ravi Kumar Telugu, 2Mekala Srikanth, and 3Mohammad Shafiqurrahaman

1&2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Vegetable Science, 3Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding

Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (H.R.)-125004 *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

What is Marker

Markers are the heritable characters whose inheritance pattern can be followed at the morphological (e.g. fruit colour, shape), biochemical (isozymes) and molecular (DNA) level.

Marker Characters: Characters which can be easily identified are referred to as marker characters.

Types of Marker

Morphological markers.

Protein (biochemical) markers. DNA (molecular) markers.

DNA/Molecular/Genetic Markers

1. Types of Molecular markers 2. First-generation markers based on restriction

fragment detection or Non PCR- based markers: a) Restriction Fragment Length

Polymorphism (RFLP) 3. Second-generation markers based on PCR:

a) Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)

b) Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)

c) Sequence characterized amplified regions (SCAR)

d) Sequence tagged sites (STS) e) Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR)

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



f) Inter Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSR) 4. Third-generation markers based on DNA

sequencing a) Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP)

5. Genome scanning for expressed genes a) Expressed sequence tag (EST)

6. Markers using array technology a) Microarray: arrangements of small spots

of DNA fixed to glass slides, useful in whole genome scanning

Applications of Molecular Markers in Vegetable Improvement

1. Assessment of Genetic Diversity and Varietals Identification: Molecular markers have provided very useful information about the overall genetic range of crop germplasm. For breeders this information is important to take decisions regarding the utility of germplasm. Vegetable crops in which DNA markers have been developed for the assessment of genetic diversity and construction of linkage maps are Allium species, Amaranthus species, common bean, Crucifers, sweet potato, Tomato, Watermelon, Pea, Garlic, Carrots, Potato and Chinese Cabbage etc.

2. Gene Tagging: The most interesting application of molecular markers at present time is the ability to facilitate the method of “conventional” gene transfer. Gene tagging refer to mapping of genes of economic importance close to known markers. RAPD markers linked to the downy mildew resistance gene (dm) have been recorded in Cucumber.

3. Genome Mapping: Genome mapping is the creation of a genetic map assigning DNA fragments to chromosomes.

E.g. 1. Genetic map of broccoli including downy mildew resistance locus using AFLP, RAPD & SSR.

4. Detection of Hybrids: Molecular marker technology can be used to identify segregating molecular characteristics in an otherwise uniform variety and thus to select a distinct “new” variety from the segregating source without any breeding effort being expended.

Molecular marker technologies can be used to attack trade secrets by rapid identification of female parent inbred line contaminants in bags of hybrid seed. These inbred lines might then be used directly as parents of hybrids or as parents for further breeding.

Genetic purity of tomato (S. lycopersicon) hybrid using three DNA molecular marker systems i.e. RAPD, ISSR and SSR. This study showed that RAPD and SSR markers could provide a practical and efficient tool in quality control of the tomato commercial hybrid seeds.

Merits of Molecular Markers in Vegetable

Improvement

It permits early screening of traits that are expressed late in the life on plant e.g., fruit quality, flower colour, male sterility, photoperiodic sensitivity that are expressed late in life of plant can be screened in the seedling stage.

It permits screening of traits that are extremely difficult, expensive or time consuming to score phenotypically e.g. screening for traits such as root morphology, resistance to biotic (insect, and pest, diseases) and abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, mineral deficiency or toxicity) is very easy through molecular markers.

It helps in distinguishing the homologous versus heterozygous condition of many loci in a single generation without the need of progeny testing being co-dominant.

DNA markers permits marker aided selection for several characters at one time.

RFLP markers help in indirect selection of recessive allele, in the heterozygous condition without selecting or progeny testing. Thus this is rapid method for crop improvement.

Molecular markers are not affected by environmental conditions and the accuracy is very high.

Demerits of DNA Markers in Vegetable Improvement

It is expensive technology. It is not competitive for traits where rapid

visual or analytical assessment is possible.

Required technically skilled manpower. Complex in nature.

Future Prospects

Use of molecular markers would continue to remain the method of choice by crop improvement researchers globally as molecular techniques after special advantages in assessment of genetic diversity, identification and value addition.

Technology for utilization of DNA markers is growing rapidly at the present time and further advance are sure to occur soon.

Some of them will involve making the process of developing and utilizing DNA markers technically is simpler, less expensive and more capable of automation.

Markers can especially find a applications in areas where conventional methods are not sufficient like utilization of quantitavely inherited characters and agronomicaly important genes from wild species.

Conclusion

The markers have immediate applications in supportive research for advanced breeding programs mainly in relation to quality

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



control contamination within orchard mating patterns.

The major impact of marker lies in the strategic research for rapid understanding of basic genetic mechanisms and genome

organization at molecular level.

However, the usefulness of these techniques and significance in applied research would far out consider because of wide range of applications.


Synthetic Biology Approaches in Agriculture Varsha Gayatonde and Prudhvi Raj Vennela

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, IASc, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005,

The ever growing population increased food and energy demands. To overcome these impending problems, significant improvements in genetic engineering will be needed to complement breeding efforts in order to accelerate the improvement of agronomical traits. Synthetic Biology (SB) supports rapid, precise, and robust engineering of plants, specifically in genome editing, transgene expression regulation, bioenergy, crop engineering, with a focus on traits related to lignocellulose, oil, soluble sugars, yield, stress etc. focusing the major research in microbes and multicellular organisms.

SB is alternative to top-down (normal conventional breeding) genetic crop improvement is a reverse genetic/bottom-up approach. It utilizes defined genetic cassettes – like an album of genes – that are engineered and inserted into plants to test their function and used to improve crops. There are different methods to attempt SB experiments. Most popular methods are, a powerful DNA assembly system named “Golden Braid” which is available as a readymade toolkit. Another technique is RNAi genetic engineering.

Achievements Made in SB Technology

1. Green’ fuels: Engineering isoprene in microbes is replacing the huge rubber supply dependence on plant and petrochemical sources. Currently, synthetic rubber is derived entirely from fermentation‐ based process for the Bio-Isoprene and identified better strain to multiply isoprene.

2. The micro-compartments made up of proteins originating in bacteria can be assembled in the chloroplasts of flowering plants. This makes plants more efficient at fixing carbon dioxide from the air into molecules that can be used by the plant for growth.

3. Corn bred with 8% less lignin needs less pretreatment and higher cellulose content leads conversion of more fermentable sugars.

4. Anti-malarial drug produced through synthetic microbes and multiplied even in

tobacco plant. Such drug can save millions of human lives in the developing nation where malaria is the most cause death, especially in children

5. Making “Green Chemicals” from Agricultural Waste Surfactants are one of the most useful and widely sold classes of chemicals, because they enable the stable blending of chemicals that do not usually remain associated (like oil and water).

6. Carbon fixation in wheat: secondary metabolite modification in wheat for carbon fixation. Scientists have identified C4 pathway in wheat grains, whereas wheat is basically a C3 plant. This information may help to convert whole wheat plant into C4 mechanism.

7. Re-engineer photosynthetic pathways in C3 plants, using components taken from crassulacean acid metabolism, or C4 pathways is an attempt to improve energy-conversion efficiency. Other approach is enhancing carbon fixation by re-engineering ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO -rbcL and RbcS genes). It increases the rates of catalysis of carboxylation as well as reduction of the oxygenation reaction.

8. Re- engineering of the N-fixation: The formation of N2-fixing nodules may ultimately be transferred to non-legume crops. The organisms focused are Rhizobium species involved in nodulation and other N-fixing prokaryotes belonging to the Azospirillum, Klebsiella, and Frankia genera.

9. Pest and diseases: Two major SB strategies could be envisaged being deployed: 1. engineering the stress response systems 2. Reprogramming of associated signaling networks. The transfer of the electron-shuttling flavoprotein flavodoxin from the cyanobacterium Anabaena into the plastids of tobacco to functionally replace the host’s ferredoxin carrier protein rendered the transgenic plants more stress tolerant. The ability to precisely engineer plant genomes with the aid of synthetic site-specific

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



nucleases is very successful in designing plants tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses. It’s a genome editing technique includes selective engineering of resistance to Xanthomonas oryzae in rice and tolerance to imidazolinone and sulphonylurea herbicides in tobacco and resistance breeding has also attempted in rice and wheat.

10. SB has a current focus on synthetic genomics, metabolic pathway engineering, minimal genome organism, protocells, and xenobiology. Typically these objectives are directed at engineering at the cellular or subcellular level, typically using microbes.

11. Modifying the glycosylation pathway in plants to accommodate production of therapeutic proteins and synthetic signal transduction systems that respond to external cues.

Major Challenges include

1. Agricultural systems use a very small range of crops: in addition to limiting the biochemical diversity available to refine from, this also causes potential issues of plants raised for non-food applications entering the food chain.

2. Complex studies of plant metabolic pathways.

3. unavailability of most naturally existing biological genetic pathway

4. Limited and impeding ability to rationally design the language of the plants genetic system and its gene circuits for the finest predictable direct evolution

5. The unpredictable evolution of the genes’ regulatory sequences

6. The acceptance of synthetically produced crops by the public. Now certain GM issues are made to be applicable to synthetic biology approaches. Analysis yet to be made worldwide.

Future Prospects: There is a need to encourage the conduct of enormous experiments and check the safety issues. If proved safe it may be utilized which may reduce the food problem across the world.

Citation

Tobias J Erb, Jan Zarzycki, 2016, Biochemical and synthetic biology approaches to improve photosynthetic CO2-fixation, Volume 34, Pages 72–79.

Shih PM, Liang Y, Loqué D, 2016, Biotechnology and synthetic biology approaches for metabolic engineering of bioenergy crops. Plant J.; 87(1):103-17.


Fig and Fig Wasp: A Story of Mutualism and Coevolution *Ashrith K. N., Narayana Swamy K. C. and Indhushri Chavan

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Entomology, College of Agriculture, Naville, UAHS Shivamogga, Karnataka, India.


There are about 750 species of fig worldwide, making it one of the largest genera of land plants. Fig is defined by an unique enclosed inflorescence, the syconium, which is also the arena for interactions with fig wasps. According to ‘one-to-one rule’, each fig has its own pollinating wasp species from the family Agaonidae, upon which it depends for pollination. In turn, the wasp depends upon the fig for reproduction, since its larvae feed by galling fig flowers. These pollinators of figs show peculiar morphological adaptations, extreme host specificity and life cycles that are tightly synchronized with fig phenology. The fig wasp associations are generally host-specific, as initiated by the arrival of females at receptive figs releasing volatile attractants wherein, different species appear to have unique volatile profiles. The sexual system of fig is either monoecious or dioecious, with either active or passive pollination. Approximately half of the fig species are functionally monoecious, in which all syconia

are similar and produce both wasps and seeds. However, about half of the fig species are functionally dioecious, with separate male and female trees. Male syconia contain male and female flowers and produce many wasps, but few seeds. In contrast, female syconia contain only female flowers and produce only seeds (Cook and Rasplus, 2003). The modes of fig pollination may be distinguished by differences in wasp behaviour and morphology. Actively pollinating species remove pollen from thoracic pockets with their forelegs, depositing it on the stigmatic surface when laying eggs in a fraction of fig flowers. On the other hand, passively pollinating species do not have functional pockets or active pollination behaviour, and pollen is transported on the abdomen instead. Both modes of pollination are beneficial to the host plant (Weiblen, 2002).

The fig-wasp mutualism is both ancient and diverse, originating roughly from about 70-90 mya, before the breakup of Gondwana with more

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



than 750 extant species of fig currently recognized. Both morphological and recent molecular studies broadly support the proposition of co-cladogenesis and co-adaptation at a coarse systematic scale i.e., between recognized genera of pollinating wasps and their respective sections of figs (Edward et al., 2008). Co-evolutionary studies have centred on the specificity and stability of the exchange of pollination services for the rearing of pollinator offspring (Cook and Rasplus, 2003). The hypothesis of pollinator specialization leading to the parallel diversification of fig and pollinator lineages (co-divergence) has so far not been tested due to the lack of robust and comprehensive phylogenetic hypotheses for both partners. Combined fossil data on molecular phylogenetic trees generated independent age estimates for fig and pollinator lineages, using both ‘non-parametric rate smoothing’ and ‘penalized likelihood dating’ methods. Molecular dating of ten pairs of interacting lineages provided an unparalleled example of plant-insect co-divergence over a geological time frame spanning atleast 60 million years (Ronsted et al., 2005).

Wang et al. (2008) studied the obligate co-operation between fig (Ficus racemosa Linn.) and fig wasps (Ceratoslen fusciceps Mayr). The results revealed that, the number of viable seeds of fig was positively correlated with the number of pollinator offspring when the number of vacant female flowers was high while, the foundress number was low (two foundresses). Meanwhile, they were negatively correlated when the number of vacant female flowers was low and the number of foundresses was increased manually (eight foundresses). Hence, this experiment showed that, the correlation coefficient between viable seeds and wasp offspring (galls) depended on vacant female flower availability. Grison et al. (2002) conducted

studies on the compounds of volatile blends released by receptive figs of twenty Ficus species to attract their specific pollinating wasps. Results revealed that, 99 different compounds were identified and the compounds were mainly terpenoids, aliphatic compounds and products from the shikimic acid pathway. In each species blend, there were few major compounds, which were generally common among floral fragrances.

Studies till date show that there is an increasing support for the traditional view that figs and agaonids have highly correlated speciation histories. However, the famous one-to-one rule is often broken, suggesting that, fig and pollinator speciation is not always tightly linked. This might be distantly related, suggesting host shifts or sister species or speciation on the current host.

References COOK, J. M. AND RASPLUS, J.Y., 2003, Mutualists

with attitude: coevolving fig wasps and figs. Trends Ecol. Evol., 18(5): 241-248.

EDWARD, A. H., CHARLOTTE K. J. AND CARLOS, A. M., 2008, Evolutionary ecology of figs and their associates: recent progress and outstanding puzzles. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst., 39: 439-58.

GRISON, P. L., MCKEY, M. H., JACO, M. G. AND JEAN, M. B., 2002, Fig volatile compounds-a first comparative study. Phytochemistry, 61: 61-71.

RONSTED, N., GEORGE, D. W., COOK, J. M., NICOLAS, S., CARLOS, A. M. AND VINCENT, S., 2005, 60 million years of co-divergence in the fig-wasp symbiosis. Proc. R. Soc., 272: 2593-2599.

WANG, R. W., LEI, S., SHI, M. A. AND ZHENG, Q., 2008, Trade-off between reciprocal mutualists: local resource availability-oriented interaction in fig/fig wasp mutualism. J. Animal Eco., pp: 616-623.

WEIBLEN, G. D., 2002, How to be a figwasp. Ann. Rev. Ent., 47: 299-330.


Stay Green: A Potentiality in Plant Breeding Ramya Rathod and Basavaraj P. S.

Ph.D. scholar Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding CoA, PJTSAU, Hyderabad-500030

Plant breeding has made great progress, supplying food to the growing human population through the release of more efficient cultivars, showing adaptation to environment’s improvements. However, the current agricultural scenario, in which there are increasing demands for food, strong climate change and a concern with environment harm from agricultural production, plant breeders are rethinking, investing not only in the traditional criteria, such

as yield, but also in the selection of genotypes with high productive efficiency, through the understanding of crop physiology and stress adaptation.

Delay of leaf senescence, also known as stay-green character, has been identified as an important component in the genetic improvement of several crops to promote stress tolerance and yield gain. The association between stay-green and desirable traits such as

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



greater number of fertile tiller, higher number of grains per ear, higher industrial quality, and tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses have been reported. However, maintenance of grain filling in the last stage of plant maturity has been considered as key to the success of stay-green genotypes. A greater capacity for grain filling in maintaining photosynthetic tissues of staygreen wheat genotypes has been observed, resulting in increased average weight of grains. The delay of senescence was also identified as a major factor to increase the average weight of grains of durum wheat mutants, as a result of extending the ability of producing photo assimilates towards the end of maturation. Therefore, this review has aimed to bring light to major aspects of the stay-green character, showing its potential use in plant breeding. Stay-green is the term given to a variant in which senescence is delayed in comparison to a standard reference genotype. The stay-green character is characterized by a longer green state of the plant in the late period of grain filling, establishing a senescence pattern in which leaves and stem are the last parts to loose photosynthetic ability, providing greater production of sugars from photosynthesis. Based on the increase of grain filling ability and improvement of desirable traits, it is suggested that the character results in yield gains. These gains are a consequence of increased plant photosynthetic efficiency and ability, making it

an important tool.

Where, When and Why Stay Green Traits is required?

It’s required specially in a drought environmental condition.

To keep greenness of leaves alive for longer period of time, especially during the grain filling stage.

To maintain or increase higher grain yield.

Stay-green results when the plant’s normal process of senescence is disrupted.

Classes of Stay Green

There are five classes of stay green on the basis of time and duration of occurrence of senescence.

Type A stay greens (delayed initiation of senescence but then proceeds at normal rate)

Type B stay greens (initiate senescence on schedule, but there after comparatively slow)

Type C stay greens (arise due to specific defects in chlorophyll degradation pathway)

Type D stay greens (green color is maintained with leaf death)

Type E stay greens (chlorophyll content remain same but enzyme activity is reduced)

Among these, type C and D are non-functional form of stay-green. And first two classes are functionally stay green.

What Type of Stay Green is Beneficial to Plants?

Functional staygreen.

Non-functional/cosmetic stay green.

Functional Staygreen: Either the initiation of senescence is delayed (Type A) or senescence progression is slow (Type B). Thus functional stay green trait is of agronomic interest because photosynthetic activity is retained for more time as compared to standard genotype and it provides yield advantages under stress conditions.

Non-Functional Staygreen: Senescence occurs at normal rate and photosynthetic capacity is lost, but leaf colour is retained due to defects in chlorophyll degradation pathway (Thomas and Howarth 2000).

The luxury type of stay green is harmful to the plants as it leads to growth of vegetative parts of the plant and does not contribute towards grain yield. On the other hand, functional stay green is useful as photosynthetic products moves from source (leaf) to sink (grain) under stress condition.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Importance of Stay Green Trait

Importance in agricultural crops Prevent premature death and lodging

Improve grain filling and quality under stress Quality of fodder

Support continuation of C-fixation

Increased grain yield Importance in horticultural crops

It increases market value.

reduce the incidence of postharvest yellowing by manipulating hormone level or responses in transgenic plants

It extends shelf-life and helps in long term transportation.

Limitations in Stay-Green

Genetic mechanisms of Stay-green trait in crop plants are poorly understood

Evaluation of the stay green response is difficult

Progress in improving drought tolerance by conventional breeding methods is slow

Selection for Stay Green Trait

Visual rating

Marker assisted selection

Stay-green plants are usually screened by a visible assessment of greenness,. It is also practical to use a portable photometric device, such as SPAD-502 chlorophyll meter (Konica-Minolta, Co. Ltd, Tokyo, Japan), to estimate leaf chlorophyll contents in a non-destructive manner. As stay-green is expressed only in those environments in which post-anthesis drought is sufficiently severe, neither efficiency nor reliability of selection is high when conventional breeding is used to select for this trait. Hence marker-assisted selection for staygreen should

greatly enhance the efficiency of selection for the trait. Representative Staygreen plants.

Ideotype of Genotype with Stay Green Traits

Plant should have spread and deep root system.

Genotype with stay green traits should show slow rate of leaf senescence (LS).

Delay onset of leaf senescence (LS).

Genotype should have more total plant leaf area (TPLA).

Higher thickness of leaves.

Present Status of Research

Some of the stay green genotypes have been identified in different crops:

Sorghum: SC 56, E 36-1 Sorghum variety in farmers field: SPV2217

Wheat- Chirya 3 Rice- SNU-SG1. These genotypes are used in

transferring stay-green trait into elite varieties.

Conclusion: Importance of stay green in agriculture crops includes, prevent premature death and lodging, improve grain filling and quality under stress, quality of fodder, and support continuation of C-fixation, increased grain yield. Several stay-green QTL have been identified in several crops like sorghum, wheat, rice etc. Incorporation of stay-green trait in a genotype will increase the ultimate grain yield and market value which will contribute to our national economy. The use of stay green trait in breeding programmes may result in significant genetic progress for attributes such as high yield, industrial quality, disease resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses


Mutation Breeding: Genetic Enhancement Tool for Crop Improvement in Rice (Oryza Sativa L.)

*Satyapal Singh and Parmeshwar Kumar Sahu

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, IGKV, Raipur- 492012 (Chhattisgarh) *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: The concept of induced mutagenesis for crop improvement developed dated back to the beginning of 20th century. During the past 80 years, mutation breeding has been successfully utilized for the improvement of crops as well as to supplement the efforts made using traditional methods of plant breeding. Induced mutation is the ultimate source to alter the genetics of crop plants that may be difficult to bring through cross breeding and other breeding procedures. Therefore, during the last

several years, different mutagens have been used by various workers to induce genetic variability in various pulse crops such as Cicer arietinum, Vicia faba, Vigna mungo, Lens culinaris, Hordeum vulgare, Vigna unguiculata, Vigna radiate, Glycine max.

As early as 1942, the first disease resistant mutant was reported in barley. This led to the further work on mutagenesis leading to the release of mutants in several crops. Among these varieties, 1468 were of cereals and 370 of

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



legumes. In cereals majority of cultivars came from rice (434) barley (269) and wheat (197). The induction of mutation has already been recognized as a potential technique for crop improvement since the discovery of mutation effects of X-rays. There has been a continuous decline in genetic diversity which eventually has led to induce mutation artificially. In 1927, Muller showed that X-ray irradiation could considerably enhance the mutation rate in Drosophila. In 1928, Sadler showed the occurrence of a strong phenotypic variation in barley seedlings and sterility in maize tassels after X-ray exposure in combination with radium. Later on gamma and ionizing radiations which constitute the most commonly used physical mutagens like alpha (α) and beta (β) particles and neutrons were developed at newly established nuclear research centers. During Second World War, radiation-based techniques were used in combination with chemical mutagens that were less destructive, readily available, and easier to work with. In this area, Auerbach and other were Pioneers, who demonstrated an increased mutation frequency in Drosophila following exposure to mustard gas. This work was followed by the discovery of chemical mutagens such as sodium azide (SA), methylnitrosourea (MNU) and ethyl methane sulphonate. Chemical mutagens have gained popularity since they are easy to use and can induce mutation at a very high rate. As Compared to radiations, chemical mutagens tend to

Past Achievement

In the approximately 80 year-old history of induced mutations, there are many examples of the development of new and valuable alteration in plant characters significantly contributing to increased yield potential of specific crops. The primary motive of the mutation breeding is to enlarge the frequency and spectrum of mutations and also to increase the incidence of viable mutations. The main focus has been to upgrade the well adapted varieties by altering traits like maturity, seed size and disease resistance, which play a vital role in increasing yield and yield attributed characters. The attributes that have been improved through mutation breeding include a wide range of characters such as tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses, duration of maturity and flowering and other yield contributing characters. Cereals and legumes represent the important food crops, improvement in these food crops has been the major concern of plant breeders over the years. In the past era, these crops have been improved through introduction, selection and hybridization using either available genetic variability or genetic variability released by recombination. In the

present era induced mutagenesis provides an opportunity to create hitherto unknown alleles leading to wide genetic variability. This possibility has been exploited in both cereals and legumes, as is evident from the list of mutant cultivars developed in legumes and cereals (Table 1).

TABLE 1. Number of officially released mutant varieties in different crop species

Sr. no.

Latin Name Number of

mutants released

Cereals

1 Avena sativa (Oat) 23

2 Hordium vulgare (Barley) 304

3 Oryza sativa (Rice) 815

4 Secale cereal (Rye) 4

5 Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat) 254

6 Triticum turgidum (Durum wheat) 31

7 Zea mays (Maize) 96

Total 1527

Legumes

1 Arachis hypogea (Groundnut)

2 Cajanus cajanus (Pigeon pea) 7

3 Cicer arietinum (Chickpea) 21

4 Dolichus lablab (Hyacinth bean) 1

5 Lathyrus sativus (Grass pea) 3

6 Lens culinaris (Lentil) 13

7 Glycine max (Soybean) 170

8 Phaseolus vulgaris (French bean) 59

9 Pisum sativum (Pea) 34

10 Trifolium alexadrinum (Egyptian clover)

1

11 T. incarnatum (Crimson clover) 1

12 T. pratenus (Red clover) 1

13 T. subterraneum (Subterranean clover)

1

14 Vicia faba (Faba bean) 20

15 Vigna unguicularis (Azuki bean) 3

16 V. mungo (Black gram) 9

17 V. radiata (Mungbean) 36

18 V. unguiculata (Cowpea) 12

Total 462

Data Source: FAO/IAEA Mutant variety database, 2015

Genetic Enhancement of Rice

The impact of induced rice mutants in applied research is best exemplified by the development of improved rice varieties through mutation breeding. During the past five decades, more than 800 varieties of rice have been developed across the globe, either directly from induced mutations or as a result of crossing such mutants with other breeding lines. The first rice varieties KT 20-74 and SH 30-21, developed through

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



induced mutation, were released in China in 1957 and the first variety Yenhsing-1, developed by a cross- breeding programme with a mutant. Soon afterwards, the semi dwarf mutant Reimei was released in Japan which have significantly increased yield because of their lodging resistance. Calrose 76 and Basmati 370, semi dwarf varieties of rice with short and stiff straw have revolutionized the rice production in USA and Pakistan respectively. In Pakistan, a new variety ‘Kashmir Basmati’ which matures early and has cold tolerance, and retains the aroma and cooking quality of the parent, was derived from induced mutation in Basmati 370. Several high yielding rice mutants were released in India under the series PNR and some of these were early in maturity and had short height. Among these, two early ripening and aromatic mutation-derived rice varieties, ‘PNR- 381’ and ‘PNR- 102’, are popular for cultivation in Haryana and Utter Pradesh. A Rice mutant, ‘Zhefu 802’ was

cultivated on more than 10.6 million ha in China in a span of ten years. In Thailand, gamma ray irradiations expedite the release of an aromatic Indica variety of rice ‘RD6’ in 1977. It was extensively grown on 2.4m ha during the year 1994-95. Similar mutant ‘RD15’, released in 1978, was grown over 0.2 million ha, equivalent to 3.2% of the area under rice (Anonymous, 1995). In Australia nine rice mutant varieties-Amaroo; (1987), ‘Bogan’ (1987), ‘Echua’ (1989), ‘Harra’ (1991), ‘Illabong’ (1993), ‘Jarrah’ (1993), ‘Langi’ (1994), ‘Millin’ (1995) and ‘Namaga’ (1997) have been developed. The induction of thermo sensitive genic male-sterile (TGMS) mutant in Japonica rice mutant PL-12, which is controlled by a single recessive gene has an immense contribution in designing the strategies for the production of hybrid rice varieties. In China ‘26 Zhaizao’ was developed by gamma ray irradiation of indica rice. These mutants play an important role in two line heterosis breeding.


Strategies for Developing Green Super Rice *Satyapal Singh and Parmeshwar Ku. Sahu

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur (CG) *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

Rice is the main staple food for a large segment of the world population. In the last half-century, rice yield has undergone two big leaps, primarily as the result of genetic improvement: increasing harvest index by reducing plant height making use of the semi dwarf gene and utilization of heterosis by producing hybrids. Consequently, rice yield has more than doubled in most parts of the world and even tripled in certain countries within a period of four decades from the 1960s to 1990s. However, rapid population growth and economic development have been posing a growing pressure for increased food production. To further increase the yield potential, several major national and international programs that were initiated in the last decade with the goals to develop ‘‘super rice’’ or ‘‘super hybrid rice’’ for breaking the yield ceiling have made significant progress. However, a number of challenges have to be met to achieve the goal of increasing rice production in a sustainable manner. The first challenge is the increasingly severe occurrence of insects and diseases in almost all of the rice-producing areas causing great yield loss.

From a global viewpoint, a number of challenges need to be met for sustainable rice production: (i) increasingly severe occurrence of insects and diseases and indiscriminate pesticide applications; (ii) high pressure for yield increase and overuse of fertilizers; (iii) water shortage and

increasingly frequent occurrence of drought; and (iv) extensive cultivation in marginal lands. A combination of approaches based on the recent advances in genomic research has been formulated to address these challenges, with the long-term goal to develop rice cultivars referred to as Green Super Rice. On the premise of continued yield increase and quality improvement, Green Super Rice should possess resistances to multiple insects and diseases, high nutrient efficiency, and drought resistance, promising to greatly reduce the consumption of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, and water. Large efforts have been focused on identifying germplasms and discovering genes for resistance to diseases and insects, N- and P-use efficiency, drought resistance, grain quality, and yield. The approaches adopted include screening of germplasm collections and mutant libraries, gene discovery and identification, microarray analysis of differentially regulated genes under stressed conditions, and functional test of candidate genes by transgenic analysis. Genes for almost all of the traits have now been isolated in a global perspective and are gradually incorporated into genetic backgrounds of elite cultivars by molecular marker-assisted selection or transformation. It is anticipated that such strategies and efforts would eventually lead to the development of Green Super Rice.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



The Strategies for Developing GSR

Rice is rich in germplasm resources. The cultivated rice consists of two species, Oryza sativa L., referred to as Asian cultivated rice, and Oryza glaberrima Steud., referred to as African cultivated rice. There are also 20 wild species in the genus Oryza). The International Rice Gene bank holds 105,000 types of Asian and African cultivated rice and 5,000 ecotypes of wild relatives. In addition, many major rice-producing countries have established national germplasm banks. Collectively, these germplasm collections contain genes that can be used to address a broad range of research objectives. With the completion of the rice genome sequencing project, there have been rapid developments in functional genomic resources, including large mutant libraries by T-DNA insertion, transposon tagging, and chemical mutagenesis. Whole genome microarray technique has been developed and applied to profiling expression of all of the genes in the entire life cycle of rice growth and development. Full-length cDNAs for both indica and japonica rice have been constructed, with a total of 40,000 full-length cDNA clones available. Such germplasm and genomic resources have provided an unprecedented opportunity for rice genetic improvement. For the development of GSR, a combination of strategies has been formulated by integrating germplasms, genomic resources, and molecular technology and breeding with insect and disease resistances, N- and P-nutrient efficiency, drought resistance, quality, and yield as the target traits (Fig.1). The approaches used for identifying genes and germplasms for the defined traits include screening of germplasm collections, mapping and identification of genes, screening of mutant libraries, microarray analysis of differentially regulated genes, and functional test of candidate genes by transgenic analysis. The genes would then be incorporated into breeding lines either by transformation or molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS), and accumulation of the desired genes would result in progressive improvement of rice cultivars, eventually leading to GSR.

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of combination of genes and approaches for the development of GSR.

Progresses in Gene Identification and Development of GSR

1. Resistance to Stem borers and Leaf folders 2. Resistance to BPH 3. Identification of Genes for Disease

Resistance and Development of Disease-Resistant Rice

4. Identification of Genes for Nutrient-Use Efficiency

5. Identifying genes for N-use efficiency 6. Identifying genes for P-use efficiency 7. Identification of Genes for Drought

Resistance and Development of Drought-Resistant Rice

8. Identification of Genes for Quality Improvement

9. Identification of Genes for Yield Traits

Prospects

Development of GSR, with improved insect and disease resistances, N- and P-use efficiency, drought resistance, high grain yield, and superior quality, is critical for a more sustainable rice production. In this article we summarized the progress in identification of genes for the target traits in rice and outlined the strategies for the development of GSR. In a global perspective, genes for most of the traits have now been isolated and become available for breeding applications, although further evaluations of genes for some of the traits are still necessary, especially those for N-use efficiency and drought resistance. Moreover, molecular marker-based germplasm evaluation and genetic studies have identified a large variety of genes and tightly linked markers for the target traits. With rapid advances in the international efforts on rice functional genomic studies, hundreds of genes for various traits will be isolated in the next few years. Combinations of high-throughput genomic tools and phenotyping platforms are also becoming available or are under development. The availability of the genes and the genomic tools would greatly facilitate rice cultivar improvement. Such development will eventually lead to crop breeding according to designed blueprints, an ideal situation that may be particularly feasible in rice.

China, a world leader in rice research, is lending its expertise to agricultural researchers in Africa and Asia to help increase productivity and, ultimately, food security. Problem: To meet growing demand, many poor countries spend precious resources importing rice. African countries account for about one-third of global rice imports.

1. Three billion people globally depend on rice as a daily staple and 80 percent of the world’s rice farmers grow rice as their staple food.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



2. Africa’s rice yields are less than one-third of what could be produced with access to better seeds and farming practices. But most poor countries have limited knowledge to develop improved crops, and global agribusiness has focused on improving crops for wealthier regions.

3. There’s a need for rice varieties that can withstand drought, flooding, and disease, and increase yields in Africa and Asia. Innovation: Based on its own experience and world-class technical expertise, China is supporting the development of new rice varieties to address the specific growing conditions and preferences in Africa and Asia. China’s Green Super Rice (GSR) program is driving the development and distribution of new rice varieties for poor countries, by sharing its advanced breeding knowledge to help poor countries.

4. As part of GSR, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences is partnering with nationally based researchers and seed suppliers in eight African countries and four

countries in South Asia. 5. China also plans to sequence 10,000 varieties

of rice to discover important traits needed for drought and heat tolerance, and disease resistance. It is perhaps the only country in the world able to carry out this work in a cost-effective way.

Impact: In just two years, this innovative partnership is opening new opportunities for farmers and researchers in poor countries.

Twenty new GSR varieties able to withstand drought, salty soils, submergence, and disease are ready for national testing in countries across Africa and Asia.

GSR has trained more than 480 technicians and researchers in cutting-edge rice breeding technologies; and has set up seed production sites in Indonesia in collaboration with Sanyan Seed, a state-owned company that produces 40 percent of the country’s rice seed.


BMT Models in Plant Varietal Protection Dr. A. V. S. Durga Prasad

Asst. Professor, Dept. of Genetics & Plant Breeding, Agricultural College, Mahanandi-518502, A.P.

Use of DNA profiling in Plant varietal protection (PVP) has been extensively considered by the Bio-chemical and Molecular Techniques (BMT) Working Group of UPOV, which was established in 1993. The role of the BMT is to maintain an awareness of relevant applications of biochemical and molecular techniques in plant breeding, consider their possible application in DUS testing and to establish guidelines for biochemical and molecular methodologies and their harmonization. The BMT is open to DUS experts, biochemical and molecular biology specialists, and plant breeders. The BMT guidelines provide guidance for developing harmonized methodologies with the aim of generating high quality molecular data for a range of applications.

Models for Possible Application are:

1. Molecular characteristics as a predictor of traditional characteristics: Use of molecular characteristics which are directly linked to traditional characteristics (gene specific markers),

2. Calibrated molecular distances in the management of variety collections. Calibration of threshold levels for molecular characteristics against the minimum distance in traditional characteristics, and

3. Use of molecular marker characteristics. Development of a new system.

When a new model is proposed, the BMT Review Group assesses the potential application within the examination of DUS on the basis of conformity with the UPOV convention and potential impact on the strength of protection compared to that provided by current examination methods, and advises, if this could undermine the effectiveness of protection offered under the UPOV system. The BMT also provides a forum for discussion on the use of biochemical and molecular techniques in the consideration of essential derivation and variety identification, where there is potential for use in enforcement issues and legal disputes. Here, we will consider the implementation of DNA based methods categorized by the three UPOV BMT models outline above.

UPOV BMT Model 1: It provides an opportunity for PVP test centres to deploy molecular markers to aid DUS assessments. A case study of the temperate cereal crop barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare L.) will illustrate the progress made towards the deployment of diagnostic molecular markers in the context of both crop breeding and PBR. The key to implementation of UPOV BMT Model 1 is the

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



identification of genomic regions associated with DUS traits. Improvement in grain harvesting by seed retention is a key domestication gene, one that has been selected for during adaptation of wild to crop plants. Domestication genes will be associated with regions of extended linkage disequilibrium within the genome, a zone of non-random association among loci, described as ‘selective sweep’. The process of domestication reduces the genetic diversity of crops when compared to their wild ancestor. Selection on key domestication genes reduces the genetic diversity beyond that of domestication alone and the method has been validated by measurements of genetic diversity around key domestication quantitative trait loci (QTL).

UPOV BMT Model 2: It requires “Calibration of threshold levels for molecular characteristics against the minimum distance in traditional characteristics”. This requirement is intended to ensure that decisions made under a new molecular testing system would be the same as those made under the existing morphological testing system. UPOV BMT Model 2 may be implemented in one of two categories: “Calibrated molecular distances in the management of variety collections” or “Combining phenotypic and molecular distances in the management of variety collections”. The utility of UPOV BMT Model 2 has been investigated in vegetatively propagated (grapevine), allogamous (maize and oilseed rape) and in predominantly selfing (durum wheat and barley) crops. However, studies evaluating UPOV BMT Model 2 approaches “Combining phenotypic and molecular distances in the management of variety collections” have been rewarded with greater success. This implies that DNA profiling has a role to play in the management of reference collections, a use that would make distinctness testing more cost effective and this would allow the rapid and rational selection of reference varieties for comparison in growing trials, adding to the effectiveness of PVP.

UPOV BMT Model 3: It suggests

development of new systems complete replacement of the current system by molecular markers. Complete replacement of the current system by the use of molecular markers has its attractions. Variety registration could be completed in a matter of weeks or months with field inspections becoming a matter of historical interest. It is in this area that high-throughput DNA sequencing could have the greatest impact on future DUS statutory testing using molecular markers. There can be no fuller description of a variety than its entire DNA sequence. However, the ability to describe a variety based on its DNA sequence may pose as many problems as it addresses: should the use of data be based on UPOV BMT Model 1 or 2 as discussed above or should a new system be created following UPOV BMT Model 3? How should uniformity (U) be treated given that polymorphisms may exist between monozygotic (identical) twins? How should stability (S) be addressed when the probability of mutation at any base is of the order of 10-8 per base per generation? Even if a satisfactory outcome can be agreed, where would the boundaries for minimum distance and essential derivation be set for distinctness (D) testing? Given that no agreement has yet been reached with the currently available markers, it is unlikely that these problems will be resolved easily when whole genome sequencing becomes cost effective for DUS testing.

It is certain that novel systems are being implemented. Use of molecular databases to group varieties is an obvious next step, with an immediate cost benefit for enhanced protection of varieties, and this change can be made without major re-thinking of ‘what is a variety?’. A radical revision of PVP to utilize the data production potential of ‘next generation sequencing’ is almost inevitable. There should be urgency in the discussions to redefine ‘varieties’ with reference to the available data types and a managed transition to a new system that can be implemented in all nations, regardless of their economic status.


Intron Polymorphic Markers in Crop Improvement Dr. A. V. S. Durga Prasad

Asst. Professor, Dept. of Genetics & Plant Breeding, Agricultural College, Mahanandi-518502, A.P.

Introns are non-coding sequences in genes that are transcribed into mRNA but removed by splicing. Although introns may have functions such as control of transcription and support of miRNA production, they do not code for a protein sequence. Therefore, introns are

expected to be exposed to reduced selection pressure during evolution compared to the exon region, resulting in increased variation of intron versus exon DNA sequences. Higher plant species have five to six introns per gene. Studies suggest that introns are more polymorphic than

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



coding sequences and can be deployed as markers.

Development of Intron Polymorphic Markers

Single copy genes are suitable for developing markers, available as ‘anchor’ in comparative genomic studies. Copy number of genes can be estimated from the genomic structure of the reference species such as rice and Arabidopsis. To amplify intron sequences with a higher polymorphic frequency than in exons, PCR

primer pairs are designed in the exon region flanking the exon-intron junction in ESTs (cDNA) of the target species. Exon-intron junctions are conserved among species, and are, thus, estimated from the genomic structure of the orthologous gene in the reference species. If primers are designed in conserved exon regions among related species, they are expected to have a high transferability, useful for comparative studies

Fig. Design of conserved primer pairs for intron polymorphism (IP) markers.

Application of Intron Polymorphic Markers

Intron Polymorphic (IP) markers have often been used for the construction of interspecific genetic maps in tomato (S. lycopersicum L. x S. pennellii), wheat x intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium) (Host) etc. IP markers distinguishes three homoeologous loci in all hexaploid wheat, which aid to identify QTL and associated genes in a specific genome within a complex hexaploid genome structure. Several ILP markers, are useful for phylogenetic studies on genetic differentiation of related species Eg. In rice, the indica-japonica subspecies differentiation formed in O. rufipogon., the progenitor of O. sativa, before the beginning of domestication.

Species-specific Intron length polymorphic (ILP) markers are also useful tools for inter-specific hybrid and introgression breeding to detect the constitution of the genomic structure, where multiple genotypes are involved. For example, IP markers were employed to distinguish L. Perenne and F. pratensis for the dissection of the genomic structures in the breeding materials of Festulolium hybrids and introgression populations, i.e., L. perenne populations with introgressed partial chromosomal fragments from F. pratensis. IP markers have been also applied for constructing intra-species linkage maps such as in M. truncatula, B. juncea and B. rapa based on SNPs

in addition to ILPs. IP markers based on specific genes showing intra-species polymorphisms were used for population genetic studies on gene diversity and biodiversity and identification of cultivars for protecting breeder’s right.

IP markers with primer sets designed at conserved exons of a single-copy gene could be used as anchors to establish orthologous relationships for comparative genomic studies. Comparison of orthologous loci among different taxa reveals the similarity of genomic structure, namely, synteny at the macro level such as conserved genomic blocks, and at the micro level such as co-linearity (similar order of ortho logs). In addition, differences of genomic structure at the macro level can be detected, i.e., chromosome rearrangements mainly caused by paracentric inversions and translocations including respective breaking points, and single gene transpositions at the micro level. These facilitate not only the evolutionary study of plant genomes as basic research, but also applied studies such as genetic analyses of traits of interest contributing to molecular breeding. Syntenic relationships can help in the development of markers in regions of interest, which might support map-based cloning of QTL and may allow educated guesses for candidate genes in the region under investigation elucidated from the reference genome.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com




Genotyping – By – Sequencing in Plant Breeding G. W. Narkhede1 and Dr S. P. Mehtre2

1Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Botany (Genetics and Plant Breeding); 2Soybean Breeder and Officer In-Charge, AICRP on Soybean, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani

– 431402 (MS)

Genotyping – By – Sequencing is an ideal platform for studies ranging from single gene markers to whole genome profiling. GBS provides a rapid and low cost tool to genotype breeding populations, allowing plant breeders to implement GWAS, genomic diversity study, genetic linkage analysis, molecular marker discovery and genomic selection (GS) under a large scale of plant breeding programs. There is no requirement for a prior knowledge of the species genomes as the GBS method has been shown to be robust across a range of species and SNP discovery and genotyping are completed together.

Two different GBS strategies have been developed with the Ion PGM system:

A. Restriction enzyme digestion, in which no specific SNPs have been identified and ideal for discovering new markers for MAS programs. The complexity of the genome under this approach is reduced by digesting the DNA with one or two selected restriction enzymes prior to the ligation of the adapters.

B. Multiplex enrichment PCR, in which a set of SNPs has been defined for a section of the genome. This approach uses PCR primers designed to amplify the areas of interest.

FIG.1 I Schematic steps of the genotyping-by- sequencing (GBS) protocol for plant breeding. Panel (A): tissue is obtained from any plant species as depicted hers a young triticale plant: panel (B): ground leaf tissues for DNA isolation, quantification and normalization. At this step it is important to prevent any cross-contamination among samples: panel (C): DNA digestion with restriction enzymes; panel (D): ligations of adaptors (ADP) including a ber coding (BC) region in adapter 1 in random Pstl-Msel restricted DNA fragments; panel (E): representation of different amplified DNA fragments with different bar codes from different bar codes from different biological samples/lines. These fragments represent the GSB library; panel (F): analysis of sequences from library on a NGS sequencer: Panel (G): bioinformatic analysis of NGS sequencing data; panel (H): possible application of GBS results.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



GBS through NGS approach has been used to re-sequence collections of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) to analyze and map various traits of interest in specific breeding programs. Crops such as maize, wheat, barley, rice, potato and cassava have been optimized by GBS for the efficient, low-cost and large scales of genome sequencing.

Genotyping-by-sequencing is a novel application of NGS protocols for discovering and genotyping SNPs for crop improvement. The low cost of GBS makes it an attractive approach to saturate the mapping and breeding populations, with a high density of SNP markers. Successive improvements of the sequencing chemistries and base-calling software will allow NGS

technologies to deliver higher sequencing throughputs per run, which in turn enables deeper multiplexing for a fixed average sequencing depth per sample.

As the amount and quality of sequence information generated per run keeps increasing, which allows even higher plexing and lower costs per samples, GBS has become a cost competitive alternative to other whole genome genotyping platforms. It can be anticipated that high density of SNP markers from NGS will be extensively applied to GWAS, MAS & GS. Plant breeders will be able to sequence even large crop genomes and establish high density of linkage maps from breeding populations.


Breeding for Herbicide Resistance Varieties Ingle A. U.* and K. G. Kandarkar

Ph.D. Scholar, Genetics and Plant Breeding, PGI, MPKV, Rahuri. *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Excessive weed growth forces crops to compete for sunlight and nutrients, often leading to significant losses. Because herbicides cannot differentiate between plants that are crops and plants that are weeds, conventional agricultural systems can only use ‘selective’ herbicides. Such herbicides do not harm the crop, but are not effective at removing all types of weeds. If farmers use herbicide resistant crops, ‘non-selective’ herbicides can be used to remove all weeds in a single, quick application. This means less spraying, less traffic on the field, and lower operating costs.

Chemical control of weeds by applying herbicide has become an indispensabletool in modern agriculture. The use of herbicides in agriculture has rapidly since 1944 when 2,4-D was first used as a herbicide. Herbicides permit economically superior weed control and more labour efficient and energy- efficient than manual or mechanical weed control methods. Herbicides may pollute our environment. With the increasing awareness to protect our environment from pollution, only those herbicides which are eco-friendly, selective, non-toxic to mammals including man and easily biodegradable will find greater use in agriculture in the coming years.

Herbicide resistance is governed by a single nuclear gene in most cases and is mostly expressed as a dominant character. The herbicide tolerant gene may be inherently present in the crop plant or it may be transferred from other plant species or non-plang sources by gene transfer across sexually compatible species.

Three broad approaches have been followed

for developing herbicide resistant varieties of crop plants. These are

1. Conventional Breeding Method 2. Mutant Selection through in vitro

Techniques 3. Genetic Engineering Technique

Conventional Breeding Method

Triazine resistance is maternally inherited. Using conventional breeding method triazen resistance gene has been transferred from two weed species into crop plants. For example, triazine resistant cultivars of B. napus have been developed by transferring the plasmagenes from a weedy genotype of Brassica compestris (Beversdorffe et al., 1985). Triazine resistance from Setaria viridis was transferred to the crop setaria italic (Darmency and Pernes, 1985)

Mutant Selection through in vitro Techniques

Herbicide resistant cell line of several crop have been developed by selecting the resistant cells from a population of cells cultured on in vitro growth media with specific herbicide concentration. This is the routine technique for developing herbicide resistant crop varieties. The resistant cells are regenerated into whole plants by using standard protocols.

Genetic Engineering Technique

Genetic engineering techniques for the transfer of herbicide resistance gene have mostly employed the Ti-plasmid vector of the soil bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The transfermants showing herbicide resistance have selected by using Kanamycin resistance property

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



conferred by NPT II gene (Bevan et al., 1983). High level expression of herbicide resistance gene in transformant has been obtained by using constitutive cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter gene. This promoter has been widely used in both dicot and monocot plant species for the expression of alien gene. In general, the herbicide target site are mostly found within the chloroplast. So the gene constructs encoding manipulated target site must also carry sequences for correct targeting of the product from cytosol into the chloroplast.

Approaches of Genetic Engineering

Two approaches have been developed for the engineering of herbicide resistance in crop plants. These are,

Herbicide Resistance through Target Site Manipulation: In this approach the target site of the herbicide is manipulated by the modification

of the target plant enzyme or by inducing overproduction of the target enzyme.

Herbicide Resistance through Metabolic Detoxification or Degradation: This approach involves the introduction of an enzyme or enzyme system into crop plants for the metabolic detoxification or degradation of the herbicide prior to its action in the crop plants. The enzyme which have successfully been used are normally encoded by gene present in the bacteria.

References Miller, S. D. and C. Alford. 2000. Proc. North

Central Weed Sci. Soc. Abst. 55:94. Preston, C., Mallory-Smith, C.A. 2001. Biochemical

mechanisms, inheritance, and molecular genetics of herbicide resistance in weeds. p. 23-60. In:

S.B. Powles and D.L. Shaner (eds.), Herbicide Resistance and World Grains CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.


Role of Host-Plant Resistance in Insect Management Ingle A. U.* and K. G. Kandarkar

Ph.D. Scholar, Genetics and Plant Breeding, PGI, MPKV, Rahuri. *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Crop varieties resistant to insects are far less common than disease-resistant varieties, because plant breeders have traditionally focused more on disease resistance. However, if they are available, resistant varieties can be an effective defense against insect pests. But even when insect-resistant cultivars are not available, some varieties may be less attractive to pest species or may tolerate more damage than others. Plant size, shape, coloration, leaf hair, cuticle thickness, and natural chemicals (attractants and repellents) can all affect pest susceptibility. Farmers can do their own breeding by collecting non-hybrid seed from healthy plants in the field. Plants well adapted to local conditions will be more likely to resist pests.

The term host plant resistance refers to the inherent ability of a certain crop variety to restrict, retard or overcome insect pest infestation. Host plant resistance is mostly occurs in the traditional and unimproved germplasm, which are low yielding. The cultivation of such low yielding varieties possibly suppressed the pest population in the past.

Role of Host Plant Resistance

Resistant crop varieties provide an inherent control of insect pest.

Host plant resistance is the cheapest means of insect control.

It does not add to environmental pollution.

It is compatible with other method of insect

control. It is independent of the weather or vagaries

of nature.

It is very valuable low value crops, particularly in developing countries where farmers cannot afford the expensive insecticides.

Host plant resistance can control even a low density of insect pest and does not justify the application of expensive insecticides for controlling a low pest density.

In some cases, the resistance developed in plants against one pest species also provides protection against other insect species.

Host plant resistance also serves as a sefguard against the release of new crop varieties, which may be more susceptible than the existing varieties under cultivation.

Classification of Resistance of Host Plant

In insect plant interaction, the resistance of plants has been divided into three categories, for convenience, on the basis of inherited characters. These are:

1. Non-preference - The plant possesses characteristics that make it unattractive to the insect pests for feeding, oviposition or shelter. The term antisense is also used to mean nonpreference.

2. Antibiosis - The host plant adversely affects the biology of the insect pest i.e.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



development, survival and reproduction. 3. Tolerance - The term tolerance is used when

the damaged to the plants is low in spite of its supporting the insect population which will severely damage the susceptible hosts.

References Painter, R.H. 1951. Insect Resistencde in Crop

Plants, The MacMillan Co., USA. Gallun, R.L. and Khush G.S. 1980. Genetic Factors

affecting expression and stability of resistance. Breeding Plants Resistance to Insects. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Saxena, R.C. and Khan, Z.R. 1991. Genetics of Insect-host plant interactions: concepts old and new. Advances in Plant Breeding., Vol. I. CBS Publishers & Distributers, Delhi:111-120.


Pigeon Pea Protein: Quality Nutrition in the Diet A. Thanga Hemavathy

Assistant Professor (PB&G), Dept. of Pulses, TNAU, Coimbatore

Protein availability in developing countries at present is about one-third of its normal requirements and with ever growing human population; various nutritional development programs are facing a tough challenge to meet the targeted protein demand. Pigeonpea or red gram (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millspaugh) occupies an important place in rainfed agriculture and it was rated the best as far as its biological value was concerned; and it was recommended that for a balanced vegetarian diet with rice. In India, de-hulled split cotyledons of pigeonpea seeds are cooked to make dal (thick soup) for eating with bread and rice; while in southern and eastern Africa, and South America its whole dry seeds are used in a porridge like recipe. The fully grown seeds of pigeon pea harvested as green used as fresh, frozen, or canned vegetable. Its broken seeds, skin, and pod walls are fed to domestic animals and the dry stems are used as domestic fuel wood. In tropics and sub tropics pigeon pea is considered as a life line of subsistence agriculture. Pigeonpea plant is known to provide several benefits to soil such as fixing atmospheric nitrogen, adding organic matter and micro nutrients, and breaking hard plough pan with its long tap roots and, thereby sometimes referred as “biological plough”. Pigeonpea can be grown successfully in a wide range of soil types and is capable of producing reasonable quantities of nutritive food even in the degraded soils and with minimum external inputs.

Pigeonpea seeds are made up of 85% cotyledons, 14% seed coat, 1% embryo and contain a variety of dietary nutrients. The cotyledons are rich in carbohydrates (66.7%) while a major proportion (about 50%) of seed protein is located in embryo. About one-third of seed coat is made up of fiber. The quantities of important sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine and cystine ranged around 1% and they are present in cotyledons and embryo; while calcium is predominantly present in seed coat and embryo. Among the seed proteins globulins

constitute about 65% of total proteins. In general, pigeonpea is not rated superior for sulfur-containing amino acids but it is not linked with low methionine content. In comparison to other protein fractions, globulin is rather inferior in sulfur containing amino acids while albumin has high amino acid content. Pigeonpea seed the proportion of prolamin is low while sugars such as stachyose and verbascose are high.

Nutritional Value of Split Peas (DAL)

Carbohydrates (67%) and protein (22%) are main constituents of pigeonpea seeds and amino acid such as lysine and threonines are in good proportions, while methionine and cystine are deficient. Pigeonpea cotyledons are also rich in calcium and iron. Wild relatives of pigeonpea as high protein donor parents and demonstrated that seed protein content in cultivated types can be enhanced through conventional breeding.

Nutritional Value of Immature (Vegetable) Seeds

In general, green pigeonpea seeds (vegetable pigeonpea) are considered superior to dry splits in nutrition. Green pigeonpea seeds had higher crude fiber, fat, and protein digestibility. As far as trace and mineral elements was concerned, the green pea was better in phosphorus by 28.2%, potassium by 17.2%, zinc by 48.3%, copper by 20.9%, and iron by 14.7%. The dal, however, had 19.2%more calcium and 10.8% more manganese. Vegetable type pigeonpea had high poly-saccharides and low crude fiber content than dal, irrespective of their seed sizes.

Distribution of nutrients in green seed, mature seed, and dal1 of Pigeonpea

Constituent / cooking time Green seed

Mature seed

Dal (split seeds

with seed coat removed)

Protein (%) 21.0 18.80 24.60

Protein digestibility (%) 66.80 58.50 60.50

Trypsin inhibitor (units/mg) 2.8 9.9 13.5

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com




Mature seed

Dal (split seeds


Starch content (%) 48.4 53.0 57.6

Starch digestibility (%) 53.0 36.2 -

Amylase inhibitor (units/mg)

17.3 26.9 -

Soluble sugars (%) 5.1 3.1 5.2

Flatulence factors (g/100gram of soluble sugar)

10.3 53.5 -

Crude fibre (%) 8.2 6.6 1.2

Fat (%) 2.3 1.9 1.6

Minerals and trace elements (mg/100g)

Calcium 94.6 120.8 16.3

Magnesium 113.7 122.0 78.9


Mature seed

Dal (split seeds


Copper 1.4 1.3 1.3

Iron 4.6 3.9 2.9

Zinc 2.5 2.3 3.0

Cooking time (min.) 13 53 18

References Kul Bhushan Saxena, Ravikoti Vijaya Kumar*, Rafat

Sultana. Health Vol.2, No.11, 1335-1344 (2010) Faris, D.G., Saxena, K.B., Mazumdar, S. and Singh,

U. (1987) Vegetable Pigeonpea: A promising crop for India. ICRISAT, Patancheru.

Faris, D.G. and Singh, U. (1990) Pigeonpea: Nutrition and Products. In: Nene, Y.L., Hall, S.D. and Sheila, V.K. Eds., The Pigeonpea, CAB International, Wallingford, 401-434.


Molecular Basis of Self-Incompatibility in Plants Namrata Dhirhi

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, I.G.K.V., Raipur (C.G.)

INTRODUCTION: Self-incompatibility (SI) has been defined as the prevention of fusion of fertile male and female gametes after self-pollination. In other words, it is a general name for several genetic mechanisms in angiosperms, which prevent self-fertilization and thus encourage out crossing. In plants with SI, when a pollen grain produced in a plant reaches a stigma of the same plant or another plant with a similar genotype, the process of pollen germination, pollen tube growth, ovule fertilization, and embryo development is halted at one of its stages, and consequently no seeds are produced. SI is one of the most important means to prevent selfing and promote the generation of new genotypes in plants, and it is considered as one of the causes for the spread and success of the angiosperms on the earth. SI is widespread mechanism promoting out-breeding and gene flow through pollen in flowering plants. SI is a genetically determined pollen– pistil recognition system that prevents self-fertilization and cross-fertilization between individuals sharing the same incompatibility type. SI therefore, prevents inbreeding at two levels: (i) by making selfing impossible and (ii) by preventing mating between close relatives that have inherited the same incompatibility type.

Mechanisms of Self-Incompatibility

1. Gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI) a) The RNase mechanism/ The S-

glycoprotein mechanism

2. Sporophytic self-incompatibility (SSI) a) The SI mechanism in Brassica

3. Other mechanisms of self-incompatibility a) Heteromorphic self-incompatibility b) Cryptic self-incompatibility (CSI) c) Late-acting self-incompatibility (LSI)

Gametophytic Self-Incompatibility (GSI)

The RNase Mechanism/ The S-Glycoprotein Mechanism: One such mechanism is S-RNase-based self-incompatibility (SI), which employs a highly polymorphic genetic locus, named S-locus, to control pollination. Variants of the S-locus are referred to as ‘haplotypes’. If the haplotype of pollen matches one of the two haplotypes of the diploid pistil, the pollen is recognized as self-pollen and its tube growth in the style is inhibited. Pollen that carries a haplotype different from the haplotypes of the pistil is recognized as non-self-pollen and its tube is allowed to grow through the style to effect fertilization. To date, S-RNase-based SI has been identified in the Solanaceae, Rosaceae and Plantaginaceae (formerly known as Scrophulariaceae) families.

Sporophytic Self-Incompatibility (SSI)

The SI Mechanism in Brassica

Pollen expresses both paternal parent alleles at S locus, even though it only carries one allele. Co-dominant and/or dominant allelic interactions occur that determine the ultimate phenotype of the stigma and pollen

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



interaction.

Pollen rejection occurs when the same S allele is active in both stigma and pollen.

Growth arrest occurs on the stigma, either before pollen germination or before the pollen tube can penetrate the wall of the papillar cells.

Transfer of incompatible pollen to a compatible stigma results in germination, so the effects of the SI reaction are reversible.

Developmentally regulated in stigma – bud pollination day before pollination – no SI.

Three components have been characterized at the Molecular Level

1. SLG a) S-locus glycoprotein. b) Secreted to exterior of papillar cell. c) A soluble cell wall-localized protein. d) A role in the full manifestation of

incompatibility (will be discussed later). 2. SRK

a) S-locus receptor kinase. b) Transmembrane protein (single

transmembrane domain). c) N-terminus is similar to SLG and

extracellular. d) C-terminus is a serine/threonine kinase

and cytoplasmic. e) SRK is the female determinant of SI–it

interacts directly with the pollen S-locus product to initiate the SI reaction.

f) The extracellular domain of SRK is similar to SLG.

g) Class I SLG/SRK allele sequences are more similar to each other (80% identity at amino acid level) than they are to Class II alleles (only 70%) and vice versa.

3. SCR a) S-locus cysteine-rich protein (Brassica

oleraciea). b) Pollen determinant of SI isolated by the

Nasrallah. c) Small, secreted protein (~8.5 kDa). d) 4. Alleles have highly conserved NH2-

termini, highly divergent and only 7 highly conserved cysteine residues and one glyciene residue are found to be

conserved among 22 SCR sequences. e) Cysteine residues possibly give the

protein its 3-dimensional structure via disulfide bridges; loops between the Cys residues, which are highly divergent, would give the protein its specificity.

f) Takayama et al. (2000) cloned and characterized SP11 (S locus protein 11 of B. rapa), which is identical to SCR.

Difference in SI Behavior of Pollen in Gametophytic and Sporophytic Systems

The behavior of pollen depicted for SSI assumes that two S-alleles are co-dominant. For SSI, the pollen S allele is thought to be synthesized in the tapetal tissue and deposited in the pollen wall. For CSI, the pollen S-allele is thought to be synthesized in the microspore.

Other Mechanisms of self-Incompatibility

Cryptic Self-Incompatibility (CSI): Inbreeding depression is believed to select for adaptations that reduce self-fertilization like allelic self-incompatibility, and temporal and spatial separation of anthers and stigmas. However, the adaptive value of such selection mechanisms diminishes when available outcross pollen is limiting seed set. Therefore, a combination of inbreeding depression and pollen limitation should lead to the evolution of mating strategies that allow for flexible adjustment of the level of selfing. One such mechanism is cryptic self-incompatibility it results in full seed set when only self-pollen is available but the success of self-pollen is strongly reduced when it competes with outcross pollen. Therefore, by definition, CSI can only be shown if results from single donor and mixed pollinations are compared. Traditionally, CSI has been tested by applying equal proportions of self and outcross pollen and performing paternity analysis of offspring. Results were then compared with results from single donor experiments or as a null hypothesis equal success of self-pollen and outcross pollen was assumed. Over-representation of outcrossed offspring resulting from mixed pollination with this method has been found in 4 studies.


Allele Mining: Its Approaches and Application in Plant Breeding

Mandakini Kabi1, Bhabendra Baisakh1 and Swapan K. Tripathy2 1Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, 2Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of

Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar (India) *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Selection of genetic materials from among undesirable ones is the integral part

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



of plant breeding. During the process of evolution or induced mutation; nucleotide sequence in gene(s) is liable to be changed (insertion and deletion: InDel) resulting large number of newer/ undisclosed alleles. Some of these allelic variations may be silent in character expression, but many of these might have role in alteration of phenotype of the individuals. Even though most of the mutations are deleterious, about 0.1% of the mutations could be super vital and beneficial leading to alterations in gene function including survival of plants. In this context, alleles resulting qualitative and quantitative improvement of a crop plant are of great importance. Now-a-days, availability of sequence and expression data in various genomic databases and molecular tools accompanied by software analysis have assisted in search of beneficial alleles in crop plants. This enables the scope for development of allele-specific markers and more specifically single nucleotide polymorphic markers associated with many complex traits e.g., resistance to abiotic stresses, greater nutrient use efficiency, enhanced yield and improved quality features.

Wide germplasm resources including land races and wild relatives serve as rich reservoir of allelic variations. A significant proportion of these alleles is not utilized and as such left behind during the long term process of evolution and domestication. Allele mining refers to dissection of naturally occurring/induced variation at candidate genes/loci’ Therefore, allele mining (AM) seems to an effective way to harness full potential of the available genetic resources to breed novel crop varieties with improved agronomic traits. Thus, the process of allele mining stems from phenotypic screening of the vast germplasm to utilization of the same for breeding purpose by introgressing into new varieties.

1. Approaches for Allele Mining

1. TILLING -based allele mining (Targeting Induced Local Lesions In Genomes):

Through the process of tilling it is possible to determine variation in individual which arises due to artificially changed mutation of target gene in a high-throughput manner. But when tilling technique used to survey natural variation in genes then it is called Ecotilling. The first step in tilling technique is to treat the seed material of desirable crop with chemical mutagens like EMS (most commonly) to introduce random mutation. Then M1plants are selfed to produce M2 seeds from which progeny of single seed descent are used for screening. For screening, DNAs are pooled at least eight fold to maximize the efficiency of mutation detection. PCR is performed using 5’-end specific primers to target the desired locus formed by heating and cooling

the PCR products. CEL I nuclease is used to cleave at base mismatches, and products representing induced mutations are visualized with denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

2. Sequencing based Allele Mining: In this approach identification of nucleotide variation is possible by amplification of alleles in diverse genotypes through PCR followed by DNA sequencing. Unlike Eco Tilling, sequencing based allele mining does not require much sophisticated equipment or involve tedious steps, but involves huge costs of sequencing. A brief comparison between these two procedures is given below. The presence, type and location of point mutation or SNP will be confirmed by sequencing the amplicon from the test genotype that carry the mutation.

3. Comparison of Allele Mining Techniques: Among two approaches, eco-tilling is proposed to be cost effective approaches for haplotyping and SNP discovery, but this technique require more sophistication and involve several steps starting from making DNA pools of reference and test genotypes, specific conditions for efficient cleavage by nuclease, detection in polyacrylamide gels using Li- Cor gels and confirm through sequencing.

Applications of Allele Mining

It has wide application but the major areas of application are as follows:

1. Characterization of Allelic Diversity in Gene Bank: The untapped allelic variation are present in the gene bank that affects the plant phenotype. Besides, gene promoter polymorphisms in a natural population are a contributing factor of phenotypic variation. Many of the international crop research institutes which are maintaining crop germplasm collections have initiate studies to characterize the allelic diversity of crop plants and managing the Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) through the process of allele mining. Therefore, allele mining is also used to dissect upstream sequence of transcription start site for identification of appropriate transcriptional factors of stress inducible genes.

2. Identification of New Haplotypes: A haplotype is a group of genes in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent and a haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



share a common ancestor with a single-nucleotide polymorphism mutation. Allele mining is in vogue potentially employed in the identification of nucleotide variation in the genomic region (candidate gene) associated with phenotypic variation for a trait. Besides, it detects type and the extent of occurrence of new haplotypes and the resulting phenotypic changes in an individual.

3. Development of Allele-Specific Markers for MAS: In recent years, several studies are piled up that demonstrate the existence of sequence variation at key genes. Suitable primers can be designed for whole length of the gene based on nucleotide sequence variation and. development of such allele-specific marker(s) makes it easy for precise introgression of the ‘novel’ favourable alleles to a suitable genetic background. Some studies have revealed the beneficial effects of these variations. For example, in rice, comparison of nucleotide sequences of Waxy gene (codes for a granule-bound starch synthase) in different accessions revealed the presence of five different alleles, which are characterized with a unique replacement, frame shift or site mutations. All the alleles are reported to be clearly associated with the observed phenotypic alterations.

4. Study of Allelic Synteny and Evolutionary Relationship: Using the sequence information

obtained from allele mining studies, syntenic relationships can be easily assessed among the identified loci/genes across the species/genera. For example, in tomato by amplifying and sequencing the alleles of Pto gene (conferring resistance to bacterial pathogen) in 49 genotypes and testing a subset of these alleles for its function, it is possible to identify several nucleotide changes responsible for pathogen recognition and hypersensitive resistance response. In fact, these changes helps to identify the natural variation in resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) strains.

Thus, tilling provides is a cost-effective and reverse genetics high-throughput strategy. It explores mutations in known genes. Tilling can be effectively used to analyze missense alleles, knockouts or even non-sense mutations in natural/induced mutagenic populations. Tilling process for separating DNA fragments can be performed in different ways e.g., agarose gel, sequencing gel, HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) and capillary electrophoresis although former two techniques are commonly used. The tilling techniques for genome analysis have been changed in various ways. Recently, the application of next-generation sequencing (NGS) permits multiplexing of gene targets and enable in silico analysis of genomes.

63. SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 15223

Ecological Influence on Quality Seed Production SP Monalisa1* and Mamata Behera2

1Dept. of Seed Science and Technology; 2Dept. of Plant Breeding and Genetics OUAT, Bhubaneswar-751003


Seed is the biological unit for propagation, carries genetic characteristics from generation to generation. Agricultural seeds are any part of the plant (vegetative or reproductive) capable of giving birth to new plant of its kind. Seed is the foundation of agriculture. Good quality seed can increase yields by 5-20%. The extent of this increase is directly proportional to the quality of seed that is being sown. Seed quality can be considered as the summation of all factors that contribute to seed performance. High quality seed enables farmers to attain crops, which have: 1. The most economical planting rate 2. A higher percentage of seeds emerging in the field 3. A minimum of re-planting 4. A vigorous seedling establishment 5. A more uniform plant stand 6. Faster growth rate, and greater resistance to stress and diseases 6. Uniformity in ripening.

Factors Affecting Seed Quality

Seed quality is determined by a number of

genetic and physiological characteristics. The genetic component involves differences between two or more genetic lines, while differences between seed lots of a single genetic line comprise the physiological component.

The genetic factors that can influence quality include: Genetic make-up, Seed size, Bulk density.

The physical or environmental characteristics include: Injury during planting and establishment, growing conditions during seed development, Nutrition of the mother plant, Physical damage during production or storage by machine or pest, Moisture and temperature during storage, age or maturity of seed.

Deterioration in seed quality may begin at any point in the plant’s development stage from fertilization onward. Seed quality depends upon the physical conditions that the mother plant is exposed to during growth stages, as well as

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



harvesting, processing, storage and planting. Temperature, nutrients and other environmental factors also affect seed development and influence seed quality.

Seed Quality Characteristics

Seeds of high quality should be true to its kind or variety, contain a minimum of impurities and have high establishment rates in the field. The main criteria for describing seed quality can be considered under the following: Varietal characteristics, Seed lot characteristics, Seed viability

Importance of Quality Seed: 1. Ensures genetic and physical purity of the crops. 2. Gives desired plant population. 3. Capacity to withstand the adverse conditions. 4. Seedling produce will be more vigorous, fast growing and can resist pest and disease incidence to certain extent. 5. Ensure uniform growth and maturity.

Benefits of Using Quality Seed: 1. They are genetically pure (true to type). 2. The good quality seed has high return per unit area as the genetic potentiality of the crop can be fully exploited. 3. Less infestation of land with weed seed/other crop seeds. 4. Less disease and insect problem. 5. Minimization of seed/seedling rate that is fast and uniform emergence of seedling. 6. They are vigorous, free from pests and diseases. 7. They can be adopted themselves for extreme climatic condition and cropping system of the location. 8. The quality seed respond well to the applied fertilizers and nutrients. 9. Crop raised with quality seed is aesthetically pleasing. 10. Good seed prolongs life of a variety. 11. Yield prediction is very easy. 12. Handling in postharvest operation will be easy. 13. Preparations of finished products are also better. 14. High produce value and their marketability

Factors Affecting Quality Seed: Generally three factors affected quality seed production

Genetic factor

Agronomic Practices

Ecological factor

Ecological Factor

Light intensity

Temperature Relative humidity

Photoperiod

Environmental factors—light, temperature, water, and soil—greatly influence plant growth and geographic distribution. These factors determine the suitability of a crop for a particular location, cropping pattern, management practices, and levels of inputs needed. A crop performs best and is least costly to produce if it is grown under the most favourable environmental conditions. To maximize the production of any crop, it is important to understand how these environmental factors affect plant growth and

development. Light: Sunlight is essential for any crop. Dry

matter production often increases in direct proportion with increasing amounts of light. The amount of sunlight received by plants in a particular region is affected by the intensity of the incoming light and the day length. The light intensity changes with elevation, latitude, and season, as well as other factors such as clouds, dust, smoke, or fog. The total amount of light received by a crop plant is also affected by cropping systems and crop density. Different plants differ in their light requirements: l plants thrive in full sun but grow poorly in shade. Plants will produce an edible crop when grown in a shady location. However, these plants need at least 50-80% of full sun. Plants thrive in 30-50% of full sun but weaken in full sun. Shading sometimes is used to inhibit pigment development in crops in which the lack of colour is an important quality factor. Due to the tilt of the earth’s axis and its travel around the sun, the day length (also called photoperiod) varies with season and latitude. Photoperiod controls flowering or the formation of storage organs in some species. Some plants flower when a specific day-length minimum has been passed:

Flower when day length decreases, flower when day length increases, are not affected by day length, and can flower under any light period.

Temperature: Temperature influences photosynthesis, water and nutrient absorption, transpiration, respiration, and enzyme activity. These factors govern germination, flowering, pollen viability, fruit set, rates of maturation and senescence, yield, quality, harvest duration, and shelf life. Different plants have different temperature requirements. However, for most crop species, optimum temperatures usually range around 25ºC. Temperature requirements (usually based on night temperature) of plants are given below by the cardinal values and derived range for “effective growth” (growth range) and “optimum growth” (optimum range) that Krug (1991) has used for major vegetables. growth range 18-35ºC; optimum range 25-27ºC. growth range (10)12-35ºC; optimum range 20-25ºC. growth range (5)7-30ºC; optimum range 20-25ºC. and growth range (5)7-25ºC; optimum range 18-25ºC.

Full sun Partial sun partial shade Full shade, Short-day plants Long-day plants, Day-neutral plants, Hot Warm Cool-hot Cool-warm.

Depending on the situation and the specific crop, ambient temperatures higher or lower than the effective growth range will reduce growth and delay development, and subsequently decrease yield and quality. The extremes may be considered killing frosts at about 0ºC and death by heat and desiccation at about 40ºC.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Water: Water is absolutely essential for any plant species. Plants can be grouped according to their natural habitats with respect to water supply: are plants that are adapted to living in water or in soil saturated with water. The hydrophytes usually have large interconnected intercellular gas-filled spaces in their root and shoot tissues (aerenchyma) to facilitate air exchange. These are the most common terrestrial plants that are adapted to neither a long wet nor a long dry environment. Depending on the extension of their root systems and other plant features, however, their water requirement varies. These are plants that can endure relatively long periods of drought. The

xerophytes usually have special features such as reduced permeability to decrease water loss, swollen tissues to conserve water, or deep and extensive root systems to acquire water.

Brown, RF, Wilson, GL and Slater, WG (1976). Environmental influences on panicle development. Sorghum Newsletter. 19: 2

ISTA, (1999). International Rules for Seed Testing. Seed Sci. and Technol. 27(Supplement rules): 27-31.

Swain, SK, Sahoo, P and Patnaik, MC (2001). Seasonal Effect and Genotypic Variability for Storability of Seeds in Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Seed Research. 29(1):109-111

64. SEED SCIENCE 14766

Role of Antioxidants in Relation to Seed Quality Enhancement

Himaj S. Deshmukh

Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Agril. Botany, MPKV., Rahuri (M.S.) *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

Increasing the agricultural production through the use of high quality seed, among other agricultural inputs has become essential for providing enough food for the rising population in the world today. Production of high quality seed is cornerstone of any successful agricultural programme and is also a good marketing tool for increasing the potential sale of crop seed, especially in today’s competitive market.

High quality seed does not happen by chance. Each stage in seed production from planting through weed control, fertility program, harvest, cleaning, storage and shipping is critical for achieving it. Seed quality is the collective term for the condition of seed including genetic homogeneity, physical appearance, viability, vigour and uniformity. The other characteristics such as specific chemical composition or resistance to certain diseases or insects can contribute to the quality of the seed. Complex interactions of genetic, environmental, pathological, physiological, biochemical and cytological factors influence the expression of seed quality.

In order to improve quality of seed in respect of crop stand, many workers studied the effect of antioxidants on seed viability, vigour, seed germination and seedling growth and found positive results. Physical methods of stimulation are considered as an innovative area of research and have emerged as a magic tool which could improve the yield of crops. Seed is an extremely complex system and its state cannot always be controlled due to changing of seed vitality indices viz., germinating energy, germination and

uniformity of germination. Physical methods of seed treatment may initiate physiological and biochemical changes which reflect on the plant growth and development processes and ultimately improve the yield and quality of produce and also help to elucidate the mechanisms of energy exchange in molecules and thus stimulation of plant development.

Antioxidant is a kind of chemical, treatment that stimulates the enzymes and other biochemical reactions that helps in early germination by stopping the oxidation. The stimulation is possible at lower levels of treatment intensity/energy. All living processes are highly dependent on energy exchange between the cell and the environment. Physical factors impart different kinds of energy into the cells. Imported energy is absorbed by the electrons in different molecules. The absorbed energy may be transformed into another kind of energy most probably chemical one and then used for accelerating the seed metabolism.

In-vitro physical seed treatments are known to change the activity of the enzyme and stimulation of biosynthetic process that involve RNA polymerase and free radicals. In the case of chemical amelioration the necessary substances are directly inserted into the cell. In the case of physical treatment the energy introduced in the cell creates conditions for molecular transformations. Exposure or spraying of antioxidants accelerates the growth and development throughout the period of vegetation, advances maturity and ultimately increases the yield. Antioxidants scavenge the

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



free radicals and protect plants from diseases, insects and frost; reduce the requirements for fertilizer or pesticides and risk of food safety hazards can be avoided. Seed-borne bacteria, fungi and insects can be destroyed without injuring the seeds and also we can achieve enhancing the power of germination of old seeds or seeds which are naturally difficult to germinate.

The antioxidants influence the rate of uptake of nutrients like K, Ca and P from the soil to the plant. The antioxidants scavenge the free radicals; the damage to cells caused by free radicals is believed to play a central role in the aging process and in disease progression. Antioxidants are our first line of defense against free radical damage, and are critical for maintaining optimum health and wellbeing. The need for antioxidants becomes even more critical with increased exposure to free radicals. Pollution, cigarette smoke, drugs, illness, stress, and even exercise can increase free radical exposure. Because so many factors can contribute to oxidative stress, individual assessment of susceptibility becomes important. The definition of antioxidants, stated that an antioxidant is “any substance that, when present at low concentrations compared with that of an oxidizable substrate, significantly delays or inhibits oxidation of that substrate”. In 2007, Halliwell gave a more specific definition, stating that an antioxidant is “any substance that delays, prevents or removes oxidative damage to a target molecule”.

Oxidation reactions produce free radicals that can start multiple chain reactions that eventually cause damage or death to the cell. Antioxidants remove these free-radical intermediates by being oxidized themselves, and inhibit other oxidation reactions, thus stopping the harmful chain reactions. Such oxidative processes are dangerous for all living cells, especially those in proximity to sites where active oxygen is released by photosynthesis. Spontaneous oxidation causes food rancidity and spoilage of medicines. Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are continuously produced during seed

development, from embryogenesis to germination, but also during seed storage. ROS play a dual role in seed physiology behaving, on the one hand, as actors of cellular signaling pathways and, on the other hand, as toxic products that accumulate under stress conditions. ROS, provided that their amount is tightly regulated by the balance between production and scavenging, appear now as being beneficial for germination, and in particular to act as a positive signal for seed dormancy release. However, uncontrolled accumulation of ROS is likely to occur during seed aging or seed desiccation thus leading to oxidative damage toward a wide range of biomolecules and ultimately to necroses and cell death.

Numerous studies have been conducted on cultivated plants for agricultural and economic purposes and on model plants (mainly Arabidopsis) for understanding cellular, biochemical and molecular processes that affect dormancy and germination. Crosstalk between the H2O2 signaling pathway and other signaling molecules such as NO and H2S and phytohormones such as ABA, GA, and ET play an integrative role in switches made between dormant and germinated states. The accumulation of H2O2 and of other ROS during storage facilitates germination and has deleterious effects on seed viability. It has been observed that pre-sown seed priming with antioxidants can be applied to improve seed quality, resulting in better germination performance and higher vigor while partially abolishing seed aging effects. Antioxidants also influence signaling pathways through interactions with ROS metabolism. The exact mechanisms and functions of ROS during the germination of primed seeds must be clarified. One avenue for future research will involve identifying seed priming with antioxidants effects on the modulation of H2O2-mediated signaling networks. The use of numerous mutants and the development of new techniques will generate new perspectives that facilitate the more comprehensive explanation and substantiation of reviewed processes.


Polymer Seed Coating: An Innovative Approach Chawhan R. G.

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agriculture Botany, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413722 Maharashtra

INTRODUCTION: Now a day’s farmer is very much interested in the best seed management practices, which are safe environmentally sound and scientifically proven to overcome the adverse

situations. The agriculture industry is now responding to this trend with the development of more and more molecules that must be applied to the seeds. A strong reduction in the amount of

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



pesticides being used can be achieved by applying crop protection against directly to the seed instead of spraying them in the field and can be incorporated in a pellet or a film coat layer, where it will be most effective.

What is Polymer Seed Coating?

A seed coating is the substance applied to the seed that does not obscure its shape. Smaller amount of chemical are needed as compared to broadcasting or surface dressing onto the growing medium. Film coating is normally used to apply a thin, uniform layer of polymer over seeds without significantly increasing seed size or weight. The film is readily water soluble so as not to impede germination. The more precise and uniform application of fungicide, insecticide, colors and other additives can be accomplished by a typical seed slurry treatment.

Seed coating technologies include

Seed polymer coating

Seed colouring Seed pelleting

Sophisticated process of applying precise amount of active ingredient along with a liquid polymer directly on to the seed surface without obscuring its shape.

Application of precise amount of dyes or pigments directly on to the seed to improve its brand identity and marketability.

Process of enclosing the seed with small quantity of ingredients along with filler material to produce a globular unit of standard size to facilitate precision planting.

Steps of various seed coating technologies

Seed polymer coating Seed colouring Seed pelleting Polymer + Active

ingredient + (fungicide + insecticide)

natural or synthetic dyes

coloured seed

Polymer coated seed

Adhesive

filler material

active ingredient

Pelleted seed

Steps in Poly Coat Film Coating

Commercial formulation

Seed + polymer + colouring pigments + binder

+ active ingredients

Seed coating + seed film coating

Value added seed

Why use Colourants on Seed?

1. Polymer coated seed can be easily identified which prevents accidental consumption.

2. It helps to differentiate seed of different competitors and is the marketing strategy of the seed company.

3. This technology are important to know about herbicide treated seeds or variety differentiation.

4. It is used to enhance the seed qualities such as improving plantability, stand establishment, seed flow in seed planters, etc. Uniform distribution of the pesticides on the seeds and thereby prevents the ousting off chemicals by strong binding capacity.

5. Reduces pollution of pesticides at the processing plant and also at farm level.

6. H Freeze sensitive seed coating is useful for fall planting in cold climates.

7. It is a user friendly and environmentally safer technology.

Benefits

1. Improves plantability and emergence of seeds to benefit seed companies and farmers.

2. Enables accurate and even dosage of chemicals and reduces chemical wastage.

3. It makes room for including all the required ingredients like inoculants, protectants, nutrients, plant growth promoters, hydrophobic/hydrophilic substances, herbicides, oxygen suppliers etc.

4. By encasing the seed within a thin film of biodegradable polymer, the adherence of the seed treatment to the seed is improved.

5. It ensures dust free handling, making treated seed both user and environment friendly.

6. Addition of colourant helps visual monitoring of placement accuracy.

7. Polymer acts as a temperature switch and protective coating by regulating the water uptake and subsequent germination of seed.


Seed Deterioration: Methods for Testing Seed Deterioration A. D. Autade*1, Dr. S. B. Ghuge2 and D. S. Sutar3

1Ph.D. Scholar Department of Agricultural Botany (Seed Technology); 2Safflower Breeder, AICRP on Safflower; 3SRA, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani – 431402 (M.S.)


SEED DETERIORATION: Seed deterioration can be defined as “deteriorative alterations occurring with time that increase the seed’s exposure to external challenges and decrease the ability of

the seed to survive.”

Seed deterioration causes loss of seed quality with time.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



It is a natural process which involves cytological, physiological, biochemical and physical changes in seeds. These changes reduce viability and ultimately cause death of the seed.

Seed deterioration is associated with various cellular, metabolic and chemical alterations including lipid peroxidation, membrane disruption, DNA damage, impairment of RNA and protein synthesis and cause several detrimental effects on seed.

Methods for Testing Seed Deterioration

1. Germination Test: It is an analytical procedure to evaluate seed germination under standardized, favorable conditions. Standard germination testing includes media, temperature, light, moisture, dormancy breaking and germination counting standard for various crop seeds.

2. Electrical Conductivity Test: As seed deterioration progresses, the cell membranes become less rigid and become more water permeable. It allows the cell contents to leakage into solution with the water and increasing electrical conductivity. It provides a rapid indication of seed viability for seed lots

3. Enzyme Activity Test: These methods

measure enzyme activity (such as lipase, amylase, diastase, catalase, peroxidase and dehydrogenase) of imbibed seeds as an indication of their viability.

4. Tetrazolium (TZ) Test: TZ test is extensively accepted as an accurate mean of estimating seed viability. TZ test method was developed by Professor Georg Lakon in the early 1940s. It is quick method to estimate seed viability. This test distinguishes between viable and dead tissues of the embryo on the basis of their relative respiration rate in the hydrated state.

5. Vital Coloring Test: The principle of this method is the differential coloration of live against dead tissues when exhibited to certain dyes such as sulfuric acid, indigo carmine and aniline dyes. These dyes stain the dead tissue blue and the live tissue leftovers unstained. This method is particularly useful for determining viability of tree seeds.

6. Other Tests: Other testing methods are free fatty acid test, hydrogen peroxide test, indoxyl acetate test, fast green test, ferric chloride test, sodium hypochlorite test, excised embryo test and X-ray test.

67. PLANT PATHOLOGY 15098

Pathogenesis-Related (PR) Proteins Chirag Gautam1*, Dharam Singh Meena2, Sahana N Banakar3

1,3Department of Plant Pathology, 2Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru-560065


What are PR Proteins?

Pathogenesis related proteins (PR’s) are defined as proteins encoded by the host plant induced under pathological or related conditions. Pathological conditions refer to all types of pathogen stresses and not just to resistant hypersensitive responses in which the PR’s are more common. Apart from other pathogens they also include parasitic attack by nematodes, insects and herbivores. In addition, necrosis caused by abiotic stress and toxin related chlorosis also induce PR Proteins.

Classes of PR Proteins

The several groups of PR proteins have been classified according to their function, serological relationship, amino acid sequence, molecular weight and certain other properties.

Families Type member Properties

PR-1 Tobacco PR-1a Antifungal

PR-2 Tobacco PR-2 β-1,3-glucanase

PR-3 Tobacco P, Q Chitinase type I, II, IV, V,

Families Type member Properties

VI, VII

PR-4 Tobacco ‘R’ Chitinase type I, II

PR-5 Tobacco S Thaumatin like proteins

PR-6 Tomato Inhibitor I Proteinase- inhibitor

PR-7 Tomato P69 Endoproteinases

PR-8 Cucumber chitinase Chitinase type III/ Lysozymes

PR-9 Tobacco ‘lignin forming peroxidase’

Peroxidase

PR-10 Parsley ‘PR1’ Ribonucleases like

PR-11 Tobacco ‘class V’ chitinase

Endochitinase activity

PR-12 Radish Rs- AFP3 Plant Defensins

PR-13 Arabidopsis THI2.1 Thionins

PR-14 Barley LTP4 Lipid- transfer protein

PR-15 Barley OxOa (germin) Oxalate oxidase

PR-16 Barley OxOLP Oxalate oxidase-like proteins

PR-17 Tobacco PRp27 Unknown

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Important Points to be remembered

1. They are widely distributed in plants in trace amounts, but are produced in much greater concentration following pathogen attack or stress.

2. PR proteins exist in plant cells intracellularly and also in the intercellular spaces, particularly in the cell walls of different tissues.

3. PR proteins are either extremely acidic or extremely basic and therefore are highly soluble and reactive.

4. Varying types of PR proteins have been isolated from each of several crop plants.

5. Different plant organs, e.g., leaves, seeds, and roots, may produce different sets of PR proteins.

6. Different PR proteins appear to be expressed differentially in their hosts in the field when temperatures become stressful, low or high, for extended periods.

7. The signal compounds responsible for induction of PR proteins include salicylic acid, ethylene, xylanase, the polypeptide systemin, jasmonic acid, and probably others.

Mode of Action

PR proteins show strong antifungal and other antimicrobial activity. Some of them inhibit spore release and germination, whereas others are

associated with strengthening of the host cell wall and its outgrowths and papillae. Some of the PR proteins, e.g., b-1,3-glucanase and chitinase, diffuse toward and affect (break down) the chitin-supported structure of the cell walls of several but not all plant pathogenic fungi, whereas lysozymes degrade the glucosamine and muramic acid components of bacterial cell walls.

Lipoxygenases and lipid peroxidases generate antimicrobial metabolites as well as secondary signal molecules such as jasmonic acid. Structurally similar defensins also occur in mammals, birds, and insects. Plant defensins, which are basic cysteine- rich peptides, have antimicrobial activity and accumulate through the ethylene and jasmonic acid pathway.

Plants genetically engineered to express chitinase genes show good resistance against the soilborne fungus Rhizoctonia solani. Tobacco plants treated with lipopolysaccharides obtained from the outer wall of gram-negative bacteria produced several PR proteins and exhibited enhanced defense responses in tobacco against Phytophthora nicotianae, including the production of a systemic response in the leaves of plants inoculated through the roots. Signal molecules that induce PR protein synthesis seem to be transported systemically to other parts of the plant and to reduce disease initiation and intensity in those parts for several days or even weeks.


Diseases of Tea and their Management A. G. Tekale, Dr. H. N. Kamble and K. N. Dhawale

Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Tondapur, Hingoli (M.S.)

India is one of the major tea growing country in the world, producing about 30% of the world tea production annually. In India, it is grown in an area of approximately six lakh hectares. The country is the second largest tea producer in the world with production of 1,197.18 million kg in 2014-15. Tea plantation in India has been contributing significantly towards the socio economic development of the people of the tea growing regions of the country. Tea industry contributes substantially towards the national and state economy by way of enriching the foreign exchange reservoir and State exchequer besides employment. Intensive management of pests and diseases is required particularly during the formative years for early establishment. Among the diseases, red rust is a common one in young tea areas. In mature tea, besides this red rust, black rot, brown root rot, charcoal stump rot, blister blight, etc. are very common. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary to control the

pests and diseases by spraying appropriate insecticides and fungicides regularly.

1. Blister Blight: Exobasidium vexans

Symptoms: The first visible symptom is an oily, yellowish, translucent spot on the tender leaf and turn deep red shiny blisters. The circular spot gradually enlarges to 3 to 13 mm diameter, bulged on the undersurface of the leaf with a concave trough like depression on the upper surface forming a classic blasters lesion. Leaves become curled and distorted. It attacks the first flush of 2-3 young leaves and kills the young shoots and buds. Thus the new growth is largely ruined. Mature leaf is not affected. If the disease appears in nursery, when stem is less than 15 cm height, seedlings are stunted and produce many thin stems instead of a single stalk. Repeated attacks cause death of seedlings. Badly affected nurseries will have to be abandoned. Bilster blight produces losses upto 50%. Protected areas

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



show 57-139% increased yield. It appears in May. Succulent leaves and green shoots of newly pruned tea are most susceptible. It causes severe damage within a few months of pruning. The environment is favourable shortly after commencement of South-West monsoon till the close of North-East monsoon.

Mode of Spread and Survival: The fungus completes its life span in 11-28 days and several generations of spores are produced in a season. It produces conidia and basidiospores in the same blister. Spores are airborne. No resting stage seen in bush. Abandoned nurseries and badly kept gardens harbor the pathogen. It first appears in the borders of nearby plantations.

Favourable Conditions: Relative humidity plays an important role in the epidemics of blister blight. If the RH is below 80% for 5 days, the rate of infection decreases. It is above 83% for 7 to 10 days, the infection was moderate to serious. Temperature above 35°C inhibit the disease, Medium pruned tea is particularly susceptible as it provides vigorous succulent shoots and large tender leaves. Bushes in low, moist and shady localities suffer more.

Management: Copper oxy-chloride and oxides are superior to other formulations and are economic. The whole plantations should be covered in the shortest possible time. If there is outbreak after-middle of March, spray regularly at 7-10 days intervals till and 2nd week of May. Seedlings should be protected by weekly sprays in nursery. Protective spray root after plucking keeps down copper residues. Repeated sprays are required. Withhold spray if the RH of 3 day average went below 83% Tolerance limit for made tea for consumption is 150 ppm. Two days after spraying with recommended dosage, the residue of copper is already below that limit. There is no copper toxicity on the bushes. The fungus does not develop tolerance to copper. Copper stimulates the development of mites. Nickel chloride is used as an eradicant in South India. It does not stimulate mites, and could kill fungus which is already in the leaf tissue. A mixture of 210 g copper oxy-chloride + 210 g Nickel chloride/ ha sprayed at 5 days intervals from June-September and 11 day intervals in October-November gave economic, control. Among organic fungicides, chlorothalonil and dithianon gave protectant and therapeutic effects. Tridemorph (calixin), Dithane M-45, Calixin Baycor and Bayleton and Pyracarbolid (Sicarol) offered good disease control under field conditions. Calixin and Sicarol increased yield more than copper.

2. Pink Disease: Pellicularia salmonicolor

Symptoms: First a number of fine silky threads united into a thin film appear on stem. Not found on leaves. Fungus forms pink fructifications over

affected stems. Young branches on the outside of the bush lose their leaves and die-back. The pink concentrations crack into small fractions at right angles. They are generally confined to lower or more shades side of branches. Bark killed in patches. When the branch increases in thickness it grows only in areas where bark is not dead. So branch becomes irregularly swollen, pink tissue become white when old.

Mode of Spread and Survival: Basidiospores wind borne. First appears on borders adjacent to jungles.

Management: Addition of Potash promotes recovery. Very difficult to eradicate by removal of affected parts.

3. Grey Blight: Pestalotiopsis theae

Symptoms: The disease appears as minute brownish spots on older leaves, which soon turn grey. The spots are mostly irregular, and several of them may coalesce to form irregular grey patches. The spots have fine concentric lines. Fructifications of the fungus appear as black dots in older spots on the upper surface. The fungus infect plucking points and causes die-back.

Mode of Spread and Survival: The conidia are spread by wind.

Favourable Conditions: The incidence is more frequent on weak bushes, especially if potassium is deficient. The infection is also predisposed by sun scorch, insect puncture and plucking wounds.

Management: Copper oxy-chloride is effective.

4. Black Rot: Corticium invisum, C. theae

Symptoms: Appear in end of May or early June. Small dark brown irregular spots appear on leaf. They coalesce produce a dark brown patch which eventually cover the whole leaf. They drop off. Before the leaf turns black the lower surface assumes a white powdery appearance.

Mode of Spread and Survival: Basidiospores carried by workers as clothes. The disease develops rapidly when temperature is high and air is humid. At the beginning of rainfall they germinate and produce hyphal which starts fresh infection.

Favourable conditions: Occur in nursery shaded with Crotalaria. Basidiospores germinate only in wet weather or when leaves are covered with dew.

Management: Prune in December end remove the prunings immediately and burn after drying. Collect all dead and dried leaves. Spray a copper fungicide in 3rd week of April.

5. Red Rust: Cephalous parasiticus

Symptoms: Small translucent water soaking spot appears on leaf. On the upper surface the spot become purple red, then black with a purple margin. On the under surface it is purple red

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



becoming grey brown when old. If it attacks petiole at its junction with stem, leaf falls.

Favourable Conditions: Disease of weak bush – Weakness due to lack of drainage, drainage, shallow soil, hard pan, poor soil, hard plucking, improper, pruning etc. Too severe pruning of young plants weakening by red spider

attack drought logging favour the disease. Mode of Spread and Survival: Sporangia

spread by wind or rain. Management: Rectify soil defects. Spray

Bordeaux mixture or COC immediately after pruning. Badly diseased bushes should be removed. Apply N and K.


Impact of Climate Change on Plant Disease Tushar V. Ghevariya* and Patel Reena

Department of Plant Pathology, NM College of Agriculture, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari - 396 450, Gujarat, India


INTRODUCTION: Any change in climate whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity is known as climate change. “The phrase ‘climate change’ is growing in preferred use to ‘global warming’ because it helps convey that there are changes in addition to rising temperatures.” It refers to any distinct change in measures of climate lasting for a long period of time. In other words, “climate change” means major changes in temperature, rainfall, snow, or wind patterns lasting for decades or longer. Global warming is an average increase in temperatures near the Earth’s surface and in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Global warming can be considered as part of climate change along with changes in precipitation, sea level, etc. Global change is a broad term that refers to changes in the global environment, including climate change, ozone depletion, and land-use change. Climate change is affecting our agriculture due to 0.74 °C average global increase in temperature in the last 100 years and atmospheric CO2 concentration increase from 280 ppm in 1750 to 400 ppm in 2013. The environment may affect the availability, growth stage, succulence and genetic susceptibility to diseases of plants. Global Climate Models project a rise in global temperature by 1.8 to 4.0°C by the year 2100 due to the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases viz., CO2 concentration, N2O and CH4 are the major factor responsible for plant disease development. Diseases are responsible for losses at least 10% of global food production, representing a threat to food security (Strange & Scott 2005). The effects of climate change on plant diseases have been the subject of intense debate in the last decade; research in this sense has been carry out, however, more information is needed. Elevated temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations associated with climate change will have a substantial impact on plant-disease interactions. Changes in temperature affect both the host and

the pathogen; thus, risk analyses must be conducted for each pathosystem to determine the effects of climate change. Studies have been performed under controlled conditions, and the effects of high CO2 levels have been identified; however, field responses such as the adaptation of pathogens over time may be different. The climate influences the incidence as well as temporal and spatial distribution of plant diseases. The most likely effect of climate change in poleward modifies agroclimates zones, this causing a shift in the geographical distribution of host pathogens. Considering this climate change could profoundly affect the status of agricultural diseases, the focus of this study was to review studies related to the effects of climate change on plant diseases. Taking into account the work done, this review addresses the impact of climate change on plant diseases, considering the effect on crop grown, development and the impact on crop production.

The Disease-Triangle Concept

The Disease Triangle shows the importance of the three factors necessary for disease development:

a pathogen or disease-causing organism (e.g., a fungus, virus or a bacterium)

a susceptible plant for the pathogen to infect a suitable environment in which the first two will interact

Effects of Climate Change on Plant Disease

Pathogen and Vector Responses to Climate Change: The range of many pathogens is limited by climate requirements for overwintering or oversummering of the pathogen or vector. For

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



example, higher winter temperatures of -6°C versus -10°C increase survival of overwintering rust fungi (Puccinia graminis) (Pfender and Vollmer, 1999). In general, high moisture and temperature must be favorable and act together in the initiation, development of plant diseases, as well as germination and proliferation of fungal spores of the vast majority of pathogens (Agrios, 2005). Moreover, powdery mildew conidia are anomalous in their ability to germinate in low moisture.

Virulence, Aggressiveness or Fecundity of Pathogens

The number of generations of pathogen reproduction per time interval determines the rate at which pathogens evolve, and temperature governs the rate of reproduction for many pathogens: e.g., the root rot pathogen reproduces more quickly at higher temperatures (Waugh et

al., 2003). Longer growing seasons (especially in higher latitudes) that will result from higher temperatures will allow more time for pathogen evolution. Increased overwintering rates at higher temperatures will also contribute to increased pathogen populations. Climate change may also influence whether pathogen populations reproduce sexually or asexually. In some cases altered temperatures may favour overwintering of sexual propagules, thus increasing the evolutionary potential of a population. Pathogens, like plants, may be unable to migrate or adapt as rapidly as environmental conditions change. But most pathogens will have the advantage over plants because of their shorter generation times and, in many cases, the ability to move readily through wind dispersal.


LAMP – A New Technique for Detection of Plant Pathogens Sangeetha Chinnusamy

Department of Plant Pathology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003

INTRODUCTION: Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is a new gene amplification technique growing as a simple rapid diagnostic tool for early detection and identification of plant diseases. The whole procedure is completed in less than one hour under isothermal conditions employing a set of six specially designed primers [Forward Internal Primer (FIP), Backward Internal Primer (BIP), Forward Outer Primer (F3), Backward Outer Primer (B3), Forward Loop Primer (FLP) and Backward Loop Primer (BLP)] spanning eight distinct sequences of a target gene, by incubating all the reagents in a single tube. Gene amplification products usually detected like PCR by agarose gel electrophoresis. Gene copy number can also be quantified with the help of a standard curve generated from different concentrations of gene copy number plotted against time of positivity with the help of a real-time turbid meter. Alternatively, gene amplification can be visualized by the naked eye either as turbidity or in the form of a colour change when SYBR Green I, a fluorescent dsDNA intercalating dye, is employed. LAMP does not require a thermal cycler and can be performed simply with a heating block and/or water bath (Parida et al., 2008).

Principle

The chemistry of LAMP amplification is based on the principle of auto cyclic strand displacement

reaction being performed at a constant temperature using a DNA polymerase. There are two steps of LAMP amplification comprising non-cyclic and cyclic steps.

Non-Cyclic Step

In the non-cyclic step, there is the formation of DNA with stem-loops at each end that serve as the starting structure for the amplification by LAMP cycling. Because double stranded DNA is in the condition of dynamic equilibrium at the temperature around 65⁰ C, one of the LAMP primers can anneal to the complimentary sequence of double stranded target DNA, then initiates DNA synthesis using the DNA polymerase with strand displacement activity, displacing and releasing a single stranded DNA, unlike PCR, there is no need for heat denaturation of the double stranded DNA into a single strand. Through the activity of DNA polymerase with strand displacement activity, a DNA strand complementary to the template DNA is synthesised, starting from the 3’end of the F2 region of the Forward inner primer (FIP). The F3 primer anneals to the F3c region, outside of FIP, on the target DNA and initiates strand displacement DNA synthesis, releasing the FIP-linked complementary strand. A double strand is formed from the DNA strand synthesised from the F3 primer and the template DNA strand. The FIP-linked complementary strand is released as a single strand because of the displacement by the

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



DNA strand synthesised from the F3 primer. Then, this released single strand forms a stem-loop structure at the 5’ end because of the complementary F1c and F1 regions. This single strand DNA in turn serves as a template for backward inner primer (BIP)-initiated DNA synthesis and subsequent B3-primed strand displacement DNA synthesis. The BIP anneals to the DNA strand produced by the above step. Starting from the 3’ end of the BIP, synthesis of complementary DNA takes place. Through this process, the DNA reverts from a loop structure into a linear structure. The B3 primer anneals to the outside of the BIP and then, through the activity of the DNA polymerase and starting at the 3’ end, the DNA synthesised from the BIP is displaced and released as a single strand before DNA synthesis from the B3 primer. The BIP-linked complementary strand displaced forms a structure with stem-loops at each end, which looks like a dumbbell structure. This dumbbell-like DNA structure is quickly converted into a stem-loop DNA by self-primed DNA synthesis. This structure serves as the starting structure for exponential amplification.

Cyclic Amplification

In subsequent LAMP cycling one internal primer hybridizes to the loop on the product and initiates displacement DNA synthesis, yielding the original stem-loop DNA and a new stem-loop DNA with a stem twice as long. Briefly the FIP anneals to the single stranded region in the stem-loop DNA and primes strand displacement DNA synthesis, releasing the previously synthesised strand. This released single strand forms a stem-loop structure at the 3’ end because of complementary B1c and B1 regions. Then, starting from the 3’ end of the B1 region, DNA synthesis starts using self-structure as a template, and releases FIP-linked complementary strand. The released single strand then forms a dumbbell-like structure as both ends have complementary F1–F1c and B1c–B1 regions, respectively. Furthermore, BIP anneals to the B2c region and primes strand displacement DNA synthesis, releasing the B1-primed DNA strand. As a result of this process, various sized structures consisting of alternately inverted repeats of the target sequence on the same strand are formed. The cycling reaction continues leading to accumulation of 109 copies of target in less than hour. The final products are stem-loop DNAs with several inverted repeats of the target and cauliflower-like structures with multiple loops formed by annealing between alternately inverted repeats of the target in the same strand.

LAMP amplification can also be accomplished with the two outer (F3 and B3) and two internal primers (FIP and BIP) but by using

the two loop primers (FLP and BLP), the amplification is accelerated thereby reducing the amplification time. The investigation on how loop primers affect amplification time (original method: no loop primer; rapid method: with loop primers) revealed that the time required for amplification with loop primers is one-third to one-half of that without loop primer. With the use of loop primers, amplification can be achieved within 30 min

Application of LAMP

LAMP is a gene amplification method with a variety of characteristics and applications in a wide range of fields, including plant pathogens detection and identification, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) typing and quantification of template DNA. The assay was designed based on the intergenic spacer (IGS) of the Botrydis cinerea nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA). The resulting assay was characterized in terms of sensitivity and specificity using DNA extracted from cultures that obtain from infected rose petals. The assay consistently amplified 65 pg B. cinerea DNA (Tomlinson et al., 2010). No cross-reactivity was observed with a range of other fungal pathogens.

LAMP was observed to be effective for the specific detection of Pythium aphanidermatum. Furthermore, P. aphanidermatum was detected directly in tomato roots infected with P. aphanidermatum without DNA extraction (Fukuta et al., 2013). The gram-positive xylem-limited coryneform bacterium, Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli, causing ratoon stunt disease in sugarcane. The total DNA extracted from internode juice was used as the template. The LAMP assay is a highly specific, rapid, and sensitive method for the diagnosis of ratoon stunt disease of sugarcane.

A reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA was developed for detection of viruses (Barley yellow dwarf viruses) and viroid (Chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle viroid, peach latent mosaic viroid) (Zhao et al., 2010). In case of RT-LAMP only one step that varies from the LAMP technology is synthesize cDNA from template RNA, in addition to the reagents of DNA amplification and reverse transcriptase is added to the reaction mixture.

Advantages of LAMP Amplification

LAMP has ability to amplify nucleic acid under isothermal conditions in the range of 65⁰ C and it attributed to no time loss compared with the PCR.

Amplification can be accomplished with waterbath/heating block and it doesn’t require any well developed equipment.

Higher amplification efficiency and sensitivity

In addition, both amplification and detection

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



of gene can be completed in a single step. There is no need to denature double stranded DNA into a single stranded form.

The time required for the confirmation of results by RT-LAMP assay in 30 min as compared to RT-PCR (3–4 hrs).

Naked eye visual monitoring either through turbidity or colour change by fluorescent intercalating dye (SYBR Green I).

Disadvantages of LAMP Amplification

Complicated primer design (It require for six primers)

It require two long primers of HPLC grade purity

Restricted availability of reagents and equipment in some countries

Reference

Fukuta S., Takahashi R., Kuroyanagi S., Miyake N., Nagai H., Suzuki H., Hashizume F and Kageyama K.2013. Detection of Pythium

aphanidermatum in tomato using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) with species-specific primers. Eur J Plant Pathol, 136: 689-701.

Parida M., Sannarangaiah S., Dash P. K., Rao P. V. L and Morita K.2008. Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): a new generation of innovative gene amplification technique; perspectives in clinical diagnosis of infectious diseases. Rev. Med. Virol, 1-15.

Tomlinson J.A., Dickinson M.J and Boonham N. 2010. Detection of Botrytis cinerea by loop-mediated isothermal amplification. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 51: 650–657.

Zhao K., Liu., Y and Wang X.2010. Reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA for detection of Barley yellow dwarf viruses in China. Journal of Virological Methods 169: 211–214.


Preexisting and Induced Structural Defenses in Plants against Pathogens

Vinod Upadhyay1 and Akansha Singh2 1Regional Agricultural Research Station, Assam Agricultural University, Assam

2G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar

Plants are affected by numerous pathogens at a time. Although such plants may suffer damage to a lesser or greater extent, many survive many attacks and thus manage to grow well to produce appreciable yields. In general, plants defend themselves against pathogens either by structural characteristics that act as physical barriers and inhibit the pathogen from gaining entrance and spreading through the plant or by biochemical reactions that take place in the cells and tissues of the plant and produce substances that are either toxic to the pathogen or create conditions that inhibit growth of the pathogen in the plant. These combinations of structural characteristics and biochemical reactions employed in the defense of plants that varies according to host–pathogen systems are:

Pre-existing Structural Defenses: Foremost defense of a plant against pathogens initiates from its surface, where the pathogen must stick and penetrate if it has to cause infection. Some of the structural defenses are already present in the plant before the pathogen comes in contact with the plant. Such structures include the amount and quality of wax and cuticle that cover the epidermal cells, the structure of the epidermal cell walls, the size, location, and shapes of stomata and lenticels, and the presence of tissues

made of thick-walled cells that hinder the advance of the pathogen on the plant.

Waxes: Waxes on leaf and fruit surfaces acts as a water repellent surface, thus preventing the formation of a film of water on which pathogens might be deposited and germinate (fungi) or multiply (bacteria). A thick mat of hairs on a plant surface may also exert a similar water-repelling effect and may reduce infection.

Cuticle: A thick cuticle may increase resistance to infection in diseases in which the pathogen enters its host only through direct penetration. Cuticle thickness, however, is not always correlated with resistance, and many plant varieties with cuticles of considerable thickness are invaded easily by directly penetrating pathogens.

Epidermal cells: The thickness and toughness of the outer wall of epidermal cells are apparently important factors in the resistance of some plants to certain pathogens. Thick, tough walls of epidermal cells make direct penetration by fungal pathogens difficult or impossible.

Stomata: Many pathogenic fungi and bacteria enter plants only through stomata. Although the majority of pathogens can force their way through closed stomata, some, like the stem rust of wheat, can enter only when stomata

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



are open. Thus, some wheat varieties, in which the stomata open late in the day, are resistant because the germ tubes of spores germinating in the night dew desiccate due to evaporation of the dew before the stomata begin to open. The structure of the stomata, e.g., a very narrow entrance and broad, elevated guard cells, may also confer resistance to some varieties against certain of their bacterial pathogens. The cell walls of the tissues being invaded vary in thickness and toughness and may sometimes inhibit the advance of the pathogen.

Xylem vessels and sclerenchyma cells: The presence of bundles or extended areas of sclerenchyma cells, such as are found in the stems of many cereal crops, may stop the further spread of pathogens such as stem rust fungi. Also, the xylem, bundle sheath, and sclerenchyma cells of the leaf veins effectively block the spread of some fungal, bacterial, and nematode pathogens that cause various “angular” leaf spots because of their spread only into areas between, but not across, veins. Xylem vessels seem to be involved more directly in the resistance and susceptibility to vascular diseases. For example, xylem vessel diameter and the proportion of large vessels were strongly correlated with the susceptibility of elm to Dutch elm disease caused by the fungus Ophiostoma novo-ulni.

Induced Structural Defenses: In spite of the preformed superficial or internal defense structures of host plants, most pathogens penetrate their hosts through wounds and natural openings and to produce various levels of infection. Even after the pathogen has penetrated the preformed defense structures, however, plants usually attempt to defense by forming one or more types of structures that are more or less successful in defending the plant from further pathogen invasion. Some of the defense structures formed involve the cytoplasm of the cells under attack, and the process is called cytoplasmic defense reaction; others involve the walls of invaded cells and are called cell wall defense structures; and still others involve tissues ahead of the pathogen (deeper into the plant) and are called histological defense structures. Finally, the death of the invaded cell may protect the plant from further invasion. This is called the necrotic or hypersensitive defense reaction and is discussed here briefly, with more detailed treatment a little later.

Cytoplasmic Defense Reaction: In a few cases of slowly growing, weakly pathogenic fungi, such as weakly pathogenic Armillaria strains and the mycorrhizal fungi, that induce chronic diseases or nearly symbiotic conditions, the plant cell cytoplasm surrounds the clump of hyphae and the plant cell nucleus is stretched to the point where it breaks in two. In some cells,

the cytoplasmic reaction is overcome and the protoplast disappears while fungal growth increases. In some of the invaded cells, however, the cytoplasm and nucleus enlarge. The cytoplasm becomes granular and dense, and various particles or structures appear in it. Finally, the mycelium of the pathogen disintegrates and the invasion stops.

Cell Wall Defense Structures: Cell wall defense structures involve morphological changes in the cell wall or changes derived from the cell wall of the cell being invaded by the pathogen. Three main types of such structures have been observed in plant diseases are:

1. The outer layer of the cell wall of parenchyma cells coming in contact with incompatible bacteria swells and produces an amorphous, fibrillar material that surrounds and traps the bacteria and prevents them from multiplying.

2. Cell walls thicken in response to several pathogens by producing what appears to be a cellulosic material. This material, however, is often infused with phenolic substances that are cross-linked and further increase its resistance to penetration.

3. Callose papillae are deposited on the inner side of cell walls in response to invasion by fungal pathogens. Papillae seem to be produced by cells within minutes after wounding and within 2 to 3 hours after inoculation with microorganisms. Although the main function of papillae seems to be repair of cellular damage, sometimes, especially if papillae are present before inoculation, they also seem to prevent the pathogen from subsequently penetrating the cell. In some cases, hyphal tips of fungi penetrating a cell wall and growing into the cell lumen are enveloped by cellulosic (callose) materials that later become infused with phenolic substances and form a sheath or ligni tuber around the hypha.

Histological Defense Structures

Formation of Cork Layers: Infection by fungi or bacteria, and even by some viruses and nematodes, frequently induces plants to form several layers of cork cells beyond the point of infection, apparently as a result of stimulation of the host cells by substances secreted by the pathogen. The cork layers inhibit further invasion by the pathogen beyond the initial lesion and also block the spread of any toxic substances that the pathogen may secrete. Furthermore, cork layers stop the flow of nutrients and water from the healthy to the infected area and deprive the pathogen of nourishment. The dead tissues, including the pathogen, are thus delimited by the cork layers and may remain in place, forming necrotic

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



lesions (spots) that are remarkably uniform in size and shape for a particular host–pathogen combination. In some host–pathogen combinations the necrotic tissues are pushed outward by the underlying healthy tissues and form scabs that may be sloughed off, thus removing the pathogen from the host completely. In tree cankers, such as those caused by the fungus Seiridium cardinale on cypress trees, resistant plant clones restrict growth of the fungus by forming ligno-suberized boundary zones, which included four to six layers of cells with suberized cell walls. In contrast, susceptible clones have only two to four layers of suberized cells and these are discontinuous, allowing repeated penetration by the fungus past the incomplete barrier.

Formation of Abscission Layers: Abscission layers are formed on young, active leaves of stone fruit trees after infection by any of several fungi, bacteria, or viruses. An abscission layer consists of a gap formed between two circular layers of leaf cells surrounding the locus of infection. Upon infection, the middle lamella between these two layers of cells is dissolved throughout the thickness of the leaf, completely cutting off the central area of the infection from the rest of the leaf. Gradually, this area shrivels, dies, and sloughs off, carrying with it the pathogen. Thus, the plant, by discarding the infected area along with a few yet uninfected cells, protects the rest of the leaf tissue from

being invaded by the pathogen and from becoming affected by the toxic secretions of the pathogen.

Formation of Tyloses: Tyloses form in xylem vessels of most plants under various conditions of stress and during invasion by most of the xylem-invading pathogens. Tyloses are overgrowths of the protoplast of adjacent living parenchymatous cells, which protrude into xylem vessels through pits. Tyloses have cellulosic walls and may, by their size and numbers, clog the vessel completely. In some varieties of plants, tyloses form abundantly and quickly ahead of the pathogen, while the pathogen is still in the young roots, and block further advance of the pathogen. The plants of these varieties remain free of and therefore resistant to this pathogen. Varieties in which few, if any, tyloses form ahead of the pathogen are susceptible to disease.

Deposition of Gums: Various types of gums are produced by many plants around lesions after infection by pathogens or injury. Gum secretion is most common in stone fruit trees but occurs in most plants. The defensive role of gums stems from the fact that they are deposited quickly in the intercellular spaces and within the cells surrounding the locus of infection, thus forming an impenetrable barrier that completely encloses the pathogen. The pathogen then becomes isolated, starves, and sooner or later dies.

72. DISEASE MANAGEMENT 15322

Role of Biofumigation in Soil Borne Pathogen Suppression Diganggana Talukdar

1Teaching Associate, Dept. of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, College of Horticulture, Central Agriculture University, Sikkim-737135

INTRODUCTION: Increasing awareness of the potential hazards caused by environmental pollution has led to exploration for numerous new methods that would prevent the contamination of the environment and food. Environmental pollution seriously impairs soil quality and reduces the crop yield. One such new method is the biofumigation, which is based on the use of natural plant compounds to combat the attack of pests and pathogens. Biofumigation is an agronomic practice of using volatile chemicals (allelochemicals), released from decomposing Brassica tissues, to suppress soil-borne pests and pathogens. Biofumigation also improves physical and biological soil characteristics. Interest in biofumigation has increased recently in agricultural industries due to prohibition of several synthetic pesticides, fungicides and soil fumigants like Methyl

Bromide. Crops that produce secondary plant products might have beneficial effect in managing plant pests and pathogens and hence can be used as biofumigation. The Family Brassicacea contains more than 350 genera with 3000 species, of which many are known to contain Glucosinolates (GSL) that are present in a various quantities in many dicotyledonous plants. Brassica family includes (Mustard, Canola, Broccoli, Rapeseed, Turnip, Cauliflower and Cabbage) they may have biofumigant properties. There are about 20 different types of GSLs found in Brassicas which vary in their structure depend on the type of organic side chain (aliphatic and aromatic) on the molecule. Among the major hydrolysis product isothiocyanates are generally considered the most toxic. In field trials with selected brassicas (canola, rapeseed, radish, turnip, yellow mustard

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



and Indian mustard), potato scab was reduced by 15-40% by Indian mustard, rapeseed, and canola. Black scurf was reduced by 70-80% by canola and rapeseed. In vitro assays with the above brassicas inhibited growth of Rhizoctonia solani, Phytophtora erythroseptica, Pythium ultimum, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum by 80-100%. It was reported that biofumigation can reduce the population density of Phythium aphanidermatum in greenhouses that had been inoculated or infected with cucumbers. They also observed improved vegetative growth in the cucumbers. Biofumigation enhanced soil saprophytic activity by microbes like Streptomyces which act as biocontrol agents for the induction of plant resistance to diseases like those caused by Rhizoctonia.

Advantage of Biofumigants

Biofumigation greatly reduces or replace pesticide and fungicides. It can suppress soil pathogens and insects.

Reduce weed competition. The adoption of biofumigation will replace the use chemicals and even the alternative, non-persistent chemicals. This will make farming cheaper as farmers do not have to spend money on buying chemicals. It will also make farming safer, as biofumigants are not persistent in the environment.

The practice will also add organic matter to the soil. This will increase soil aeration, water infiltration rates and soil water holding capacity. It also increases soil porosity if used as a green manure. It can help in solving the air pollution.

It adds more organic carbon to the soil which is needed to increase the activity of soil fauna and flora. In particular, the activities of biological control agents like predaceous nematodes, protozoa, fungi and bacteria will be enhanced as the presence of organic carbon in the soil increases the saprophytic activities of microorganisms.

Plant grown after residue incorporation developed phytotoxicity either as reduced germination or bronzing of leaves at seedling stage.

Limitation

Biofumigants are broad spectrum its toxicity might harm non-target beneficial soil biota such as biocontrol agents or other pest antagonists.

Biofumigants are also non-persistent. Thus, it does not provide a long term control option for pests or pathogen.

Conclusions: Biofumigation is the action of volatile substances from the biodegradation of

organic matter as fumigants to control plant pathogens. Its efficiency is maintained in time through its introduction into an integrated crop management system. Biofumigants also stimulate the biological activity of the soil by acting as bioimprovers. Biofumigation has been applied to control fungi, insect, nematodes and adventitious plants etc. Glucosinolates, which are present in the vacuoles of radishes and other brassicas, are exposed to the enzyme myrosinase, which is present in cell cytoplasm, when plant biomass is shredded and incorporated. The enzyme cuts the sugar part of the glucosinolate producing methyl isothiocianate. Several species of Brassica are known to have antimicrobial volatile compounds such as allyl isothiocyanate in various forms in their leaf extracts and also other sulphur-containing compounds. Efficacy of chemistry-based modes of action is contingent upon conversion of glucosinolates into biologically active compounds, a process that requires cell level tissue disruption. Thus, increased severity of tissue segmentation should enhance overall isothiocyanate yield and resulting level of pathogen/pest suppression.

References Anita B (2012). Crucifer vegetable leaf wastes as

biofumigants for the management of root knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla Chitwood) in celery (Apium graveolens L.). J. Biopest, 5: 111-114.

Charles K and Ronald M (2012). Biofumigation for crop protection: potential for adoption in Zimbabwe. J. Animal & Plant Sci., 14(3): 1996-2005

Cohen MF and Mazzola M (2006). Resident bacteria, nitric oxide emission and particle size modulate the effect of Brassica napus seed meal on disease incited by Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp. Plant Soil, 286: 75–86.

Gilardi G, Gullino M L and Garibaldi A (2014). Effectiveness of Brassica carinata defatted seed meals against selected soil-borne pathogens of vegetable crops under inoculation conditions. 5th International Symposium of Biofumigation at Harper Adams University, 9-12th Sept, 2014, pp 212.

Karavina, C and Mandumbu R (2012). Biofumigation for crop protection: potential for adoption in Zimbabwe. Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences, 14(3): 1996-2005.

Pokharel R R (2012). Efficacy of bio-fumigation and soil solarization on soil-borne onion pathogens. Technical Report, pp. 1-18.

Taylor F I (2013) "Control of soil borne potato pathogens using Brassica spp. mediated biofumigation". PhD thesis, University of Glasgow, Glasgow.

Warmington R (2014). Biofumigation to control sclerotinia disease in vegetable crops. 5th International Symposium of Biofumigation at Harper Adams University, 9-12th Sept, 2014, pp 207.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



73. ENTOMOLOGY 15233

Alien Pest Fauna Rishikesh Mandloi*

Ph.D. (Ag.) Scholar, Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur- 482004 (MP) India


Definition -: An invasive/alien species is a plant or animal that is not native to a specific location (an Introduced species); and has a tendency to spread, which is believed to cause damage to the environment, human economy and/or human health.

Causes

Scientists include species- and ecosystem factors among the mechanisms that when combined, establish invasiveness in a newly introduced species.

1. Species-Based Mechanisms

1. While all species compete to survive, invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases the competition is about rates of growth and reproduction. In other cases species interact with each other more directly.

2. Common invasive species traits include: a) Fast physical development b) Rapid reproduction c) Quick dispersal quality d) Phenotypic plasticity (the ability to alter

growth form to suit current conditions) e) Adaptations of a wide range of

environmental conditions (Ecological competence)

f) Ability to live off of a wide range of food types (generalist)

g) Association with humans and their resources

h) Prior successful invasions

Activities of Alien Pest Species

Invasive alien species have invaded and affected native environment in virtually every ecosystem of the earth. They occur in all major taxonomic groups, including viruses, fungi, algae mosses, ferns, higher plants, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Invasive species can transform the structure and species composition of ecosystems by repressing or

Excluding native species, either directly by out-competing them for resources or indirectly by changing the way nutrients are cycled through the system. The environmental cost is the

irretrievable loss of native species and ecosystem. Invasive spp. tends to be, hardy, long lived, voracious, aggressively pervasive, very resilient, rapid growth, generalized diet, ability to move long distances and prolific breeding (Rejmanek and Richerdson, 2000).

Way of Entry

The biological process of colonization or invasion by alien organisms can be divided into four steps, i. Introduction, ii. Establishment, iii. Spread, iv. Naturalization.

1. Introduction

Some non-native species are imported intentionally for economic purposes, but many others arrive unintentionally in shipping containers, lurking under the bark of log imports, infesting fruits carried by tourists, swimming in ballast water exchanged in a harbour, quietly reproducing in the intestines or bloodstream of an unsuspecting travelers, or hidden in soil of imported ornamental plants. Most are harmless or fail to become established, but some proliferate and spread in ways that endanger native species in the invaded ecosystem, undermine agriculture, threaten public health, or create other unwanted - and often irreversible - disruptions. The initiation of the process through the introduction of invasives/alien can occur through:

1. Long distance migrations or movements (e.g. the Brown Planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens in rice)

2. Transportation Ex. Parthenium along with wheat grains in India

3. Human activities 4. Aquarium flora Ex: water fern, water lettuce

With increased international travel, the movement and incidences of exotic species have increased in both number and variety. Of particular concern are agricultural products, especially fresh produce such as vegetables, ornamentals, stored grains and timber. Fortunately, the rates of successful introduction, Colonization and subsequent naturalization of an invasive species in a new habitat are remarkably low. a) Environmental sieves b) Dispersal constraints, c) Natural disasters

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



d) Human interventions have considerable influence.

2. Establishment

It begins when environmental barriers (B) do not prevent individuals from surviving and when various barriers to regular reproduction (C) are overcome, a taxon has become is established after overcoming barriers A, B and C. At this stage populations are sufficiently large that the probability of local extinction due to chance environmental events is low.

3. Spreading

Spreading of a species into areas away from initial sites of introduction requires that the introduced species also overcome barriers to dispersal within the new region (D) and can cope with the abiotic environment and biota in the general area (E). Many IAS appear to first colonize disturbed habitats and some of these spread into semi natural communities usually requires that the alien taxon overcomes resistance posed by a different category of factors.

Important Alien/ Invasive Insects in India

Scientific name Common name

Year of introduction

Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann)

woolly apple aphid

1889

Quadraspidiotus perniciousus (Comstock)

San Jose scale 1911

Orthezia insignis (Browne) Lantana bug 1915

Icerya purchasi (Maskell) Cottony cushion scale

1921

Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller)

Potato tuber moth

1937

Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus)

Diamond-back moth

1941

Pineus pini (Macquart) Pine woolly aphid

1970

Heteropsylla cubana (Crawford)

Subabul psyllid 1988

Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) Serpentine leaf miner

1990

Scientific name Common name

Year of introduction

Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari)

Coffee berry borer

1990

Aleurodicus disperses (Russell)

Spiraling whitefly

1994

Bemisia argentifolii (Bellows and Perring)

Silver leaf whitefly

1999

Leptocybe invasa (Fisher and LaSalle)

Blue gum chalcid

2006

Impac Viraktamath (2002)

Impact of Alien/Invasive Pest spp. to our Agro Ecosystem

The impact of invasive spp. is probably second biggest threat to biodiversity. Without natural enemies or control in the new land they take over the ecosystem and compete with native species. In the bargain, the native spp. could eventually be replaced by the non-native which could not only severely alter, but may eventually take a whole ecosystem down. They can transform the structure and species composition of ecosystem by excluding native species by out competing them for resources or indirectly by changing the way nutrients are cycled through the system they cause negative impacts on, ecosystem, biodiversity, health, economics, other aspects of human welfare and decline agricultural yield.

Strategies for Prevention of Alien/ Invasive Species

An important first step of prevention is to identify those alien species that may become invasive and therefore require special attention. These may be put on a “blacklist” and prohibited entry under national legislation. Species cleared for introduction through passing a risk assessment analysis can reasonably be declared as safe (put on a “white list”), though monitoring is still required to ensure that the prediction remains accurate over time. The potential invasiveness of the majority of the world’s species is unknown and they should be placed on a “grey list”.


Insect MicroRNA S. Hemalatha

Senior Research Fellow, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore

INTRODUCTION: It was not a very long time ago that the non-coding regions in the genomes of living organisms were considered to be junk DNA. Advances in new approaches in molecular biology in the last two decades have

tremendously changed our understanding of genomes and their expressed non-coding RNAs, which play significant roles in various aspects of cell and organism biology. One of these non-coding RNAs, which become further processed

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



into small RNAs of about 22 nucleotides, is microRNA (miRNA) and it was first reported to regulate timing of development in Caenorhabditis elegans (Lee et al., 1993). Since then, thousands of miRNAs have been reported from plants and animals and their viruses and are now data based on miRBase (www.mirbase.org) (Kozomara and Griffiths-Jones, 2011). The main function of miRNAs is regulation of gene expression at the post-transcriptional level adding a new layer of control to the complex pathways that exists in cells.

What are microRNAs?

In the 1990s, mutations affecting Caenorhabditis elegans lin-4 and let-7 genes were shown to be responsible for disorder in timing of larva development. Detailed analysis of both these genes revealed that they encode a small non-coding RNA of about 21e24 nucleotides (nt) long. Similar small non-coding RNAs were described in plants as well as in animals, but not in fungi, in which they were found to act as post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression. They were called microRNAs (miRNAs) now defined as 21-24 nt long non-coding small RNAs processed from host genome encoded transcript precursors.

Role of miRNAs in Development

Germ Cell Development: Experimental evidence suggests that proteins which are involved in regulating the development of germ cells function in association with the miRNA pathway to control key signalling pathways that determine the fate of progenitor cells. Some examples include Notch signaling (Poulton et al., 2011) and the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling that maintains germline stem cells (GSC) undifferentiated (Li et al., 2012). In addition, miRNAs play an intrinsic role in the maintenance and self-renewal of GSCs (Jin and Xie, 2007; Park et al., 2007). miR-184 is expressed both maternally and zygotically and is involved in the regulation of oogenesis and early embryogenesis.

Wing Development: Boundary formation is an important phenomenon in insect development. This requires tight regulation of transcription of genes involved in cell proliferation, cell signalling and cell-cell interactions. Notch, which is a key receptor in cell-cell interaction during the specification of compartment boundaries, was shown to repress bantam miRNA in Drosophila wing imaginal discs which otherwise induces cell proliferation (Becam et al., 2011). Bantam also targets transcripts of Enabled. With reduced levels of bantam by Notch, which results in reduced cell proliferation, and increased levels of Enabled, the dorsale ventral polarity in the imaginal disc is maintained (Becam et al., 2011).

Apoptosis: Programmed cell death or apoptosis is an evolutionary conserved phenomenon seen during development and in response to cellular stresses and infection. The release of proapoptotic proteins in response to stimuli received by the cell triggers the activation of initiator and effectors caspases which in turn prompt execution of the programmed cell death.

Phenotypic Plasticity: A number of insects produce distinct phenotypic morphs under altered environmental conditions. For example, aphids produce sexual and asexual (parthenogenetic) females in response to seasonal changes (Le Trionnaire et al., 2008). Differential expression of seventeen miRNAs was shown among different sexual morphs of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Legeai et al., 2010), suggesting their involvement in polyphenism and morph-specific patterns of gene expression.

Role of miRNAs in Immunity: Although the role of miRNAs in vertebrate immunity has been recognized (Lu and Liston, 2009; O’Connell et al., 2010; Xiao and Rajewsky, 2009), there is only limited information in regard to their role in insect immunity. Insects do not possess adaptive immunity, however, components of their innate immunity that are involved in cellular and humoral responses are capable of recognizing foreign objects and subsequently displaying a proper response to the foreign intruder. These involve phagocytosis, nodule/capsule formation, production of antimicrobial peptides, wound healing and melanisation.

MicroRNAs and Social Behaviour: Small RNA libraries were produced from the honey bee, Apis mellifera, in an attempt to further understand the gene regulatory networks involved in the social behavior of this insect (Chen et al.,2010; Greenberg et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2012b). A miRNA analysis from honey bee forager and nurse heads of the same age (7 days old) identified 97 miRNAs, 17 of which were novel and 25 Hymenoptera specific (Greenberg et al., 2012). The miRNAs miR-184 and miR-2796 were shown to be up-regulated in forager heads. Interestingly, miR-2796 was found to arise intronically from the Phospholipase C (PLC)-epsilon gene, a gene shown to be involved in neuronal development and a predicted target of miR-2796. Validation and experimental evidence of PLC-epsilon as an authentic target of ame-miR-2796 has yet to be performed.

Conclusions: Although the first miRNA was identified almost 20 years ago, it is only recently that we have begun to understand the biogenesis and diversity of these regulatory molecules. With the constant discovery of critical miRNA machinery, such as Nibbler, miRNA biogenesis has proved more complex than originally thought. In addition, how a particular miRNA is targeted to and elicits its action on a target

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



mRNA is not well understood. Further studies are needed to unravel the details of how a miRNA causes translational inhibition or mRNA decay, and why certain miRNA may have different mode of actions. Understanding these mechanisms would likely improve miRNA target identification and validation strategies.

Selected References Ambros, V., 2011. MicroRNAs and developmental

timing. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 21:511-517. Brodersen, P., Voinnet, O., 2009. Revisiting the

principles of microRNA target recognition and mode of action. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 10:141-148.


Insecticide Resistance in Insect *Ms. Chauhan, R. C. and Dr. C. U. Shinde

Department of Entomology, N.M.C.A., NAU., Navsari- 396450 *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

Resistance

The development of an ability in a strain of insects to tolerate doses of toxicant which will prove lethal to majority of the individuals in a normal population of the same species.

Types of Resistance

1. Simple resistance: Resistance is limited to only one insecticide and not to the related once.

2. Cross resistance: An insect resistance to one insecticide is also resistance to the related once.

3. Multiple resistances: The co-existence of different defense mechanisms in the same strain.

4. Monogenic resistance: Single gene is involved in development of resistance.

5. Polygenic resistance: Several genes are involved in development of resistance.

The rate of development of resistance in Population depends on four factors.

a) The frequency of resistance genes present in a population.

b) The nature of genes (single or multiple; dominant or recessive).

c) The intensity of the selection pressure of the toxicant.

d) The rate of breeding of the species.

Mechanism of Resistance

There are 3 mechanism of resistance

1. Pre-adaptive (genetic) mechanism 2. Physiological mechanism 3. Behaviour and ecological mechanism

1) Pre-Adaptive (genetic)

1. In house fly, the resistance to DDT is due to recessive gene called Knock down resistance on chromosome

2. In resistance house flies, DDT detoxification takes place by an enzyme, DDTase located on chromosome no. 5

3. Dominant R factor found on chromosome no.

2 in Drosophila melanogaster is responsible for DDT and BHC resistance.

2) Physiological Mechanism

1. Detoxification: Resistance to insecticide is due to the ability of the insect to detoxify them by detoxifying enzymes such as carboxyesterases and glutathione -s-transferase. These enzymes are present in large quantities in R (resistance) strains and low or absent in S (susceptible) strains. These enzymes are synthesized by microsome. eg: Dehydrochlorinase detoxifies DDT into nontoxic DDE in DDT resistance house flies.

2. Cuticular penetration: In R strains the insecticide penetrates the cuticle more slowly than in S strain.

3. Penetration into target organs: The penetration of toxicant to target organs like nervous tissue (ganglia) is less in R strains therefore less sensitive to toxicant than that in S strains.

4. Increased storage: The ability of storing insecticide in the non-sensitive tissue like fat body is more in R strain than in S strains. It is also differs between males and females of the same species.

5. Decreased sensitivity of tissue: Nervous tissue of R strains is less sensitive to toxicant because of poor permeability of the covering sheath and neural lamella than that in s strain.

6. Excretion of toxicant: The rate of production of metabolite is same in both the strains, but excretion of metabolite is very fast in resistant than in susceptible strains

7. Dietary factors: The larva of tobacco bud worm show resistance against DDT when their diet contains high level of ascorbic acid and lipids.

8. Fat body insulation: In R strains of house flies the total fat body content is more than that in S strains. The lipoid tissue keeps the toxicant away from the sensitive sites and act

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



as insulation against insecticide.

3) Behavior and Ecological Mechanism

Behavior resistance is defined as the ability of insect through protective habits or behavior to avoid lethal contact with a toxicant.

1. Avoidance of treated surface: DDT causes irritability to Anopheline mosquito with the result that the mosquito avoid the treated surface. Codling moth due to its acquired habit rejects the first bite prior to penetration in the fruit.

2. Decreased period of contact: In R strain the irritability of tissues on contact with insecticides is greater. This makes the insect fly away, leading to a reduced period of contact with the insecticides and thus lesser harm due to the toxicant.

Management of Insecticides Resistance (IRM)

The strategies used to delay the onset of resistance to manage resistance to manage resistance population are known as insecticide resistance management (IRM)

Steps to Manage Insecticide Resistance are

1. Judicious use of insecticide 2. Insecticide rotations 3. Use of undetoxifiable analogous 4. Use of synergists 5. Mixture and alternation of insecticides 6. Negativity correlated insecticide 7. Development of newer insecticide 8. Use of insect pheromone and hormones 9. Use of integrated approach

a) Judicious use of insecticides: Indiscriminate use of insecticides lead to the development of resistance. Need based insecticidal spray should be taken up when the pest population reaches economic threshold level. Selective insecticides should be sprayed using proper dose and right equipment.

b) Insecticide rotation: Same insecticide should not used for a long time. Insect resistance to one insecticide may not be resistance to another. Changes of insecticide prevents the development of resistance.

c) Use of undetoxifiable analogus: DDT analogues such as Dilan are not easily detoxified by the DDT resistance strains. The carbomethoxy analog of malathion

cannot be detoxified by malathion resistant strains and be used successfully against them.

d) Use of synergists: Synergists enhance the toxicity of insecticides by blocking their detoxification enzymes. Resistance to organophosphate, carbamates and pyrethrum is overcome by addition of synergists such as piperonyl butoxide. Malathion resistance is overcome by use of synergists such as triphenyl phosphate and tributyl phosphotrithioate.

e) Mixture and alternation of insecticides: A mixture of two insecticides with and independent action against the resistance strain give good control and delays the development of resistance. Since whiteflies developed resistance against synthetic pyrethroids on cotton, mixture of cypermethrin and profenfos is used to overcome the problem. Alteration of insecticides with each generation of the insect delays the development of resistance

f) Negativity correlated insecticides: Specific resistance to one insecticide carries an enhance susceptibility to another insecticides, the cross resistance characteristic of the two insecticides become negatively correlated and this each constitutes a counter measure for resistance to the other.

g) Development of newer insecticides: Switching over to newly evolved insecticides or to microbial insecticides is an important counter measure for delaying the resistance

h) Use of insect pheromone and hormones: Pheromones modulate the insect behavior and hormones regulate growth and reproduction of insect. These can use successfully against resistance strains

i) Use of integrated approach: Use of Integrated pest management (IPM) practices reduce the application of insecticides which in turn lower the insecticides pressure on insects. Genes governing resistance may not get activated and hence the development of resistance is delayed.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com




Management of Pink Bollworm in BT Cotton Konkani Pratibhaben P.

Department of Entomology, N.M. College of Agriculture, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari-396450, Gujarat


INTRODUCTION: Cotton with coevolving pests has been grown in India more than 5000 years. Hybrid cotton was introduced in the 1970s with increases in fertilizer and in insecticide use against pink bollworm that caused outbreaks of bollworm. Hybrid Bt cotton, introduced in 2002 to control bollworm and other lepidopteran pests, is grown on more than 90 % of the cotton area. After introducing Bollgard in 2002, the company came up with stronger version Bollgard II in 2010. It was instrumental in pushing up cotton production as the pest attack was prevented but the cost of cultivation too went up. Six years down the line there are reports of Bollgard II failing against pink bollworm. Pink boll worm has long been recognized as a key pest of cotton. It was first described from cotton in India in 1842. Before the introduction of Bt cotton, insecticide was used to control pink bollworm, and as has occurred worldwide wherever pink boll worm infests cotton, insecticide use caused ecological disruption due to the destruction of generalist natural enemies resulting in the resurgence of pink boll worm, outbreaks of formerly secondary pests, insecticide resistance, and adverse ecological and human health effects. Studies conducted by ICAR and Central Institute of Cotton Research (CICR) over the past two years clearly showed that the pink bollworm developed resistance to two Cry toxins deployed in Bollgard-II. The institute is attempting to find out why the worm has returned after 30 years to trouble cotton again.

Reasons for Pink Bollworm Occurrence on Bollgard-II

Early (April-May) sown crop started flowering that coincided with the minor seasonal peak pink bollworm that occurs in June-July. Cultivation of long duration hybrids that serve as continuous hosts. Long term storage of raw cotton in ginning mills and market yards that serve as a source of pink boll worm to the ensuing crop.

Pink boll worm populations from Gujarat developed resistance to Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab together. Therefore the larvae are able to survive on BG-II. Squares, flowers and developing seeds in young bolls have less Bt-toxin expression.

The segregating seeds in bolls of F-1 hybrid

plants accelerate resistance development. India is the only country in the world that cultivates Bt cotton as hybrids. F1 plants harbouring the F1 bolls carry seeds that segregate in the ratio of 9:3:3:1 (Cry1Ac+Cry2Ab in 9; Cry2Ab alone in 3; Cry1Ac in 3 and none in 1). Thus a spectrum of non Bt seeds, seeds with Cry1Ac alone, seeds with Cry2Ab alone and seeds with Cry1Ac+Cry2Ab are present in a single boll. This situation is ideal for resistance development, due to selection of resistance to independent toxins.

Extending the crop beyond November. In many fields, extended the crop up to April-May provided continuous availability of cotton all through the year. Over the period 2009-2014, cotton prices were high and farmers extended the crop in about 11.0 lakh hectares of irrigated cotton fields in Rajkot, Surendranagar, Amreli, Bhavnagar and Jamnagar.

Pink bollworm is a winter pest. It causes damage mainly in November, which can be prevented. The pupae enter into diapause in December in the absence of cotton crop or crop residues such as stalks. However, if the crop is available beyond November, the pest continues to survive on the fruiting parts. This extended phase intensified Bt-toxin selection pressure and resistance development was accelerated.

The crop was sown early under drip irrigation in many parts of Saurashtra. The early sown crop together with the extended crop of the previous season provided a continuous crop for the pink bollworm all through the year and facilitated multiplication of the pest with overlapping generations, intensive selection pressure, thus accelerating resistance development.

Non-compliance of refugia non-Bt cotton. Lack of timely and appropriate management initiatives, which led to continuous proliferation of the insect pest. Farmers do not initiate ant control measures against any bollworms on Bt-cotton.

According to CICR, farmers are provided with every 450 gram packet of Bt cotton seed, a 120-gram pouch of non-Bt cottonseed which they are supposed to sow around the

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



perimeter of fields. But farmers consider this a waste or have taken to planting the more remunerative pigeon pea (tur).

Surveys conducted by CICR in Saurashtra revealed that a combination of monocrotophos + acephate was sprayed 3-4 times on Bt-cotton by majority of farmers in Junagarh, Amreli and Bhavnagar. Monocrotophos + acephate during early stages of the crop induces growth of fresh green leaves, switches back the crop from reproductive to vegetative phase and delays maturity of the crop.

Repeated spraying (3-4 times) of this combination results in staggered flowering and fruiting. Since flowers attract bollworms, there was a continuous influx of the pink bollworm in cotton fields due to continuous staggered flowering, especially wherever moncrotophos+ acephate was repeatedly sprayed. Infestation of pink bollworm was high in the open bolls and green bolls of second picking in such fields. Wherever farmers had sprayed synthetic pyrethroids in late October or early November, pink bollworm infestation was negligible. In fields that were not repeatedly sprayed with monocrotophos + acephate, boll bursting was synchronous and pink bollworm was less.

Management Strategies

Regular monitoring of bollworm resistance to Bt cotton including Bollgard-II. Use of the parasitoid Trichogramma bactriae in Bt cotton fields for pink bollworm management.

Refugia: Recommend planting of desi cotton/ conventional non-Bt Gossypium hirsutum cotton and late planted bhendi as refugia crops. Timely termination of the crop latest by December and avoiding ratoon and/or extended crop.

According to Chowdary et al. (2014) at Raichur, Karnataka studied that the different refuge treatment strategies tested, 5% or 10% built in refuge were considered as an effective refuge seed mix in delaying the resistance build-up in pink bollworm. Transgenic Bt cotton provided an effective and more environmentally sound means of controlling cotton lepidopteran insect pests.

Utilisation or destruction of crop residues and cotton stalks immediately after harvest.

Crop rotation is strongly recommended to break the pest cycle. Short duration single-pick varieties (150 days) provide high yields in high density and escape the pink bollworm.

Installation of light traps and pheromone traps in fields during the season and also near go-downs, ginning mills, market yards

etc., to trap post season moths. Mass trapping and mating disruption using pheromone traps.

Honey trap: CICR is also mooting a mechanism that can be compared to a honey trap. The male worm can be attracted by a chemical that smells like a female’s scent. The worms coming out are trapped and destroyed. These are called pheromone traps.

Use of ‘pheromone traps’ and ‘green boll dissection’ for regular monitoring and initiate control interventions based on economic threshold levels of 8 moths per trap per night and/or 10% damage in green bolls.

Sterile Insect Technology (SIT) is another form of highly effective, non-traditional biological control that is being used in Texas and other southwestern states to eradicate and control pink bollworm.

Insecticides such as quinalphos or thiodicarb may be used in early stages and synthetic pyrethroids after October at economic threshold levels of damage.

Strictly avoid spraying pyrethroids before November or any insecticide mixtures at any time to prevent whitefly outbreaks. Select hybrids / varieties that are tolerant to sucking pests.

This will help to avoid application of insecticides such as monocrotophos, acephate, thiomethoxam, acetamiprid, imidacloprid or clothianidin.

Application of these insecticides, especially at the early stage of the crop results in growth of fresh green leaves, switching back from squaring-flowering to vegetative phase and delays maturity of the crop.

Avoidance of these insecticides helps in synchronous early maturity of bolls which helps in the escape of pink bollworm infestation.

Policy Intervention Needed

Seed companies must ensure that Cry toxins are present in the hybrids in homozygous form, in the current hybrids.

Recommendation for refuge in bag at 95:5 (Bt: NBt) seeds may partly help to decelerate the rate of development of bollworm resistance to Bt cotton. The non-Bt cotton seeds should be of the corresponding near-iosgenic hybrid.

References Chowdary, L. R., Bheemanna, M., Hosamani, A. C.,

Prabhuraj, A., Naik, M. K. and Nidagundi, J. M. (2014). Built in refuge for the management of pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders (Gelichidae: Lepidoptera) in Bt cotton. Journal of Applied and Natural Science,

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



6 (1): 202-206. Gutierrez, A. P., Ponti, L., Herren, H. R.,

Baumgärtner, J. and Kenmore, P. E., (2015). Deconstructing Indian cotton: weather, yields, and suicides. Environmental Sciences Europe, Bridging Science and Regulation at the Regional and European Level, 27:12. DOI: 10.1186/s12302-015-0043-8

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/Is-Bt-

Cotton-no-longer-safe-against-pink-bollworm/articleshow/50967835.cms

http://www.financialexpress.com/article/markets/commodities/efforts-on-to-protect-cotton-crop-from-pink-bollworm-during-coming-season/213353/

Singh, A. (2015). Cotton statistics and news. Cotton Association of India. (weekly publication). 35: 1-12. www.caionline.in


Role of Secondary Metabolites in Plant Defense S. Tripathy and L. K. Rath

Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha -751003

Never ending process in the cold war that exist between the plants and the phytophagous insects since their co-existence on this earth. Alternately one of the biological entity wins the war, thus, expressing either susceptibility or resistance in the plants. When plants biochemical composition is strong, the insects fail to utilize those plants fully for its biological needs. Similarly when the insects break down the biochemical composition of the plants, then plant get a defeat. Therefore, it is the wide array of chemical substances which are present in the plants responsible for plant defense or resistance or susceptibility.

The entire chemical compounds which are present in the plant can be broadly classified into two categories; primary metabolites and secondary metabolites. The primary metabolites constitutes the food factor like nucleotides, sugar, amino acids, fats, oils etc. whereas, the secondary metabolites are various chemicals synthesized from the primary factors through various biochemical pathways. Secondary metabolites have been reported to play a major role in plant defense mechanism that is because secondary metabolites broadly act as insect repellents, feeding inhibitors, phago-deterrents, direct toxins causing disturbance in nerve impulse transmission.

Secondary metabolites are not present evenly at different plant parts either qualitatively or quantitatively. Even at different stages of a crop or plant, the distribution of secondary metabolites differs. The influence of edaphic and altered ecological factors on the quantitative change in secondary metabolites may be intracytoplasmic where such metabolites are stored in vacuoles and plastids and extracytoplasmic where metabolites are stored in cell wall, pollen wall, sub-cuticular spaces and cuticular surface.

Types of Secondary Metabolites

Major secondary metabolites are generally produced by three important biochemical

pathways in the plants. They are:

1. Acetate- Malonate pathway 2. Acetate- Mevalonate pathway 3. Shikimic acid pathway

The produce of Acetate- Malonate pathway are mainly surface chemicals like alkanes, aldehydes, ketones, long chain waxes. These compounds are toxic to insects. Fatty acids are antimetabolites. They react with protein and destroy enzymes necessary for cell processes. Fatty acids appear in plants mostly in bound form like phospholipids, glycolipids, triglycerides etc. Alkanes have been found to deter the aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum on bean. Surface wax has also been reported to deter feeding of Nilaparvata lugens on rice. The waxy fraction i.e. phenolic glycosides, phloridzin acts as a deterrent for Aphis pisum and Myzus persicae.

The products of Acetate-mevalonate pathway are terpenoids and steroids. Insects are incapable of producing steroids. Therefore, reduced level of steroids in plants is regarded as a resistance factor in plants against insects. The terpenoids constitute the largest group of secondary metabolites. In general, the terpenoids act as toxicant, feeding deterrent, oviposition deterrent against the insects.

1. Monoterpenoids: Pyrethroids are toxic to insects. Citronella has been reported as the oviposition deterrent to Amrasca devastans. Iridoids are the bitter substance which act as antifeedant to grasshopperand catterpillars. Sesquiterpenoids inhibit feeding in Spodoptera sp. and Colorado potato beetle. Sesquiterpene lactones are poisonous to lepidopterans. Gossypol is extremely toxic to many insects of cotton. Juvocimene disrupt the moulting process in insects. Precocene-I and precocene-II are the natural antijuvenile hormones found in plants.

2. Diterpenoids increase larval mortality and reduce the growth in mustard sawfly larvae.

3. Triterpenoids like Cucurbitacin at high

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



concentration act as a strong feeding deterrent against cucumber beetle. Azadirachtin, the well exploited tetraterpenoid act as a poison, oviposition retardant, repellent, feeding deterrent, sterilant against a wide range of insects.

Beside terpenoids, flavonoids are also produced through this pathway. Anthocyanin pigmentation sometimes act as a defense character in plants against herbivores. Flavonols are antiherbivorous in nature. Flavones repels feeding of Heliothis zea, H. virescense in maize and Pectinophora gossypiella in cotton. Isoflavonoids act as antifeedant to semilooper, Trichoplusia ni. Quinones in general are scattered throughout the plant and act as deterent and toxicant.

Many of the alkaloids are terpenoids in structure. Alkaloids are toxic materials. They produce anticholinergic effect. Some alkaloids act as feeding deterrents. Berberine, Papavarine are feeding deterrents against a wide number of insects attacking various crop plants.

The products of shikimic acid pathway are the phenolic substances. The phenolic compounds are aromatic in nature. Lignin, tannin and coumarins are the important phenolic substances. Lignin is an integral components of plant cell wall. High lignification of cell wall is a defense mechanism as it produces a mechanical barrier for feeding by insects. Lignin also act as one unpalatable material. They also act as carbohydrate digestibility reducer and thus, protect the plants. Tannins are protein binding agents. Coumarins are toxic to a broad range of organisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi, vertebrates and invertebrates.

Secondary metabolites do not have only one directional role to stop insect activity. Certain secondary substances also have dual function i.e. while one chemical exercise antagonistic effect on one insect, the other insect is benefitted by the same chemical. While glucosinolates are toxic to Papilio polyxenes, it stimulates feeding in Pieris brassicae. Lignin when deters Ligurotettix sp., simultaneously favours feeding in Bootettix sp. Tanin in one hand deters

Helicoverpa zea from feeding and on the other hand enhances feeding Anacridium sp. Cucurbitacin act as feeding deterrent and feeding stimulant for Epilachna tredecimnotata and Dibrotica undecimpunctata, respectively. Role of Gossypol as feeding deterrent against H. zea and feeding stimulant against Anthonomus grandis, respectively has been well documented. Literature also cites the dual role of Tomatine as feeding deterrent against Leptinotarsa decemlineata and feeding excitant in Pieris brassicae.

Plant chemicals which are broadly categorized as allomones (chemical exercising negative impact on receiving insects) and kairomones (chemical that are advantageous to receiving insects) decide herbivory or anti herbivory depending upon their concentration in their plant system. Secondary metabolites which cause defense in plants against insects are grouped under allomones. Insects do possess such powerful enzyme system within themselves, that some of the allomones can be broken down to intermediary products by enzyme action with kairomonal function. This might be the reason for the victory of the insect over plants.

Conclusion: Plants are the store house of various secondary metabolites, a lower fraction of which has been identified and their role has been experimented. Yet, a majority of the secondary metabolites do exist in plant diversity which are to be identified. Even though many of such substances might be playing major role for building plant defense, yet, they have not been discovered and their specific role has not been proved. But the efforts are on and the days are not far away for the scientists to add another thousands of such chemicals to the existing list of plant defense chemicals.

References Mazid, M., Khan, T.A., Mohammad, F. 2011. Role of

secondary metabolites in defense mechanisms of plants. Biology and Medicine, 3 (2): 232-249.

Panda, N and Khush, G. 1995. Host plant resistance to insects, CAB International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.

78. INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT 15105

Integrated Management of Rodent Pests in Agricultural Field Devaramane Raghavendra1* and Ranvir Singh2

1Scientist, ICAR-Indian Institute of Seed Science (IISS), Kushmaur, Mau, UP-275 101 2Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Agril. Entomology, UAS, GKVK, Bengaluru-560 065


Rodents are vertebrate pests and one of the successful animals on this earth, because of its

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



vast breeding potential. It will show different models of life from snowy heights of about 5700m to extremes of desert. Around 40% mammal species are rodents present in the world. So far more than 2000 species are identified. In India, 4 families, 43 genera and 104 species exist. About eighteen species of rodents are pests in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, animal and human dwellings and rural and urban storage facilities in India. Their habitat, distribution, abundance and economic significance varies in different crops, seasons and geographical regions of the country.

The damage and economic losses caused by rodents in rice, wheat, sugarcane, maize, pearl millet, sorghum, oil seed, legume and vegetable crop fields, horticulture and forestry, poultry farms, and rural and urban dwellings and storage facilities clearly shows that chronic damage ranging from 2% to 15% persists throughout the country and severe damage, sometimes even up to 100% loss of the field crop. Rodents alone cause 2.5% loss of total food grain produced, it will attack almost all the field crops i.e. grass, grains/seeds, tubers etc. and also in storage. Important rodent species are, Indian mole rat / lesser bandicoot (Bandicota bengalensis), Larger Bandicoot / Bandicoot rat (Bandicota indica), Soft furred field rat / grass rat (Rattus (Millardia) meltada), Indian gerbil rat / antelope rat (Tatera indica), Indian field mouse (Mus booduga), House mouse (Mus musculus), House rat / common rat (Rattus rattus rufuscens) and so on.

Management

Rodent control describes the processes that people use to alleviate rodent damage, to prevent the spread of rodent-borne diseases, to reduce problem rodent populations, or to eliminate rodent infestations. Depending on the species of rodents involved, the kinds of environments where problems occur, the nature of the problem, and the value of anticipated damage, a variety of methods is available for controlling damage or reducing rodent populations. Usually, several methods need to be used systematically to achieve lasting results. The process of selecting, applying, and evaluating the results of such combinations of control methods in relation to the ecological and economic aspects of specific damage problems is called integrated

pest management (IPM) or ecologically-based pest management.

a) Prevention: Includes, food and habitat manipulation in the field, summer ploughing, keep the bunds free from weeds, trimming field bunds, uniform planting, monitoring rodent population, avoiding hay stacks near field etc.

b) Observation: Identifying rodent species by visual observation and also their burrowing pattern, assessment of population by burrow count also assess the damage in standing crop. For example, Economic threshold (ETL) for rice crop is 2% tiller damage, 15% affected hills.

c) Intervention: Setting up of indigenous traps i.e., bow traps (20-25/ha) and also snap trap, sherman trap, wonder traps may be used. Traps can be washed once the rat trapped and killed because, rat will release alarm pheromone along with urine which may deter other rats from the trap when used to trap next one.

Smoking burrow with burrow fumigator, baiting on a community approach because, rodents are colour blind and cannot vomit. Applications of chemicals comprise, 2% Zinc phosphide with baiting (broken rice-96 parts, edible oil-2 parts and zinc phosphide-2 parts) as acute poison. 10 bait stations / acre are recommended, pre-baiting should be done 2-3 days before. Baiting is followed by fumigation with aluminium phosphide after enumeration of burrows @ 2 pellets (1.2 g) / burrow. Zinc phosphide burrowing can be done only once during the season.

Also use Bromadiolone 0.25% OR Bromadiolone (6g) 0.005% cake as single dose anticoagulant, bait can be used at any number of times at 10-15 days interval during crop season, each provided with 15-20g of freshly prepared bait.

References Parshad. V.R. 1999. Integrated Pest Management

Reviews, 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers, 4: 97–126.

Mark E. Tobin and Michael W. Fall. 2004. National Wildlife Research Center, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Colorado, USA.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



79. INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT 15279

Rodents: Important Species and their Management in Major Vegetable Crops

Geet Gandhi1, Bhallan Singh Sekhon2 and Harmanjeet Singh3 1M.Sc. Student, Department of Entomology, 2Ph.D. Scholar, 3M.Sc. Student, Department of

Vegetable Science & Floriculture, CSK HPKV, Palampur-176062


INTRODUCTION: In the present millennium food security, nutritional security and natural plant resources conservation are important for sustainable agricultural production. Here, vegetables play an important role to combat such alarming issues. Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Cauliflower and Cabbage are major vegetables in India not only in acreage but also in terms of daily consumption and Kitchen gardening. But some constraints are there which limits the production of these vegetable crops. Concerted efforts are required to manage or aware the people about these constraints to increase production substantially within decade to ensure nutritional security to everyone in India. One of such constraint is Rodent damage which cause significant losses in vegetable production and hence knowledge about this aspect may help the nation to become prosperous.

Rodents are mammals of order Rodentia. They are characterized by a single pair of unremittingly growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. Rodentia is the largest order of mammals in the world comprising 2277 species in 481 genera under 33 families. Rodents are found in vast numbers on all continents except Antarctica (Wilson and Reeder 2005). They are the most diversified mammalian order and live in a variety of terrestrial habitats, including human-made environments. Rodents include squirrels, rats, mice, voles, gerbils, hamsters, dormices, porcupines etc.

Rodents in Vegetable Crops

Studies Conducted

Solanaceous Family (Tomato, Brinjal and Chilli)

Advani (1987) conducted a study in vegetable crops in twelve villages of Rajasthan which showed predominance of Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae; Indian gerbil, Tatera indica and Soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada in the infested crop fields. The small field mouse, Mus booduqa and a gerbil, Gerbillus qleadowi were also damaging the vegetables mainly tomato and brinjal. The rodent damage to various crops ranged from 4.1 to 19.9 percent, the average being 8.7 percent (Advani and Mathur 1982). He further reported average rodent damage to chilli

crop was 18.8, 11.48, 27.85 and 25.74 percent at sowing vegetative growth, maturity and threshing stages respectively (manuscript). As a result of continuous management practices, the relative rodent damage reduced by 89.89, 77.60, 85.79 and 83.5 percent respectively to these four stages of growth. This increased the production by about 16.1 quintals/ha, the cost benefit ratio being 1:571 (in rupees). Along with three predominant rodents, M hurrianae, T._ indica and R meltada; the Bust rat, qolunda ellioti qujerati, and Indian palm squirrel, Funambulus pennanti were also captured in higher numbers from the crop fields. In several cases, the M hurrianae were found to thrive upon chilly in storage as exhibited by their stomach contents.

Brassicaceae Family (Cauliflower and Cabbage)

Sheikher and Jain (2010) reported that Mus musculus, Bandicota bengalensis, Rattus meltada and M. booduga were the major rodent species in the cauliflower fields, comprising 26.87, 23.47, 16.40 and 13.23%, respectively, of the total rodent population in the curd crop and 27.09, 22.96, 18.12 and 13.98%, respectively, in the seed crop. These fields supported 53 to 57 active rodent burrows per hectare. Rodent damage occurred from the curd formation stage onwards and varied from4.44 to 11.37% in the curd crop and 8.36 to 13.94% in the seed crop. B. bengalensis and R. meltada appeared to be the most damaging species as their burrows were located in the fields either at the base or in the near vicinity of the plants, whereas burrows of mice were at the periphery of the fields.

Reports of Management of Rodents in Vegetable Crops

Solanaceous Family (Tomato, Brinjal and Chilli): Advani (1987) as a result of trapping, control and other management practices, rodent populations reduced by 92.5%. The rodent damage also declined by 91.9 percent and the production of crops increased (on an average) by 7 percent per hectare. The cost benefit ratio of rodent control work was 1:900 (in rupees).

Brassicaceae Family (Cauliflower and Cabbage): Sheikher and Jain (2010) reported that burrow baiting with 0.005% flocoumafen and 0.005% bromadiolone yielded 76.9 and 76.1%

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



control success, respectively. Further, pulsed-baiting with 2.5% zinc phosphide applied in burrows, followed by bromadiolone provided 83.4% control success. Such a treatment (pulsed-baiting) resulted in a saving of up to 1080 kg curd and up to 25.028 kg seed/ha in cauliflower curd and seed crop, respectively.

General Control of Rodents

In vegetable crops, rodents not only cause losses in the field but also during post-harvest operations. So, their proper management is noteworthy which includes physical methods such as rat proofing and ultrasonic devices, mechanical methods such as rat snap trap, electronic trap, Live-Animal trap and glue trap, cultural methods such as deep ploughing, flooding the field for atleast a few days, so that burrows in field will be submerged, planting of thorny plants also reported to repel the rats, but might cause inconvenience in field operations and smoking the burrows in day time to expel the rodents from its hiding places and kill them, biological methods like important natural enemies which manage the rodent population is snake, birds like eagle, crow, owl, kites, gulls etc also play important role in checking rodent population and mammals like cat, dog, bat also check rat population and chemical methods like rodenticides. The rodenticides registered under the Insecticides Act, 1978 broadly belong to two categories based on their route of ingestion - oral and respiratory. Fast acting or acute rodenticides such as Zinc phosphide and Barium carbonate, Slow acting rodenticides (Second generation anticoagulants) such as Warfarin (is not available in market at present), Coumafuryl / Fumarin (First generation anticoagulant, not available in the market) and Bromadiolone (Second-

generation anticoagulant). Poison Bait Preparation like Zinc phosphide bait –Prepared by smearing 1 kg of bajra or sorghum or cracked wheat or their mixture with 20 ml of vegetable oil, 20g of powdered sugar and 25g of zinc phosphide powder (80% concentrate) and Bromadiolone bait- Prepared by smearing 1 kg of bajra or sorghum or cracked wheat or flour or their mixture with 20 ml of vegetable oil, 20g of powdered sugar and 20g of bromadiolone powder (0.25% concentrate). Respiratory poisons like Aluminium phosphide can also be used.

Conclusion: Damage caused by rodents to agriculture is noteworthy. Overall losses to seed (approx. 25%) in pre harvest and 25-30% in post-harvest situations. But reports in this context are limited to 1990s. Some projects like AINRC (All India Network Project on Rodent Control) by research institutes have been initiated to keep check over rodents. With the ever increasing population and demand for food security and hidden hunger, such projects are needed to minimize the losses in agriculture to make India a prosperous nation.

References Advani R. 1987. “Rodent Damage to Various Annual

and Perennial Crops of India and Its Management”. Great Plains Wildlife Damage Control Workshop Proceedings. 47.

Advani, R. and Mathur, R.P. 1982. Experimental reduction of rodent damage to vegetable crops in Indian villages. Agroecosystems. 8, 39–45.

Sheikher C and Jain SD. 1997. Rodents in cauliflower and cabbage: Population, damage and control, International Journal of Pest Management, 43:1, 63-69, DOI: 10.1080/096708797229004

Wilson DE and Reeder DM. 2005. Mammal species of the world, 3rd Ed, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, pp. 2141

80. NEMATOLOGY 15228

Nematode Management Strategies Akhilesh Jagre1 and Shanu Meshram2

1M.Sc., Senior Research Fellow, JNKVV Jabalpur MP; 2Assistant Director of Horticulture Burhanpur MP

In addition to the common insects in green house, nematode often pose an additional problems. These microscopic worms feed on or in plant roots, disrupting plant root growth and function. They reproduce well at 20-90°F and cause significant problem on many of the vegetables most popular in growing media and plant tissues. They following management practice should be adopted to keep the greenhouse free from nematode.

1. Follow plant quarantine measures for instance restrict the use of tubes of potato

from Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu as the golden nematode is endemic to this area. Cheak the imported plant material carefully.

1. Physical Method a) solarization of the greenhouse soil

during off season. b) Use nematode free planting material c) Give not water treatment to planting

material d) Sanitation and destruction of infected

plants. 2. Culture Method.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



a) Grow nematode resistance tomato varieties like Pusa -120, PNR -7and Hisar Lalit.

b) Follow long term crop rotation. c) Follow deep ploughing during summer

keeping greenhouse doors closed so that nematode gets killed due to the desiccation and solarization.

d) Apply organic amendments like neem cake or mahua cake @500 kg/hac, or at lower doses to the soil in case of row application.

e) Trap crops can also be raised in greenhouse if sufficient space is available. Marigold is a good companion trap crop tomato as it reduce root not nematode actively in tomato drastically.

3. Chemical Method: Fumigation of the soil with DD mixture or nemagon @5kg a.I./hac has been effective. The other fumigation used are chloropicrin EDB and methyl bromide. Incorporate the non-fumigation like carbofuran @1-2kg a.I./hac in the soil before planting. Furadan 3G may be applied @ 1-2 kg a.I./at the time of planting in the furrow.

4. Biological Method: The predator (fungi, predacious nematode) and parasites (Bacteria-Baillus thurigiensis and protozoa)

can be used to control the nematodes in greenhouse.

The integrated management of nematode found in greenhouse has been given below.

a) Follow sanitation and soiln solarization. b) Deep ploughing should be done during

hot summer. c) Application of carbofuran at 0.8 kg a.i.in

combination with neem cake and urea at transplanting reduces the nematode population.

d) seed treatment with 5% aqueous extract of neem leaf cake containing spars of Paecilomyces lilacinus if found effective.

5. Raniform nematode. a) Give solarization b treatment and

incorporate mahua cake to the soil of greenhouse.

b) Combined use of the Paecilomyces lilacinus and carbofuran @1 kg a.i./hac is found effective.

c) Application of the neem cake/neem leaf extracts with spores of Paecilomyces lilacinus

In the nursery bed and subsequent root dip treatment protect the crop.

81. EXTENSION EDUCATION 14300

Aspiration of Agricultural Students in Tamil Nadu P. Sivaraj*

Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 641 003


Agriculture is considered as prime sector to boost up the economic growth of a community. It was mainly depends on improved technologies for its revamp in the current scenario. Agricultural colleges and universities were assigned to disseminating scientific knowledge and skills to the farming community and to train them to use such skills for better output. Aspirations are strong desires to reach something high or great. So the assessment of agricultural student’s aspiration may pave the way for the future development of the country.

Aspiration

Aspiration is considered as one of the important traits of personality of an individual. Aspirations reflect individuals’ ideas of their “possible selves,” what they would like to become, what they might become, and what they do not wish to become (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Realizing aspirations requires the investment of time, energy, and resources--both from the young person and from others (Sherwood, 1989). The

extent to which communities mobilize such support bears on the quality of life--both among students and among adults. A similar observation applies to realizing career or employment aspirations. In short, conditions in the community interact with the imaginations of students as they realize their aspirations.

Aspiration means the goal of individual that he sets for himself in a task. Aspiration has three important aspects. First, what performance or aspect of it the individual considers desirable or important. Second, how will he expect to perform especially in the important aspect? Third, how important the performance is to him, either as a whole or in its different aspects. (Sanjay Kumar, 2013)

Aspiration of Agricultural Students

Importance of agriculture goes on increasing day by day so, agriculture education is an important component in agriculture development. Agriculture occupations require specialization in education. Students will return in their farming

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



and help to turn traditional agriculture into a commercial enterprise (Khadke et al., 2014). In developing countries young graduates, joining public universities by allocation rather than interest lacks aspiration and positive attitude to the career in agriculture. This is due to the perception of the society and other behavioral factors that affect the student’s attitude and aspiration.

The present study was conducted to assess the aspiration level of agricultural students in Tamil Nadu. It was designed to assess their aspiration towards agricultural, career, economic and social aspiration. The respondents were surveyed through online mode and the results were obtained from them. Majority of the agricultural students were want to become an innovative farmer (29.2%) and to start up processing and value addition firms (25%). More than half of the agricultural students (59.30%) want to develop the farming community.

In assessing the educational aspiration it was found that, more than half of the students (61.5%) want to pursue their post-graduation in India followed by 19.25 per cent of respondents were want to study their Ph.D. in foreign universities. About 15 per cent of the respondents want to study other than agricultures courses and very meager (3.90 %)

respondents want to study agricultural business management related studies.

Conclusion: Aspiration related studies will help the academicians to formulate strategies to encourage the students to become better man in the society. This study enlightened the state of mind among the agriculture graduates towards agricultural business, society and their education. The social aspiration among graduates was found to be positive for the development of agriculture. More than half of the students were aspire to become an innovative farmer, processing and value addition business. So these study will help the academicians and policy makers to drawn the future strategies for the development of agricultural education and society.

References Sherwood, R. A. 1989. A conceptual framework for

the study of aspirations. In R. Quaglia (Ed.), Research in Rural Education, 6(2), 61-66.

Markus, H., &Nurius, P. 1986. Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954-969.

Sanjay kumar DR.2013. A study of attitude and aspiration towards games and Sports of senior secondary school boys. IJSSIR, Vol. 2 (7).

Khadke, A.G., Deshmukh, A.N. and Tale, S.G. (2014). Aspiration of students in Agriculture Science Rural Institute. Agric. Update, 9(1): 90-92.


Traditional Handicrafts and Handlooms of Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh (Bhuttico)

Divya Sharma*

(Ph.D. Scholar) Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension Education and Rural sociology CSKHPKV, Palampur- 176 062


INTRODUCTION: A co-operative is an autonomous association of persons who voluntarily co-operate for their mutual, social, economic and cultural benefits. In a predominantly agrarian country like India, rural development is a sine qua non for national development. If the goals of rural development are to be achieved it is necessary that the rural people be organized within an institutional structure that gives them access to the national, economic, political and social system. In India, co-operatives are the most commonly found form of people’s organization. In Himachal Pradesh the Department of cooperation was established in 1948. The main objective of the Department has been to eliminate exploitation of common man by middleman and money lenders by ensuring credit facilities to farmers at low rate of interest though Co-operative institutions. The Co-

operatives are rendering services in the various areas like production, finance and marketing etc. There are more than 4332 co-operative institutions, which are working in the state like milk co-operative societies, handloom co-operative societies, fisheries co-operative societies. These institutions are providing not only the financial help to the rural people, but also implementing training and employment generation programmes for artisans, especially in order to upgrade their skill and helping them to earn a better livelihood. The tradition of wool weaving in Himachal Pradesh is of very ancient origin. A group of 12 weavers from Bhutti village came together in the year 1944 and established a co-operative society known as the Bhutti Weavers Cooperative Society in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh. Working of Bhuttico remained inactive till Mr. Ved Ram Thakur

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



joined it in 1956. He brought in his vision to transform it from a docile institution into a dynamic business house that has then since maintained its unique position as a market leader in the shawl industry. Bhutti Weavers is the most reputed name in the hand-woven woolen shawl industry in Kullu and since its inception in 1944, Bhuttico has the best in the business of handloom shawls by winning theawards: been keeping alive the Himalayan traditions in step with the latest trends. Since 1993-94 Bhuttico proved itself

Sr. No.

Name of the award

Institution conferring award Year

1. National Awards First Prize (Gold)

Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India

1993-94

2. Udyog Ratan Award

PHD Chamber of Commerce and Industry

2005

3. Co-operative Excellence Award

National Co-operative Development Corporation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India

2008

Among various items of Bhutti Weavers; namely Kullu caps, woollen shawls, angora shawls, pashmina shawls, ladies’ jackets, ponchoos, pullas, wollen socks, gloves, woollen bags, jents jackets, mufflers, gents coats, gents shirts, etc. occupy a place of pride among the native handloom producers and is registered under the “Geographical Indication (GI) of Goods Act 1999. It has also received ISO 9001-2008 mark. Today, Bhutti Weavers has not only become a National name but also received appreciation from its customers in terms of increasing sale.

Genesis of the Bhutticco

In the year 1944 a group of 12 progressive weavers of Bhutti Village of Lug Valley which is one of the remotest and beautiful valleys of Kullu District joined hands to form a Co-operative Society. The area is in the foot hills of Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh. They raised Rs. 12/- as share capital and starting weaving of traditional Pattus, Dohrus (local dress) for their livelihood. Sh. Ved Ram Thakur was unanimously elected as presidentof the society in the year 1956. From the date onwards theworking of the society increased tremendously. The society was transformfrom a dead Co-operative to a revived one. Sh. Ved Ram Thakur not only donated his working shawl industry but professional and weaving managerial skill and administrative expertise which laid the strong foundation towards the systematic growth and development of the society. After the sudden and sad demise of Sh. Ved Ram Thakur in theyear 1971, the members of the management under the able guidance of

Sh. SatyaPrakash Thakur kept alive the dreams of making Bhuttico the leader in the Shawls Industry under his able leadership Bhuttico not only became a National Name but also received appreciation from foreign customers.

Creation of Employment Opportunities to Weavers

Bhutti weavers cooperative society ltd. popularly known as Bhuttico was found to providing whole time and part time employment to 131 personnel in its head office as well as in its own showrooms and more than 900 weavers engaged in weaving at factory of the society and in their houses during the year 2013-14 and majority of them were rural women. While earning the wages they get economically empowered and fulfil their basic needs without depending upon the other members of the family.

Financial Position of Bhuttico

The accounts of Bhuttico have been audited regularly. The society has been classified as “A” Class. The society has purchased computers and software for use in the office and its showrooms located at different places. All the computers showrooms have been connected with head office for day to day monitoring on sales and stock position etc.

Exploring Foreign Markets for its Products: The products of this society are not only popular with Indian customers but it is gratifying to note that our products are also popular with foreign customers. They have the privilege to export their products to United Kingdom, U.S.A, Canada Spain, France, Israel, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Russia and Japan since the year 1980 onwards. Officials of the society visited U.K. West Germany, Canada, U.S.A, France, Denmark and Sweden to explore new markets for its products.

Quality Control: The society has setup its own Wool testing laboratory to test the finer quality of wool in all aspect before delivering the same for weaving Bhuttico has also got Wool Mark and Handloom Mark for supplying the genuine handloom products to its customers. The society has also qualifying Quality Management System 1SO 9001-2008.

Infrastructure: The society has its sale complex at Bhutti Colony, Community Hall, Orchards; five works sheds looms and accessories. The society has its weavers housing colony where 100 residential quarters have been allotted to the weavers. The society has 32 bighas own purchased land.

Principles of Co-operative

1. Principles of Co-operative are followed by this Co-operative in letter and spirit “every member has right of one vote in the election of the society irrespective of the shares invested.”

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



2. There is democratic management in the affairs of the society. Every member is getting up to around 12 to 20% dividend on the profits of the society every year.

3. The society is dedicated for providing co-operative education and training regularly to its weaver members.

Showrooms of Bhuttico

There are total twenty eight showrooms of Bhuttico in India. Twenty six are within Himachal Pradesh and two are out of state.

Showrooms of Bhuttico out of State Himachal Pradesh

1. Mussoorie (Uttarakhand) 2. Bhikaji Cama Place, New Delhi

References Chadha, GK., and Sharma, HR. 1996. Co-operatives

succeed in mountains too: Case study of Bhutti Weavers Society, Kullu. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 51 (4): 752-759

Moorti, TV., Oberoi, RC., and Sud, V. 1993. Gender issues in handloom weaving. Wool and Woollens of India 30 (3): 31-33

Sharma, N., Kanwar, P., and Anju, R. 2008. Traditional handicrafts and handloom of Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 7 (1): 56-61

Thakur, DS., and Saini, AS. 1992. Changing scenario and impact of the Bhutti weaver’s co-operative society in Kullu Valley of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Co-operative Review 30 (1): 63-74.


Social Emotional Leadership Dr. T. N. Sujeetha

Research Associate, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, TNAU, Coimbatore.

Social-Emotional Leadership provides a system of accountability that diminishes hypocrisies and increases levels of authenticity and integrity. It is a way of being in which we begin helping each other set goals that lead to positive growth and well-being. Becoming our better selves makes the groups we comprise stronger. Therefore, Social-Emotional Leadership can ultimately lead to real and sustainable institutional and even societal flourishing, an under-developed area of our

discipline. The strengths-based and future-oriented

language from positive psychology can help us sustain generative conversations about what we need, want, and value – conversations Social-Emotional Leaders invite people into. The dialogues are “designed to bring out the best in people so that they can imagine a preferred future together that is more hopeful, boundless, and inherently good”

Social-Emotional Leadership is a way of life in which coaching becomes a metaphor for living. The truth is that we all have internal radio stations that run in our heads—ones that might be saying, “The sales guy thinks you’re fat, too.” It’s time to challenge our disserving belief systems—they affect our actions in the world.

Social-Emotional Leadership rests on the idea that positive cultural change is possible, but must emerge from within primary networks, like families, schools, businesses, even book clubs—any group of people with traditions or customs. Social-Emotional Leadership is the call-to-action for people in these preexisting relationships to shake the foundations of complacency and to use

creative licenses to transform and grow in positive directions—”a moving beyond alienated coexistence to a more promising way of going on

together”. This requires we look at habit,

tradition, and even language and consider the possibilities of creating anew.

Inevitable Change

Social-Emotional Leaders believe that change is not only possible; it is inevitable, and shaped by our own designs. Social-Emotional Leaders do

not have all the answers-just the questions, the

vision, and some of the tools that might lead the network in a positive direction. It is not a hierarchy we all need Social-Emotional Leaders and we all can serve in this capacity for others. Many people are already operating in this state, some people are beginning to see the need to, and many others still need to be leveraged.

Social-Emotional Leadership can be a framework for any institution or organization interested in its own flourishing. Social-Emotional Leadership could also serve as a sustainable and ecological character education program. Schools could serve as the gateway for the dissemination of the tools and knowledge coming from positive psychology and into the homes it supports.

If we are truly at an inflection point in our

evolution, now is the time to build the collective

hope, efficacy, and determination necessary for positive social-cultural change to be fulfilled. As a call-to-action, Social-Emotional Leadership could create the space for the exploration of the

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



many pathways possible in leading communities to optimal levels of flourishing—thereby positively shaping the course of our collective

evolution. The time is now. Or, if not now, when?


Scenario of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Dr. Sumit R. Salunkhe1 and Dr. Netravathi G.2

1Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education, Polytechnic in Agriculture NAU Vyara, Gujarat, India

2Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education, College of Agriculture, NAU, Bharuch, Gujarat, India

“Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a methodology for interacting with villagers, understanding them and learning from them. It involves a set of principles, a process of communication and a menu of methods for seeking villagers’ participation in putting forward their point of view about any issue and enabling them to do their own analysis with a view to make use of such learning”

Methodology for interacting with villagers, understanding them and learning from them.

It involves a set of principles a process of communication and a menu of methods for seeking villager’s participation.

It provides an alternative framework for data collection and analysis

PRA is process of participation with the villagers in which rapport building paves the way for them to perform their own analysis

Initial Rapport Building

Very much essential

One good way is learning a few skills from the villagers – Ploughing, harvesting, chatai making, etc. – DIY: Trainer becomes learner – Increases confidence in the villagers

Playing games, learning ITKs, catching fish, thatching roof

No set rules

Thank villager trainer after the learning activity

Salient Features of PRA

Participatory in approach

Flexibility in collection of data Adaptability to local condition

Explorative in data collection process Inventive in out look

Helps in empowering the participants

Focus of PRA

Problems

Constraints Opportunities

The Needs for PRA

Sustained change and the need for accurate and timely information.

It advocates that people themselves are solution agents for their problems.

It cut down the normal professional bias and anti-poverty bias towards people.

Reduce down the normal time consuming long methods of survey which consumes the much needed resources and that gives results after a long time. The methods are cost effective, accurate and timely.

Principles of PRA

Optimal ignorance – knowing what is worth knowing and enough to serve the purpose

Seeking diversity – concerned with analysis of difference

Offsetting biases and triangulating - probing, cross checking

Learning through participation

Foundations of PRA

Attitudes and behavior - of listening, learning and having respect for rural people

Methods - innovative nature of PRA has helped in adding a large number of methods

Sharing - willingness of rural people to share knowledge and experience.

Major Advantages of PRA Techniques

Major advantages are:

1. It is a quick and enjoyable way of learning about village situation

2. Long and time-consuming surveys can be avoided in many cases

3. It is cost effective method where money, time, materials and manpower are concerned

4. PRA methodology is for interacting with villagers, understanding them and learning from them

5. Listening and learning, learning rapidly and progressively and learning through participation

6. Provides opportunity for understanding and appreciating traditional knowledge system,

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



local values, skills, etc. 7. Helps the community to identify the physical

resources and services found within the community

8. Helps the community to search resources outside the community

9. Helps in better understanding for their problems and their positive results

Limitations of PRA Techniques

PRA like other methodologies has its own share of imperfections

PRA exercise is unique in its own ways because it starts in its own manner and proceeds in its own style based on the principles of PRA and on the other hand, the situation is vary one location to another

So our major efforts are concentrated to overcome or minimize it within reasonable limits in order to have better results from rural participation

85. AGRIBUSINESS 12729

Underutilized Fruits: An Option for Sustainable Livelihood and Income Security

*Debjit Roy, Kaushik Das and Priyanka Nandi

Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Fruits and Orchard Management, Faculty of Horticulture, BCKV, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, 741252. *Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: Minor fruit crops in India are those which have less acreage or not planted in a commercial scale and have less availability in the market. The minor fruits in other sense are also called ‘underutilized fruits’. In each state of India there are many minor fruits which may or may not be available in other states. However, there are many common minor fruits which are available in most of the states. These are pomegranate, ber, custard apple, aonla, jackfruit, fig, jamun, karonda, phalsa, etc. Some of these minor fruits like pomegranate, ber, aonla, sapota etc. are now becoming major ones due to their long period market availability and acceptability by the wide section of people. Some minor fruits which are unique to a state are available in the forest and unused lands in uncared condition. The fruits are consumed as fresh or converted to a processed form and utilized by the poor and tribal people to meet their food and nutritional requirement. They also used some of the unique’ minor fruits for their therapeutic or medicine purposes. The demand of these fruits is gradually increasing owing to tremendous potential for commercial exploitation aimed at improving the economic status of the poor and marginal farmers.

The Potential Underutilized Fruit Species

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Jack fruit Artocarpus heterophyllus

Fig Ficus carica

Bael Agegle marmelos

Chalta Delinia spp.

Pomegranate Punica granatum

Carambola Averhoa carambola

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Aonla Emblica officinalis

Mulberry Morus spp.

Custard apple

Annona squamosa

Tamerind Tamarindus indica

Ber Ziziphus mauritiana

Sapota Manilkara achras

Wood apple Feronia limonia Karonda Carissa carandas

Jamun Syzygium cumini

Loquat Eriobiotrya japonica

Water apple /

Wax apple

Syzygium javancia

Kendu Diospyros melanoxylon

Rose apple Syzygium jambos

Burmese grape

Baccaurea sapida

Importance of Underutilized Fruits

1. Food and Nutritional Security: All the minor fruits are rich in minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, in addition to carbohydrates and proteins.

2. Income Security: Underutilized fruit trees are important source of income for the tribals people who collect fruits and sell in local the market.

3. Value Added Income: Diversified food and natural products based on underutilized and neglected species is considered crucial to maintain the ‘safety net’ for food security particularly in the developing countries.

4. Ecological Security: Many of the minor fruit species are tolerate to drought, shallowness of soil profile, cold and dessert weather, wet, saline and acid soils. These can be grown in adverse and typical climatic condition for

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



ecological balance. 5. Supply of Raw Materials for Ayurvedic

Medicine and Processing Industries: Due to possession of medicinal properties, fruits and other plant parts of many minor fruits are considered as major source of raw materials for preparation of important ayurvedic medicine. A number of processed products like pickles, chanteys, archer, jam, jelly toffee, candy, RTS like squash, juice etc. are prepared from minor fruits which have great demand both in national and international market.

Future Strategies for Research and Development on Underutilized Fruits

Survey, collection and conservation of local and indigenous fruit plants in each state for exploitation.

Development of package and practices of important minor fruit crops for commercial cultivation.

To develop technology for value addition and its popularization.

To develop data base on area & production of the minor fruit crops statewide.

Development of minor fruit tree based cropping models under different ecological

situation for sustainable income.

Standardization of effective technique for faster multiplication of elite clones.

Awareness programme to educate farmers on fruit culture in adverse agro-climatic condition.

Development of marketing channel for minor fruits state wise for popularization and revenue generation.

Formulation of national policy for use of minor fruits (as fresh or processed forms) in mitigation of malnutrition especially for school children.

The country possesses the great biodiversity of many minor and underutilized fruits of tropical, subtropical and temperate in nature. This natural plant wealth has not been fully exploited in spite of their great role in nutritional, food, income, and ecological security. At present, most of these products are collected from the wild and only a few are grown for export markets. This should go a long way to expand the trade of these fruits and their products so as to provide greater economic returns to the farmers and better quality of life to the people

86. FOOD AND NUTRITION 15197

Flavonoids as Nutraceuticals 1Abuj Bhagyashree B., 2Rathwa Kalpana V. and 3 Patre Pratiksha R.

1Dept. of Agricultural Biochemistry; 2Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding, N.M.C.A., N.A.U., Navsari Gujarat; 3Ph.D. Scholar Department of Biotechnology, SRTMU Nanded

INTRODUCTION: Flavonoids are polyphenolic plant secondary metabolites synthesized by the polypropanoid pathway with phenylalanine as startup molecule. They vary in the structure around the heterocyclic oxygen ring, but all have the characteristic C6--C3--C6 carbon skeleton composed of three phenolic rings referred to as A, B, and C rings. There are more than 10,000 structural variants reported yet. The major classes of flavonoids are anthocyanidin, flavones, isoflavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols and flavanones. These are widely distributed in vegetables, fruits and part of plant such as petals, seeds, leaves, stems, roots and barks. Flavonoids are an integral part of both human and animal diets as potential sources of valuable nutraceuticals. Besides this flavonoids are important for human health because of their high pharmacological activities as radical scavengers, protective enzyme systems and against number diseases other age related problems. Some mechanisms have been proposed how flavonoids may help prevent steroid hormone dependent

cancers.

Flavonoids and Health Benefits

Flavonoids are naturally occurring phenolic antioxidants that are present in the human diet. They contribute to the antioxidant properties of green vegetables, fruits, olive and soybean oils, red wine, chocolate, and teas. Some flavonoids have been reported to possess a variety of biological activities, including antiallergic, antiinflammatory, antiviral, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic activities, in addition to having effects on mammalian metabolism. Flavonoids have received considerable attention because of their beneficial effects as antioxidants in the prevention of human diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases and some pathological disorders of gastric and duodenal ulcers, allergies, vascular fragility and viral and bacterial infections.

Antioxidant Action: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) account for a wide range of aggressive free radicals produced by various metabolite pathways in living cells. Flavonoids may act as

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



antioxidants to inhibit ROS mediated cytotoxicity and lipid peroxidation, as antiproliferative agents to inhibit tumor, growth or as weak estrogen antagonists to modulate endogenous hormone activity. Flavonoids including naringenin, hesperetin, and apigenin found to form prooxidant metabolites that oxidized and glutathione upon oxidation by peroxidase of hydrogen peroxide. Flavonoids have been reported to chelate iron and copper and this may partly explain their antioxidant effects. In these ways, flavonoids may confer protection against chronic diseases such as atherosclerosis and cancer and assist in the management of menopausal symptoms. Thus, flavonoids have been referred to as nutraceuticals components.

Protection against Heart Disease: Flavonoids protects against heart disease is their ability to prevent the oxidation of low density lipoproteins to an atherogenic form, although antiplatelet aggregation activity and vasodilatory properties are also present. The habitual intake of flavonoids from food sources such as tea may lead to a lower risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease and also protect against stroke. This seems reasonable since tea pigments can reduce blood coagulability, increase fibrinolysis, prevent platelet adhesion and aggregation, and decrease the cholesterol content in aortic walls in vivo. In addition, consumption of quercetin may protect against cardiovascular disease by reducing capillary fragility and inhibiting platelet aggregation.

Cancer Prevention: Fresh fruits and vegetables are rich in vitamins A, C, D, E, β-carotene, flavonoids, and other constituents that have been studied as cancer chemo preventive agent carcinogenesis. Flavonoids have been demonstrated to reduce carcinogenesis in animal models and to modulate enzymes implicated in the carcinogenic process. The soy isoflavones: genistein, daidzein, and biochanin a have all been used to determine effects on mammary carcinogenesis.

Antimicrobial and Antiviral Activities: Flavonoids exhibits stronger antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria compared to Gram-negative bacteria by strong inhibitory effect against the growth and antilisterial activity. The effective activity of flavonoids against influenza virus as well as antifungal activity of flavonoids made them attractive for commercial application, and some are being incorporated into skin care cosmetics. In addition to observed antimicrobial properties, flavonoids may play an important role in modulation of human gut microflora. The main active component in fresh fruits and vegetables are catechine, epicatechine and epicatechine galate prove antimicrobial and antiviral properties.

Brain Function: Consumption of flavonoids

rich fruits, vegetables and products may have a significant beneficial effect on brain function and central nervous system. Fruits flavonoids, specifically anthocyanins, can prevent neurodegenerative processes both by inhibition of neuro inflammation and by reducing oxidative stress. Twelve weeks supplementation with fruits juice in the diet may have neurocognitive benefits in humans with early memory decline.

Obesity and Diabetes: Polyphenols (flavonoides) in fruits and vegetables products may reduce metabolic syndrome and prevent development of obesity and type 2 diabetes, by acting as multi target modulators with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Freeze-dried powder and extracts, obtained from red, green, and blue-purple fruits and vegetables improves glucose tolerance and chronically reduces inflammatory markers in obese.

Liver Diseases Prevention: Environmental factors such as pollutants, alcohol, viral infections, and aflatoxins, can promote development of liver disease. Grape polyphenols have the ability to protect liver because of their antiinflammatory and antioxidant properties. Polyphenol rich grape skin extract has been found to improve liver steatosis and to protect against diet induced adiposity and hepatic steatosis. Grape seed extracts was more effective against hepatotoxicity of alcohol, when compared to aqueous grape seeds extract.

Conclusions: Fruits and vegetables are the main dietary sources of flavonoids for humans as well as prospective sources of valuable nutraceuticals. Antioxidative activities, scavenging (chelating) capacities, and interaction with enzyme systems are the principal mechanisms described to the functions of flavonoids, while a diversity of clinical effects have been investigated or are on trials (e.g. anticancer and antiviral activities, prevention of coronary heart disease, and blood vessels disorders), and improve brain function.

References Hamdoon, A., Mohammed, S., Alshalmani, K. and

Abdellatif A. G. (2013). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2(3): 89-94.

Lachman, J., Dudjak, J., Miholova, D., Kolihova, D. and Pivec, V. (2005). Plant Soil Environ., 51(11): 513–516.

Lee, X. Z., Liang, Y., Chen, R. H., Lu J. L., Liang, H. L., Huang, F. P. and Mamati, E. G. (2008). African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(22): 4111-4115.

Mahajan, M., Kumar, v. and Yadav, S. K. (2011). International journal of Plant Development biology, 35: 665- 672.

Middleton, E. J. (1998). Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 439: 175–182, Weston, L. A. and Mathesius, U. (2013). Journal of Chem. Ecol., 39: 283–29

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



87. FOOD TECHNOLOGY 14757

Enzymes used in Food Processing Pranjal S. Deshmukh

Assistant Professor, Sau Vasudhatai Deshmukh College of Food Technology, Amravati, MS *Corresponding Author E-Mail: [email protected]

Enzymes are organic biocatalysts which initiate and control biological reactions. A catalyst is an agent affecting the velocity of a chemical reaction without appearing among the final products of the reaction. Unlike general catalysts, enzymes are specific in nature and function at a temperature of approximately 37°C and pH close to neutrality. All enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes. Enzymes can modify and improve the functional nutritional and sensoric properties of ingredients and products and therefore, enzymes have found widespread applications in processing and production of all kinds of food products.

Enzymes helps in controlling the reactions associated with ripening of fruits and vegetables. After harvest, unless destroyed by heat, chemical or by some other means; enzymes continue their action till spoilage as in the case of soft melons or overripe bananas. Enzymes are helpful in improving the flavor, color, texture and nutrition properties of the food in some cases, enzymes may also results off-flavor and discolorations. Inactivation of the enzymes by blanching or by other means helps in improving the storage life of the fruits and vegetables. Enzymes help to increase the juice yield of the fruits. It also helps in clarification of juice. Since enzymes are more specific in their action than chemical reactants, enzyme-catalyzed processes have fewer side reactions and by-products (waste products). The result is higher quality products and less

pollution. Enzymes can catalyze reactions under very mild conditions, allowing mild processing conditions which do not destroy valuable attributes of foods and food components. Finally, enzymes allow processes to be carried out which would be otherwise impossible. The food industry uses more than 55 different enzyme products in food processing. This number will increase as we discover how to capitalize on the extraordinary diversity of the microbial world and obtain new enzymes that will prove important in food processing.

Generally enzymes are used in bread making (amylase, xylanases, lipases, oxidoreductases, proteases), dairy products (rennin, lysozyme, transglutaminase, lipase, lactase, etc.), fish processing (proteases, transglutaminase), fruits and vegetable processing and juice extraction (pectin, hemicelluloses, etc.), meat processing (lipases, proteases and peptidases, transglutaminase, glutaminase, etc).

Thus, enzymes have been used without knowing the nature of enzyme as catalysts and reactions involved. However it is only recently that nature and action of enzyme is known and its importance in food industry is realized.

References Whitehurst, Van Oort, Enzymes in food technology. Dev raj, Rakesh Sharma, V K Joshi, Quality control

for value addition in food processing.

88. FOOD AND NUTRITION 15276

Potential of Millets: Nutrients Composition and Health Benefits

P. Swarna*, R. Prasanna Lakshmi and P. Ganesh Kumar

Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University, Kalikiri, Chittoor Dt. Andhra Pradesh


Millets are small-seeded grasses that are hardy and grow well in dry zones as rain-fed crops, under marginal conditions of soil fertility and moisture. Millets are one of the oldest foods known to humans and possibly the first cereal

grain used for domestic purposes. Millets are

nutritious with quality protein, rich in

minerals, dietary fibre, phyto-chemicals and

vitamins. Each millets are three to five times

nutritionally superior to rice and wheat in terms of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Millets are rich in B vitamins, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, zinc, also gluten-free and has low-GI (Glycemic index) thus millets are suitable for

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



people allergies/intolerance of wheat. For diabetic patients and also for weight loss millets are excellent food.

Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum)

Pearl millet is the most widely grown type of millet and India is the largest producer of pearl millet. Pearl millet is a rich source of phosphorus, which plays an important part in the structure of body cells. Consumption of pearl millets helps in minimizing the risk of type 2 diabetes. Being a good source of magnesium, millets act as a cofactor in a number of enzymatic reactions.

Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana)

Also known as African finger millet, red millet, ragi and very popular millet especially in Southern India. It is rich in calcium and protein and also has good amount of iron and other minerals. Ragi tops in antioxidant activity among common Indian foods, Ragi also has some good number of Essential Amino Acids (EAA) which are essential for human body.

Foxtail Millet (Setaria italic)

Foxtail millet also known as korra is high in Iron content and it is totally pest-free. Foxtail not only need any fumigants, but act as anti pest agent to store delicate pulses such as green gram. They also control blood sugar and cholesterol levels & increase HDL cholesterol.

Kodo Millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)

Kodo millets contain high amounts of polyphenols, an antioxidant compound, they also high in fibre and low in fat Kodo millet inhibited glycation and cross- linking of collagen. Kodo millets are good for diabetes.

Little Millet (Panicum sumatrense)

Little Millets seeds are smaller than other millets. Like foxtail millet, little millet also high in Iron content, high in fibre like Kodo and has high antioxidant activity. It helps in diabetes and diseases related to stomach.

Barnyard Millet (Echinochloa spp.)

Barnyard millets are high in fibre content, phosphorous and calcium. Barnyard millet has low glycemic index and thus helps in controlling type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease with regular intake of this millet.

Sorghum (Sorghum spp.)

Sorghum is another ancient cereal grain, and grown mostly for their fodder value. Sorghum has high nutritional value, with high levels of unsaturated fats, protein, fiber and minerals like phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and iron. It’s also high in calories and macronutrients; jowar has more antioxidants than blueberries and pomegranates. Sorghum helps to improve metabolism.

Nutrition composition per 100gms of millets

Crop / Nutrient Protein (g) Fat (g) Fiber (g) Minerals (g) Iron (mg) Calcium (mg) Calories (kcal)

Pearl Millet 10.6 4.8 1.3 2.3 16.9 38 378

Finger Millet 7.3 1.5 3.6 2.7 3.9 344 336

Foxtail Millet 12.3 4 8 3.3 2.8 31 473

Kodo Millet 8.3 3.6 9 2.6 0.5 27 309

Little Millet 7.7 5.2 7.6 1.5 9.3 17 207

Barnyard Millet 11.2 3.9 10.1 4.4 15.2 11 342

Sorghum 10.4 3.1 2 1.6 5.4 25 329

Proso Millet 12.5 2.9 2.2 1.9 0.8 14 356

Rice 6.8 2.7 0.2 0.6 0.7 10 362

Wheat 11.8 2 1.2 1.5 5.3 41 348

Health Benefits of Millets

Millets have many nutraceutical properties that are helpful to prevent many health problems such as lowering blood pressure, risk of heart disease, prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases, decreasing tumour cases etc. Other health benefits are increasing the time span of gastric emptying, provides roughage to gastro intestine. Millet is an alkaline forming food. Alkaline based diet is often recommended to achieve optimal health, meaning when it combines with digestive enzymes. The soothing alkaline nature of millet helps to maintain a healthy pH balance in the body, crucial to

prevent illnesses. Millets and Diabetes: Lower incidences of

diabetes have been reported in millet-consuming population. Millet phenolics inhibits like alpha-glucosidase, pancreatic amylase reduce postprandial hyperglycemia by partially inhibiting the enzymatic hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates. Inhibitors like aldose reductase prevents the accumulation of sorbitol and reduce the risk of diabetes induced cataract diseases. Finger millet feeding controls blood glucose level improves antioxidant status and hastens the dermal wound healing process in diabetic rats.

Millets and Cardiovascular Disease: Millets

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



are good sources of magnesium that is known to be capable of reducing the effects of migraine and heart attack. Millets are rich in phyto-chemicals containing phytic acid which is known for lowering cholesterol. Finger millet may prevent cardiovascular disease by reducing plasma triglycerides in hyperlipidemic rats.

Millets and Celiac Disease: Celiac disease is an immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by the ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. Millets are gluten-free, therefore an excellent option for people suffering from celiac diseases and gluten-sensitive patients often irritated by the gluten content of wheat and other more common cereal grains.

Millets and Cancer: Millets are known to be rich in phenolic acids, tannins and phytate that act as “anti-nutrients” However; these anti nutrients reduce the risk for colon and breast cancer in animals. It is demonstrated that millet phenolics may be effective in the prevention of cancer initiation and progression in vitro.

Millets and Anti-Inflammatory Activity: Ferulic acid is very strong antioxidant, free radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activity. Antioxidants significantly prevent tissue

damage and stimulate the wound healing process. It is reported good antioxidant effects of finger millet on the dermal wound healing process in diabetes induced rats with oxidative stress-mediated modulation of inflammation.

Millets and Aging: The chemical reaction between the amino group of proteins and the aldehyde group of reducing sugars, termed as non-enzymatic glycosylation, is a major factor responsible for the complications of diabetes and aging. Millets are rich in antioxidants and phenolics; like phytates, phenols and tannins which can contribute to antioxidant activity important in health, aging, and metabolic syndrome.

Millets and Anti-microbial Activity: Millets fraction and extract have been found to have antimicrobial activity. Seed protein extracts of pearl millet, sorghum, Japanese barnyard millet, foxtail millet and samai millet were evaluated in vitro for its ability to inhibit the growth of Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina phaseolina, and Fusarium oxysporum. Protein extracts of pearl millet are highly effective in inhibiting the growth of all 3 examined phyto pathogenic fungi.

89. PHARMACY 15221

Drugs from Fungi 1Dr. Manisha S. Shinde and 2Abuj B. B.

1Dept. Plant Pathology, Polytechnic in Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Agricultural University, Deesa 385 535

2Dept. of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Aditya College of Agricultural Biotechnology, Beed, Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi Vidyapeeth, Parbhani-431122.

INTRODUCTION: The role of fungi was established early in history. Yeasts have been used in the making of bread and alcohol since the beginning of civilization. In modern times, the discovery of penicillin marked the beginning of a new approach to microbial diseases in human health. The established importance of fungi is being expanding way beyond their capacity to transform and protect. Various fungal species have great role in drug making. Following are some fungi used in drug industries.

Antibiotics from Fungi

In 1929, penicillin (the wonder drug) developed from the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum was first used successfully to treat an infection caused by a bacterium. Use of penicillin revolutionized the treatment of pathogenic disease. Many formally fatal diseases caused by bacteria became treatable, and new forms of medical intervention were possible.

Cephalosporins also contain the beta lactam ring. Cephalosporins made from Acremonium spp. of fungus. The original fungus found to

produce the compounds was a Cephalosporium, hence the name. As with penicillin, the cephalosporin antibiotics have a number of disadvantages. Industrial modification of the active ingredients has reduced these problems. The only broadly useful antifungal agent from fungi is griseofulvin. The original source was Penicillium griseofulvin. Griseofulvin is fungistatic, rather than fungicidal. It is used for the treatment of dermatophytes, as it accumulates in the hair and skin following topical application. More recently, several new groups have been developed. Strobilurins target the ubihydroquinone oxidation centre, and in mammals, the compound from fungi is immediately excreted. They were extracted from the fungus Strobilurus tenacellus Basidiomycetes, especially from tropical regions, produce an enormous diversity of these compounds.

Sordarins are structurally complex molecules that show a remarkably narrow range of action against yeasts and Yeast like fungi. The

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



compounds inhibit protein biosynthesis and so may become important agents against a number of fungal pathogens of humans.

Sordarins made from ascomycetes fungus Sordaria araneosa. Sordarins have been shown to inhibit a variety of fungal pathogens, including Candida species and Pneumocystis carinii. (In the present studies, we evaluated the activities of three compounds against infection with Histoplasma capsulatum.

Echinocandins are cyclic peptides with a long fatty acid side chain. They target cell wall formation. Semisynthetic members of the group of compounds include pneumocandins which are in use in humans.

Immune Suppressants

Cyclosporin A is a primary metabolite of several fungi, including Trichoderma polysporum and Cylindrocarpon lucidum. Cyclosporin A has proven to be a powerful immunosuppressant in mammals, being widely used during and after bone marrow and organ transplants in humans. Cyclosporin A is a cyclic peptide consisting of 11 mainly hydrophobic amino acids. Its inhibition of lymphocytes was first discovered during the 1970s. Subsequently, the mode of action was elucidated. Cyclosporin A binds to a cytosolic protein called cyclophilin. Cyclophilin is found amongst many different organisms and its form appears highly conserved. Cyclophilin is involved with folding the protein ribonuclease.

However, the Cyclosporin A/cyclophilin complex also binds to calcineurin. Calcineurin dephosphorylates a transcription factor, thereby triggering transcription of numerous genes associated with T cell proliferation. When the complex binds to calcineurin, T cell proliferation is suppressed. The inhibition of T cells proliferation results in the suppression of the activation process associated with invasion by foreign bodies. As a consequence, transplant tissues, which are foreign bodies, are not rejected.

Calcineurin is also highly conserved amongst phylogenetically diverse organisms. In fungi such as the human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, calcineurin is necessary for recovery from cell cycle arrest, growth in hypertonic solutions and regulation of the calcium pump. Thus the interaction of the Cyclosporin A/cyclophilin complex with calcineurin in Cryptococcus will result in death of the pathogen. However, in humans, cyclosporine also suppresses the immune system. The side effect is an unacceptable risk, and Cyclosporin A is not used as a fungicide in humans at present.

Gliotoxins also have immunological and antibiotic activity. Produced by many fungi including Aspergillus fumigatus, gliotoxins

belong to a class of compounds called epipolythiodioxopiperazines. The antibiotic activity is widely recognised and considered uninteresting. However, its effect on the immune system, especially macrophages, is being reexamined. A wide range of other compounds with antibiotic activity are also known. They have been rejected for use in medicine because of unwanted side effects, or instability of the active compound.

Ergot Alkaloids

Claviceps purpurea is the causal agent of St Anthonies fire, a scourge of the Middle Ages when ergots contaminated flour. The ergots contain many alkaloids. Their effects are quite variable. They act on the sympathetic nervous system resulting in the inhibition of noradrenaline and sclerotin, causing dilation of blood vessels. They also act directly on the smooth muscles of the uterus causing contractions, thus their early use to induce abortion. Their strongest effect is intoxication, caused by lysergic acid amides, one of which is the recreational (and illegal) drug, LSD. Ergot alkaloids have a number of medicinal uses. Perhaps the most widespread use is in the treatment of migraines. The vasodilator activity reduces tension during an attack. The drugs also reduce blood pressure, though with untoward side effects. Alkaloids are now produced in culture by strains of C. fusiformis and C. paspalii.

Statins from Fugues

Aspergillus terreus, a soilborne fungus, produces a secondary metabolite called lovastatin and Phoma sp. produces squalestatin. Statins have been used to reduce or remove low density lipoproteins from blood vessels in humans. In fact, the compounds all act via an enzyme in the liver that makes cholesterol, lovastatin inhibits HMG CoA reductase and squalestatin inhibits squalene synthase. By blocking the enzyme, the body removes cholesterol complexes from the inside of blood vessels. This has the effect of reducing or removing blockages in arteries, and thereby reducing the chance of a heart attack, strokes and diabetes. In addition, statins have been implicated in attracting stem cells to damaged tissues. The stem cells then appear to regenerate the tissue. Some statins induce problems. One form of the drug has been associated with muscle wastage. Others appear to lack side effects and have been recommended for wide spread use to control heart disease.

References Abedon, Stephen T; Kuhl, Sarah J; Blasdel, Bob G;

Kutter, Elizabeth Martin (2011). “Phage treatment of human infections”. Bacteriophage. 1 (2): 66–85.

Abreu, Ana Cristina; McBain, Andrew J.; Simões, Manuel (2012). “Plants as sources of new

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



antimicrobials and resistance-modifying agents”. Natural Product Reports. 29 (9): 1007–21.

Cox, Laura (2014). “Altering the intestinal microbiota during a critical developmental window has lasting metabolic consequences”. Cell. 158 (4): 705–21.

Hassan T (1987). “Pharmacologic considerations for patients taking oral contraceptives”. Conn Dent Stud J. 7: 7–8.

Jess, Tine (2014). “Microbiota, Antibiotics, and Obesity”. The New England Journal of Medicine. 371: 2526–2528.

Kingston W (2008). “Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics”. Irish Journal of Medical Science. 177 (2): 87–92.

Limbird LE (2004). “The receptor concept: a continuing evolution”. Mol. Interv. 4 (6): 326–36.

Orme ML, Back DJ (1990). “Factors affecting the enterohepatic circulation of oral contraceptive steroids”. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 163 (6 Pt 2): 2146–52.

Scholar E. M., Pratt W. B. (2000). The Antimicrobial Drugs. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 3.

90. DAIRY SCIENCE 14562

Main Pathogenic Micro-organisms and Chemical Hazards Associated with Milk and Dairy Products

Dr. Chopade A. A. and Shri. Patil R. V.

Department of Animal Science and Dairy Science, MPKV Rahuri

Biological Hazards

Milk and dairy products can harbour a variety of micro-organisms, including many zoonotic bacteria and some viruses (e.g. retroviruses and cytomegalovirus) (Kaufmann, Sher and Ahmed, 2002). Where an animal is healthy, the microbiological quality of milk at the time of milking is generally good; milk from the udder contains very few bacteria (although it may include human pathogens) and the natural inhibitory systems in milk prevent a significant rise in microbial cell counts for the first three or four hours at ambient temperatures (Jay,

Loessner and Golden, 2005). Once milk is secreted from the udder, it can be contaminated from many sources (air, faeces, bedding material, soil, feed, water, equipment, animal hides and people). The prevalence of pathogens in milk is influenced by numerous factors such as farm size, number of animals on the farm, dairy herd health, hygiene in the dairy farm environment, farm management practices, geographic location and season (Oliver, Jayarao and Almeida, 2005). The main pathogenic micro-organisms of concern and related control measures are given in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Main pathogenic micro-organisms associated with milk and dairy products

Pathogen Main source of infection Main means of on-farm control

Main means of control in processing and food handling

Bacillus cereus Via milk No effective control measures presently available

Good manufacturing and hygiene practices. Holding cooked foods at either >60 °C or <4 °C

Brucella abortus Contact infection (handling infected animals / materials). also via raw milk

Herd health management (vaccination, serological screening)

Milk pasteurization Hygiene precautions for at-risk workers

Cronobacter spp. associated with powdered infant formula

Good manufacturing and hygiene controls in the production environment and during rehydration/ reconstitution of the product. Control storage temperature and time of reconstituted product

Shiga toxin producing Escherichia coli (STeC) also known as verotoxin-producing E. coli (VTeC)

Mainly via raw milk Hygienic husbandry and management of animal wastes and effluents from dairy farms

Milk pasteurization. Good manufacturing and hygiene practices

Campylobacter jejuni Mainly via raw milk Hygienic husbandry and management of animal wastes and effluents from dairy farms


Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Pathogen Main source of infection Main means of on-farm control

Main means of control in processing and food handling

Listeria monocytogenes

Mainly via raw milk and soft cheeses. also contact infection from handling infected animals/materials

Hygienic husbandry, herd health management

Milk pasteurization. Good manufacturing and hygiene practices. Prevention of post processing contamination

Mycobacterium bovis Mainly via raw milk Hygienic husbandry, herd health management, tuberculin testing and slaughter of positive reactors

Milk pasteurization

Salmonella spp. Mainly via raw milk Hygienic husbandry and management of animal wastes and effluents from dairy farms


Staphylococcus aureus

Mainly via raw milk Milking hygiene, mastitis control

Milk pasteurization. Good manufacturing and hygiene practices. Process and storage control

Streptococcus zooepidemicus

S. agalactiae

Mainly via raw milk Milking hygiene Milk pasteurization

Yersinia enterocolitica Mainly via raw milk Impractical (wide range of animal hosts)

Milk pasteurization

Coxiella burnetii Via aerosol and milk. also possibly tick bites

Tick control, herd health management

Milk pasteurization. Hygiene precautions for at-risk workers

Chemical Hazards

Chemical hazards include contaminants (heavy metals, radionuclides, persistent priority pollutants, e.g. polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs] or dioxins, and mycotoxins) and residues of other chemicals that are used or added during the animal production or manufacturing processes, such as veterinary drugs, pesticides, substances migrating from packaging materials

(e.g. isopropyl thioxanthone [ITX] and bisphenol A [BPA]). The source of chemical hazards varies and may include air, soil, water, substances used in animal husbandry practices and animal feedstuffs.

The main chemical hazards found in milk and dairy products and related control measures are listed in Table 2.

TABLE 2. Main chemical hazards found in milk and dairy products

Chemical hazard Main means of on farm control- preventive controls Main means of control in processing and food handling- secondary controls

Antibiotics Good animal husbandry and good veterinary practices (GVPs). adherence to recommended MRls and withholding periods

Testing milk at collection point

Pesticides and Insecticides

Use of authorized products. Safe application and observance of withdrawal times

Compliance with regulatory controls and periodic testing at milk collection point

Growth promoters authorized use and GVPs Testing milk at collection point

Dairy plant cleaning chemicals

Use of authorized products, good plant equipment design, good hygiene practices

In-plant controls and relevant testing

Mycotoxins, e.g. aflatoxin

Feed hygiene and control and screening tests on animal feeds

Testing of milk and dairy products for M1 aflatoxin metabolite

Dioxins environmental controls Testing of milk and dairy products

Food additives Use of registered substances, good manufacturing practices (GMP)

Testing of milk and dairy products

Processing aids Use of registered substances, GMP Testing of milk and dairy products

Radionuclides Detection and discarding of contaminated milk Testing of milk and dairy products

Melamine GMP, sourcing feed from reliable supplier Testing of milk and dairy products

References Jay, J.M., Loessner, M.J. & Golden, D.A. 2005.

Modern food microbiology. 7th Edition. New York, USA, Springer. 790 pp.

Kaufmann, S.H.E., Sher, A. & Ahmed, R., eds. 2002.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Immunology of infectious diseases. Washington DC, American Society for Microbiology Press. 520 pp.

Oliver, S.P., Jayarao, B.M. & Almeida, R.A. 2005.

Foodborne pathogens in milk and the dairy farm environment: food safety and public health implications. Foodborne Pathog. Dis., 2(2): 115–129.

91. VETERINARY 15244

Livestock Farming Resilient to Climate Change Dr. D. Indira

Assistant Professor, Dept of LPM, College of Veterinary Science, Proddatur – 516360, Kadapa District, AP

Global warming and climate change have become major threats to the sustainability of livestock production systems. In tropical and sub-tropical regions high ambient temperature is the major constraint on animal production. High environmental temperature exerts a negative influence on the performance of livestock population. By 2100, the temperature will be about 1.4 – 5.8 °C more than the 1990 levels (IPCC, 2007). With increase of 1.5°C to 2.5 °C, approximately 20 – 30 percent of plant and animal species are expected to be at risk of extinction. The impacts of climate change are visible all over the world, but India is categorized among the most vulnerable areas, as rural economy is primarily dependent on crop livestock production systems, and almost 70% of livestock in India is owned by small and marginal farmers, and landless labourers. Animals of such livestock owners with poor resources are more vulnerable to climate change, and thus at a greater risk. India is currently losing nearly 2 % of the total milk production, amounting to a whopping over Rs 2, 661 crore due to rise in heat stress among cattle and buffaloes because of the global warming. majority of the areas in India show higher temperature Humidity index (THI = 75 or more) and 85% places in India experience moderate to high heat stress during April, May and June (NDRI vision 2030, 2011).

There is an urgent need to increase the adaptive capacity of the livestock to heat stress. However, adaptation to climate change is unlikely to be achieved with single strategy. Therefore, genetic, management and environmental modifications will be helpful in building livestock resilience to climate change among the vulnerable populations. Genetic modifications may be done by increasing the gene flow and introduction of breeds more adapted to the environment. Studies have reported that zebu cattle are more heat tolerant than European cattle. Preparedness for such transformations will require a significant research commitment. Many studies confirm that animal health and welfare are integral to environmental sustainability. Intensive high input, high output systems that appear highly

efficient at first glance are in fact energy and resource hungry. Selection of animals for high yield is often directly associated with poor welfare which itself can significantly contribute to increasing carbon emissions that may further increase the atmospheric temperature which is already a threat to the livestock. Pasture based systems of livestock rearing can also reduce GHG emissions through grasslands capacity for carbon storage (sequestration). Land and vegetation has the capacity to store carbon at different concentrations. Amount of metabolic heat production is affected by quality as well as particle size of feeds and fodder. Nutritional modifications can be used to reduce the internal heat load on animal. Highly digestible feeds are recommended because poor quality roughage generates a lot more heat than highly digestible rations. If feeding is done during mid-day, feeding under shade can be suggested to minimize exposure of cattle to heat stress. Simple feed technologies like incorporation of good quality green fodder, increment of nutrient density by replacing poor quality roughage with concentrate, feeding properly chaffed dry fodder and hydration of dry straws during hot dry period reduces the internal heat load on animal body. Some of the feed additives like antioxidants and minerals can also be supplemented to minimize the impact of climate.

Animal shelters should be designed to reduce heat load from the external environment in tropical and subtropical climate. Design, orientation and height of the shelters, choice of roofing material, open space ventilation and provision of adequate space per animal are some of the important aspects for cooler microenvironment of the animal. During the period of high temperatures the use of water can be used to bring down the micro environmental temperature within the animal shelters. Use of air cooling systems is also an efficient method. Efficient and an affordable adaptation practices for rural poor who are not able to buy expensive adaptation technologies include shading, sprinkling and ventilation to reduce heat stress from increased temperature. The animals in arid zone are reared under extensive system of

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



farming, where the animals go for grazing in the fields during day and are exposed to peak heat. Provision of community shelters in these areas

will give a space for the animals to take rest during peak hot hours.

92. RENEWAL ENERGY 15055

Solar Schemes Mahesh. M. Kadam1 and Ranjit Patil2

1Lovely Professional University, Punjab, 2Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola-444 104 Maharashtra

At present, to promote the use of solar energy, two capital linked subsidy schemes of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), GoI, ie. Solar Photovoltaic Water Pumping systems and MNRE Lighting Scheme 2016 are operated through NABARD.

A. Capital Subsidy Scheme for Promoting Solar Photovoltaic Water Pumping Systems for Irrigation and other Purposes

MNRE, GoI has launched a new scheme to support 30000 solar pumping units per year with revised parameters which is effective from 3 November 2014. Main objective of the scheme is to replace diesel pumpsets with solar pumpsets as also to reduce dependence on grid power. The solar pumpsets are environment-friendly and offer tremendous benefits to farmers. They involve very low operating cost and provide uninterrupted power supply to farmers enabling increase in agriculture production and income. Subsidy under the scheme is available only for solar systems that are procured from empanelled manufacturers/entrepreneurs by MNRE, GoI for solar water pumping programme.

Who can benefit from the Scheme

Individuals, group of individuals, SHGs, JLGs, NGOs, Farmers’ Clubs, Farmers Producer Organisation, Farmers Producer Company. Private/Public Limited Companies/Corporates are not eligible.

Links for Downloads

The Scheme of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, GoI for promoting Solar Photovoltaic Water Pumping Systems for Irrigation Purpose

The Scheme of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, GoI, for promoting Solar Photovoltaic Water Pumping Systems for Irrigation Purpose- Continuation during 2015-16

Capital Subsidy Scheme for Lighting and Pumping implemented through NABARD under JNNSM- Minutes of Review Meeting on 25 April 2016

The Scheme of Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, GoI for promoting Solar

Photovoltaic Water Pumping System for Irrigation Purpose - Continuation during 2016-17

Capital Subsidy Schemes for Promoting Solar Photovoltaic Water Pumping Systems for Irrigation Purpose- Decisions conveyed by MNRE

B. MNRE Lighting Scheme 2016

Capital Subsidy Scheme for Installation of Solar Photovoltaic Lighting Systems

MNRE, GoI has launched the MNRE Lighting Scheme -2016 to support LED based systems w. e. f. 29.2.2016. Loan sanctioned from 29 February 2016 and upto 31 March 2017 can be considered eligible for subsidy under the scheme. Under the scheme, subsidy support will be available only for 6 models of LED based lighting systems and 6 models of Solar Home Systems (Solar Power Packs-DC/AC models). Subsidy under the scheme is available only for solar systems that are procured from empanelled manufacturers/entrepreneurs by MNRE, GoI.

Who can benefit from the Scheme

Individuals, group of individuals, SHGs, JLGs, NGOs, Trusts, Farmers’ Clubs, Registered Farmers Producer Organisations. Private/Public Limited Companies/Corporates will not be eligible.

Subsidy Rate

Rs.160 per Wp for systems up to 40 Wp Rs.100 per Wp for systems above 40 Wp to

300 Wp

Systems above 300Wp are not eligible for subsidy

The unit could be located in urban or rural areas. Margin Banks have to ensure that beneficiary contributes margin as per RBI norms. Security Banks may follow RBI guidelines in this regard. Insurance Banks should ensure that the units are insured. The insurance premium may also be included in the Total Financial Outlay.

References Guidelines For Capital Subsidy Scheme For

Installation Of Solar Photovoltaic Lighting Systems Report, NABARD

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



93. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 14829

Role of Plastic Mulching in Agriculture Vinodkumar S and Md Majeed Pasha

Department of Agricultural Engineering, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore-560065 *Corresponding Author E. mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION: The use of plastic mulch in agriculture has increased dramatically in the last 10 years throughout the world. The technique of mulching is the easiest practice that we can undertake for our garden, fields that will produce unimaginable results. Since so years farmers have been trying to use various different materials for mulching the soil like dry leaf, coconut leaves, sand, paddy straw, paddy husk, saw dust, jawar trash, sugarcane leaves dry leaves, for moisture conservation (reducing water evaporation losses), maintaining soil temperature, reducing weed growth, it creates a micro-climate for the plant, which is suited for best performance by regulating soil water, soil temperature, and increased microbial activity in the soil. Thus the mulching is the process of covering soil around the plant root area with a view to insulate the plant and its root from the effects of extreme temperature fluctuations.

Advantages of Mulching

1. The major role is to conserve the soil moisture and improve seed germination

2. Reduce the growth of weeds 3. It reduces disturbance to the soil by people 4. Reduce the soil erosion from wind or water

and prevents the leaching of fertilizers 5. It helps to improve the quality of produce at

same time and early maturing 6. It enhance the productivity

7. Mulching reduces evaporation

Different Types of Mulches used in Agriculture

1. Organic Mulching: the organic materials such as crop residues and by-product, farm yard manure cardboard, wool, but also manure (cow), and by products of timber industry, when used for mulching, are known as organic mulches. These mulches are environmentally degraded very fast these mulching material is called natural mulches.

2. Inorganic Mulching: the inorganic mulches such as plastic films, when used for mulching are known as in-organic mulches. While natural mulches are not available at all time plastic mulches are available at all times and all places they are made synthetically different colours and thickness.

Mulching Films

Generally there are two methods mulch the

mulching film Manually Mulching Film Mechanically Mulching Film

1. Manually Mulching Film: Thin film of 20-25 micron is used for mulching short duration crop like vegetables. The required length of film for one row of crop is taken and folded at every one meter or required spacing of the crop along the length of the film. Round holes are made at the centre of the film using a punch or a bigger diameter pipe and a hammer a heated pipe end could be used. In case the plant spacing is less than one meter, the required number of holes could be made as per the spacing of the crop for example, if the plant spacing is 45X45 cm, the folding could be done at every 45 cm along the length of the film. The holes are punched on two spots of the face of the film. Alternatively, the folding may be done at every 90 cm four holes could be punched. In case of machine – One end of the mulch film is anchored in

the soil and the film is unrolled along the row of planting.

– Till the soil well and apply the required quantity of FYM and fertilizer (make the furrows if required) before mulching.

– Mulching should be taken before or after the planting and film is then inserted into the soil on all sides to keep it intact. Seeds are sown directly through the holes made on the mulch film.

FIG 1: Tractor Operated Mulch Laying Machine

2. Mechanically Mulching Film: The mulch should be applied with a properly adjusted machine containing at least the components shown in the edges of the mulch should be secured with a generous amount of soil.

3.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



FIG 2: Manual Mulch Lying

However, do not apply more soil than is needed, as this makes the mulch more difficult to remove. Stretch wheels should be adjusted to stretch the mulch edge securely into the anchoring furrow for covering. The soil should “roll” smoothly from the covering discs onto the edge of the plastic. Ideally the furrow openers will prepare a rounded opening, the stretch wheels will securely hold the plastic in the furrow, and the covering discs will return to the

Furrow all soil removed by the openers. This should result in a “lip” of plastic filled with soil Mulch applied properly will not blow off the row, but should require minimum effort to remove. Plastic mulch is usually packaged in 2,400-foot rolls. Drip tube is sold in rolls containing about 7,500 feet, depending on the type of tube and brand. Rows on 6-foot canters require 7,260 feet of row to cover an acre of land. Therefore, about three rolls of mulch and one roll of drip tube are needed per acre on 183 cm centres. For crops grown in single rows, the drip tube should be installed approximately 7.6 cm off centre of the row. If crops are to be planted in two rows per bed, install the drip tube in the centre of the bed. This keeps the tube from being damaged during the transplanting or seeding operation. If equipment prevents working the middles after installing the mulch, apply herbicide to the middles prior to laying the mulch. It is generally best to leave adequate space between rows to allow middles to be worked with a rotor tiller or small tractor.

Conclusion: This article has covered the major concerns about plastic mulch applications in agriculture like its types, uses, and degradability. Environmental degradability of plastics is a multifaceted complex process that is strongly influenced by the nature. There is an Increasing interest in the use of plastic mulching for fruits and vegetable cultivation. Mulching area has increased at least 50% globally since 1991to till date. Plastic mulch in crop production with regards to microclimate modification, soil physical, chemical and biological Properties, soil moisture, weed control, soil nutrients, and pest and disease management needs to be studied extensively.

94. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 15235

Efficient Puddling: Overview Ramachandran S.1 and Sridhar N.2

Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Farm Machinery and Power, AEC&RI, Kumulur, TNAU, Trichy - 621712

Puddling of soil is one of the important farm operations in rice growing. Puddling refers to the tillage system in which soil is repeatedly ploughed and harrowed under submerged condition with standing water of 5 to10 cm depth. The main purposes of puddling are to reduce percolation of water and nutrients by formation of an impervious layer, to kill weeds by decomposing and to facilitate the transplanting of rice seedlings by making the soil softer and smoother. Puddling is a water and energy intensive operation. The energy requirement for wetland cultivation under

bullock, power tiller and tractor farming systems are 1284, 1805 and 2040 MJ/ha, respectively (Anon., 1996).

Total cultivated area under rice in Tamil Nadu is 19, 05,726 ha with productivity being 3039 kg/ha. Total water requirement of rice is 1200 to 1400 mm while its daily consumptive use is 6 to 10 mm. Around 2000 to 3000 litres of water is required to produce 1kg of rice, which means that, in Tamil Nadu about 56.92 per cent of irrigation water is used for rice crop whose water requirement works out to 7.5975 X 106

l/ha.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Paddy crop is strongly influenced by water supply. Water should be kept standing in the field throughout the growth period. Percentage of total water requirement of rice crop at different growth stages is shown in Fig.1. and the components of water use is shown in Fig.2.

Adequate rooting depth varies with soil texture and is 10 to15 cm for clay soil, 14 to 16 cm for loamy soil and more than 16 cm for sandy soil. Hence the depth of Puddling may be limited to 16 cm under most soil conditions. With increased Puddling intensity, depth of Puddling would be increased, consuming more water than required.

FIG.1 Percentage of total water requirement of rice crop at different growth stages (Source: http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in)

FIG. 2 The components of water use in rice field (Source: IRRI, Rice knowledge Bank)

Traditionally Puddling was done by animal drawn implements. The country plough was most popular implement used as the primary means of puddling the field. The land was also prepared by different types of rotary puddlers, peg tooth harrow, open blade type harrow etc., that were trailed by the animals. The final levelling of the field was done by levelling boards.

With the advent of the tractor power, mechanized puddling of rice fields was taken up. The machinery used for puddling should move over the soft soil surface and mix up the clay and water into uniform slurry. Presently power tiller drawn and tractor drawn puddlers, power tiller with cage wheel and rotary tiller, tractor with cage wheel, tractor with half cage wheel and passive harrows like paddy disc harrow and tractor with half cage wheel and rotary tillage

equipment are used in the rice fields. The interaction of the tyre in the wet soil is complex. When the tractor with cage wheel is used for puddling, the soil is sheared and mixed up with the water purely by the action of the cage wheel as it slips. Here the tractor is in self-propelled condition.

The tractor was conceived and developed in Europe and US for traction in dry firm soils which are below their saturation. The key concepts that guided the designers were high traction and tractive efficiency with minimum weight. However tractive effort directly depended on the weight of the tractor under most frictional and cohesive - frictional soil conditions. Development of adequate traction as achieved on dry land conditions is different from that of submerged wetlands. The mobility of tractors and power tillers under such conditions is a serious problem. The main problem of power tiller or tractor running in the paddy fields at soil moisture content near saturation is the deep sinkage of traction devices. Deep sinkage increases rolling resistance and lowers thrust generating capacity. Fuel consumption related to tire rolling resistance is in the order of 5:1 ratio. A five per cent reduction in rolling resistance gives a one per cent fuel saving (Klamp et al., 1977). Hence, considerable time, water and energy that are lost in attempting to cultivate in soft soils can be saved by adopting improved tractor-implement system.

The four wheel drive tractor is an interesting solution, since the entire weight of the tractor is used for generation of traction. The front wheels provide additional traction and floatation (due to larger size) but compared with two wheel drive tractor, purchase cost is higher and consumes more fuel. On hard surfaces the output of the large two- and four-wheel drive machines was similar but on soft conditions the rate of work of the four-wheel drive was up to 33 per cent more than that of the two-wheel drive. The four-wheel drive had a higher traction coefficient and a lower rolling resistance coefficient than the two-wheel drive tractors (Osborne, 1971).

Reference Osborne, L.E., 1971. A Field Comparison of the

Performance of Two- and Four-wheel Drive and Tracklaying Tractors J. agric. Eng. Res. 16 (1), 46-61.

Klamp, W.K., 1977. Power consumption of the related to how they are used. Highway Safety Research Institute of Science and Technology, the University of Michican.

Anon., 1996. Annual report, all India coordinated project on power tillers. In: Narendra Dev University of agricultural technology, Faizabad (UP), India.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com



Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com

AGROBIOS (INDIA)Behind Nasrani Cinema, Chopasani Road, Jodhpur - 342 003Ph.: +91-291-2643993; 2642319E.Mail: [email protected]; Website: agrobiosonline.com

RNI.: RAJENG/2002/8649 Post Regd. No. Jodhpur/140/2015-2017Date of Posting: 7-8 at R.M.S., Jodhpur

148

Publisher and Owner Dr. Updesh Purohit, Agrobios Newsletter is Published from Agrobios (India), Behind Nasrani Cinema Chopsani Road, Jodhpur and Printed by Manish Kumar at Manak Offset Printers, MGH Road, Jodhpur. Editor Dr. S. S. Purohit

N E W R E L E A S E 2 0 1 7

Climate Changeand AgricultureV. Davamani, E. Parameswari, M. Dhivya, A. Rathinasamy

CONTENTS

1 Climate Change: An Overview

2 The Mechanism of Climate and Natural Variability in the Climate System

3 GHG’s Emission: An Environmental Perspective

4 Role of Aerosols on Climate Change

5 Modelling Climate and Climate Change

6 Influence of Climate Change on Biodiversity

7 Climate Change and Agriculture: An Overview

8 Soils and Climate Change: Potential Impacts on Carbon Stocks and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

9 Influence of Climate Change on Agricultural Crops

10 Impact of Interaction of Elevated CO2 and Temperature on Crop Productivity

11 Influence of Climate Change on Horticultural Crops

12 Effect of Climate Change in Bio Rational Pest Management

13 Influence of Climate Change on Plant Pathogens

14 Biotechnological Approaches to Improve Crop Adaption to Climate Change

15 Methods for Estimating Climate Change Impact on Agriculture

16 Soil Carbon Sequestration: A Potential Approach to Climate Change Mitigation

17 Carbon Sequestration and Carbon Trading

ANNEXURE

Climate Changeand Agriculture

V. Davamani, E. Parameswari, M. Dhivya, A. Rathinasamy

Visit us at: agrobiosonline.comaoaoao

ISBN: 978-81-934673-0-5Binding: Hardcover

Pages: 248 / Year: 2017Size: Royal Octavo

Rs. 1500.00 / US$ 75.00

ABOUT THE BOOK

The climate sensitivity of agriculture is uncertain, as there are regional variations in temperature, rainfall, crops and cropping systems and soil and management practices. Understanding weather changes over a period of time and adjusting management practices towards achieving better harvest is a challenge to farming community and to the growth of agriculture sector as a whole. Thus the impact on agriculture will be one of the major deciding factors influencing the future of food security. Since agriculture is highly exposed to climate change, as farming activities directly depend on climatic conditions, it is one of the central arena in which threat posed by climate change must be confronted by research institutions, governmental and non-governmental agencies. In turn, they also differ in their sensitivity to projected future changes in climate, significant improvements are crucial to increase climate-resilience need to be tailored to the specific needs.

This book will bring together a series of chapters that provide scientific insights to possible implications of projected climate changes mechanism and its impacts on agriculture crops, soil, biodiversity crop-pest interaction, climate models to analyze the impacts and various options for adaptive and mitigative management. This thorough and timely volume is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in exploring the concepts of climate change and its impacts on agriculture especially people in academia and the public sector, researchers, policy analysts and development agency staff, and graduate/postgraduate students.

Dow

nloa

ded

from

: agr

obio

sonl

ine.

com

Climate Change and Agriculture - Agrobios Online

Documents

Transcript of Climate Change and Agriculture - Agrobios Online