ForestryMaterials

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Americans are looking to their forests today for more benefits thanever before-recreation, watershed protection, wildlife, timber,

wilderness. Foresters are often able to enhance production of these bene-fits. This book features forestry techniques that are helping to achievethe American dream for the forest.

The story is for landolVners, which means it is for everyone. Millionsof Americans own individual tracts of woodland, many have shares incompanies that manage forests, and all OWII the public lands managed bygovernment agencies.

The forestry profession exists to help all these landowners obtain thebenefits they want from forests; but forests have limits. Like all livingthings, trees are restricted in what they can do and where they can exist.A tree that needs well-drained soil cannot thrive in a marsh. If seeds re-quire bare soil for germination, no amount of urging will get a seedlingestablished on a pile of leaves. The fOllOwing pages describe th.: ways inwhich stands of trees can be grown under commonly Occllrring forestconditions ill the United States.

Originating, growing, and tending stands of trees is called silvicllllllr~(silva is the Latin word for forest). Without exaggeration, silviculture isthe heartbeat of forestry. It is essential when humans wish to manage theforests-to accelerate the production or wildlife, timber, forage, or to in-crease recreation and watershed values. Of course, some benerits-wilderness, a prime example-require that trees be left alone to pursuetheir' OWII destiny. And Oil almost any land, whether tree-covered orbare, nature will practice her own silviculture. She may take hundreds orthousands of years to do it, though, and she will do it without consultinghumans as to their preferences. Whether they like to admit it or not,landowncrs often become impatienr with nature's way. Then silviculture-.must he practiced; but in serving landowner purposes, foresters I11l1ststillwork within the nalural conditions imposed by a tree species and by its.required environment>

The great number of tree specie" found in the United States-multiplied by all the possible growing conditions and all the standhistories-yields an infinite variety of forest scenes. Since it is not Ieasi-

Forest Types and Treatments

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ble 10 consider all possibilities at once, foresters think in terms of foresttypes. Evolutionary pressures, growth requirements, and stand historiescause certain tree species 10 occur together. In Ihe eastern United States,Ior example, oaks and hickories are often found growing together.Foresters call this association the oak-hickory forest type.

Naming types after dominant trees should not obscure the fact that aforest of any type is actually a community of hundreds of plant andanimal species. The entire community is strongly influenced by thespecies, size, age, and density of trees overhead. What happens 10 one in-dividual in a community influences others. Competition for light, nutri-ents, water, food, and shelter is often intense. For example, if lightningkills a large tree in a dense forest, conditions are changed for manyspecies. Woodpeckers find food ami make nesting holes in the dead tree,young trees and shrubs thrive in the direct sunlight of the newly createdopening, aud ground-dwelling animals COnSUl\lC some or the new g ro wt hon these plants.

A stand of old trees may appear to be timeless, but all forests are con-slantly changing. Change is most obvious in young stands where the treesare growing rapidly. Such stands are ideal habitat for certain species ofwildlife. As, the trees grow larger, environmental conditions become soaltered that some species of wildlife no longer thrive there, while otherwildlife specks may tiud the new conditions excellent. As the stand COII-

tiuues to age, sril! other wildlife specks are favllrl:ll ill the contillllOlislychanging ellvironment. These dynamic changes are natural in all furl:sts.They cannot be prevented. They can only he accderaled or slowed byhuman activities.

This book COvers nine of the most important forest types ill theUnited States. It begins with the spruce-fir type in the Northeaxt ; movesthrough the northern hardwoods and oak-hickory types; down the coastto the southern bottomland hardwoods and loblolly pine; then westthrough the lodgepole and interior ponderosa pines: on to the coastalDouglas-fir; and north to conclude ill the Sit k a spruce-weskrn hemlocktype.

Methods fur establishing secdlillgs and culturing trees through m.u u-rity and harvest are described for each type. Depending on the type, thesoil, and the landowner's objectives, foresters will pcescribe treauneursin various combinations called silvicultural systems.

and management or the new stand-and the forest as a whole-that silvi-cultural systems are generally named after them. The major systems usedill the United States are clearcutting , seed-tree, shelterwund, single-Ireeselection, and group selection. Each system includes reproduction cut-tings to establish seedlings and intermediate treatments 10 culture the de-veloping stand.

The c1earcutting, seed-tree, and shelterwood systems produce trees

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2 CIIOICES I~ SllVICUlTlJRE

FOREST TvrES AND TRE.' Biens J

Silviculiucal Systems

The main-but 1I0t the only-treatments making up silvicnltural sys-,terns, involve the cutting or felling of trees. CUllings are commonly di-vided into those thai help to reproduce forest stands (reproduction orharvest cuttings) and those that maintain vigor and desired compositiol1,.and structure of the stands ill terms of tree species, ages, and size classes(intermediate cuttings).,

Reproduction cuttings have such a great influence on the charactec

FOREST TYPES A:-ID TREABIE:-ITS----------------~~~~.•• CHOICES IN SILV::\C::.;U::.:L::..T:..:U:::.::R:;:E _ 5

that are of approximately equal age, but mayor may not be equal in size.These stands are called even-aged. The single-tree and group selectionsystems produce and maintain stands containing trees of many ages, andthus are termed uneven-aged.

Brief descriptions of the five major silvicult ur al systems follow. 111-formation on their applicability will be found in the chart as on theforest types.

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Clearcuttlng is the harvesting, in one operation, of all trees in a standor on all area, with the expectation that a new even-aged stand willbecome established (figure J). The new stand may develop by naturalprocesses from seeds of adjacent stands, from seeds stored in the forestfloor or still attached to branches in the tops of harvested trees, or fromstump or root sprouts of cut trees. Another natural source of young treesis advance reproduction-young seedlings already established when theold trees are harvested. In many cases a clcarcut area is regenerated bybroadcast scattering of seeds or planting of seedlings. With clearcutting,as well as other reproduction cuttings, some type of site preparation isoften necessary to remove logging debris and competing plants beforethe new stand can be established .

Many people believe that clearcutting destroys wildlife habitat. Whilethis may be true for species requiring mature forest, stand removal actu-ally creates habitat for wildlife species that satisfy part or all of their liferequirements in low vegetation and brush with little or no overheadshade.

In a single stand, it is impossible to create ideal conditions for allwildlife species inhabiting a forest type, It is possible to do so in a sizableforest by providing a variety of stand conditions in different portions ofthe forest. SOIlIC areas call contain mature trees ready for harvest, othersseedlings, and others middle-aged trees.

The seed-tree system requires leaving a few good seed-producing treesper acre when the mature stand is logged ifigure 2). These trees providet he seed that is needed to regenerate a new even-aged stand. The seedtrees are usually-not always-harvested after the crop of new youngtrees has become established.

The shelterwo od system entails a series of partial cuttiugs over aperiod or years in the mature stand. Early cuttings improve the vigor andseed production of the remaining trees ami prepare the site for new seed-lings. The trees that are retained produce seed and also shelter lor theyoung seedlings (figure 3). Subsequent cuttings harvest the shelterwoodtrces and allow the regeneration to develop as an even-aged stand.

The single-tree selection system differs from the three just describedill that it creates and maintains an uneven-aged stand. Foresters examinea stand and judge each tree on its merit. Individual trees are, in this way,harvested as they mature (figure 4)_ Seedlings or sprouts grow lip in thespaces t hus Cleated. Periodic luu vesting anrl rcgcncrutiou results in aslallll that contains trees of many ages .uul of many sizcs., Ilccausc relu-tivcly few trees are harvested at anyone time, and because the forestfloor is generally shaded, this system favors species that can thrive in lowlight.

The gflHIIJ selectlou system requires harvest of 5111all groups rather..;than individual trees, The openings created resemble miniature clearcuts,

but with the major difference that the resulting regeneration occupies too.small an area to be considered an even-aged stand: As in the single-treesystem, thinning and harvest cuttings are done at the same time. The new

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Figure Z. Seed-tree System. The mature stand is logged, but enough trees (Irele]t to reseed lite area. The seed trees us/wily are large and valuable, arul muybe harvested when they have fulfilled their purpose. Like cleorcutting, the sys-tent favors light-demanding species. [The illustration is fro 11/ The Secret Life-of the Forest by Richard M. Ketc/III1I1, copyright 1970 by AmericlllI HeritagePress, and is used with lite permission of McGraw-lIill Book Compuny.}

6 CHOICES IN SILVICULTUREFORESf TYPES ,\:-10 TREADtESTS 7

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Figure J. Shcllerwoud System. A mature stand is partially cIII, leaving some ofthe better trees of desired species 10 grow, cast seed, and provide shade andperhaps other sheller for the 111'11' stand. Usually more trees are fl1l per acrethan ill the seed-tree system. These sheller trees will be harvested after seed.lings have become established and 110 longer need protection,

Figure -t, Single·lree Seleclion System. CIiIS (Ire made more of teII than ill othersystems, but since the entire stiuui is never removed, appearonces are not muchaffected, Undesirable trees are removed, overly dense areas lire thinned, andmature trees lire Irarvesled during eacl: CII/, Seedlings of shude-tolernnt speciesdel'e/l.'fJ wherever they CIIII Jint! room, The suuul contains trees of 11/1/11)' uges.

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trees that come lip in these small openings are regarded as paris or alarger stand that coutalus trees of many ages. In either selection system ••frequent harvests are neededto lIIail\t~\.\l\a proper balance of Iree age,classes ~nd sizes.',

[fI/l!rmediale Cultillgs

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trees arc 100 slI1all to be sold, the thinnillg is called prccollllllerciai.III a stand containing a mixture 01"dcsirabll! and undesirable trees, an \

1IlIIIrovelllcnl clilling may· be made to. favor the. desirable oneS'. Thechoice of trees to remove will depend on the owner's desire for timber,wildlife habital. aesthetic appeal, or recreation. Many species of minortimber illlportance produce nuts and fruits of great value to wildlife.

Natural calastrophes such as windstorms, ice 'storms, and firessometimes wreak havoc in forest stands. Salvage cll!llngs arc prescribedto 1I1ilile damaged trees and reduce the economic loss. If sOllle trees in a

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8CIIOICES IN SILVICULTURE _________ -=-F-=O-'-Rc::E..:cST-'---r=-·Y~p.ES AN D TRE.\ nl ENTS

rand are damaged by insects or disease, the forester may recommend aanitalion cut to remove the infested or infected trees that pose a threat:> neighboring healthy trees.

lntennediare cuu ings can be distinguished from reproduction cur-ngs by Iheir purpose. Reproduction cllllings create a new stand, whileucrruediate cuttings culture an existing stand. Most, though not all.lIermediate cUllings are Ihinnings made to remove trees Ihat crowd or:strict growth of better trees. III the single-tree and group selection sys-.ms, as noted, intermediate cllllings arc generally accomplished simul-uieously with reproduction cuttings. In the other three systems, inter-ediate cuts are made separately, and even though seedlings may:come established in the openings, no attempt is made to nurture them, salable size.

trees might be blown down by wind before a new stand could becomeestablished.

When a forester talks about site, he includes all the physical,chemical, climatic, and biological features of an area that influenceforest regeneration and growth. Site factors affect not only the growth ortrees but also the sensitivity of the area to soil compaction, erosion, andstrcaut sedimentation. III choosing and applying a silviculrural system,t he forester must evaluate the erosion hazard, slope, drainage, and fertil-ity of a site.

No mailer which silvicultural system is chosen, wildlife will be at-Iected. The effects may be for better or worse, slight or drastic, brief orenduring, depending on the forest type, the silvicultural system, the site,the conditions in adjacent stands, and other factors.

For example, single-tree selection maintains an almost complete can-opy and usually has only small and brief effects Oil the wildlife speciesthat thrive ill a mature forcst. Such culling, however, docs little for wild-life species that require open and brushy habitat. Clearcutting, by con-trast, favors these species but eliminates the mature-forest habitats. Tofavor all wildlife, a forester must provide the different conditions re-quired by individual species in different portions of the forest. Con-sultation with wildlife experts is often needed to determine habitatrequirements. .

'The value or a stand as a wildlife habitat is influenced not only by treespecies, but by their age, size, form, and health. Old trees have stoutlimbs on which heavy birds can nest. Bare branches provide roosts. Rot-ten spots Can be hollowed into nests. Large dead trees (snags) are particu-larly important and should be left standing whenever possible. They pro-vide habitat for hole-nesting and insect-eating. wildlife.

A forester must always be guided by owner objectives: The desiresand financial resources of clients vary widely. Small tracts may be ownedfor many reasons including timber production, private hunting, andfamily recreation. Most small-tract owners desire a mixture of benefits .Public forests are usually managed for optimal production of multiplebenefits, and procedures developed on public lands are often applicableon sll\all private tracts. Most large private tracts arc owned prilllarily fort itubcr production.

It is the forester's job to inform the landowner-client of the choices ill'silviculture. Even where the primary desire is for one purpose, the ownermaycome to see advantages in the production of other benefits. It is of-ten possible, for example, to improve conditions for wildlife with littlesacrifice in timber growth,

Prescribing an appropriate sllvicultural system is a complex profes-sional decision-a decision based on many factors which may vary indegree and change with time. Choosing and applying a system for a for-est stand, therefore, requires both knowledge and judgment. It is herethat forestry becomes art-s-with biology and ecology providing the paints·-Iandowners, the canvas-c-and foresters, the design.

ChOOSing a Silvicultllral System

The authors do 1I0t suggest any single silvicultural system as best for.y single forest type. Rather they discuss benefits and limitationsiociated with the use of each system in each forest type. Their hope isIt such information.will help readers in all walks of life to under standand to participate ill-public forums on forestry. Perhaps the book11 also be of value to students considering forestry careers. It is not in-rded to he a do-it-yourself book. The authors believe that choosingd applying a silvicllltllral system is a task for a professional forester,e familiar with local conditions and landowner objectives.The benefits of a managed forest are inflttenced by the silvicultura]tem that is applied. St ream now, qualit y or wildli Ie habit at, amount orage for livestock, aesthetic appeal, and recreatiotl potential, as well asiber production, may be affected. The choice of a system depends on

characleristics of the tree species that make up the forest type, thetures of the site on which the trees are grown, and the objectives andources of the owner. A forester can tell an Owner what benefits are.sible, Once the owner has defined his desires, a forester can apply aicultllral system that provides the best mix of benefits.The characteristics of the tree specles" in the forest determine the.ge of alternative treatments a Forester call prcscriho. Chid' alllollg,racteristics to be cOlisidered are species tolerance to shade, suscept i-:y to windthrow, adaplability to soil and moisture conditions, ability,vithstand flooding, and vulnerability to insects, disease, and fire,For example, a species needing full sunlight will not grow well undershade of a tree canopy. A species with a shallow root system shouldgenerally be regenerated by the seed-tree system because the seed

lies of tree species in this book follow the Checklist of United States Trees\'e and Nuturalired} by E. L. Little, Jr. 1979. llSDA Agriculture HandbookWashingtoll, D.C.

Extension Circulor 1114Reprinted OCLOber 1985

25'1:

Multiple UseAgro-Forestry: Growing Trees,

Forage, and Livestock TogetherFor a lot of forest landowners the

major obstacle to starting a newforest is the long wait for maturetrees. "I can', afford ro plant treesand wait 30 to 40 years for anincome," is a complaint manylandowners voice. It's a realisticcomplaint, too! No matter how greatthe final return on a tree-plantinginvestment, income during theintervening years is virtually non-existent.

"Show me a way to maintain anannual income from my propertywhile I wait for those trees to mature,and I'll plant them," is the challengecoming from ranchers and otherwoodland owners. Agro-Iorestrycould be an answer.

Agro-f'orestry involves plantingwidely spaced trees into pasture toattain the best combination ofpasture growth and timber quality ..It provides an annual income fromlivestock production, while the treesare maturing. This combined produc-tion could result in a greater profitthan does either forest or pastureproduction alone.

This concept-combining forageand tree production on the sameland to obtain greater profit-maysound too good to be true. Butpreliminary results from research inNew Zealand, Australia, and Ore-gon indicate that it is possible.

Oregon State University Extension Service

These are not the only locationswhere forest grazing is being tested.Forest grazing with cattle has been acommon practice in the southeasternUnited States for several years.

Note, however, that there are twodifferent agro-r'orestry productionsystems-a producer can plant treesinto existing pasture or attempt toestablish forage planes under anexisting timber stand.

This publication describes thesystem in which a producer planestimber seedlings into an establishedpasture to maximize the land re-source with multiple crops. Whileexperience has shown that foragecan be established under existingtimber stands, this system is lessdesirable and more limiting. Do notconfuse it with our description here.

Agro-fores~rydown under

Agro-forestry has been investi-gated most thoroughly in NewZealand and Australia. Both coun-tries have extensive acreages consist-ing of research installations andprivate holdings.

One of :he .argest research studiesbegan in 19-; on a :30-a.c:-einstallation near Rororua, NewZealand. Here. Monterey pine wasplanted on pasture at variousstocking densities to research thebest combination of livestock andtrees for maximum financial returnfrom the ia...nd. Here are some resultsof this research.

Grazing. Approximately 20 per-cent of the grazing potential can beobtained .n the first year afterplanting: .!.{) percent, in the secondyear: and 50 percent, in the thirdyear.

No grazing is recommended untiltrees are approximately 3 feet tall.For the firs, :: years, while trees arewithin browsing range, hay may beCut between tie rows on suitableterrain. or lambs can be grazed.(Areas wic:: poor tree growth maystill ~equi,e restricted grazing after 3years. )

Protection. Experiments usingmechanical guards to protect young

Figure la..-An cgro-forestry demonstration area near Roseburg, Oregon. Thealternate rows of knobcone-Monterey pine (K.\L'(j and Doug ics-fir are 3 years old.

trees frcrn damage have beensuccessful, our ccstlv. An alternativeis to plant tailer seedlings to reducethe period of vuirier abiliry tol' '.1veSlOC:':.

Thinning. A typical plantingconsists of 300 to 500 trees. thinnedto 82 trees per acre when the trees are10 feet tall. Thinning is done 10 leaveonly the fastest-growing crop treespecimens and to minimize shadiagof the pasture.

Pruning. As the trees mature,pruning the lower branches (in fivestages) :0 a height of 26 to 36 fee:prevents knots in wood and pro-duces more veneer, clear boards, andgood quality framing material. Taisalso reduces shade and. improvespasture production.

Livestock performance. Weightgain and wool quality are affectedlittle by densities up to ..q trees peracre. However performance de-clines when the censiry is more than82 trees pee acre (in comparison :Qperformance on 3. pasture with notrees) ,

_-\lr::ough :-e5e2:-:~e:-s in ~e'.vZC3.1ariG have ::0: completed anentire :-oLatior: ~f tree growth, theirpreliminary :"i~c.:::gs indicate thereare no insurmountable barriers cograzing under \ Icnterey pine forests,provided .he ::::2 crop objective isnot mere :n2.r. 52 .rees per acre.

Agro-fcres::-y in OregonIn 1979. 2.[,. agro-for estrv demon-

stration was star.ed near Roseburgin western Oregon, As show;'! infigures l a and 1C. native 2-ye3.r-oldDouglas-fir ::":1C ; -year-old knobcone-Monterey pine (K:YIX) seedlingswere piarued. .Similar research alsobegan in .he fatl of 1982 at OregonState Lniversitv in Corvallis, usingDouglas-fir .)

K;,!X is a hyjr:d (an offspring oftwo cirferem ;JIZ!1t species) .aatincorporates :he cold hardiness ofknobcone pine with the fast growthof \!onte,ey ;::ine. Mcnrerev pine isfound naturally only in a small beltbetween San Francisco and SantaBarbara. Cai.fornia , but ir :5 animpor.anr fares: .ree elsewhere inthe «crlc. :<:~()~cone oine occurs ina broader are:l-:-·:.-cn: sout r.ern

Figure! b, - The knobcone-Monterey pine fKYlX) is twice as rail as [he Douglas-firrow in the foreground. Because oj the slower growth oj Douglas-fir, terminal shootprotection is necessary at {his vuineraoie si:e.

Oregon :0 Lc s Angeles at elevationsup to : .000 :'::ec.

1:1e cWo 5;;:e-:::e5were planted at :::by J:: :-00 ( 'T:acings in alternate fO'.V;on an improved subclover andryegrass ;J2.s:-.:.:-e in excellent condi-tion. Even (::c:ug:: the Douglas-firseedlings wer e :: years old. thel-yea.-olc :(\ rx: .vere of comparac.esize. Crazing .riais with sheep havebeen conduc.ec during (he first 3years of plantation growth with thefollowing ~e5''':::s:

Crazing. Si;ee;:: will feed onseedlings. e';e:: when planted inimproved pasture. (Grazing trialswere conducted in the spring beforetree cucbreak.) It appears thatgrazing snou.c be avoided until treesare 3 :-ee: .ai. and out of browsingrange.

..••.....

Browsing. Douglas-fir usuallysustain mor e camage than KMX ancseem :o ce (::e preferred browse.You can avoid browsing damagewith rnecnar.ical devices (Vexartubes su::po::ed with wood stakes orchicken -vir e ::lges); however, thesemethccs are expensive. Less costly.and less eff.:::::-'e, is BGR (Big Garr;eRcpe:!C:--ln-~;CU apply it (0 the treesjust ~c:~ore~:-3.z:l!g.

Herbicides. These should be usedin the first 2 years arter springgrazing to eliminate competingvegetation around each tree andconserve moisture during :je sum-mer growing season. Their purposeis to insure maximum tree survivaland get trees above .ne heign: that isvulnerable to sheep.

Douglas-fir. A:-:e:: three growingseasons, the average height of K.'vIXis just over 6 feet. twice that of theDouglas-fir: The slower growth ofDouglas-fir limits the amount ofgrazing during the third year. Fullgrazing potentia! :5 expected duringthe fourth year.

Pruning. Although pruning hasnot been necessary to this point, itappears it will be essenriai ,0maintain pasture growth. Theo-retically. the K:-'1X should be readyto harvest within ::0 to 25 years,leaving the Douglas- fir :0 mature atapproximately 40 years of age.During that time, it is necessary tomaintain productive pasture for asmany years as possible by tree

thinning, and possibly by pruninglower branches.

While pruning has not been arecommended forestry practice inthe Pacific Northwest, it appearsthat in the context of agro-forestry,it will be important.

Spacing. The initial 12 by 12 footspacing (300 trees per acre) will haveto be increased as the trees mature.Optimum spacing for Douglas-firand K;"[X in pasture is not known atthepresent lime.

Judging from the results of rheresearch cited, the benefits ofagro-forestry are promising; however,you should consider carefully bothits advantages and disadvantagesbefore trying it on your property.

Advomoges of09 ro-fcres Lry

Multiple use. There is moreproduction from an acre of land andpotentially more net profit. Productdiversity could help stabilize yourincorne=-being able to se!llogs whenlivestock prices are low and to retainstanding trees when livestock pricesare high, strengthens your cash flowand provides more marketing options.

Ecological benefits. These aresignificant. Legume plants in theforage crop (subterranean clover)capture nitrogen from the air thatexists in the soil and convert it to aform of nitrogen that facilitatesgreater plant growth.

Livestock. Sheep or cattle canharvest the forage growing under thetrees and provide salable material(meat and wool) from it. They alsocontribute to faster tree growth byconverting plant material into dungand urine. The nitrogen in thesebyproducts is then available as plantfood for both trees and pasture.

Fertilizer. This costs less becausenitrogen fertilizer is not necessary.Nitrogen comes from the foragecrop (dover) through nitrogenfixation.

You must apply phosphorus andsulfur as necessary, but they tend tobe 10w-cOSI fertilizers and have low-energy requirements for production.

You won't need to apply them asoften once soil nutrients have beenbuilt up-rhe ecological systemrequires lower energy inputs tomaintain soil fertility.

Soil fertility. Agro-f'orestryminimizes depletion of soil nutrients.The products you intend to sell-livestock or trees, or both-don'trequire that you add much fertilizerto the soil.

When you harvest the trees, youmay leave some or all of the foliageon the site. High in nutrient content,this waste material helps replenishthe soil. This nutrient cycling systemminimizes soil depletion, making forlow fertilizer costs.

Grazing. Sheep can control muchof the competing vegetation (brush,grass, etc.), and can reduce moisturestress on established trees. Thisprovides easier access through thetrees when culturing. It also im-proves tree growth and reduces theconcern of wildfire.

The grazing loss from the rnatur-ing trees is offset by the returns fromthe timber crop.

Environment, Agro-Iorestry ere-ares an area with visual appeal (treesgrowing in a pasture are estheticallypleasing). It also encourages birds,bur few rodents. In addition. thetrees moderate c.irnaric extremes atground level, which may increaselivestock performance with greaterweight gains and better wool quality.

Disadvantcges ofcoro-toresrrv

-'Investment. There is an obvious

reduction in grazing potential as thetrees rnature-s-increasing canopyreduces the available light and limitspasture growth. Investments in treethinning and pruning will be neces-sary to slow this process andmaintain forage for as long aspossible. Also, you may need toinvest in fencing :0 control grazinglivestock.

Restricted grazing. There arelimitations in pasture use during thefirst 2 to 3 years while the tree

seedlings are more susceptible tobrowsing damage.

Management. Agriculture andforestry management require somemodification under the concept ofagro-Iorestry. Therefore, manage-ment will probably be more compli-cated, and you may need to acquirenew skills.

Alternative cropsDon't limit :he agro-fcrestry

concept to trees and livestock.Where terrain is suitable, alternativecropping between rows of trees ispossible.

A wheat crop has been grownsuccessfully between rows of first-year KMX seedlings in DouglasCounty, Oregon. The only problemencountered was the right treespacing at the edges of the field-harvesting equipment needed morespace to maneuver than was allowed.

Some final questionsThere are still many questions

concerning agr o-forestry that needto be answered. Test areas need to beestablished. Refinement of optimumspacing and yield of the various treespecies, forage types, and livestockall need to be determined.

The most crucial question muststiil be answered: At what level oftree stocking can we expect the bestcombination of animal and timberproduction to derive the highest netprofit?

SummaryAlthough the concept of agro-

forestry is still in its infancy in thePacific Northwest New Zealandresearch shows it to be technicallyfeasible. On suitable sites, it prom-ises higher financial returns thanfrom pasture grazing alone.

The ultimate goal of agro-f'orestryis increased prociuc:ion-of bothwood fiber and red meat. Demandfor wood in the C nited States ispredicted to double by the year :WOO.The cornpatibiliry of tree crops withlivestock could provide a key tomeeting this demand.

The Oregon State University Extension Service provides education aru: information based ontimely research !O help Oregonians solve problems and develop skills reicted to vouth, family,community, farm, forest, energy, and marine resources.

Extension's forestry program improves Oregonians' knowledge ojfores: resources and theiroptions for expanding benefits from these resources. This educctionci program assists forestowners, managers. processors, and users in understanding small woodland production andmanagement and use oj all forestlands. Priority subjects are reforestation, growth,management, harvesting, processing and use 0/ wood, protection of soil and Water, and othermultiple uses and values.

This publication was prepared by Robert S. Logan, Douglas Couruy Extension agent, OregonSlate University. It is one of a series ofpubtications developed jar the Extension WoodlandWorkbook.

The Woodland \\'orkbook is a collection 0/40 publications in a 3-ri.'1g binder, prepared by theOregon Stale University Extension Service specificaity lor owners and managers of private,nonindustrial woodlands. For information about how to order and for a current list oj lilies andprices, write Bulletin .\/ai/ing Office, OSU, Corvallis 97331, or inquire at your county office ofthe OSU Extension Service.

Extension Service, Oregon State University, Corvallis, O. £. Smith. director. Thispublication was produced and distributed in furtherance of the .-iCIS of Congress ofMay 8 andJune 30, 1914.Extension work is a cooperative program of Oregon State University, the U.S.Department ofAgricuiture, and Oregon counties.

Oregon State Universi:v Extension Service offers educationoi programs, sctivities. and materialswithout regard to race. color, national origin. sex. or disabilitv as reouireti ov Tille VI of the

Civil Rights .-Ie: of 196-:. Title IX a/the Education Amendments of ;9~::.and Section 504 of theRehabilitation .-lc: of :97'3. Oregon Stale Universtty Extension Service is an Ecucl OpportunityEmployer.

I\

Extens.on Circular 1129October 1983

50¢

.=

TheJ\WooarandWor~boo~

Forest MeasurementsTools for Measuring Your Forest

As a landowner, you frequentlymay want to measure propertyboundaries, ground slope, standingtimber size, and log volume. Youneed tools for each of these tasks.

You can measure forests andforest products most efficiently andprecisely with the aid of sophisti-cated, and often expensive, instru-ments. However, you can makemost necessary measurements with afew simple arid inexpensive tools.

This publication discusses onlythose tools that are readily availableand appropriate for a landownerwith basic measurement skills. Onpage -;, you will find a list of thetools that compares the accuracyand convenience of each for variousmeasurement tasks.

The tools-end howthey work

Abney hand level (abney). Thisdelicate instrument consists of asighting tube and a level bubble withattached scales. The scales areusually graduated in degrees orpercent. The abney measures verti-cal angles and is useful for determin-ing ground slope, road grade, andtree height (see figures 1 and 2).

Angle gauge. A mechanical oroptical device for selecting trees invariable pier sampling. The mostcommon is a wedge prism-aprecisely ground glass wedge that is

Figure1.- To use an abney level, sight an object through the telescope and movethe level bubble [0 (he center position. The number on the sczie is the correct reading.

1:'Lne cr«.~lg.1r i--------- -~w;'''\:.d

"-'--P~~50n usingacnev level

Figure 2. -:'vfe~ur:!:? the slope of a hii! with an abnev. (The reading is - J:: on a per-cent scale.) Bot h people are the same heigh: so the [ower person can ",'5.':[ CI the eyesof the upper person.

Oregon State University Extension Service

calibrated in basal area factors(BAF) (see figure 3). You need dif-ferent BAF prisms for differentdiameter classes of timber.

Biltmore stick. One of severalsimilar sticks or other devices to aidyou in making simple but crudeestimates of tree height and diameter(see figures 4 and 5). You can pur-chase or make one easily.

Clinometer. A rugged hand-heldinstrument for measuring verticalangles. Most models have bothdegree and percent scales. You canuse clinometers for the same tasks asabney levels; however, they provideless precise readings (see figures 6,i,and8).

Compass. A hand-held compassis a relatively rugged instrument thatmeasures horizontal angles ordirection (see figure 9). You canmake more precise readings whenyou piace the compass on a solid,nonferrous object.

Diameter tape. A steel tape thatmeasures the circumference of atree. It is calibrated to permitdirect tree diameter readings (seefigure 10).

Increment borer. A hand-operated drill with a hollow bit thatextracts a wood core from the stemof a tree (see figure 11). Borers varyin length, but the maximum sam-pling depth is about 16inches. Thisis adequate for conveniently deter-mining the age of trees up to about30 inches in diameter (including thebark). The wood core also providesa record of a tree's diameter growthin previous years.

Figure3.-(right) A wedge prism-oneof the angle gauges available foresti-mating the basal area of a stand of trees. ------~~~----~

---- -- ---- -- -- -- -- --

lN ----

}

! --...-'-------I -----~-Figure4.-;\1ea.suring tree height with a Biltmore stick. Most sticks are made to beheld 25 inches/rom the eye-any other distance causes incorrect readings.

----------------~eye-------

-------Figure5.-,\1easuring tree diameter with a Biltmore stick.

Figure6.-(r:"ght) The clinometer has asighting hoie and a suspended circularscale.

2

Scale visiblethrough viewer

------ CB-

Figure 7.- Viewing a tree top with a clinometer. (View the treewith the left eye end read the clinometer scale with the right eye.)

1j

.,..,." ~---

I80' --------------~~1

48070 -+- 42~o = 90070

.9x80' =72'

Figure 8.-Estimcting treeheight with a clinometer.

L·3

Figure 9.-(both photographs above)Hand compasses typical of [he modelsavailable .

Figure IO.-Measuring {Teediameterwith a diameter rape.

Figure I I .-[nc.-eme!1! borer extractinga core samp!e from a tree.

Figure 12.-An increment hammer isusedto obtainasample of a tree's outer inch.

Increment hammer. A harnrnerliketool with a aollow bit that vou driveinto the ::-~ ::y impact. Th~ shortcore sarnpie ;;rovides a record ofrecent growth, which is limited tothe curer ::-.cj of the tree (see figure12),

'I d " ( , ,srnai -en ciarneter see .acte 1).The tables ar e available .n board-••. t··_root ana C:l::JIC-ICOt measurements.Oregon Stare Univer sity ExtensionService Circular 1127, MeasuringTimber Products HarvestedfromYour Woodland (in press. 1983),also contains a leg volume table.Log volume table. A single sheet

or an ent ir e cook that lists logvolumes :c;:- each log length and Pacing: jjis is a 5 kiil rather .han

a tool. but it can ::e-a::c com-monly is-s-substituted ~or :oois when\. .. .nonzonrar cis ranee measurerr.emsdo nor need :0 be precise.

Rangefinder. A convenient opti-cal device, this tool provides horizon-tal measurements that are moreprecise than most pacing, but lessprecise than taping. Rangefindersare particularly useful for a personworking alone (see figure 13).

Tape. A narrow, flexible band orStrip that measures linear distance.Tapes are made of modern materialsto resist rust, wear, breakage, andlength change, The most convenienttape for forestry use is the 50- ori5-foot "logger's tape," whichhooks on a belt and rewindsautomatically when not in use.

Topographic map. A map thatshows terrain (ridges, draws, andflat areas) by contour lines. Thecontour lines indicate locations ofequal elevation and make it possibleto measure the slope of the groundfrom the map. Widely spaced con-tour lines indicate flat or gentleground; closely spaced lines indicatesteep ground.

Tree volume tables. Single sheetsor books of tables that list the woodvolume of trees in board or cubicfeet, or both (see table 2). The tablesare based on the height of the entiretree or a specified portion (totalstem, stem to a 4.-inch minimum top,stem to a o-inch minimum top, etc.),and diameter at breast height(d.b.h.).

(Text continues on page 'i)

..--, •.···~ •••.'l

Table I.-Log volume table; Scribner log rille, board-foot volume

16 17 I. 10 20

- Log length (feet)

2·1 25 26 27 28 29 30 3\ 32 JJ :JO 37 '039

i 10 10 10 10 10 10

5 10 10 10 10 10 10

10 10 IU 10 10 2U

7 III 10 10 2(J 20 20

6 10 10 20 20 20 zo9 20 20 :1.1) :1.1) :KI ao

IU JU JU JO JO '10 40

II JU JU '10 ~o 10 50

12 ·10·10 W 50. 00 GO

I:J [.AI!Jl} 00 ~/U 7U HtJ

14 UU UU 70 60 !X) 00

15 70.0 00 roo 110 120

lti eo 00 100 110 I~() I:KJ

n oo 100 I:.!O I:JO 1-)U Ifl(J

IU i IU I:.!O no 1:.0 ltill I"IU

ItJ I~O nu I~) Itjt) IW) HJ()

zo i ru h,() I"IU roo ZIO :'DO

:.II ItAI lltJ IOU :.no nu :.!: .•o4!:l I"/U l~ 210 :l:}U ~:JO 'J./O

23 100 210 2-10 200 WU 310

2·, 200 230 4:!50 2UO JlX) ]30

25 :lJO:lGO 290 :.120 3-10 :170

26 250 280 310 ;,,0 3"/0 '110

10

10

20

W

20

so-10

50

70

10

W

zo20

20

:KJ

10- 10

20 20

20 20

30 30

:J() JU

10 ·10

co 00

70 70

UO 80

U~I HXl

un I~'I

HO uoItll) '"/iJ

IHt) ~()O

:!IU 2:10

'"(;<1

60

00

11"

I:W)

1m

IHO

~IO

:l1O:au:.110

:1141

:tHO

410

520

560

10

20

:J()

<to

fA}

'/0

HO

IlO

HO\71)

l!IO

:WU

:noJtiH

·IU.]

·150

·IIJO

510

5DO

10

zo:l.lI

:x),It)

:~)

'/0

60

100

Hn

IUO

5'IU

620

10?on

30

:10

'10

~,o"0

oou»I:••

210

:l·11)

:~lIti

:J!O

:1"(0

'luO

-1-10

·190

5:10

cooWO

10

zoJO

.11

·10

UO

III)

noIliO

21X)

2~i{)

:1]0

:IUU

'!lit)

52U

550

1)30

(jUG

20

2<)

'10

,10

UO

eoUK)

110

I 'Ill

WI

2002:K)

:UIl

:IIU

:1-10

'\00

+U1'lUll

(iOO

720

zoJ()

:10

'10.1(}

uti

!x.1

100

I~O

1:,0

1"10

210

:l·IU

.no:t:~tJ

:'}Ij()

·I:.!l)

·11.111

~)()

5t)O

UIO

690

7f:AJ

20

:W)

:10

-10

:iO

110

!.IO

100

120

I~

IIlO

220

:!lX)

:t:IIJ

:1'10

+10

·1·/tl

500

lDO

72()

71j()

20

:W)

J()

-10

so(iO

010

WI

1':JJ

810

~J

60

'/0

:l·IU ~!)tJ

:!uo :tOlJ

~I\O :)1)1) :I:.!U

:J:K) :J! .•o3110 :100

-1()() -IJO

'IGO ..JOO

5<.0 5;)0

:UU

JSO

JUO-IJQ

1'10

20

:10

:10

-10

oo'/0

IlXl

110

I:W)

100

100

2'IU

2'/0

:1I11

:JtiO

'100

-rlO

hlO

fi:J()

(lUO

170

Il-'O

f.JUJ

(;(;0710

BOO"70

20 20

JO JU

,10 'aor,o 50

GO GO

7" '/()

IIll 110

no lJU

150 150

180 100

21Ll ,220

270 200

:100 31U

:.150 JGO

-I<xl 110

1tJ1:) 'UjU

5"..1:0 f>.IO

570 !.IlK.

6JU 650

110 7:xl

7GO 180

seo 1190

9-10 970

20 20

:xl JOW SO

~) 60

-/0 10

oo IllO

I~~) IJU

1-10 150

lGO 160

I!l() 200

2:J() 2-10

21J0 200

:120 J:xl

J-'O :100

OJ '1-10

1HO ,tOO

~~o 560

tHO (notriO UW

750 700

810 8JO

~20 950

1000 IOJO

20

-10

20 20 30 JO 30 30

<to 40 10 10 <II) ,to

so no 60 on t10 fjl.)

60 60 10 70 70 -'"

110 80 80 80 90 !lO

IIX) 100 110 1111 110 12n

lJO lID 1m 1m 150 I':JJ

160 160 170 170 1110 )00

170 160 100 roo 190 2<lO

210 220 220 2JO 2-10 2-10

250 2,,;0 200 270 200 200

J 10 320 J30 ;'10 350 360

350 :J(lO J',O JIlO :00 ,100

1()() -12C 1:10 4-10 150 -lIiO

no -1110 1UO 510 52<) 5:K)

b20 510 sso 5'/0 560 ooo610 6:~) 1350 f3('LJ 6HO 7(X)

0.10 (iUO '/00 'nn '1-10 ·n;.)

1:tu 1W .,./0 "00 810 U-IO

820 850 870 890 920. !HO

880 910 9JO ow 980 :.010

1000 \OJQ 1000 1000 1120 1150

1000 1120 1160 1190 1271) 1250

()O

-Ill

1Il0

I:KI

150

17"

210

2-10

:J(JO

:>10

3!x)

(i!J)

'110

800

800

oeo1060

50

711

ItX)

I~~J

1-10

1&1l

~10

200

~J()

:no:I!JO

()10

680

7:10

8:••

UlO

Table 2.-ExaIllJlle of a tree volume table"

TOTAL TREE cu. fT. VOLUIIEme IUD mG-T5~IIC l05mGro-p -I D

AIIO STUtlP I DIllY BII

VOlUfIE TO A __ -'!Q~~JtIE T~~ 1I/CII TOP D4 WCIt TOP 1U f: BOARD FEET

CUBIC CUBIC BOAUn_H£.: _SOUBUER JlITERIIATIOIIAl 1/4 B__ IEET t:!;:fT__ _ __ lL QQL IQ __ -.l~_ (Ll -L- -1.L LL (l~ II~fV/BA I GI1 VOl. IV/BA TIt_l_ -,!Q!:JY/~A4 GN 1 VOL ~OA fGI1 VOL WBA ~ GNI VOL I V/BA rGt11 VOL IVIOA I GII-

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'Tarif number 36.S in Comprehensive Tree- Volume Tarif Tables, 3rd ed., State ofWashington, Department of Natural Resources. October 1980.

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Table 3.-Precision and convenience of tools for various tasks

Tools

Task to measurevc,'"

.,E::l

-0;. .,...-0"..l!

•.. ..•• u=-:::.•==:;

BoundariesHorizontal angles

Horizontal distance -•..•..uE'"C

• IGjeRoad grade I 'Wi

ro-I-, -Ground slope -, I •Logs

DiameterLength

Volume

o

•I .-I-;

Trees

--f

Age

Basal area

Current growth

DiameterHeight

Distance•.......:~-

Vertical angle.

Volume

II•

o

II.,

~I-jIJ

IPrecision

Least ---- Most~ Easy; I'- 1~ More~ difficult

• •o

Comparing the toolsUse table 3 to compare tools that

you can use for the same tasks..First, check the key at the bottom.Note that the three sizes of circlesindicate the degree of precision; theblack-to-white range indicates degreeof difficulty in use. Now find in theleft column the factors you intend tomeasure-and consider all the toolsshown on each line. Some are quickand easy to use-but yield roughresults. Others are more difficult touse-and mayor may net giveprecise results.

•o

Select the tool that fits your need.For example; if you want tomeasure the grade of a road, youcan choose among three tools: theabney hand level, the clinometer,and the topographic map.

The abney level shows a largecircle (indicating high relativeprecision) that is half-black (indicat-ing it is somewhat difficult to use).

The clinometer shows a middle-sized circle (it is quite precise)that is all black (it is easy to use).

The topographic map shows asmall circle (least precise of the

7

three) that is half-btack: (relativelyeasy to use).

The tools discussed here areavailable from many sources. Someare stocked locally, but you canobtain others only from distantsuppliers. You can browse tool andsupply catalogs in many ExtensionService offices.

Instructions may be included witha tool when you purchase it, butnovices frequently need help withcertain tools. Ask your Extensionagent for additional publications orether sources of help. .

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The Woodland Wonroook is a collection oj more than 50 publications prepared by the OregonState University Extension Service specifically jor owners and managers oj private.nonindustrial woodlands. The Workbook: is organized into ltl sections containing informationoj long-range and day-to-day value jar anyone interested in wisemanagement. conservation.and use of woodland properties. The sections are Management Planning. ForestMeasurements, Reforestation, Stand Management, Logging. Marketing Forest Products,Multiple Use, Forestry issues. Business Management, and Woodland Assistance.

A lthough each wood/and publication is intended to be complete in itself, you may wist: topurchase the entire set oj publications in a three-ring Woodland Workbook binder with tabbeddividers for each section. if you wish to purchase only the three-ring binder for filing copies ofour woodland publications, you may obtain the binder and dividers as apackage. Oryou maypurchase individual Workbook: publications as you need them,

For information about how to order and for a current list of iitles and prices, write BulletinMailing Office, Oregon State University. Corvallis, OR 97331, or inquire at the office of theOregon State University Extension Service that serves your county.

The Oregon State U Diversity Extension Service provides education and information based ontimely research to help Oregonians solve problems and develop skills related to youth. family.community, farm. forest. energy, and marine resources. .

Extension's forestrY program improves Oregonians' knowledge of forest resources and theiroptions for expanding benefits from these resources. This educational program assistsforestawners, managers. processors, and users in understanding small woodland production andrnanagement and use of all forest lands. Priority subjects are reforestation, growth,management. harvesting. processing and use of wood, protection of soil and water, and other.multiple uses and values.

This publication was- prepared by Steve Woodard. Benton and Lane County Extension agent.Oregon Slate University. Use of trade names isfor illustration only and does not constituteendorsement by tne OSU Extension Service.

Extension Service, Oregon Slate University, Corvallis. O. E. Smith, acting director. Thispublication w~ produced and distributed in furtherance of th«A cts of Congress of May 8andJune 30. 1914. Extension work is a cooperative program of Oregon Slate University, the U. S.Department of Agriculture, and Oregon counlies.

Oregon State University Extension Service offers educational programs, activities. aridmateriais without regard to race, color, national origin, or sex as required by Title Vi of theCivil Rights Act of 1964 and Title iX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Oregon StateUniversity Extension Service is an Equal Opportunity Employer.

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Extension Circular 1122P-eprinted August 1989

75¢ W6ro~ndWor"boo"

Multiple Use ~Enhancing Wildlife

on Private WoodlandsWildlife is an integral part of

woodlands. Where there are forests,meadows, and streams, there iswildlife. Although it means manythings to people, wildlife divides intothree basic categories. The mostcommon category is game-birdsand mammals that one hums forrecreation, fur, and food.

Another category is pest anima/s-those that damage conifer seedlings,seeds, and, in some cases, largertrees.

A third, catchall category,attracting attention only recently, isnongame species. This includessongbirds, reptiles, amphibians, andother animals that are neither huntednor cause problems.

Rather, they are observed bybirdwatchers, photographers, hik-ers, and others involved in outdoor·recreation. Rare or endangeredspecies such as the bald eagle areusually included in this category.

One of the directing forces behindmanaging natural resources, particu-larly on small areas like woodlots, isthe benefit. What sort of benefirrs)can you expect for investing time andmoney on wildlife? The rerum forgame and nongame animals isincreased use by people.

Hunters want to harvest moreand/or bigger (trophy) animals. Incases where acreage is sufficientlylarge (600 + acres or 1 square mile),

it may be profitable to lease the rightto hunt on your land. Birdwatcherswant to spot more birds and/or alarger number of different birdspecies.

This publication discusses man-agement of game and nongamewildlife for tae purpose of increasingtheir use by people. Pest wildlife isdiscussed only to the extent that landmanagement for game and nongamespecies does nor lead to increaseddamage by pests. Control ofdamages to conifers by pest animalsis covered in EC 1201 and EC 1255.

Whether you manage land forgame, nongame, or pest species, theobjective is to increase, decrease, ormaintain numbers of wildlife.Increased use of wildlife usuallynecessitates increasing numbers orquality of wildlife available for use,which is known as wildlifeenhancement.

What is enhancement?Enhancement of wildlife popula-

[ions means to cause an increase innumber and/or quality of animalswithin those populations. Theobjective may be to produce moredeer or quail, to have moretrophy-class animals, or, to increasediversity- the number of differentspecies.

D.S. deCaiesta

Howdowegetenhancement?

All wildlife species are products oftheir environment or habitat. Eachspecies has specific, unique habitatrequirements that are different fromthose of other species. The habitatprovides basic life requirementsincluding food. protection fromenemies and weather, and a place torear young.

As the amount of the specifichabitat and the diversity of differentkinds of habitats increase, diversityand numbers of wildlife species on agiven piece of land will also increase.Much of the answer !O the question,"How do you enhance wildlifespecies?" is met by the response,"How do you enhance habitat?"

Enhancement must provide foryear-round wildlife needs. For somespecies, like deer and elk in easternOregon, the quality and quantity ofsome elements of the habitat varyseasonally. The quality and quantityof forage in summer and falldetermine the amount of fat theystore in preparation for the toughwinter months.

If forage is not plentiful and ofhigh quality on summer ranges, the

David S. deCaks;a. forme; Extensionwildlife specialist. Oregon StateUniversity.

Oregon State University Extension Service

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SONG8IRO~( ) ,""_"!NG SCUIRRS.

1MATURE a OLD GROWTrfv.

30 YEARS i 70 YEARS

~-----------------------------------------350 YEARS----------------------------------------~:50 YEARS

.,.,.-,,

;--------------------35C YEARS ---------------------1

i=igure l.-·::op) Combinations or ....,iidlirespecies thet occur on c natural, unmonogedforest, cnc :Sottom) those that cccecr on a managed feres t.

animals rnav starve on winter rangeswhere fcoc typically is of low qualityand quantity. Also, if deer and elkare not in prime condition in fall,they may ::ot breed, and fawn andcalf crops may fail in the spring.

Some species, like certain frogsand salamanders, have a specialrequirement for the riparian zone,the moist forested area along streamsides. Most species, however, likedeer, quail, and chipping sparrows,require combinations of habitat-meadows and other forest openings'to feed in, and timber for breedingsites and for protection fromweather and predators.

Habitat variety occurs naturallywhen natural events like fire,windthrow, and insect and diseaseattacks open portions of forestedareas. These areas usually arerevegetated in stages, beginning withgrasses, progressing to shrubs, thenseedling trees, saplings and maturetrees, and finaily old-growth trees.

Enhanc:ng habitatHabitat diversity. Vegetation

(trees, ShI"'c10S, grasses) provideswildlife habitat. Different specieslive in different piaces within thisstructure. various birds, like somewarblers, ;i'/e only in the tops ofconifer trees. Here they find food(insects). cuild nests, and takeshelter frorr; weather and predators.Other species, like pocket gophers,live underground in grassy meadows.

With each successive stage,different combinations of wildlifespecies likewise appear, persistawhile, and then decline (figure 1,top scale). The diversity of wildlifespecies present depends on habitatdiversity associated with thesestages. Providing a diversity ofhabitats (and thus a diversity ofwildlife species) requires a diversityof areas in different stages ofvegetative development.

Clear-cut logging works likenature in opening forest lands andbeginning the progression ofvegetative stages, starting withgrassy meadows. The practices ofreforestation (planting coniferseedlings) and brush control provideother vegetative stages, but the timesequence is shortened (figure 1,bottom scale). The last stage. oldgrowth, usually is not attained.

Habitat quantity. Can I grow deeron a l Ovacre plot? How many acresdoes a covey of quail require? Whatquantities of habitat support viable,reproducing populations of wildlifespecies? The diversity and abun-dance of wildlife populations that agiven parcel of land supports aredirectly related to the amount andkinds of land available.

Table 1notes the minimum spacerequirements of representativespecies, Deer require a minimum of30 acres per animal of combinedforest lands and openings.

Quail require a minimum of 5 to10 acres per bird of open meadows,with brushy areas interspersedwithin the meadows and adjacentforest lands. Song birds, such aschipping sparrows, require about 5acres per bird, again of open areasadjacent to forested acreages.

The size and timing of timberharvest can be a major tool insimultaneous management of timber

and wildlife. Instead of creatinglarge (more than 1DO-acre) clearcutsin single cuttings. many smaller cutscan be spread over a number of years(40 to 60 acres could be cut every 5 to7 years). This would even out theflow of dollar returns from timberand the supply of forage and habitatdiversity for wildlife. Thinningtimber also provides forage andhabitat diversity.

Habitat placement, Wildlifespecies use different habitats to meetdifferent needs (openings for food,forested areas for cover). Thesedifferent habitats must be closeenough so that wildlife can readilymove from one to the other withminimal exposure to predation andweather.

For wildlife species with smallhome ranges (songbirds, quail,grouse, rabbits, and deer and elk inwestern Oregon), these different

Table I.-Habitat requirements of representaiive wildlife species~r-

Wildlife Representative Required habitats andgroup species acreages

Meadow wildlife California quail, Open areas wita grasses and forbs;brush rabbit, some shrubs (15 acres)meadowlark

Meadow/forest deer, elk Openings (50 aces); closed canopywildlife (I5-year-old .•..); conifers (150 acres)

chipmunk Opening (15 aces); second-growthtimber (15 acres)

junco, bluebird Opening (5 acres); second growth:1 (5 acres)

" Youngforest red squirrel Mixture of 15- to 75-year-old conifer.'l,1 wildlife trees; understory of grasses, forbs"j

(100 acres)~~ruffed grouse 50-50 mixture of conifers and alder

(15 acres)

MacGillivray's Mixture of 15- to 75-year-old coniferswarble: (15 acres)

Mature Iorest flying squirrel 75..;. year-old conifers (100 acres);wildlife understory with forbs, small shrubs

spotted owl 100..;. year-old conifers (400 acres)

pileated woodpecker 100+ year-old conifers (lOO acres)

i Riparian wildlife salamanders, frogs, Moist, streamside vegetation withV snakes closed canopy (\~ to 2 acres); flowing

streams

Large predators bobcat. bear, coyote, Mixtures of closed canopy with opengoshawk ings (300 to 1,.500 acres)

~

habitats must be close together (merehundreds of feet for quail andrabbits, usually less than ~ mile fordeer and elk).

Problems may occur in easternOregon with animals such as deerand elk. These have seasonalhabitats that are miles apart-«summer range at higher elevations inmountain meadows, winter rangedown on sagebrush flats. Preserva-tion of migration corridors used fortraveling to and from such seasonal .ranges is another habitat require-ment. If these migrating animalshave to cross many logging roads,they are exposed to hunters and cars.

Hunting of deer and elk may occurwhen tbe animals are on summerrange, on winter range, or travelingon migration corridors. If yourproperty includes only one of theseseasonally used habitats, yourmanagement of these animals maybe inrluenced by management onland over which you have no control.

Special habitatrequirements

Brush piles essential (1 per 2 acres)

Migration corridors between seasonalranges

Snags with nest cavities

Cone-bearing trees for food

Moist streamside

Nest cavities in older (100 .•..year-oldtrees)

Conifer snags; minimum 20' d.b.h.for nest trees

Large (> 15" d.b.h.) trees for nesting!denning

Enhancement doesn't SLOpatmerely providing amounts, diver-sity, and habitat placement. Thereare additional habitat needs ofwildlife, primarily food andbreeding places, that you canmanage and thus indirectly influencewildlife.

Special requirements. Managingforest lands for timber productiongenerally.provides a variety ofhabitats. However, practices likebrush control and snag removal alteror remove special habitats of somewildlife species. 1:: some cases, onemanagement practice can providemultiple habitat requirements likefood and cover for several species.

Leaving a few standing snags andallowing down logs to remain on theground provides aesting sites(cavities in snags) and a food source(insects that burrow into decayingwood) for birds. Slash is oftenremoved from clearcut sites, usuallyby burning. Smail amounts of thisslash may insteac be piled to providebrush piles for quail and rabbits touse as protective cover, breedingsites, and food sources (berries andleaves).

In other cases , managementpractices may provide only for asingle need of wildlife. the rapidestablishment of conifer seedlings onforested openings (clearcuts, smallmeadows, etc.) within 3 to 10 yearsgreatly shortens .ae length of timethat these areas would otherwiseprovide forage for deer (7 to 25years). One way t: provideadditional forage for deer in theshortened time span is to makeforage plantings on parts ofclearcuts. Deer especially likeseedings of grasses and legumes.Quail, grouse, ad rabbits will alsotake advantage of this additionalfood source.

One cannot always maintain snags. and other dead standing trees asnesting sites forcavity-nesting birdsand mammals such as flyingsquirrels. However, you can buildnest boxes for bluebirds, othersongbirds, squirrels, and woodducks and place .aern in appropriatelocations as an ai.emarive to naturalnest sites.

The key to providing specialrec: ..iiremerus .s :~ ~de::::fythoseanimals you wis;: :0 enhance,determine if rner e are special

requirements that current manage-ment does not provide, andimplement those activities that willbenefit the desired populations.

Constraints onenhancement

One manages forest lands for avariety of reasons-timber produc-

. tion and recreation, as well aswildlife. The manner of manage-rnent on neighboring private orpublic lands may influence wildlifeon your land. You must account forthese factors in your managementplan to avoid conflicts and toincrease wildlife abundance.

Conifer damage. Game like deerand elk may damage coniferseedlings. Conducting habitatmanagement to enhance populationsof these animals should not result inincreased amounts of damage.However, habitat enhancement mayincrease populations of someanimals to a level where they depletenormal food sources and begin todamage conifers.

Planting forage crops for deermay increase populations of pestspecies like mice; they girdle coniferseedlings and can cause significanteconomic loss. Building brush pileswill provide food and cove: for quail2..11G rabbits; however, if you have"COomany brush piles close to coniferseedlings and not much forageavailable in winter, you may find therabbits causing significant damageIO the seedlings.

Conflicts with timber production.Often the primary product on forestlands is timber. In some cases,increasing habitat for wildlife willreduce the yield of timber products.Keeping meadows open forproduction of deer forage willpreclude production of timber formarket. Maintaining stands ofold-growth forest for species such asspotted owls and pileated woodpeck-ers prevents the short term rotation(50 to 80 years) required to maximizetimber production on forest lands.

Maximizing diversity of wildlifespecies requires maximizing diversityand location of habitat sites.Altering vegetation to maximizediversity will result in lowered

,..

production of timber on forestlands.

Neighbors. Forest managementon neighboring land (private andpublic) may influence the wildlife onyour land. If your habitat representsan island of deer managementsurrounded by land with few deer-like a large clearcut=-few deer andelk will move in, and the populationwill have to SUStainitself.

On the other hand, if theneighboring land is managed fordeer and elk as well as other forestresources, you may be providing anattractive area that will drawadditional animals from neighboringlands. The influx of these animalsmay overwhelm your ability to keepthe population low enough toprevent damage to your seedlings.

Matching whetyou wantwith what you've got

In any enhancement program, youmust match the desired wildlife withthe available habitaus). The firststep is to determine what sort ofwildlife you desire.

What wildlife do you want?Usually, if wildlife is to bemanaged, it will most likely be foryou and your friends, withrecreation and food as the chiefvalues. Perhaps you wish toemphasize game. In most cases,leasing or selling hunting rightsrequires large acreages (600 + acres)to provide sufficient numbers ofdeer, rabbit, quail, and grouse.There is competition from Federallands (U.S. Forest Service andBureau of Land Management),where anyone can hunt withoutcharge and probably can find morevariety and large: numbers of gameanimals than on a small, privateownership .

The required habitats for gameanimals are meadows and youngforests (table 1). This requires thatyou retain open grassy meadowswith little emphasis on older andmature forests that do not providefor optimum numbers of the primarygame species. Note also that you willneed fairly large acreages, especiallyfor deer-an expected annualharvest of:: to 5 deer from your landwill require at least j 00 acres.

'-.

If you desire other uses of wildlife,such as birdwatching, you shouldincrease habitat diversity. Thismeans providing the full range ofhabitats, beginning with openmeadows, progressing throughregeneration, and ending withmature forests.

If a stream runs through yourproperty, pay attention to riparianhabitat. For some species, smallareas of each habitat are needed. Forothers, like spotted owls, you mustset aside hundreds of acres ofprimarily old-growth forest.

As for a private game reserve,selling the privilege to observewildlife on your land will not bring inmuch money-public lands areavailable for this.

The best approach is to designhabitat improvements aroundsilvicultural practices. The variety ofspecies and numbers of individualspecies may be less than ideal, but theuse of smail unused areas, riparianzones, steep slopes, and other areaswhere timber production cannot bemaximized, will provide many of therequirements you need for adiversified habitat.

What habitaus) have you got?When you determine the desiredkinds of wildlife, you may identifythe required habitats and check themagainst what is available. You mustassess the diversity of habitats andacreage of each, as well as thehabitats of neighboring parcels ofland. If the species you desire matchthe type and amount of habitatavailable, the situation is ideal. If thernatchup is not good, you mustdecide whether to manipulate thehabitat to increase species diversity,or to increase the total number ofanimals-or perhaps both.

To do this properly, an inventoryof your property is essential. Make asketch of your land with the varioushabitats roughed out, includingacreages. Then list the wildlifespecies that this type of habitat willprovide. Couple a drawing ofhabitats resulting from vegetationenhancement with a listing of theassociated wildlife that thesemodified habitats would favor(figure 2).

Figure 2.-(toc) Wildlireihcbitct cssociorions on en undeveic oed woodlot, end(bottom) on a ceveloped woodlot.

Make a plan. If you intend toenhance vegetation to provide agreater variety of habitats forwildlife. vou mUSI make a clan forthe desi~~ci changes. The pian shouldinclude the locaricn arid acreage ofhabitat you desire to manipulate, theexpected cas! of the en.•.hancernent,and provisions for special habitatrequirements no, provided by typicalvegetation manipulation. An exam-pie of such a pian is presented :::table 2.

Where 10 go for help. There :5 anumber of public agencies ancprivate groups in Oregon thatcrevice assistance. The Oregon Statei.aiversitv Ext er.sion Service ::2..5publications that describe how :0provide special nabitat needs likenest boxes. The Oregon Departmentof' Fish and Wildlife has informationon preferred habitats of wildlife, and:::e Soil Conservation Service;;~o\'iC:es heip '.\'::h habitat man.pula-t.on. The Audubon Society is anexcellent source ::;i information •.on

~Jviding for special needs ofcngbircs. vlcst large [OWns nave accal Audubon ,:::apte:-.

Table 2.-Hcoirar enhancement plan

Provision for special requirementsWildlife species Habitat enhancement and acreages

Deer, elk Provide openings in forest (20- to 50-acres each); harveststanding timber; suppress tree and shrub regeneration.

Provide permanent openings (15 acres) and brushpiles(1 to 2/acre).

Maintain a good mixture of meadows, second growth, andold growth (5 to 10acres for each habitat).

Rabbits, quail

Songbirds

Seed to grass-legume mix-5-to 10-acre patchesin meadows.

Establish nest boxes; establish system of trailsthrough all habitats for bird watching.

Helpful references

OSU publicationsThese publications are available

from Publications Orders, Agricul-rural Communications, OregonState University, AdministrativeServices Bldg. 422, Corvallis, OR97331-2119. ?lease add 25c shippingand handling ro 52.50. For ordersbetween 52.50 and S100, add 15070shipping anc handling. For orders ofS100 or more, please call (503)737 -2513 ror a price quote.DeYoe, David, David deCalesta,

and Wieger Schaap, Understand-ing and Conrrolling Deer Damagein Young Plantations, OregonState University Extension Circu-lar 1201 (Corvallis, 1985). S1.75

deCalesta, David, and K. Asman,Controlling Packer GopherDamage to Conifer Seedlings,Oregon State University Exten-sion Circular 1255 (Corvallis,1987). sac

Other publicationsThe' 'Peterson Field Guide" series

for birds, mammals, animal tracks,trees and shrubs, reptiles andamphibians, insects, and bird nests(Boston: Houghton Mifflin).

and

Benson, D. "E., Helping Wildlife:Working with Nature (Washing-ton: Wildlife Management Insti-tute, WOO Vermont Ave., 1977).

Burger, George, Practical WildlifeManagement (New York: '"lin-chester Press, 1973).

deCalesta, David, and Millard S.Deusen, Woodland Fish andWildlife, World Forestry Centerpublication (Portland, Oregon,1988). No charge for single copies;order from World ForestryCenter, 4033 SW Canyon Rd.,Portland, OR 97221.

Gutierrez, R. J., D. J. Decker, R. A.Howard, Jr., and J. D. Lassoie,Managing Smail Woodlands forWildlife, Information Bulletin157 (New York: Cornell Univer-sity Press, 19/7).

Hassinger, J., L. Hoffman, J. J.Puglisi, T. S. Rader, and R. G.Wingard, Woodlands and Wild-life (University Park: Pennsylva-.nia State University, 1979).

Making Land Produce UsefulWildlife, USDA Farmers Bulletin2035 (Washington: Superinten-dent of Documents, 1955).

Schmidt, R., ed., Big Game of NorthAmerica (Harrisburg, Pa.:Stackpole Books, 1978).

Shomon, J. J., B. L. Ashbaugh, andC. D. Tolman, Wildlife HabitatImprovement (New York: Na-tional Audubon Society, 1966).

.h~ OREC-oN STATE UNNERSITY~ EXTENSiON SERVICE

The Woodland Workbook is a collection of publications prepared by the OregonState University Extension Service specifically for owners and managers of private,nonindustrial woodlands. It's organized into 11sections, containing information oflong-range and day-to-day value for anyone interested in wise management,conservation, and use of woodland properties.

The Workbook is available in a three-ring binder with tabbed dividers for eachsection. For information about how to order, and for a current list of titles and prices,write Publications Orders, Agricultural Communications, Oregon State University,Administrative Services Bldg. 422, Corvallis 9i331-2119, or inquire at the office ofthe OSU Extension Service that serves your county.

Extension Service, Oregon State University, Corvallis, O.E. Smith, director. This .publication was produced and distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress ofMay 8 and June 30, 1914. Extension work is a cooperative program of Oregon StateUniversity, the C'.5. Department of Agriculture, and Oregon counties.

Oregon State university Extension Service offers educational programs, activities,and materials-wichour regard to race, color, national origin, sex, age, ordisabiliry-as required by Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964',Title IX of theEducation Amendments of 19i2, and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.Oregon State University Extension Service is an Equal Opportunity Employer. .

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Extension Greulor 1155. November 198J

Wgo~ndworkbook, .

Kinds of Assistance ~

$1.25

Glossary of Woodland WordsForesters will readily admit that they have a languar~ alltheir 0 wn. IJ you are to deal effectively with those whowork in the forest, and with forestry information, youneed to be able to speak anti understand that iangUilge.

Wecaiitered this ,Iossary from Q number ofdifferent sources. We hop« it will get you startedlearning this new language. "';0$ you read it, please feelfru to con/act eilMr of us if you are aware of misl4i;e3or words that should iH gdd,d.

Maybe someday we willsee you out on yourwoodland, looking at a nurse tree, part of a sheJtuwoodsystem, in (J riparian zone that has become amonocuiture of nardwoods-s-because tn« site wcuoverstocked with boom us. 0

Happy reading! -Rick Fletcher and Bert Udell

Aabney level. A hand surveying instrument designed to

measure angles of elevation or depression, expressedin depees or percent. Similar to clinometer.

acre. A unit of land measurement, 43,560 sq ft or 10square chains, or a square 208.7 ft on each side.

advance growth. YOUOj trees that have becomeestablished naturally in a forest before cuttinz or .regeneration begin. Syn. advance reproduction.

aIforestJltion. Establishment of a forest on an area notpreviously forested.

a&eclass, One of the intervals into which the range of .ages of trees in a stand are divided into for .classification and use, .

auo-forestry. The practice of raising trees, forage, andlivestock on the same ground, at the same time •.Common associations are cattle and trees or sheep .and trees,

alJ.1l&ed.Applies to a stand that contains trees of all ~.Sa also even-aged and uneven-aged. . .

aJJ-a:ed manqement. A system of growing forest treesin groups where the individual trees are not the sameage (theoretically, an all-aied forest has treesscattered. throughout th.aI range in age from 1 year tothe otdest tree, whu..••••.er iu iie may be).

allowable cut. The amount of wood that can beremoved from a landowner's property during asiven period. without exceeding the nct iI'Owthduri%li that period on the property.

animal, a.a..it(AU). A measure of Iivestock numbers bywhich..different kinds, clwe&, mes, and~cs ofanimals are converted to an equivalent commonstanaard in relation to Ieed and fOfloie needed by &mature cow (approximately 1,000 lb, live weiiht). Inthe western range territory, one animal unit is equalto om head of cattle, one horse, one mule, fivesheep, five swine, or five gcau.

amauaJ Mai. The growrh layer of 1 year, uviewed onthe cross section of a stem, branch, or root. Oneyear's growth consists of a Layer of lighter-coloredwood (springwood) and a Layerof darker-coloredwood (summerwood).

arch. A trailer or structure in the shape of an inverted V: .or U, which u used in logging and is towed. behind(or anacaed to the back of) the skidding machine,lifting one end of the Jogs off of the ground duringthe yarding operation. .. . .

apect. The direction toward which a slope faces: Syn.exposure.

. avallable water. The amount of moisture in the sell t.huplants can-extract, usually not including water thatdrains readily and water beyond the "wilting ...point."· . 0 \ .. : ·0'·.

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01.

. . . Bback cut. In the process of felling So tree, the final cur.

made on the opposite side of the tree from the: facecut (or undercut).•...

.Oreqon Stete University ~xtension Service

.".

backfire. Comrciled fire set ahead 0 f a icrest fire tocreate a firebreak by reducing Iuei in the path of themain fire.

basal area.1. The cross-sectional area of the bole of a tree, 4 ~ft above the ground. Basal area == diameter of treesquared, times .005454.2. The sum of all the individual tree basal areas fora given land area. Commonly expressed as sq ft ofbasal area (3 well-stocked, 40-year-old Douglas-firforest may nave 200-250 sq ft of basal area).

BGR. Acronym for "Big Game Repellent," aputrified-egg product originally developed byWeyerhaeuser Company scientists; now sold undervarious trade names, as a repellent to animalbrowse.

BHtmore stlck. A stick graduated in such a way that thediameter of a standing tree may be estimated whenthe stick is held out at right angles to the main axis ofthe tree, anc at a distance from the eye for which thestick is graduated (usually 25 in).

biological control. Control of plants, diseases, andanimal pests by the use of natural enemies.

biomass. The sum total of biological material that existson a given land area. For trees and plants, thiJ caninclude leaves, branches, stems, and roots.

blaze. A mark placed on a standing tree to call specialattention to the tree.

blowdown. Trees that have been knocked over by wind.blue ltain. A fungus discoloration, predominantly

bluish, but sometimes grayish, blackish, or brownishin.appearance: confined almost exclusively 10sapwood; common in pines.

B.M. Bench lDZ!'X, a point of known elevation usuallyreferenced to sea.level,

board loot. A volume measure of lumber, being 1 ftwide, 1ft long, and 1 in thick 02 in x 12 in x 1 in>= 144 ell in).

bole. The main trunk of a tree.bolts (bolrwood). Short material to go into turned wood

products: furniture parts, shingles, shakes, arrows,etc.

boomer. Slang name for mountain beaver.borrow pit. In roadbuilding, an area where fill material

is "borrowed," and used in road sections where thenormal excavation process does not generateadequate fill material.

breasr helibl. 4Y.: ft above ground level. See d.b.h.broadcast burn. A controlled burn, where the fire is

allowed to proceed over an entire area. Sometimescalled a slash burn.

broadleal. See hardwood.browse. Small bushes, sprouts, herbaceous plants, small

trees, etc., that wildlife feed on.brush. Commonly refers t_ci undesirable shrubs and

other low-lying vegetation.bucloD&. Cutting a felled tree into specified log lengths.budburst. In woody plants, the time in the spring when

flower or leaf buds begin their annual growth. Syn.budbreak,

budeap. A piece of paper or other suitable materialattached to a young seedling. covering the terminalbud, to prevent animal browse.

buffer. A zone or strip of land that shields one areafrom another. Commonly used along streams or asvisual barriers.

bug kill, Tree or timber stands killed by insects,bUD&:..

1. Supports on a railroad car or logging truck onwhich the logs rest.2. A bed in a logging camp.

burl. An abnormal growth on a tree stem, with wood ()tissue growing in an irregular pattern. Usuallycircular in shape, these growths are widely soughtfor their interesting grain pattern.

bumiDl, methods of.1. burn, controlled. Any burning that a landownerstarts intentionally to accomplish a particularpurpose, and over which he or she exercises somesurveillance or control.2. burn, prescribed. The application of fire to landunder conditions of weather, soil moisture, and timeof day, that will accomplish specific silvicultural,wildlife, grazing, or fire-hazard-reduction purposes.

butt. The base of a tree or log.butt cut. The first log above the stump. Syn, butt log.

ccaliper (or calipers). An instrument used to measure

diameters of trees or Jogs. It consists of two parallel. arms at right angles to a graduated rule, with onearm that slides along the rule.

cambium. A layer of cells between the woody part of thetree and the bark. Division of these cells results indiameter growth of the tree through formation ofwood cells (xylem) and inner bark (phloem).

canopy. A collective term for the layer formed by thecrowns of the taller trees in a forest.

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carriage. In skyline logging, a load-carrying device fromwhich logs are suspended and which rides up anddown a stationary mainline for yarding or loading.

Cat. Tractor/bulldozer (trademark of the CaterpillarTractor Company).

catface. A scar on the surface of a log, generallyelliptical in shape, resulting from wounds that havenot healed over; also a scar near the base of a tree.

caulks (also called "corks"). Steel pegs in sales ofheavy boots to give loggers secure Iooririg (oftenapplied to the boots themselves).

cellulose. A complex carbohydrate occurring in the cellwalls of woody plants and all other vegetable matter.

chain. A measurement of distance: one chain equals 66ft. or 4 rods; SO chains equal I mile; JO sq chainsequal J acre. Once used extensively in land surveys.

charcoal. One of the principal products of thedestruct: ve distillation of woods.

check. A lengthwise separation of the wood, whichusually extends across the rinis of annual growth,commonly resulting from stresses set up in woodduring drying ....

chips. Small pieces of wood used for pulp, fuel, orpressed board manufacture.

chlorophyll. The green material in plants necessary forphotosynthesis.

choker. A noose of wire rope used for moving logs.clearcut, An area on which the entire timber stand has

been harvested. See reproduction methods.climax vegetation. The final stage of natural plant

succession, in which the plant composition remainsrelativelg stable.

clinometer. Like an abney level, an instrument formeasuring vertical angles or slopes.

codomlaant trees. Trees with crowns forming thegeneral level of the crown cover and receiving fulllight from above, but comparatively little from thesides; usually with medium-sized crowns. See crownclass.

cold deck. Pile of logs left for later transportation.compass. An instrument used to measure direction.

Called a "staff compass" if placed on a pointedpole, a "hand compass" if handheld.

commercial thinning. Removing trees from a developingyoung stand, so that remaining trees will have moregrowing space; dead and dying trees will besalvage d; and the operation will make a net profit.

cone. The female reproductive part of conifers. Thesestructures have overlapping scales that cover severalseeds. .

conif-er. A tree belonging to the order Coriiferae, usuallyevergreen with cones, needle-shaped leaves, andproduci .•..ng wood known commercially as "softwood."

conk. A hard, spore-bearing structure of a wood-destroying fungus, which projects beyond the bad:

-. of a tree.conservation. In forestry, the wise use of natural

renewable resources. A key idea for understanding"conservation" is "use" by people.

coppice Iorest. A forest originating from sprouts orsuckers. Syn, low forest.

cord. A volume measure of stacked wood. A standardcord is 4 x 4 x 8 ft or 128 cu ft of space. Sinceroundwood cannot be stacked to give solid volume,actual wood volume varies between 70 and 90 cu ftper cord.

crook. A defect in logs and poles or piling, consisting ofan abrupt bend .. Also refers to edgewise warp in apiece of lumber.

crop tree, A tree: selected in :0 young stand. to beretained until final harvest.

cross-drain, A pipe placed under the road surfacebetween major drainages, to collect water from theditch line and deposit it on the lower side of theroad.

cross section. A section of a stem or leaf taken at rightangles to its longitudinal axis.

crossue, A square timber used for supporting railroadrails.

crotch. Tne fork of a tree or branch.crown. The branches and foliage of a tree.crown class. A designation of trees in a forest with

crowns of similar development and occupyingsimilar positions in the crown cover. Differentiationinto crown classes applies to even-aged stands andwithin small even-aged groups in which trees in anuneven-aged stand are often arranged. Five crownclasses are commonly recognized: dominant,codominant, intermediate, overtopped (suppressed),und wolf trees.

CroWDcover. The canopy of green leaves and branchesformed by the crowns of all trees in a forest.Generally expressed as a percent of total area.

crown density. The compactness of the crown cover ofthe forest; depends on the distance apart and thecompactness of the individual crowns. A loose termcombining the meanings of "crown closure" and"shade gensity."

crown fire. A fire that runs through the tops of livingtrees, brush, or chaparral.

Eeasement. An interest or. right to limited use of land,

granted by the owner to another parry. Commonlyused for access.

ecology. The science that deals with the interaction ofplants and animals with their environment.

entomology, forest. The science that deals with insectsand their relation to forests and forest products.

environment. All elerncnrs, living and inanimate, thataffect a living organism.

epidemic. Widespread insect or disease incidencebeyond 'normal proportions; usually accompaniedby excessive damage.

even-aged. Applied to a stand in which relatively smallaie differences exist between individual trees.

exotic. Not native; foreign.even-flow harvest. A harvesting scheme designed to

extract exactly the same volume of wood fiber eachperiod.

Ffaller. A logger who specializes' in felling trees. Also

called "cutters" or "sawyers" in some pans of theWest, "choppers" in the redwoods.

firebreak. An existing barrier, or one constructed beforea fire occurs, from which all or most of theinflammable materials have been removed.

fire control. All activities concerned with the suppres-sion of a forest fire. '

fire danger. The result of both constant and variablefactors that determine whether fires will start,spread, and do damage. and the estimated difficultyof control. .

.fire line. A trail around a fire, dug down to mineral soiland clear of all debris. One type of firebreak.

fire prevention. Those fire-control activities concernedwith the attempt to reduce the number of firesthrough education, hazard reduction, and lawenforcement.

fire scar. An injury or wound in the bole of a tree causedor accentuated by rue.

fire season. The period or periods of the year duringwhich fires are likely to occur, spread, do sufficientdamage, and otherwise warrant organized firecontrol. In Oregon, this period is set by order of thestate forester.

fire suppression .. AJI the work: of extinguishing a fireafter its detection.1. direct. A method where the edge of the fire isextinguished direcd y.2. indirect. A method where the control line islocated along a favorable firebreak and theintervening Strip between the fire and ~e firebreak isbackfired.3. one-tick. A system of managing personnel on afire, where the: entire crew constructing the controlline moves forward without changing relative-positions in the line. As they move forward, they do'"one lick: of work, " then advance one or more steps.The number of steps is controlled primarily by thenumber engaged and the consequent proper spacingof licks, in order that the control line may becompleted and the fire extinguished when the lastperson has passed over the line.

flash point. The temperature at which a material willburst into flame.

(oraKe. In range management, unharvested plantmaterial of any kind available for animalconsumption. When cut, it becomes feed.

forage value. The relative importance for grazingpurposes of a rang: plant or plants as a whole on arange.

Corbo A small herbaceous plant, unlike grass.forestation. The establishment of forest naturally or

artifically on areas where it has been absent orinsufficient. Syn. afforestation.

forester, A person who has been professionallyeducated in forestry at a college or university.

forest management, The application of businessmethods and technical forest principles to themanagement of forest property.

forest nursery. An area in which young tre-es are grownfor forest planting.

Forest Practices Act. Several states have legislationregulating private forest harvest to reasonably assureadequate regeneration and protection of soil andwater values. Abbreviated in Oregon to OFP A(Oregon Forest Practices Act).

Iorest protectlon. The activities connected with the -prevention and control of damage to forests fromfire, insects, disease, and other jnjurious anddestructive sources.

forest site, A land unit characterized by climatic, soiland topographic features that control forest type ,and growth.

forest survey .. An inventory of.forest land to determineacreage, condition, timber volume, and species, forspecific purposes (such as timber purchase andforest management) or as a basis for forest policiesand programs. ALso refers to carefully measuringand marking property boundaries.

forest type. A descriptive term used to group stands ofsimilar character in composition and development,to differentiate them from other groups of stands.See stand, type of.

forest utllizatlon. That branch of forestry concernedwith the operation of harvesting, processing, andmarketing the forest crop and other forest resources.

form. The shape of a log or tree.form class. A measure of bole taper derived by dividing

diameter inside bark at a given height (usually 16 orJ: ft) by d.b.h. These values are often required touse tree-volume tables.

forty. A land tract of 40 acres or a Y. -rnile square.frill. V-shaped cut in the cambial tissue of the tree made

with a machete or other sharp tool, used as a place toapply herbicides.

frost crack. Longitudinal crack on the outside of a tree,caused by extreme cold. Especially common onthin-barked species, such as hemlock and true fir.

fun~kides. Chemicals used to kill and/or prevent thegrowth of fungi.

fungus. A plant without chlorophyll that derives itsnourishment from the organic matter of otherplants.

Ggall. A pronounced localized swelling of greatly

modified structure that occurs on plants fromirritation by a disease or insect.

2all ery . A passage or burrow, excavated by an insectunder bark or in wood for feeding or egg-layingpurposes.

genus. A botanical grouping of plants with similarcharacteristics. Species within a genus may becrossbred, but resulting offspring will usually besterile. Genus Pinus contains ponderosa pine,lodgepole pine, and hundreds of other pines aroundthe world. Each species within the genus is identifiedas Pinus + species name (in ponderosa's case, Pinusponderosa). Hence, each tree has both a genus nameand a species name.

germination. The initial growth of a seed or spore.~rdie_ To encircle the stem of a living tree with cuts that

completely sever bark and.cambium and often arecarried well into the outer sapwood, done to kill thetree by preventing the passage of carbohydrates tothe roots. Also refers to same process caused byanimals, such as mice or beaver.

grade,1. A system of classifying lumber or logs, accordingto quality.2. The steepness of a forest road.

grain. The direction, size, arrangement, appearance, orquality of the fibers in wood.

grazing capacity. In range management, the ability of arange unit, in years of normal rainfall, to giveadequate support to a constant number of livestockfor a stated period each year without deteriorating,Expressed in number of livestock per acre of givenkind or kinds, or in number of acres per specifiedanimals.

green lumber.1. Lumber with the moisture content greater thanthat of air-dried lumber.2. Unseasoned lumber, boards from logs processedthrough mill before drying.

irowth rate, With reference to wood, the rate at whichwood has been added to the tree at any particularpoint, usually expressed in the number of annualrings per inch. May also be stated as "annual leadergrowth. "

gyppo logger. A self-employed, independent timberharvesting contractor who is not an employee of thelog purchaser. A more descriptive term is "contractlogger. "

Hhabhat, The environment in which the plant or animal

lives. Syn. site.band planting. A reforestation method of planting

seedlings by hand, usually with spacing to minimizecompetition and maximize growth. Seedlings areoften 2 years old, giving the new forest a head startover seeding methods.

hardwood.1. Generally, one of the botanical group of treesthat ha ve broad leaves, in contrast to theneedle-bearing conifers.2. -Wood produced by broad-leaved trees, regardlessof texture or density.

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harvest. Extraction of some type of product from theforest. Generally associated with a cutting.

haul back line. In cable logging, the line used to pullchokers or the carriage from the landing out to thefelling area.

heart rot. A decay characteristically confined to theheartwood. It usually originates in the living tree.

heartwood. The inner core of a woody stem, whollycomposed of nonliving cells and usually differenti-ated from the outer enveloping layer (sapwood) byits darker color.

heel-in, To store young trees before planting by placingthem in a trench and covering the roots with soil.

herbicides. Abroad class of chemicals used to killweeds. grass, brush. or competing trees.

hj~h ¥rwdlnl!:. The removal from the: stand of only thebest trees, often resulting in a poor-quality residualstand.

high-lead logging, Logging system that uses cablesrigged to a spar high above the ground so that oneend of the logs can be lifted during yarding.

hinge wood. In felling, the portion of the tree that" remains uncut. The width and location of this wood

helps determine which way the tree will fall.hog. A machine used to reduce waste pieces of lumber

and slabs, or small tree stems, to chip form.hot deck. A log-pile where both yarding and haul-truck

loading take place in rapid succession.humus. The plant and animal residues of the soil (litter

excluded) that have decomposed to the point wheretheir origin is no longer recognizable.

hybrid. A croSj between two species that results in asterile (but often more desirable) offspring,

hypsometer. An instrument used to measure the heightsof trees, employing geometric or trigonometric

.principles.

ice damaie. Breakage of tops and branches and strippingof branches and needles by an ice storm.

ignite. To set fire to, cause to burn.increment. An increase in the diameter, basal area,

height, volume, quality, or value of individual treesor stands over time.

increment borer. A tool used to extract a core of woodfrom a tree, allowing study of the radial growth of atree without Felling it.

increment Core. That part of the cross section of a treeextracted by an increment borer. Used to determinetree age and growth.

insecticides, Chemicals used to kill insects,intermediate trees. Trees shorter than those in the

dominant or codominant classes, but with crownseither below or extending into the crown coverformed by codominaat and dominant trees;receiving a little direct light from above, but nonefrom the sides; usually with small crowns, considera-bly crowded on the sides. See crown class.

imerplant. To plant seedlingsamong existing trees,planted or natural.

Kkerf, S3w. Width of a cut made by a saw.kiln. dry. A structure heated by sas, steam, or

electriciry. in which lumber is dried under controlledconditions LO a desired moisture content.

knot. That part of a branch that has been incorporatedinto the main stem.

Llanding. The area where logs are collected for loading.leader, The growing top (terminal shoot) of a tree. The

distance up the main stem of the tree between eachwhorl of branches generally represents 1 year ofheight growth.

leave trees. Trees left in or just outside a harvest zone(often otherwise a clearcut) to reseed the area. Thisis nature's method of reforestation; but it is oftenslower, and it does not have the more assured resultsof direct seeding or planting. May also refer to treesleft after a thinning.

litter. The uppermost layer of the soil, made up offreshly fallen or slightly decomposed organicmaterials. See duff.

log.1. To cut and deliver logs.2. A tree segment suitable for lumber and otherproducts, typically 8 or more It long.

logger. A person who is engaged in a logging operation;locally, one who moves IOiS to landings or slddways.

IOi rule. A table showing the estimated or calculatedamount of lumber (in board feet) that can be sawnfrom logs of given length and diameter.1. Doyle rule. A simple formula used in the easternand southern U.S. It underestimates the yield fromsmall logs and ovcr estlrnates with logs over 28 Inchesin diameter.

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2. Doyle-Scribner rule. A combination rule, derivedby using Doyle rule values for logs up to 28 inches indiameter anc Scribner rule for logs larger than 28inches.3. International rule. A formula allowing ~-inchtaper for eacn 4 feet of length and It,-inch shrinkagefor l-inch board. In one form, it assumes a YJ-inchkerf: in modified form, it assumes a V. -inch kerf.4. Scribner rule. A diagram rule. one of the oldest inexistence. It assumes l-Inch boards and Yo-inch Kerf,makes a liberal allowance for slabs, and disregardstaper. Official rule in many pans of the U.S.,including the Pacific Northwest.5. Scribner decimal C rule. The Scribner rulemodi lied by rounding off the last d i.it to the nearest10 and dropping the zero. Zeroes are added to totalof volumes. Used in Oregon and Washington.

log scale. The lumber content of a log as determined bya log rule.

lookout.1. Fire spotter.2. A station or post used primarily in the detectionof fires. often an observation tower located on ahigh point of ground.

lop.1. To chop branches, tops, or small trees afterfelling, so that the slash lies close to the ground.2. To cut the limbs from a felled tree.

MmainHDe.

1. In cable logging, the line used to retrieve turns oflogs.2. The main access road to a forest tract.

management plan, A written pian for the organizedhandling and operation of a forest property. Itusually includes data and prescribes measuresdesigned to provide optimum use of forest resourcesaccording to the landowner's objectives.

marking timber. Selecting and indicating, usually by anaxe mark (blaze) or paint mark, trees to be cut orretained in a harvesting operation.

maturity. For a given species or stand, the approximateage or condition beyond which the growth ratedeclines or decay begins to assume economicimportance.

MHl-'. Abbreviation for" 1000 board ft."mensuration, forest. The science dealing with the

measurement of the volume, growth; and develop-

merit of individual trees and stands, and thedetermination of the various products obtainablefrom them.

merchantabte. That part o.(a tree that can bemanufactured into a salable product.

merchantable height: The length of the tree stem fromthe top of the stump to the top of the lastmerchantable section. Usually expressed in it ornumber oi logs.

mercbllotable Umber. A tree 0: stand of trees that maybe convened into salable products.

merchantable volume. The amount of wood in a singletree or forest stand that is considered salable.

monoculture. The practice of growing a single species oftree or plant on a given rand area.

mountain beaver, A small nocturnal rodent, foundthroughout the Coast Range in Oregon andWashington. This burrowing animal has a voraciousappetite for Douglas-fir seedlings. Syn. boomer.

mortality. Death of forest trees as a result ofcompetition. disease, insect damage. drought, wind,fire, and other factors.

multi pie-use management. Management and use offorest land for more than one purpose (timber.wildlife. watershed, erc.). Uses may be shared on thesame acreage or allocated to different portions of afares! tract.

Nnational forest. Federally owned land managed to

provide wood, water, and other uses for the benefitof the people of the United States. National forestsare under the administration of the Forest Service ofthe U.S. Department of Agriculture.

national park. Federally owned land managed tomaintain areas of outstanding and unique sceneryand geographic features for public enjoyment.National parks are under the administration of theNational Park Service of the U.S. Department of theInterior.

natural thlnnlng. Death of trees in a stand as a result ofcompetition.

needle cast, Premature browning and dropping ofneedles caused by a fungus. (Douglas-fir Christmastrees are particularly susceptible to Swiss needlecast.)

Dun•.tree or crop. A tree or crop of trees, shrubs, orother plants that foster another, generally moreimportant, tree or crop. Syn, trainer.

8

,

nutritive value. A term usually prefixedby "high,""low," etc., to indicate relative quality of a givenforage or feed to furnish elements valuable foranimal nutrition.

oold growth, A forest that has never been changed by

management or harvesting. This term is misappliedby many to describe any forest that appears to beold. Individual trees in this type of forest are usuallyover 200 years old, and there are large standing andfallen dead trees throughout the stand.

operation. used interchangeably for logging jobs,harvesting, cutting, milling, etc. An alJ-inclusiveterm for harvesting and hauling out the forestproducts.

outplant. Planting nursery-grown tree seedlings on afreshly prepared area. See transplant.

overgrazing. Grazing so heavy that it impairs futureForage production and causes range deterioration

. through damage to plants, soil, or both.civermaturity. That period in the life cycle of trees and

stands when growth or value is declining. Seematurity,

overrun. The excess lumber sawn from logs over theestimated volume or log scale, usually expressed inpercent of log scale.

overstocked. A condition of the stand or forest,indicating more trees than desired, normal, or fullstocking would require.

overstory, Thatsportion of the trees is a stand forming -the upper crown cover.

overtopped tree. Trees with crowns entirely below thegeneral level of the oversrory cover, receiving nodirect light either from above or from the sides. Syn,suppressed. See crown class.

p

palatability. The relative desirability of certain plants asforage for domestic and wild animals. Varies withcomposition of the plant cover or the season ofgrazing.

partial cut. A silvicultural cutting scheme that removesat anyone time Jess than the total tree stand(selective cut, seed tree cut, shelterwood cut).

parrlcle-board. A type of board made by compressingchips or particles of wood under heat and pressure,

in the presence of glue or resin. Flakeboard is a newproduct made by a similar process,

pathology, forest. The science that pertains to diseasesof forest trees or stands, and te-the deterioration offorest products by organisms.

peavey. A long-handled tool with a spike point andhinged arm; used to roll logs.

peeler core. A piece of roundwood that is a byproductof the veneer-peeling process; usually 8 feet long andabout 4 inches in diameter.

percent grade.1. The vertical rise of land in 100 horizontal ft. A16Ofo grade means that in 100 ft horizontal, theelevation has changed 16 ft. Measured witb anabney level or clinometer.2. Amount of forest volume found to be in a givenlog grade,

percolation. The downward movement of waterthrough the soil, primarily because of gravity.

pesticides. A general term ior chemicals used to kill anyof the pests of a desired crop.

phloem. An outer layer of tree tissue that conducts foodfrom the leaves to the stem and roots.

photosynthesis. The conversion by green plants oflight, water, and air into food energy.

pile and burn. A controlled burn where thematerial to be disposed of is concentrated, usuallywith machinery, before burning.

piling. Round timbers driven into the ground to supportother structures.

pistol butt. Applied to trees with bases curving awayfrom the slope and then upwards. This may indicateunstable or moving soil.

pitch. A term applied to the resin occurring in the woodof certain conifers. r

pitch pocket. A well defined, lens-shaped openingbetween or within annual growth rings of coniferouswood, containing pitch and possibly bark,

planer. A machine used to put a smooth surface orshape on lumber.

plant.1. To place young trees or cuttings in the soil onforest land; to establish a forest crop. Sometimesused loosely to include direct seeding. Trees may beplaced as bare-roo Istock, or with roots within a ballof earth, or in earth within a container.2. A processing facility for wood products.

plantation. An artificially reforested area established byplanting or by direct seeding.

planting bar. A hand tool used in making a slit-hole inthe soil in which trees are planted.

plot. A carefully measured area laid out for experimenta-tion or of mensuration; may be permanent ortemporary. Syn, study plot.

plug seedling. A seedling grown in a small container, -_under carefully controlled environmental conditions.Seedlings are removed from containers for planting.

plywood. A wood product constructed of three or morelayers of veneer joined with glue and (usually) laidwith the grain of adjoining plies at right angles toone another.

pole.1. A young tree between 5 and 12 in d.b.h. Seesapling.2. A log cut Ior the manufacture of power ortelephone poles (involves trees larger than 12 ind.b.h.).

portable mill. A small sawmill that can be readily movedfrom one place to another. The usual daily capacityranges from 3,000 to 10,000 board ft.

prebunch. In logging, to collect logs or other material atintermediate staging areas, in preparation for themain yarding operation.

precipitation. Deposits of atmospheric moisture inliquid or solid form, including rain, sleet, snow,hail, dew, or mist (also refers to quantity of waterdeposited).

precommercial thinning. Removal of some of the treesin a young stand to reduce competition for waterand nutrients, and to accelerate commercial growthon.sernaining trees. Trees thinned from these.standshave no commercial value.

preservation.1. To maintain in an natural state; human impacton the biological system is minimized. Commonlyrefers to wilderness area management.2. Wood preservation involves the protection oftimber and wood products against the action ofdestructive living organisms, especially fungi,insects, and marine borers.

preservative. A substance that, when properly appliedto wood. makes it resistant to attack by fungi.insects, or marine borers.

primitive area. An area of forest land that is leftunaffected by human activities. These areas are inessence wilderness, but they are created byadministrative regulation rather than by act ofCongress.

prism. A wedge-shaped piece of dear or amber-coloredglass that is used to select trees for timber sampling.

prunin~.The removal oi live or dead branches fromstanding trees, whether .done artificially or naturally.Natural pruning results from such causes asdeficiency oilight, decay, snow, ice. etc. Syn.self-pruning.

pulp, wood. Mechanically ground or chemicallydigested wood fibers used in the manufacture ofpaper and allied products. Bleached and purifiedwood pulp is also widely used in the manufacture ofrayon and other chemicals.

pulpwood. Wood cut or prepared primarily formanufacture into wood pulp, for later manufactureinto paper, fiberboard, or other prod ucts (theproducts depend largely on the species and thepulping process).

PUM yarding. Acronym for "pile unmerchantablematerial." referring to a U.S. Forest Servicecontract regulation that requires loggers to concen-trate all tops, chunks, and other unmerchantable .,material generated by harvesting. See YUM.

punky. A soft. weak, often spongy condition in wood;caused by decay.

Rradial (surface). A horizontal surface or plane extending

wholly or in pan from the pith to the bark of a treebole.

range. Land not under cultivarion, that produces foragesuitable for grazing by domestic animals andwildlife. Includes forest that produces forage."Open range" is an extensive grazing area on whichthe movement of livestock is permitted. In Oregon,these areas are established by la w.

ranger. An administrative officer in charge of a unit offorest or other lane, usually a subdivision of a publicforest or park. Various classifications are recognized: 'forest ranger, district ranger, park ranger, countyranger.

ray. In wood anatomy, a ribbon-shaped strand of tissueformed by the cambium and extending in a radialdirection across the grain in hardwoods.

reforestatlon. The natural or artificial restocking of anarea with forest trees.

relative humidity. The amount of water vapor present inthe.air, compared to the amount in fully saturatedair of that temperature and pressure, •.

--------------------~ __ In

schoolmarm. Logger's slang for a tree with one or moretrunks.

season. To dry lumber, either in the open or in a drykiln.

seasoning. The process of drying (curing) lumber orother forms of wood to improve its properties:natural (air or underground drying) or artificial (kilndrying, electrical drying, oil drying, etc.).

second growth. A second forest that develops afterharvest of the original, natural forest. In the PacificNorthwest, these forests also are often called young-growth stands.

section. A unit of land area equal to 640 acres, 6,400 sqchains, I sq mile, or 80 chains on each side.

seedbed, In natural plant reproduction, the soil or forestDoor on wnich seed falls; in nursery practice, aprepared area in which seed is sown.

seeding. A reforestation method by sowing seeds,aerially or by hand. Often done immediately afterharvest so that a new forest is started the next grow-ing season.

seedling. A small tree grown from seed. Usually theterm is restricted to trees less than 2 in d.b.h.

seed year. A year in which a given species produces(over a considerable area) a seed crop greatly inexcess of the normal. Applied usually to trees ofirregular or infrequent seed production.

seed tree.1. A tree that produces seed.2. Trees reserved in a harvest operation to supplyseed. See reproduction methods.

seedezone. Areas of similar climatic and elevationalconditions, used to specify where tree seed wascollected and where trees from such seed are mostlikely to be successfully grown.

selection cut. See reproduction methods.severance tax. A tax paid on forest products after they

are cut.shade tolerance. The capacity of a tree or plan! species

to develop and grow in the shade of and incompetition with other trees or plants. See tolerance.

shake.1. A lengthwise separation of wood (usually causedby wind) that usually occurs between and parallel tothe growth layers.2. A thin section split from a bolt of wood and usedfor roofing or siding.

shear.1. In Christmas tree culture, to shape and trim backthe branches to make dense foliage and give tree aconical shape.2. In felling, a mechanicaldevice that pinches treesoff at the stump.

shelterbelt. A wind barrier of living trees and/or shrubs,maintained to protect farm fielcs or homesteads.Syn. belt, windbreak.

shelterwood. See reproduction methods.shrinkage. The contraction of wooc caused by drying

the material below the point at which the woodfibers are saturated. Shrinkage values are usuallyexpressed as a percentage of specific dimensions (orthe volume) of the wood when green.

shrub. A woody perennial plant (lives more than 1 year)that differs from a perennial herb by its woody,persistent stems, and from a tree by its low statureand branches that start from the base.

sldecast, Earth and other material g enerated byroadbuilding and deposited on the downhill side ofthe road.

silver thaw. A weather phenomenon in which greatquantities of ice collect on trees and othervegetation, often causing much breakage.

silviculture. The art and science of producing andtending a forest; the theory and practice ofcontrolling forest establishment, composition,growth, and quality of forests to achieve theobjectives of management.

site. An area of land, especially with reference to itscapacity to produce vegetation 2.S a function ofenvironmental factors (climate, soil, biology, etc.).

site class. A grouping of similar site indexes thatindicates relative productivity. The common systemfor the: Douglas-fir region includes five site classes,with 1 (1) the:most productive and 5 (V) the least.

site index. A measure of forest site quality, based on theheight (in It) that dominant trees will reach at a givenage. For Douglas-fir, this is commonly expressed aseither a 50- or lOO-year site index.

site preparation, Any treatment of a forest site toprepare it for establishment of a plantation or fornat ural regeneration.

sk.iddlng. The process of dragging logs from the woodsto a landing, usually applied to ground-basedoperations. A similar term, used especially withcable or aerial logging systems, is "yarding."

,Ida road, aldd trall. A pathway over which 10iS areskidded.

12

skyline loggjng. A type of cable logging in which themainline is stationary and a carriage moves up anddown it, collecting turns of logs.

slab. The exterior portion of a log removed in sawingtimber.

slash.1. Tree tops, branches, bark, and other debris, leftafter a forest operation.2. The process of cutting down undesirablevegetation.

snag. A standing, dead tree or a standing section of thestem of a tree broken off at the height of 20 ft ormore. If less than 20 It, it is properly termed a"stub .••

."rl•.•.,,,I1. Olle of the bot uuicu! ~rllllp uf t!CC~ thatgenerally have needle or scaleiike leaves-theconifers. Also the wood produced by such trees,regardless of texture or density.

soil horizon. A layer of soil with distinct characteristicsthat separate it from other soil layers. Commonly, aforest soil will have 0, A, B, and C horizons.

" soil moisture. The relative amount of water in the soil;usually applied to upper levels of soil, occasionallyto humus layer.

soil profile. A vertical section of soil showing the natureand thickness of the various horizons, often used insoil classification.

soil series. Groupings of soils with similar profilecharacteristics.

spar. A pole, tower, or tree used in cable logging to raisethe mainline off the ground.

sprout. A young tree developed directly from the base:stump, or root of another tree. Relatively commonamong hardwoods; with conifers, typical only ofredwoods. Syn. sucker.v

species (of trees). Trees having very similar geneticmakeup, so that they freely interbreed and havecommon characteristics. In common language, a"kind" or "variety." Each species is identified by asciernific name that consists of a genus portion andthen a species portion (Tsuga heterophylla, westernhemlock).

spike top. A tree with a dead top, usually a mark ofdeclining vigor.

springwood. The Jess dense, larger-celled, first-formedwood of an annual growth ring.

spud. A hand tool used in stripping bark from felledtrees.

staff compass. See compass.stand. An aggregation of trees occupying a specific area

and uniform enough in composition (species), age,

and arrangement to be distinguishable from theforest on adjoining areas.

stand density. A relative measure of amount of stockingon a forest area, compared WIth other areas.

stand table. A summary table showing the number of'. trees by species and diameter class of any given area.stand, type of.

1. mixed. A stand in which more than 25l1io of thetrees in the main crown canopy are of a species otherthan the major species.2. pure. A stand in which at least 80-90C770 of thetrees in the dominant and codominant crown classesare of a single species.

stem. The trunk of a tree.alud..llllO. The u u m bcr of t rcca ill a For cat . Ua ua lly

expressed as trees per acre or some relative measure(well stocked/fully stocked, overstocked, under-stocked).

stratification. The technique of placing seeds in a cool,moist medium (such as sand or peat) to imitate winterconditions and aid germination when planted.

stumpage. The value of timber as it stands uncut in thewoods; in a general sense, the standing timber itself.Can also denote price paid forthis timber.

stomp sprout. See sproul.succession. The replacement of one plant community by

another in progressive development toward climaxvegetation.

succession, types of.1. primary. Plant succession on newly formed soilsor surfaces, exposed for the first time, that havenever borne vegetation.2. secondary, Plant succession following the destruc-tion of a part or all of the original vegetation.

sucker. A sprout from the lower portion of a stem,especially from the root.

sucker knot. A knot associated with a limb growingnearly parallel to the main stem. Sucker knots arenot permitted on poles because they funnel waterinto the pole, promoting decay even if treated.

summerwood. The denser, later-formed wood of anannual growth ring. The cells are smaller, with thickcell walls, so they usually give the layer a darkercolor than that of the springwood.

sunscsld. Death of cambial tissue on one side of a tree,caused by exposure to direct sunlight.

suppressed tree. See overtopped.aurlilce runo1'!. Wuter thut moves over the ground

surface. With the exception of established drainagechannels, uncommon on undisturbed forest land.

Ii

sustained yield. A policy, method, or plan of forestmanagement that calls for continuous production,to achieve, at the earliest practicable time, anapproximate balance between net growth andamount harvested.

swamp. To dear the ground of underbrush, fallen trees,and other obstructions, to facilitate such later -operations as Jogging or surveying.

sweep. A gradual (out pronounced) bend in a log, pole,or piling; considered a defect,

swell-butted. Describes a tree greatly enlarged at thebase. Syn. boule-butted, churn-butted.

Ttail tree. In skyline Jogging, a tree used to anchor the

mainline away from the landing.lally. The coun: of trees, logs, or other products; to

count trees, logs, or other products: to recordproducts, cistances, etc., as measured.

taper. The gradual reduction of diameter in a stem of atree or a log from the base to the top.

taproot. The major tree root with the greatest tendencyto grow downward. Depending on the species andsoil conditions, the taproot mayor may not bepronounced or show heavy branching.

- tanf table. A tree-volume table based on d.b.h. andtotal height.

terminal bud. The uppermost bud on the main stem of atree. See leader.

[b..inlling. Cutting in an immature stand to increase thegro/lh rat: of the leave trees. The goal is to.fosterquality growth, improve composition, promotesanitation, and recover and use material that wouldotherwise be 10s. to mortality. Thinning does notgenerally increase per-acre cubic-volume growth,

. but it can increase board-foot yield.thinning shock. A condition of very slow growth in a

thinned stand, usually from a heavy thinning thatexposes residual trees to conditions much differentfrom those present before thinning.

thinnlng, types of. See also commercial thinning,precommercial thinning,1. low thioning. The removal of trees from thelower crown classes in a stand. Syn, thinning frombelow.2. crown thinning. The removal of trees from themiddle and upper crown classes in a stand, to favorthe:most promising trees of these classes, Syn,thinning from above.

3. selection thinning. Removal of dominant trees tobenefit trees in lower crown classes.4. free thinning. Removal of trees to benefit besttrees, regardless of crown class.5. mechanical tbinning~ Removal of trees basedtotally on their spacing or arrangement.

timber. A term loosely applied to forest stands or theirproducts; often applied to wood in forms suitablefor heavy construction (houses, ships, bridges).

timber stand improvement (T .S.1.). Any treatmentintended to improve the quality of a forest stand,including pruning, thinning, salvaging, andfertilizati on.

timber type. See forest type.tolerance. The capacity of a tree or plant to develop and

grow in the shade of (and in competition with) othertrees or plants; a general term for the relative abilityof a species to survive a deficiency of an essentialgrowth requirement (light, moisture, nutrientsupply).

transpiration. The process by which water vapor leavesa living plant and enters the atmosphere.

transplant.1. To replant a nursery seedling in another pan ofthe: nursery for further development. A "2-1" treeseedling is one that was grown from seed for 2 yearsin the nursery, then replanted and left for a year inanother nursery bed.2. To move a wild seedling to another location forregenerating a forest.3. Any seedling that is removed from one locationand planted elsewhere.

tree. A woody plant having one well-defined stem and amore or less definitely formed crown, usuallyattaining a height of at least 8 f1.

tree age. The number of years since the germination ofthe seed, or the budding of the sprout or root sucker.

tree farm. An area of privately owned forest landdedicated by its owner to the growing and harvestingof repeated forest crops. The name has beencopyrighted by the American Forest Institute for itsexclusive use.

tree length, Entire length of tree, or with the top loppedoff at small diameter, as in skidding tree length to alanding for bucking into logs. .

turn. The logs brought to the landing during a singleyarding or skidding cycle.

e

{,

14

tumup. In Christmas tree culture, the practice ofleaving a green branch when harvesting a Christmastree; this branch, turned upwards. becomes the nexttree. Syn, Stump culture.

uunderbrush. The brush growing in a forest.undercut. In felling a tree. the initial cut that removes a

wedge-shaped piece of wood and determines thedirection of fall. Syn. face cut.

undergrowth. Small trees and shrubs and other plantsgrowing under a forest canopy.

understory. That portion of the trees or other vegetationin a forest stand below the canopy.

uneven-aged, Applied to a stand in which there areconsiderable differences in the age of the trees and inwhich three or more age classes are represented. Seealso all-aged.

v'> veneer. A thin sheet of wood cut on a lathe or slicing

machine. There Q.[C three kinds: sawed, sliced, androtary cut.

Vexar tube. A rigid, plastic-net tube made from Vexar(a trademark of the DuPont Corporation). Used toprotect tree seedlings from animal damage.

virgin forest. A mature or overmature forest essential Ivuninfluenced by human activity. -

volume table. A table showing gross volume of trees,based olJogivc:n tree measurements (usuallyd.b.h,and height). .

'W

water bar. V-shaped trench cut into the surface of aroad, which collects water and channels it off theroad surface, to avoid erosion.

watershed. Any sloping area that sheds water; an areao f land thu[ COllC\:lS and dischurgc:s W utcr into usingle stream or other outlet.

wedge.1. In logging. to drive a solid V-shaped object (thewedge) into the saw cut to prevent the saw frombinding and to direct the fall of the tree.1. Slang for a prism used in cruising timber.

weed tree. A tree or a species with rclurivcly little or novalue. .

whorl. A group of branches originating at or near thebase of the terminal bud. Generally, one whorl isproduced each growing season.

widowmaker, Any limb, top, leaning tree, or othermaterial in the forest that isi'n danger of falling tothe ground without warning, creating a safetyhazard. Often applied to limbs that get lodged in thecrowns of ocher trees during a 10i,iini operation.

wilderness area. An area of public land (usually over5,000 acres) designated by Congress as wildernessaccording to tile definition in the Wilderness Act.Ecosystems present are preserved in their naturalstates, with minimum human influence (no timberharvest ing, roads. or developed areas are allowed).

wildfire. A fire burning out of control, regardless ofhow or why it started.

wildling, A seedling naturally reproduced outside of anursery. used in forest planting.

windbreak. A wind barrier of living trees and shrubsmaintained to protect the farm home, otherbuildings, garden, orchard, or feedlots. Syn ..snelterbelt.

windfall. A tree uprooted or broken off by wind; anarea on which the trees have been thrown by wind.Syn. blowdown, wind-thrown.

windfirm. Describes trees capable of withstandingheavy wind.

walt tree. A vigorous tree that has merchantable valuebut occupies more space than its value warrants.Usually very lirnby.

wood. The lignified water-conducting, supporting,and storage tissue of branches, stems, and roots.Syn, xylem.

woodland. The wooded portion of a farm or ranch, orthe wooded land operated in connection with a farmor ranch.

WOOd-processing industry. That segment of the forestindustry that manufactures lumber, paper, plywood.and other primary forest products.

wo~d tec~nology. The study of wood and all its aspects,including anatomy, chemistry. prcperties, andtreatment.

xxylem. See sapwood.

15

y. yard. A place where logs, pulpwood, or other timber is

collected; to collect logs in a yard, landing, orskidway.

yield table. A table that projects the wood yield of aforest stand, given certain stocking, age, andsite-productivity conditions. .

yOUD& &rowth. Any forest of relatively young age andcondition ..

YUM. Acronym for "yard unmerchantable material,"referring to a U.S. Forest Service contract regulationthat requires loggers to move to landings any tops,chunks, or other unmerchantable material generatedby harvesting. See PUM.

(

The Oregon Stale University Extension Service provideseducation and information based on timely research to helpOregonians solve problems and develop skills related to youth,family, community, farm, forest, energy, and marineresources.

Extension's forestry program improves Oregonians' knowl-edge of forest resources and their options ior expandingbenefits from these resources. This educational programassists forest owners, rnanagers , pr ocessors . and UKra inunderstanding small woodland production and managementand use oi all forest lands. Priority subjects are reforestation,growth, management, harvesting, processing and use ofwood, protection of soil and water, and other multiple usesand values.

This publication was prepared by Richard fletcher, Extensionagent (forestry), Linn and Benton counties: and Bert Udell,Lebanon. The American Forest Institute named Ben andBetty Udell "Tree Farmers of the Year" for 1982. Thispublication is one of a series being developed as an ExtensionWoodland Workbook. Trade-name products are used asexamples only; this use does not constitute endorsement by theOregon State University Extension Service.

The Woodland Workbook is made up of more than 50publications prepared by the Oregon State UniversityExtension Servicespecifically for owners and managers ofprivate, nonindustrial woodlands. For information about howto order and for a current list of titles and prices, writeBulletin Mailing Office, Oregon State University, Corvallis,Oregon 9i331-or inquire at the office of the Oregon StateUniversity Extension Service that serves your county.

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Extension Service,Oregon State University, Corvallis, O. E.Smith, director. This publication was produced and distri-buted in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 andJune 30,1914. Extension work is a cooperative program ofOregon State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture,and Oregon counties.

Oregon State University Extension Service offers educationalprograms, activities, and materials without regard to race,color, national origin, or sex as required by Title VI of theCivil Rights Act of I%4 and Title IX of the EducationAmendments of 1972.Oregon State University ExtensionService is an EqUAl Opportunity Employer.

()

Kjetil Kjernsmo's illustrated guide on

How to use a compassUsing the compass alone

This is a very easy lesson, and I would say, not sufficient for those who would like to travelsafely in unfamiliar terrain.

NI

The first thing you need to learn, are the directions. North, South, Eastand "Vest. Look at the figure and learn how they are. North is the mostimportant.

E

SThere are several kinds of compasses, one kind to attach to the map, one kind to attach to yourthumb. The thumb-compass is used mostly by orienteers who just want to run fast, and this is the kindof compass I normally use.But not in this tutorial. I would recommend the third kind of compass. Let's take a look at it:

Compass needleDirection of travel-arrow

i

/

\Orienting lines Compass Housing (turnable)

You see this red and black arrow? We call it the compass needle. Well, on some compasses it mightbe red and white for instance, but the point is, the red part of it is always pointing towards theearth's magnetic north pole. Got that? That's basically what you need to know. It's as simple as that.

But if you don't want to go north, but a different direction? Hang on and I'll tell you.You've got this turnable thing on your compass. We call it the Compass housing. On the edge of thecompass housing, you will probably have a scale. From 0 to 360 or from 0 to 400. Those are thedegrees or the azimuth (or you may also call it the bearing in some contexts). And you should have the

letters N, S, Wand E for North, South. West and East. If you want to go in a direction between twoof these, you woulc combine them. If you woul d like to go in a direction just between 1\ orth and\\7 est, you simply 52:. H/ would like to go Northwest t t

I

Northwest )>.,

~l'''1' Red arrow at North! I

/' i~--- !

Let's use that as an example Y OLl want togo northwest What you do, is that vou findout where on the compass housingnorthwest is. Then you turn the compasshousing so that northwest on the housingcomes exactlv there where the 12"Qe- -direction of [ravel-arrow meets the housing.

,,-I

Hold the compass in your hand .. And you'llhave to hold it quite flat, so that the compassneedle can turn. Then turn yourself, yourhand, the entire compass, just make sure thecompass housing doesn't turn, and turn ituntil the compass needle is aligned \\ ith thelines inside the compass housing

;,ti\~.~Now, tine to be careful'. It is extremely important that the red, north part of the compass7-.. \.4 needle points at north in the compass housing. If south points at north, you would 'walk off

in the exact opposite direction of what you want] And it's a very common mistake amongbezinners. .So alwzvs take a second look to make sure vou did it rizhtlp;T\~lAsecor; prob.l,em,migl:t b~ l?cal. magnetic a~tractions. If you ar~ carrying som~t~ng of ironJf:. y~or scmet.ung like tnat, It rmgnt disturb the arrow. Even a staple Inyour map rrugnt be a

problem ~\lake sure there is nothing of the sort around. There is a possibility for magneticattractions in the soil as 'well, "magnetic deviation": but they are rarely seen. Might occur if you're in amining district.

'When you are sure you've got it right, 'walk off in the direction the direction of travel-arrow ispointing. To avoid getting off the course, make sure to look at the compass quite frequently, say everyhundred meters at least.But you shouldn't stare down on the c-Ompass. Once you have the direction, aim on some point in thedistance, and go there. But this gets more important when you use a map.

There is something you should look for to avoid going in the opposite direction: The Sun. At noon,. the sun is roughly in South (or in the north on the southern hemisphere), so if you are heading northand have the sun in your face, it should ring a bell.

When do you need this technique?If you are out there without a map, and you don't know where you are, but you know that there is aroad, trail, stream, river Of something long and big you can't miss if you go in the right direction. Andyou know in what direction you must go to get there, at least approximately what direction.Then all you need to do, is to turn the compass housing, so that the direction you want to go in, iswhere the direction of travel-arrow meets the housing. And follow the above steps.But why isn't this sufficient? It is not very accurate. You are going in the right direction, and you

won't go around in circles, but you're very lucky if you hit a small spot this way ..And that's why I'mnot talking about declination here. And because that is something connected with the use of maps.But if you have a mental image ofthe map and know what it is, do think about it. But I think youwon't be able to be so accurate so the declination won't make a difference.

If you are taking a long hike in unfamiliar terrain, you should always carry a good map that covers theterrain. Especially if you are leaving the trail. It is in this interaction between the map and a compass,that the compass becomes really valuable. And that is dealt with in lesson 2.

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For the s e k e OT aooear ance , end the amountof r eqr owt o , it is best not :0 removemore than one-fourth of the c~own whenpruning or thinning. In ce:tain spec i e s ,sugar maple for example, removal of toe muchof the crown wi 11 result tn tne death ofthe tree.

The d i aqr arn illustrates location of typ i cz ]cuts to be made in pruning and shaping atree.

_ HOW TO PRUNE A TREE

The Question is often asked, "When should I c r une my trees?" Probably the best answer-is, "When the saw is sharp:"

Most people worry about spring pruning, dU2 "Sleeding" of certain species of trees--maples, elms, walnuts. However, the drying v' the surface cells of a wound is .fairlyrapid, and when you consider that the "sap" los t through such a wound is only that wh i chwould have gone to the severed limb, phys io loc i c a l damage to the tree is negligible.Recent research has shown that spring leaf o c ; and fall leaf drop are times when pruningshould not be done.

Pruning is necessary for many reasons. Grc,·,t~ is controlled and dead weod is removed asa sanitary measure to eliminate diseased li::-:s e nd to r errove hiding places for insects anddecay. Weak crotches and other malf orma t ions must be removed. Limbs should be thinnedout to eliminate dense shade and reduce w inc r e s i s t ance . .0, competent arbor is t can lowerthe crown or he ich t of Iar ce trees, takinq c e r e to preserve the natural shape.

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Pruninq can be used to reduce the heiqht and spread of a tree, as seen in 7iqure below(left) by cut t ino branches to lower laterals (Drop crotchinq). Some limbs rna v be removedcompletely. A thinned tree retains its natural shaDe and is less subject :0 vioorouswatersDrouts than a headed or topped tree~Bleeding of pruning wounds can be heavy on certain trees such as Sugar Ma~~es and Elms.Bleeding of susceJtible trees can be minimized if the cuts are small (less :han 3 inchesin diameter) and are made in the fall and early winter. Bleeding is much ~Jre likelyif severe pruning is done just bef or-e growth begins in the spring. No har:-:-:occurs to thetree if bleeding takes place, however, if heavy and persistent, it may caus s bark injurybelow the pruning cut.If large limbs need to be removed or if pruning is required beyond reach, secure theproressional services of an arborist. Arborists are trained in the art or pruning toretain the natural beauty of trees. To be sure you are hiring a qualified ~rofessionalmake certain that they are members and their work complies with standards set forth bythe National Arborists Association and International Society of Arboricul:~re.

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lou.lCE CUTS I•.• 0l10EiI SHOw,",

FINAL CUTS - All final saw cutssnould be made to the collar with thepa-ent I irnb . Stubs are not onlyunsightly but they are subject todecay which will wcrk back intothe tree. Stubs also promotesucker growth.

Thinning-out can be used to control height.and it helps retain natural shape.

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POl~ll.RDTNG - This is done by stubb inq off majori imo s untll the tree assumes the desired shape.The result is not only unsightly, but a multi-tude of fast-growing suckers will sprout from thestubs and this will soon result in a line clear-ance problem more acute than before. The stubsare quite likely to fall victim to decay ordisease. In addit ion, th is method of pruni ngattracts much unfavorable public attention and isto be used only for exceptional conditions.

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SHEARING OR ROUNDING OVER - Rounding overis done by making many small cuts so t~atthe tree top is sheared in a uniform line.This creates an unhealthy tree conditionand results in a rapid regrowth directlyback toward the electrical co~ductors.

Topping (heading) is, unfortunately, the mo~tcommon method of reducing tree size. Whilemore rapid than pruning the results are, inmost cases, much less desirable. Regro\-Jth isvigorous and upright from the stubs. r n enew branches form a compact head, broom-liketerminals, and may be weakly attached to theolder br anches .

UNDER PRUNING - Under pruning invoives removing limbs beneath the tree crown to allowwires to pass be low the tree. 10 reserve the symmetry of the tree, lower limbs onthe opposite side of the tree shcu d be removed also. All cuts should be to thebranch collar :0 avoid leaving un s ghtly. stubs. The natural shape of the tree is re-tained in this type of pruning end the tree can continue its normal growth.

On bark injuries, shape edgeof wounc to an elongatede l l ipse. I rregu-+-a.r .sh apedwounds (right) may need to beslightly enlarged to attainan elongated ellipse.

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REPAIRING I~JUR!ES OF TREESInjuries to trees, whicn expose wood or kill bark, allow insects or disease organismsto enter the tree. Proper treatment protects the tree and promotes faster callusclosure.BARK INJURE3If bark has ceen crushed or knocked from the trunk, r enove injured bark and shape thewound. Tree wound pa int s have been shown to be ineffective in protecting tree wounds ,(Ir ee paint may be used for co srne t ic purposes.) Cut aViay damaged bark and remove isolatedscraps of bark from the wound area. For fastest healing, shape the edge of the wound asnearly as ~os5ible to an elonsated ellipse. (illustrated above)

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NATURAL PRUi;:~;G - ~i.:.turalpr urrino is a me t ho d by which br anches Gee c:.:::: :::;11e.; e.:a suitable pa;2~: lj~b back :Jward the center of the tree. This method c~ oruning issOriietimes c a lieo "drop cr o tc n inc " or lateral pruning. Large br anche s sr.cu io beremoved to la:erals at least one-third the diameter of tne branch beinc ;e~oved.Natural pruning is especially acaoted tb the topping of large trees wh~re a greatdeal of wood ~us: be r enoveo . :n natural pruning, a lmcs ; all cuts are iT::::e with e. sawand very h::'e ;:cle pr uner »cr k is required. This r esu lt s in a ne tur e l ~:okingtree when f j ~~srec , E'!en if 2. iarge amount of wood has been removed. I';a:u~ai pr un i n; isalso directic~al Druning since it tends to guide the growth of the tree .:.~ayfrom thewires. Stus:~~g or pole-eli: clEarance, on the other hand, tends to Drc~::e raDid suckergrowth right jack into the conductors. The big factor to remember is tha: natural:learance does work and that two or three pruning cycles done in this m2.nner will bringabout a solu:::n for both the utility and the tree owner. Most shade trees lendthemselves e=.51:y:O this tyc e of pruning. ::lm, Non .•.ay >'aple, Red Oak, :.e:: Maple,Sugar Maple, S~1ver and ~uro:ean Linden are our most common st~eet tree~ and thesespecies reac: es~ecially well :~ natural clearance methods.

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Side-Pruning -S~de-prunin9 is shortening bacx or completely removing side limbs that project towardconduc t.or-slocated to one side of the tree alignment. Avoid cutting so deeply that an:;:1sightly notch is left. Limbs above and bel:>w a side note." may be partly s nc+t eneoj~ck to a side branch to reduce the notched effect and improve conductor cle~:-ance .

geT are Drun inQ .':"f~er Prun inc

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Through-Pruning-

Tn r ouoh pruning is ':he r enove 1 of 1 imos and branches from inner tree G'O"'~S :0 makeroom for the passage of concuc t c+s . 7""nist yp e of pr-un i nc ~s best so i t ec ::; servicedrops and secondary. It ~ay ~e ~sed for primary conductor clearances whe~e conditionsdo not permit ':op-, side-, or ~~der-pruning.

Sefore ?runinQ ~f:er Pruninc

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TEXT BOOKSTREE MAINTENANCEFifth EditionP.P. Pirone

ARBORICULTURr - Care of Trees, Shrubs, end Vines in the Landscape.Richard W. Harris

INFOR~1AIIONMULTNOMAH EXTENSION AGENT - 229-4830

OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION IN ARORA

OREGON STATE EXTENSION AGRICULTURE 229-4830

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