Tropical Forestry Handbook

Laslo Pancel • Michael KöhlEditors

Tropical ForestryHandbook

Second Edition

with 995 Figures and 370 Tables

EditorsLaslo PancelDeutsche Gesellschaft f€ur InternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbHLa Libertad, El Salvador

Michael KöhlCenter for Wood SciencesInstitute of World ForestryUniversity of HamburgHamburg, Germany

ISBN 978-3-642-54600-6 ISBN 978-3-642-54601-3 (eBook)ISBN 978-3-642-54602-0 (print and electronic bundle)DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-54601-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015957807

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1993, 2016This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of thematerial is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or informationstorage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodologynow known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoes not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevantprotective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this bookare believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or theeditors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errorsor omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer NatureThe registered company is Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg

We dedicate this Handbook to our HeavenlyFather and entrust ourselves to His guidanceand protection as we reverently manage Hismarvelous donation to humanity so that futuregenerations may experience the harmony,peace, and spirit of tropical forests.

Preface

Long ago, European forests were wild and undisturbed. Our ancestors did notexperience those forests as locations of harmony and well-being but as spooky andscary scenes of creepy stories with kidnapped princesses, ruthless witches, and cruelnoblemen. Then, humans entered the forests, utilized their timber, and cleared forestsfor other land use. They shaped forests according to their interests and later inventedtreatments to increase their sustainable productivity, which resulted in uniform,single-species stands. At the beginning of the last century, a slow shift of paradigmtook place in Europe. Forest sustainability was understood as the interplay ofdifferent ecological, economic, and social functions and a continuous cover forestrywith mixed species stands, layered structures, and selective cutting became thedesirable forest practice. It looks as Europe has been saved by the bell.

Today, tropical forests are one of the top ecological trouble spots in the world.They seem to share the fate of early European forests, but due to modern technology,global markets, and pursuit of profit at a much faster progress, they are destroyed atan alarming pace. Tropical forests find themselves in a field of tension betweendifferent user interests. Ecosystems and their biodiversity have to be protected;tropical forests have to be maintained as important drivers of the global climatesystem and a major sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Wood fuel is the mostimportant source of energy for 70 % of the world’s population. The use of timber andsubsequent timber processing safeguards income and employment. Populationgrowth and the reduction of poverty and hunger enforce the extension of agriculturalareas, and the extreme excess of the politically well-anchored demands for renew-able energy and resources may complete to do the rest for the tropical forestresources. These contradictory and partially existential user interests cannot bedenied but need to be addressed in a holistic approach. To create a fair balancebetween interest groups renders sophisticated levels of knowledge necessary, incor-porating disciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary approaches. However,where the economic interests of a minority gain the upper hand, our expertise ishelpless and powerless.

We contributed our entire professional life to counter the destruction of tropicalforests. We are in no doubt that population growth and economic development ofany country – wherever located on the globe – will result in increasing forestutilization and conversion of forest areas to other land use. We cannot hold this

vii

process. However, we can contribute to minimize the collateral damage wherevertropical forests are utilized and to identify forest areas of unique value, which shouldbe excluded from any human intervention.

The Tropical Forestry Handbook has been prepared by professionals that arededicated to the protection and the sustainable management of tropical forests. Theywant to make their expertise available for a wide audience. Their contributionsprovide valuable insight in sustainable tropical forest management. It is our hopethat the Tropical Forestry Handbook will become a helpful tool for mastering thecurrent and future challenges of tropical forests. It is our hope that this book acquiresa liking for young people especially. And it is our hope that readers join us and willnot be released ever again from the miscellany, uniqueness, and fascination oftropical forests.

Laslo Pancel Michael KöhlSan Salvador Hamburg

viii Preface

Abbreviation Group

Tables and Formulas

Conversion to International System Units2

See Table 1.

2Source: Euroconsult (1989) Agricultural compendium. Elsevier, Amsterdam

ix

Table

1

Magnitude

ISano

tatio

nOther

notatio

nsConversion

toIS

Ang

lo-Saxon

notatio

nsCon

versionto

ISNam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Spa

cean

dtim

eLength

lMeter

mMicron

μ×10

−6

Inch

in×25

.400

×10

−3

Ang

strom

Å−10

−10

Foo

t(12in)

ft×0.3048

Yard(3

ft)

yd×0.9144

Chain

(22yd

)×20

.116

8Furlong

220yd

)×20

1.16

8

Mile

(1760yd

)mile

×1.6093

×10

3

Nauticalmile

nmile

×1.852×10

3

Area

ASqu

are

meter

m2

Are

a×10

2Squ

areinch

in2

×0.645×10

3

Squ

arefoot

ft2

×92

.9×10

−3

Squ

areyard

yd2

×0.836

Acre(484

0yd

2)

×4.047×10

3

Squ

aremile

(640

acres)

sq•m

ile×2.590×10

6

Volum

eV

Cub

icmeter

m3

Cub

iccentim

eter

cc×10

−6

Cub

icinch

in3

×16

.39×10

6

Liter

l×10

−3

Cub

icfoot

ft3

×28

.32×10

−3

Registerton

rt×2.38

Cub

icyard

yd3

×0.765

Gallon(U

S)

×3.785×10

−3

Gallon(U

K)

×4.546×10

−3

Pint(U

K)

×0.567×10

−3

Buschel(8

gal.US)

×30

.28×10

−3

Acrefoot

acre

ft×12

33.525

6

Tim

et

Hou

rh

Year

8766

hSee

ISandother

notatio

nsMinute

(60−

1h)

min

31,577

,600

s

Second

(60−

2h)

sDay

24h

86,400

s

x Abbreviation Group

Velocity

VMeter

per

second

ms−

1Kilo

meter

per

hour

kmh−

1×3.6

Foo

tperminute

ft/m

in×5.080×10

−3

Foo

tpersecond

ft/s

×0.3048

Mile

perhour

mile/h

×0.4470

Kno

t(1

nautical

mile

perho

ur)

kn×0.514

Radialvelocity

Radianper

second

rads−

1See

angle

See

angle

Acceleration

aMeter

per

second

squared

ms−

2Foo

tpersecond

squared

ft/s2

×30

4.80

0×

10−3

Volum

etricrate

offlow

qCub

icmeter

per

second

m3s−

1Cub

icfoot

per

second

(cusec)

ft3/s

×28

.317

×10

−3

Ang

leL

Radian

rad

Degree

°×π×18

0−1

See

otherno

tatio

nsMinute

′×π×60

−1

×18

0−1

Secon

d″

×π×60

−2

×18

0−1

Gon

(centesimal

degree)

g×π20

0−1

Centesimal

minute

c×π×π10

0−1

×20

0−1

Centesimal

second

cc×π×π10

0−2

×20

0−1

Mecha

nics

Mass

mKilo

gram

kgQuintal

q×10

2Grain

(7000−

1lb)

gr×64

.8×10

−6

Ton

t×10

3Oun

ce(avo

irdupo

is)

oz×28

.35×10

−3

Pou

nd(avo

irdupo

is)

(16oz)

lb×0.4536

Stone

(14lb)

×6.35

Hundredweight

(112

lb)

cwt

×50

.8 (con

tinued)

Abbreviation Group xi

Table

1(con

tinue

d)

Magnitude

ISano

tatio

nOther

notatio

nsConversion

toIS

Ang

lo-Saxon

notatio

nsCon

versionto

ISNam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Sho

rthundredw

eight

[100

lb(U

S)]

shcw

t×45

.36

Barrel(160

lb)

×72.576

Sho

rtton[2000lb

(US)]

shton

×90

7

(Lon

g)ton(2240lb)

ton

×1.016×10

−3

Density

concentration

ρKilo

gram

percubic

meter

kgm

−3

Kilo

gram

per

litre

kgl−1

×10

3Grain

percubicfoot

gr/ft3

×2.288×10

−3

Tonpercubic

metre

tm

−3

×10

3Oun

cepergallo

n(U

S)

oz/gall

(US)

×7.490

Oun

cepergallo

n(U

K)

(oz/

gall)

(UK)

×6.236

Pou

ndpercubicfoot

lb/ft3

×16

.02

Pou

ndpercubic

inch

lb/in

3×27

.68×10

3

Mom

entof

inertia

I,J

Kilo

gram

meter

squared

kgm

2Pou

ndfoot

squared

lb•ft2

×42

.141

×10

−3

Force

FNew

ton

NKilo

gram

force

kgf

×9.80665

×10

−5

Pou

ndal

pdl

×0.1383

Weigh

tW

Dyne

dyn

Poundal-force

(32.17

pdl)

lbf

×4.448

Specificweight

γNew

ton

percubic

meter

Nm

−3

Kilo

gram

force

percubicmetre

kgfm

−3

×9.8066

5Pou

ndforceper

cubicfoot

lbf/ft3

×15

7.1

Kilo

gram

force

perlitre

kgfl−1

×9.8066

5×10

−3

xii Abbreviation Group

Mom

entof

force

MNew

ton

meter

Nm

Foo

tpo

undal

ft•pdl

×42

.141

×10

−3

Bending

mom

ent

MPou

nd-force

foot

lbf•ft

×1.356

Torque

T

Pressure

PPascal

Pa

Millim

eter

ofmercury

mmHg

×13

3.32

2Pou

ndalpersquare

foot

pdl/ft2

×1.488

Normalstress

σNew

ton

persquare

meter

Nm

−2

Meter

ofwater

mH2O

×0.0981

×10

5Pou

nd-force

per

square

foot

lbf/ft2

×47

.88

Shear

stress

τTechnical

atmosphere

at×0.9807

×10

5

Bar

bar

×10

5Squ

areinch

p.s.i.

Normal

atmosphere

atm

×1.0135

×10

5

Viscosity

ηPascal

second

Pas

Poise

P×10

−1

Pou

ndalsecond

per

square

foot

pdl•s/

ft2

×1.488

New

ton

second

per

square

meter

Nsm

−2

Pou

nd-force

second

persquare

foot

lbf.s/ft2

×47

.88

Kinem

atic

viscosity

vSqu

are

meter

per

second

m2s−

1Stokes

St

×10

−4

Squ

areinch

per

second

in2/s

×0.645×10

−3

Squ

arefoot

per

second

ft2/s

×92

.9×10

−3

Energy

EJoule

Jerg

erg

×10

−7

Foo

tpo

undal

ft•pdl

×42

.141

×10

−3

New

ton

meter

nm

Foo

tpo

und-force

ft•lbf

×1.356

Watt

second

Ws

Britishthermalunit

Btu

×1.055×10

3

Cub

icfoot

atmosphere

ft3•atm

×2.869×10

3

Horsepower

hour

(British)

hp•h

×2.685×10

6

(con

tinued)

Abbreviation Group xiii

Table

1(con

tinue

d)

Magnitude

ISano

tatio

nOther

notatio

nsConversion

toIS

Ang

lo-Saxon

notatio

nsCon

versionto

ISNam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Pow

erP

Watt

WMetricho

rse

power

Mhp

×73

5.48

9Foo

tpo

undalper

second

ft/pdl/s

×42

.141

×10

−3

Jouleper

second

Js−

1DIN

horse

power

(vehicles)

DIN

hpBritishthermalunit

perho

urBtu/h

×29

3.1×10

−3

New

ton

meter

per

second

Nm

s−1

Chevaux

(fiscal

vehicleform

)–

App

rox.×98

Foo

tpo

und-force

persecond

ft•lbf/s

×1.356

Horsepower

(UK)

(vehicles)

HP

×72

4.7

Horse

power

SAE

(US)vehicles

SAE

HP

App

rox.×66

0

Frequency

nHertz

HZns−

1

Heat

Quantity

ofheat

QJoule

JCalorie

cal

×4.1868

Britishthermalunit

Btu

×1.055×10

3

Kilo

calorie

Cal

×4186.8

Therm

alCon

ductivity

λJouleper

meter

second

Kelvin

Jm

−1s−

1k−

1Britishthermalunit

inch

perho

ursquare

foot

degree

Fahrenh

eit

Btu•in/

h•

ft2degF

×0.1442

Wattper

meter

Kelvin

Wm

−1k−

1Britishthermalunit

perho

urfoot

degree

Fahrenh

eit

Btu/h•

ftdegF

×1.731

Britishthermalunit

persecond

foot

degree

Fahrenh

eit

Btu/lb

•degF

×6.23

×10

3

Specificheat

capacity

CJouleper

kilogram

Kelvin

Jkg

−1K−1

Britishthermalunit

perpo

unddegree

Fahrenh

eit

Btu/lb

•degF

×4.187×10

3

xiv Abbreviation Group

Specificlatent

heatof

evaporation

IJouleper

kilogram

Jkg

−1

Britishthermalunit

perpo

und

Btu/lb

×2.326×10

3

Temperature

TKelvin

KDegree

centigrade

°CAdd

273.15

Degree

Fahrenh

eit

degF

5/9(degF−

32)+

273.15

Electricity

Current

iAmpère

ASee

ISno

tatio

nPotential

eVolt

VWA−1

See

ISno

tatio

n

Resistance

rOhm

ΩVA−1

See

ISno

tatio

n

Con

ductance

GSiemens

SΩ−1AV−1

mho

mho

×1

Con

ductivity

σ,EC

Siemens

permeter

Sm

−1

mho

percentim

eter

mho

cm−1

×0.01

Pow

erP

Watt

WVAJs−

1See

ISno

tatio

nCharge

Cou

lomb

CAs

See

ISno

tatio

n

Capacity

Farad

FCV−11

See

ISno

tatio

n

Com

positeunits

Massperarea

Kilo

gram

persquare

meter

kgm

−2

Kilo

gram

per

hectare

kgha

−1

×10

−4

Pou

ndperacre

lb/acre

×0.1121

×10

−3

Quintalper

hectare

qha

−1

×10

−2

Bushelperacre:

Tonperhectare

tha

−1

×10

−1

Barley

×0.538×10

−2

Maize

×0.627×10

−2

Wheat

×0.672×10

−2

Hundredweightper

acre

cwt/

acre

×1.255×10

−2

Sho

rttonperacre

shton/

acre

×22

.41×10

−2

(Lon

g)tonperacre

ton/acre

×25

.11×10

−2

(con

tinued)

Abbreviation Group xv

Table

1(con

tinue

d)

Magnitude

ISano

tatio

nOther

notatio

nsConversion

toIS

Ang

lo-Saxon

notatio

nsCon

versionto

ISNam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Nam

eSym

bol

Area×

depth

(=vo

lume)

Squ

are

meter×

meter

(=cubic

metre)

m2×m

(=m

3)

Hectare

millim

eter

(10

cubicmeters)

hamm

×10

Acreinch

acre

in×10

2.79

38

Acrefoot

acre

ft×12

33.525

6Squ

aremile

inch

mile

2in

×65

,785

.698

0

Distanceperarea

perun

itof

time=

depthperun

itof

time

Meter

per

second

ms−

1Millim

eter

per

day

mm

day−

1×11.6×10

−9

Acrepercusec(duty

=1)

(605

mm

day−

1)

(69.97

ls−

1ha

−1)

acre/

cusduty

×6.997×10

−6

Millim

eter

per

hour

mm

h−1

×27

.8×10

−8

Literpersecond

perhectare

(8.64mm

day−

1)

1s−

1ha

−1

×10

−7

xvi Abbreviation Group

Prefixes Denoting Decimal Multiples or Submultiples3

The following prefixes, with significance, name, and symbol as shown below, areused to denote decimal multiples or submultiples of (metric) units. These prefixes,developed in conjunction with the metric system, and are now authorized as “ISprefixes” (International System of Units).

To indicate multiples To indicate submultiples

�1012 tera T �10�1 deci d

�109 giga G �10�2 centi c

�106 mega M �10�3 milli m

�103 kilo k �10�6 micro μ�102 hecto h �10�9 nano n

�10 deca da �10�12 pico p

�10�15 femto f

�10�18 atto a

Meaning of Million, Billion, Trillion, etc.4

Regarding the meaning of million, billion, etc., the convention shown in the tablebelow accords with the decision of the 9th General Conference of Weights andMeasures, Paris 1948, and is in use in Europe.

Term Significance Corresponding decimal factor

Million Thousand � thousand 106

Billion Million � million 1012

Trillion Million � billion 1018

Quadrillion Million � trillion 1024

Reservoirs Carbon Exchanges5

1 teragram (Tg) = 1012 g or 106 t1 petagram (Pg) = 1015 g or 109 t1 gigaton (Gt) = 109 t or 1 Pg1 Pg = 1 Gt

3Source: British Standards Institution (1974) Conversion factors and tables. London4Ídem5Source: FAO (1995) Climate change, forests and forest management. An overview. Rome

Abbreviation Group xvii

Spacing in Plantations

Triangular and squared spacing of plants per hectare

Plantingdistancem/cm

No. of seedlings Plantingdistancem/cm

No. of seedlings Plantingdistancem/cm

No. of seedlings

Triangle Square Triangle Square Triangle Square

0.4 72,169 62,500 2.8 1473 1276 5.4 396 343

0.5 46,188 40,000 2.9 1373 1189 5.5 382 3310.6 32,075 27,778 3.0 1238 1111 5.6 368 319

0.7 23,565 20,408 3.1 1202 1041 5.8 343 297

0.8 18,042 15,625 3.2 1128 977 6.0 321 2780.9 14,256 12,346 3.3 1060 918 6.2 300 260

1.0 11,547 10,000 3.4 999 865 6.4 282 2441.1 9543 8265 3.5 943 816 6.5 273 237

1.2 8019 6944 3.6 891 772 6.6 265 2301.3 6833 5917 3.7 843 730 6.8 250 216

1.4 5891 5102 3.8 800 693 7.0 236 204

1.5 5132 4444 3.9 759 657 7.5 205 1781.6 4511 3906 4.0 722 625 8.0 180 156

1.7 3996 3460 4.1 687 595 8.5 160 1381.8 3564 3086 4.2 655 567 9.0 143 123

1.9 3199 2770 4.3 625 541 9.5 128 111

2.0 2887 2500 4.4 596 517 10.0 115 1002.1 2618 2268 4.5 570 494 10.5 105 91

2.2 2386 2066 4.6 546 473 11.0 95 832.3 2183 1890 4.7 523 453 11.5 87 76

2.4 2005 1736 4.8 501 434 12.0 80 692.5 1848 1600 4.9 48 417 13.0 68 59

2.6 1708 1479 5.0 462 400 14.0 58 51

2.7 1584 1372 5.2 427 370 15.0 51 44

Areas and Volumes

Notation: a, b, c, d denote lengths, A denotes area, C denotes circumference,D denotes diameter, R denotes radius, V denotes volume, h denotes altitude, and αdenotes central angle in radians.

xviii Abbreviation Group

Triangles

Right triangle

a

cb

A ¼ 1

2ab

c ¼ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffia2 þ b2

pa ¼

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffic2 � b2

pb ¼

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffic2 � a2

p

Oblique triangle

b

hac

A ¼ 1

2bh

Equilateral triangle

a

aa h

A ¼ 1

2ah ¼ 1

4a2

ffiffiffi3

p

h ¼ 1

2a

ffiffiffi3

p

Abbreviation Group xix

Four-Sided Figures

Square

a

d

a ¼ a2 ; d ¼ affiffiffi2

p

Rectangle

d

a

b

A ¼ ab; d ¼ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffia2 þ b2

pParallelogram (opposite sides parallel)

d2d1

a

hb

a

A ¼ ah ¼ ab sin αd1 ¼

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffia2 þ b2 � 2ab cos α

pd2 ¼

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffia2 þ b2 þ 2ab cos α

p

xx Abbreviation Group

Trapezoid (one pair of opposite sides parallel)

h

a

b

A ¼ 1

2h aþ bð Þ

Circle, Ellipse, and Parabola

d r

C ¼ πd ¼ 2π r, where r ¼ d=2

A circleð Þ ¼ πr2 ¼ 1

4π d2

ba

A ¼ π abPerimeter sð Þ � n 1:5 aþ bð Þ � abð Þ

Parabola

Abbreviation Group xxi

d1

l1

l

d

Length of arc sð Þ 12

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi16d2 þ l2þ

p l2

8d• ln

4d þffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi16d2 þ l2

pl

!

¼ l 1þ 2

3

2d

l

� �2

� 2

5

2d

l

� �4

þ . . .

" #

Height of segment d1ð Þ ¼ d

l2l2 � l1ð Þ

Width of segment l1ð Þ ¼ l

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffid1 � d2

d

r

Three-Dimensional Figures

Cube

d

a

V ¼ a3; d ¼ affiffiffi3

pTotal surface ¼ 6a2

Rectangular parallelepiped

xxii Abbreviation Group

dc

ba

V ¼ abc; d ¼ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffia2 þ b2 þ c2

pTotal surface ¼ 2 abþ bcþ cað Þ

Prism or cylinder

e eh

V ¼ area of baseð Þ � length h

Pyramid or cone

h SS

V ¼ 1

3areaof baseð Þ � length h

Lateral area or regular figure ¼ 1

2perimeter of base

� �� slant heightð Þ

Frustum of pyramid or cone

Abbreviation Group xxiii

h SS

V ¼ 13

A1þ A2þ ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiA1 � A2

p� �h, where A1 and A2 are areas of bases, and h is

altitude. Lateral area of regular figure = ½ (sum of perimeters of bases) � (slantheight)

Sphere

A sphereð Þ ¼ 4πr2 ¼ πd2

V sphereð Þ ¼ 4

3πr3 ¼ 1

6πd3

Paraboloidal segment

h

dr1r2

V segment of one baseð Þ ¼ 1

2πr1

2 h

V segment of two baseð Þ ¼ 1

2π r1

2 þ r22

� �d

Neiloidal segment

xxiv Abbreviation Group

h

r2r3 r1

d/2 d/2

V segment of one baseð Þ ¼ π

6r1

2 þ 4r23� �

h

V segment of one baseð Þ ¼ π

6r1

2 þ 4r22� �

d

The Climatic Gradients and Associated Vegetation Types (Jordan1993)

See Table 2.

Abbreviation Group xxv

Table

2The

clim

atic

gradient

from

theclim

atic

equatortowardhigh

erlatitud

esandthecorrespo

ndinggradientsof

planthabitusandof

themainplant

form

ations.T

hehabitusisexpressedas

thetype

ofclim

aticadaptatio

n(abo

vethelin

e)andthecorrespo

ndingmorph

olog

icaladaptatio

ntype

(below

thelin

e).

The

form

ationrefersto

form

ationgrou

pandform

ationlevelsof

ecolog

ical-structuralclassificatio

n.The

clim

atic

datareferto

trop

ical

lowlandsbelow

300m

altitud

e(Br€ unig19

72;UNESCO

1978

)

Amou

ntof

annu

alinsolatio

nof

grou

nd(kcal/

cm2)

Sou

th-EastAsia

140–

160

Con

gobasin

120–

130

Amazon

basin

100–

120

ca.1

60ca.1

80ca.2

00ca.2

20>22

0

Meanannu

altemperature

Tm(�C)

2825

21–32

20–3

3Extreme

variation

Extremevariation

Ann

ual

variation(�C)

315

–20

3035

Diurnal

variation(�C)

920

2030

Wind

Predo

minance

oftrop

icallowpressure

trou

gh,low

velocities

except

inconv

entio

nalsqualls

andlocaltornadoes

Highvelocities

during

summer

(typ

hoon

,hurricane,

cyclon

e),low

during

dryseason

,stron

geffectof

trop

ical

conv

ergencezone.

Localfron

talstorms

towardendto

dry

season

(habub

inAfrica)

Seasonally

dry

trop

ic(harmattan)

ormoisttrop

icair

(trades,mon

soon

),velocitiesmod

erate

except

during

passageof

trop

ical

cyclon

es

Predo

minance

oftrop

ichigh

pressure

cell,

averagewind

speeds

lowto

mod

erate,

occasion

ally

high

velocitiesin

advectivestorm

Asbefore,d

ryandho

tstorms

morefrequent

Asbefore,d

ust

stormscommon

xxvi Abbreviation Group

Relative

humidity

(mean%)

95/100

nigh

t.60

/70

daytim

e,little

season

alvariation

90/100

wetseason

,60

/80dryseason

80/90wet,4

0/60

dryseason

60/80wet,2

0/50

dry

season

Usually

50%

Average

very

low

butlocally

very

high

forshort

period

s

Ratio

ofpo

tential

evaporationto

actual

precipitatio

n,Ep

P0

<1

<1

>1

>2

>1

>8

Precipitatio

n(m

m/a)mean,

min.o

rmax.

2000

;min

=50

(Tm+12

)13

00–3

000;

min

=25

(Tm+12

)50

0–15

00;

min

=20

(Tm+12

)

350–10

00;

min

=10

(Tm+12

)10

0–00

;min

=Tm+70

<10

0;max

=T+70

mm

Distributionof

precipitatio

nEven,<2drymon

ths

2or

4season

s,3–5

drymon

ths

2or

4season

s,6–8

drymon

ths

2season

s,9–

10dry

mon

ths

11drymon

ths

12drymon

ths

Location

Equ

atorialbeltand

areaswith

constant

moistair-masses

outsidethisbelt

Sub

equatorialto

outertrop

icswith

influenceof

trades,

mon

soon

s,and

mon

soon

like

alternatingwinds

Sub

equatorialto

subtropical

summer-rainbelt

Outer

trop

icalbelt

summer-rainbelt

Outer

trop

ical

tosubtropical

beltof

descending

air-masses

Outer

trop

icalto

subtropicalbeltof

descending

air-masses

Clim

atetype

Tropicalperhu

mid

(wet),isotherm

,no

nseasonal,diurnal

variation>

annu

alvariation

Tropicalhu

mid

(moist),isotherm

,season

alwith

predom

inantly

summer

rainfall

Tropicaldry

season

alwith

summer

rainfall

Tropicalvery

dry

season

alwith

summer

rainfall

Tropicalarid

Tropicalarid

Growing

period

(mon

ths)

11–1

27–

104–

62–3

1–2

Bare

(con

tinued)

Abbreviation Group xxvii

Table

2(con

tinue

d)

Amou

ntof

annu

alinsolatio

nof

grou

nd(kcal/

cm2)

Sou

th-EastAsia

140–

160

Con

gobasin

120–

130

Amazon

basin

100–

120

ca.1

60ca.1

80ca.2

00ca.2

20>22

0

Characteristic

habitusof

clim

atic

clim

axform

ation

Megatherm

-hy

drop

hilous

Hyd

romorph

ic-

mesom

orph

ic

Megatherm

-trop

ophy

ticTropo

morph

Megatherm

-trop

hoph

ytic

Megatherm

-trop

ophy

tic-

scleroph

ytic-

xeroph

ytic

Xerom

orph

Bare

Mainclim

atic

clim

axform

ations

Sup

erhu

mid

tohu

mid,

ombrop

hilous,

evergreentrop

ical

forestandsemi-

evergreenwetforest

Hum

idto

subh

umid,

semi-decidu

ousand

decidu

oustrop

ical

forest

Sub

humid

tosemi-

arid,d

eciduo

ustrop

icalforest

Sem

i-arid

decidu

ous

trop

icalthorn

woo

dland

Aridthorn

scrubandsemi-

desert

Per

arid

desert

Edaph

icclim

axform

ations

Littoralforest

Mangrov

eforestand

woo

dland

Freshwater

swam

pforestandgrassland

Peatsw

ampforest

Riparianforest

Single-do

minant

forestson

certain

soils

Sclerop

hyllo

usforest

Littoralforest

Mangrov

eforestand

woo

dland(less

luxu

riant)

Freshwater

swam

pforestandgrassland

Riparianforest

(often

relic

gallery)

Evergreen

forest

(onmoister

well-

drainedsoils)

Sclerop

hyllo

usforest

(sandy

terraces

and

skeletalsoils)

Littoralwoo

dland

Mangrov

eforestto

scrub

Riparianfringing

forestandgrassland

Sclerop

hytic

thorn

woo

dland

Deciduo

usmoist

forest

Littoralscrub

Mangrov

ewoo

dland

toscrub

Riparianfringing

woo

dlandand

grassland

Xerop

hytic

semi-

desert

Littoralscrub

Mangrov

escrub

Riparian

fringing

scrub

andgrassland

Asin

thearid

zone,

butrarerandpo

orer

xxviii Abbreviation Group

Phy

siog

raph

icclim

axform

ations

Sub

mon

tane

forest

(locally

rich

inoaks

andlaurels,simple

structurethan

clim

aticclim

ax)

Mon

tane

forest

(moist)

Alto

-mon

tane

forest

(moist)

Alto

-mon

tane

moss

forest(w

et,m

isty)

Alto

-mon

tane

woo

dlandandscrub

(moist)

Sim

ilarto

theper

humid

zone,except

forspecies

compo

sitio

n,conifersincrease

insouthern

and

northern

hemisph

ere,

bambo

ospecies

becomemore

frequent

inthe

northern

hemisph

ere

Sim

ilartothehu

mid

zone,b

utrelativ

eeffectof

expo

sitio

nandbarrier-effect

morepron

ounced

Sim

ilarto

dryzone,

very

strong

and

noticeableeffectof

elevation,

frost

occursregu

larlyeven

atlower

altitud

es,

particularly

inho

llows,andcreates

localdw

arf

vegetatio

nGenerally

moreop

enandscrub-lik

e.Barrier-effectvery

pron

ounced

Asbefore

Asbefore

Degraded

form

ations

Sub

seralsecond

ary

forest

Disclim

axsecond

ary

forest

Disclim

axpine

forest

topine

savann

a(m

ostly

athigh

eraltitud

e)Disclim

axgrassland

(Imperata

cylin

drical

usually

common

)Disclim

axkarst-

woo

dland

Disclim

axscleroph

yticsavann

a

Sub

seralsecond

ary

forest

Disclim

axsecond

ary

forest

Disclim

axsavann

aDisclim

axpine

forest,p

ine

woo

dlandor

pine

savann

a(higher

altitud

es)

Disclim

axkarst-

woo

dland

Disclim

axscleroph

yticor

xeroph

yticsavann

a

Disclim

axxeroph

yticsavann

aDisclim

axthorn

scrub

Disclim

axsemi-

desertscrub

Disclim

axxeroph

yticthorn

shrub

Disclim

axsemi-

desert

Disclim

axdesert

Bare

Jordan

CF(199

3)Chapter

3:Ecology

oftrop

icalforests.In:PancelL(ed)

Tropicalforestry

hand

book

,vol

1.Springer,Berlin

Abbreviation Group xxix

Acknowledgments

Several people have assisted in the preparation of this book. We especially thankCecilia Vides for her constant and professional support in organizing and reviewingthe text and in searching for practical solutions to finalize the first drafts of this book.

We are indebted to Karin Bartsch, Christina Eckey, and Susanne Friedrichsenfrom Springer Publishers, Heidelberg, for not losing their patience with us. Despitenumerous delays and missed deadlines, they never gave up on us and continued theirsupport of this book.

Finally, special thanks go to our families. Monica, Michaela, Miriam, andDamaris braved the adverse side effects of limited availability or mental absenceof the editors, and they have generously and sympathetically supported our work.

xxxi

International Forest Organizations

Research

International Union of ForestResearch Organizations

www.iufro.org IUFRO is a global network for forestscience cooperation. It unites more than15,000 scientists in almost 700 memberorganizations in over 110 countries and isa member of ICSU. Scientists cooperatein IUFRO on a voluntary basisIUFRO headquarters are located inVienna, Austria.

Center for InternationalForestry Research

www.cifor.org The Center for International ForestryResearch (CIFOR) is a nonprofit,scientific facility that conducts researchon the most pressing challenges of forestand landscape management around theworld. With its global, multidisciplinaryapproach, CIFOR aims to improvehuman well-being, protect theenvironment, and increase equity. It helpspolicymakers, practitioners, andcommunities make decisions based onsolid science about how they use andmanage their forests and landscapesCapacity building, collaboration, andpartnerships are essential to finding andimplementing innovative solutions to thechallenges that the globe faces. CIFOR isa member of the CGIAR Consortium andled the CGIAR Research Program onForests, Trees and AgroforestryCIFOR headquarters are in Bogor,Indonesia. CIFOR has offices in8 countries across Asia, Latin America,and Africa and works in more than30 countries.

(continued)

xxxiii

Research

Tropenbos International www.tropenbos.org TBI’s approaches recognize that gooddecisions depend on credible, relevant,and practical knowledge andinformation. Good decisions also requirestrong individual and organizationalcapacity and institutional governanceacross the forest sector, as well as strongnetworks and platforms for the sharing ofknowledge. Knowledge must be targetedto the right audiences. Sound informationthat supports societal processes has thecapacity to resolve and prevent conflictsand dilemmasTBI’s approach has several importantcomponents:TBI enables comprehensive, evidence-

based multistakeholder dialogues that aresupported by the generation of criticalknowledge, development of localcapacities, and strengthening of institutionsTBI is an intermediary, linking

policymakers, practitioners, andknowledge providers; formal, professional,and traditional knowledge; and northernand southern actorsTBI is a knowledge broker, helping

people make their own choices bydeveloping scenarios and mapping theirconsequencesTBI supports partnerships by engaging

scientists, policymakers, the private sector,local communities, and civil society at thelocal, national, regional, and global level incollaborative actionTBI achieves local impacts by creating

lasting and dependable local policy andknowledge networks that are supported byeffective country offices in a range ofpartner countriesTBI supports communication by

adapting knowledge into practicalinformation for policymakers and forestpractitionersTBI’s target groupsForest-dependent peoplePolicymakers and regulatorsPractitioners, forest managers, forestowners, and forest usersNongovernmental organizations andcivil societyResearchers and educators

(continued)

xxxiv International Forest Organizations

Research

Centro agronómico tropicalde investigación y enseñanza(CATIE)

www.catie.ac.cr CATIE, as an international entity with aunique combination of science, graduateeducation, and innovation fordevelopment, has its bases well groundedand a clear action plan for creatingprofessionals with a distinct perspectivewho can also contribute to the sustainablegrowth of the communities

International Institute forEnvironment andDevelopment (IIED)

www.iied.org IIED builds bridges: between local andglobal, policy and practice, rich and poor,government and private sector, andacross diverse interest groups. Itsstrength lies in the combination ofresearch and action – generating robustevidence and know-how that is informedby a practical perspective acquiredthrough hands-on research withgrassroots partners. IIED has fourresearch groups:Climate changeHuman settlementsNational resourcesSustainable markets

Consultative Group onAgricultural Research(CIGAR)

www.cigar.org CGIAR is a global partnership that unitesorganizations engaged in research for afood-secure futureWe are no longer the “ConsultativeGroup on International AgriculturalResearch.” In 2008, we underwent amajor transformation; to reflect this andyet retain our roots, we are now knownsimply as CGIARCGIAR research is dedicated to reducingrural poverty, increasing food security,improving human health and nutrition,and ensuring sustainable management ofnatural resources. It is carried out by15 Centers that are members of theCGIAR Consortium, in closecollaboration with hundreds of partners,including national and regional researchinstitutes, civil society organizations,academia, development organizations,and the private sectorThe 15 research centers generate anddisseminate knowledge, technologies,and policies for agricultural developmentthrough the CGIAR Research Programs.The CGIAR Fund provides reliable andpredictable multiyear funding to enableresearch planning over the long term,

(continued)

International Forest Organizations xxxv

Research

resource allocation based on agreedpriorities, and the timely and predictabledisbursement of funds. The multidonortrust fund finances research carried out bythe Centers through the CGIAR ResearchPrograms

Food and AgricultureOrganization of the UnitedNations

www.fao.org An intergovernmental organization, FAO,has 194 Member Nations, two associatemembers, and one member organization,the European Union. Its employees comefrom various cultural backgrounds and areexperts in the multiple fields of activityFAO engages in. FAO’s staff capacityallows it to support improved governanceinter alia; generate, develop, and adaptexisting tools and guidelines; and providetargeted governance support as a resourceto country- and regional-level FAOoffices. Headquartered in Rome, Italy,FAO is present in over 130 countries

Centre for AgriculturalResearch in Suriname(CELOS)

www.celos.sr.org CELOS fosters applied scientificresearch in the agricultural and forestrysector in Suriname and the region. Inaddition to conducting research, CELOSalso makes its services and facilitiesavailable to university scientists andstudents, namely, those faculty membersand students affiliated with theDepartment of Agriculture of the Facultyof Technology. Since the expertise of thevarious agricultural and forestry fieldsexists within the staff of CELOS and theFaculty of Technology, these institutionsare able to adequately adapt theirprograms to target many agricultural andforestry subareasFields of specialization are agricultureand animal science, forestry, woodtechnology, tissue culture, soil science,biodiversity, agronomy, agroforestry,GIS and remote sensing (NARENA),aquaculture, and fish ecology

Forestry Research,Development and InnovationAgency (FORDA),Indonesia

http://www.forda-mof.org

FORDA aims at improving governanceand forestry science and technologyexpediencyConfirming research anddevelopment–supporting elementsConducting research and developmentrelevant and appropriate to the needs ofusers and be able to respond to thechallenges and problems of the forestry

(continued)

xxxvi International Forest Organizations

Research

sectorImproving the usefulness andapplicability of the results of researchand developmentConfirming research anddevelopment–supporting elements

Forestry Research Instituteof Ghana

http://csir-forig.org.gh

Forestry Research Institute of Ghana isone of the 13 institutes of the Council forScientific and Industrial Research(CSIR). It is located at Fumesua nearKumasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana.It started as a research unit within theForestry Department in 1962. ForestryResearch Institute of Ghana’s mission isto conduct forest and forest productresearch for social, economic, andenvironmental benefits of society

Institute of Tropical ForestConservation

http://itfc.must.ac.ug ITFC is a postgraduate instituteestablished in 1991 under MbararaUniversity of Science and Technologyfocused on research, training, andmonitoring for conservation management.We are located just inside BwindiImpenetrable National Park in South WestUganda, a world heritage site and thehomeland of Uganda’s mountain gorillas

The Center for TropicalForest Science – ForestGlobal Earth Observatories(CTFS-ForestGEO)

http://www.forestgeo.si.edu/

The Center for Tropical Forest Science –Forest Global Earth Observatories(CTFS-ForestGEO) is a global networkof forest research plots and scientistsdedicated to the study of tropical andtemperate forest function and diversity.The multiinstitutional network comprisesover 60 forest research plots across theAmericas, Africa, Asia, and Europe, witha strong focus on tropical regions. CTFS-ForestGEO monitors the growth andsurvival of approximately six milliontrees and 10,000 speciesCTFS-ForestGEO conducts long-term,large-scale research on forests around theworld to:Increase scientific understanding offorest ecosystemsGuide sustainable forest managementand natural-resource policiesMonitor the impacts of global climatechangeBuild capacity in forest science

(continued)

International Forest Organizations xxxvii

Research

European Tropical ForestResearch Network

http://www.etfrn.org/

Established in 1991, the EuropeanTropical Forest Research Network(ETFRN) aims to ensure that Europeanresearch contributes to conservation andsustainable use of forest and treeresources in tropical and subtropicalcountries

The Oxford Centre forTropical Forests (OCTF)

http://www.tropicalforests.ox.ac.uk/

The Oxford Centre for Tropical Forests(OCTF) is a network of OxfordUniversity departments and neighboringNGOs, consultancies, and businesses inthe Oxford area. OCTF facilitatescollaborative research andcommunication among its members onissues related to forest governance,management, and conservation and alsoserves as a platform for broadercollaboration between Oxford-areainstitutions and the global forestcommunity

Forest Research InstituteMalaysia (FRIM)

http://www.frim.gov.my

Forest Research Institute Malaysia(FRIM) is one of the leading institutionsin tropical forestry research in the world.Founded in 1929, the former ForestResearch Institute became a full-fledgedstatutory body, governed by theMalaysian Forestry Research andDevelopment Board (MFRDB) under theMinistry of Primary Industries, in 1985.Main research areas are:Forestry and environmentForestry biotechnologyForest productsForest biodiversityEconomic and strategic analysis

xxxviii International Forest Organizations

Introduction to Tropical Forestry and to ThisHandbook

Tropical forests are one of the oldest biomes on our planet. Over time, they havedeveloped fascinating diversity, and not only in terms of species numbers. They arean essential component of the global climate system, and they furnish habitats for amyriad of plant and animal species, contribute to the livelihood of indigenouspeoples, provide goods and services, and include awe-inspiring locations that pro-voke admiration and amazement among visitors to the forest. They offer enoughpotential for future generations of scientists to carry out scientific work, as most ofthe biogeochemical functions and relationships that underpin tropical forest ecosys-tems are still beyond our knowledge and control. The current lack of knowledge is ofparticular concern when tropical forests are considered as a common good withunrestricted access for utilization and conversion to other land uses.

The world’s forests are in an alarming state. According to Mitchard (2015), theresults of a country-by-country analysis of forest loss are of great concern: In theperiod between 2000 and 2012, 13.4 % of the forest cover of Malaysia has been lost,7.9 % in Indonesia, and 4.0 % in Brazil. Mitchard goes on to explain that “thesefigures are not a proportion of forest loss, but a proportion of the whole country thathas been reported as undergoing forest loss over that period”! A similarly pessimisticimpression arises from FAO’s State of the World’s Forests report (FAO 2014), whoseillusive Key Messages1 seem to suggest that the forest sector in the tropics will havea long road ahead. Unhampered population growth, poverty, the increasing demandfor timber, the extension of agricultural land use driven by the demand for food andenergy, and the reckless search for economic profits put tropical forests in a weakposition in land-use conflicts.

1Key Messages State of the World’s Forests (FAO 2014)– To measure the socioeconomic benefits from forests, data collection must focus on people, not

only trees.– Forest policies must explicitly address forests’ role in providing food, energy, and shelter.

Recognition of the value of forest services, such as erosion protection and pollination, isessential to sound decision-making.

– To meet rising and changing demands, sustainable forest management must include moreefficient production.

– Providing people with access to forest resources and markets is a powerful way to enhancesocioeconomic benefits.

xxxix

In light of these doomsday scenarios, can we as foresters respond to these threatsand challenges? What are our prospects to halt or even reverse these developments,as the FAO (2006) asserts that we face a rate of forest area destruction of over13 million hectares per year? We undertook the work on the current Handbook toraise the understanding of tropical forest ecosystems and to pass on long-termexperience in the protection and sustainable management of tropical forests. Thereare nearly 1.65 billion hectares of natural tropical forests, of which 41 % are rainforests, 33 % are moist deciduous forests, 10 % are dry deciduous forests, 12 %are hill and mountain forests, and 4 % can be classified as other tropical forestformations. The diversity of tropical forests requires a similar diversity ofapproaches to halt their destruction and to safeguard their role as providers ofmultiple ecosystem services and functions. Utilizing tropical forests without under-standing their underlying functional relationships will open a Pandora’s box. TheTropical Forestry Handbook aims to narrow the gulf between forest protectionistsand forest users by providing scientifically sound evidence of unique tropical forestecosystems and proven experience in their sustainable utilization.

The land-use cascade in the tropics often runs from natural forests to degradedforests used for agriculture or pasture, and finally to fully degraded sites. Accordingto Zomer et al. (2008), the areas in the tropics with potential for afforestation amountto 750 million hectares (Fig. 1). Thus, even after the destruction of forests, there is aglimmer of hope. There are still potential areas that may be planted and have asignificant effect in providing forest goods and services by simultaneously protectingremaining natural forests from depletion and combating global warming to offset theannual global increase in CO2 (Paul et al. 2009).

But are we professionally prepared to manage these resources adequately? Trop-ical forestry has evolved over the last two millennia in the Americas and Asia, butwritten traces of this progress are almost inexistent, mainly due to the very sametropical environmental conditions which allow an exuberant environment (Dawkinsand Philip 1998).

The editors of this Handbook are conscious of the fact that forestry in the tropicsdid not start with the arrival of European-style forestry, but we were reluctant to

190 Mha

120 Mha

2005

Non-tropical Tropical

2010 2015 2020

70 Mha

247 Mha

139 Mha

108 Mha

327 Mha

161 Mha

166 Mha

442 Mha

187 Mha

255 Mha

Fig. 1 Estimated potential development of forest plantations (Tomaselli 2007)

xl Introduction to Tropical Forestry and to This Handbook

equate a few documented historical data on forestry activities with a more compre-hensive historical basis for the tropics. We respect and admire the accrued experi-ences of former tropical forest managers and the invaluable interdisciplinaryknowledge on cautious and thoughtful forest utilization led by indigenous peoples.

Today’s tropical foresters do not start from scratch; the scientific basis of moderntropical forestry was established in the nineteenth century with the start of systematicforest management documented and introduced by Sir Dietrich Brandis(1824–1906). Brandis also established forest research in India, among other areas.In the long line of excellent professionals dealing with the subject of tropicalforestry, one has to mention Andre Aubreville (1897–1982), a French forestry expertwhose work on botany and silviculture has influenced the orientation of tropicalforestry today. Carlos Flinta and later Julian Evans have also contributed substan-tially to the subject of plantation forestry in the tropics. Hans Lamprecht(1919–2012) systematized tropical silviculture and contributed to the understandingof stand dynamics. Lamberto Golfari helped to understand the precise precipitationrequirements for the selection of forestry species for plantations, and PaulWestmacott Richards with his outstanding work on tropical forest ecology contrib-uted essentially to the understanding of functioning of tropical ecosystems. Thesystematic work of Heinz Ellenberg (1913–1997) allowed an ecological classifica-tion of forest types worldwide, and P.K. Ramachandran Nair helped to put agrofor-estry on a firm scientific ground.

In addition to these outstanding professionals, tropical forestry was nourished bythe establishment of institutions which contributed to a fuller understanding of thesubject. FAO’s Forestry Department, ITTO, ICRAF, CIFOR, IUFRO, and CATIEhave all channeled international research on tropical forestry and committed them-selves to publishing all of the relevant advances in an understandable andprofessional way.

Is a handbook format still topic driven? How does the present Handbook onTropical Forestry fit into the vast landscape of information that is now available witha click of our fingertips? A handbook should provide proven methodologies andconcepts to resolve specific issues. Furthermore, our philosophy was to inviteauthors whose experience and/or publications ensure that state-of-the-art knowledgeis presented. We, the editors, are convinced that a periodic and systematic review of asubject helps to galvanize the existing advances in science and that this can beachieved by a handbook.

The scope of this Tropical Forestry Handbook is broader than that of the firstedition from 1993: It consciously includes the aspect of a globalized forest sector ofwhich tropical forestry is a part. Therefore, tropical resources and internationalprocesses are dealt with separately and in detail. Basic forest sciences are unimag-inable without the subjects of geology and soils, climatology, and forest ecology.Since the last edition, the World Reference Base for Soil Resources has partiallyreclassified the existing soil classes, which as a task had to be completed. Climatol-ogy and forest ecology received a complete overhaul both in terms of content aswell as orientation. The Handbook would have not been complete without thegenerally undervalued subject on species identification. Resource monitoring and

Introduction to Tropical Forestry and to This Handbook xli

assessment is covered by remote sensing and forest inventory; these chapters are notnew, but they received a completely new orientation due to the considerableadvances within the last 20 years. Silviculture is and will be a science vital to thesuccessful management of tropical forest resources. The chapters on the followingtopics have been included in this edition: genetics, forest seeds, nursery manage-ment, plant nutrition, species selection, plantation forestry, tropical silviculture, andmangrove management. This set of chapters provides enough material to be a stand-alone publication, but in the context of the Handbook, each chapter offers animportant complement to assure that all technical aspects are covered for forestmanagement.

Resource planning combines all of the subjects that are necessary to ensureconsideration for not only forest-centered views but also a wider spectrum of sub-jects as well that are essential for the management of forests in the tropics: forestrymanagement planning, land evaluation for forestry, watershed management, rangemanagement, agroforestry, community forestry, wildlife management, and natureconservation. The engineering chapters on forestry road construction and harvestingensure that the operations related to forestry management planning are complete andsupplement the instructions. The subjects of pest and fire management are ofincreasing importance given the effects of climate change, in which alterations inair humidity affect the population dynamics of pests and create optimal conditionsfor forest fires. The increasing complexity of the framework conditions of a modernsociety require ongoing monitoring of the instruments and mechanisms that governthe interaction of markets, social demands, and the necessary safeguards imposed bythe society. For this purpose, the Handbook has established three subject areas. Thefirst deals with economics and management: Non-timber Forestry Products, GradingForestry Products, Forestry Economics, Compensation Payments, Certification, andForestry Project Management. The second one refers to human resource manage-ment, discussing Ergonomics, Forest Target Groups/Indigenous People, and For-estry Extension. The third and last subject area deals with topics related togovernance: Forestry Policy, Legislation, the Rights of Target Groups, and ForestryLaw Enforcement. Research in tropical forestry presents a summary from all previ-ous chapters on the needs and orientation for future research to be carried out for thesuccessful development of forestry resource management.

The present book was written by experts dedicated to the fascinating world oftropical forests. It intends to contribute to the understanding of tropical forests for theprotection of these unique and widely unknown ecosystems and to present guide-lines for their sustainable and careful utilization. With this Handbook and itschapters, we have the knowledge to allow us to address difficult questions in naturalforest and plantation management in the tropics. But how much of a challenge arethe framework conditions, and where are the true limitations for possible action? Ourgoal as foresters with an eye toward ongoing climate change is to offer alternativesfor the production of raw materials and to provide all of the possible potentialfunctions of our tropical forests. We believe that our Handbook is a step in theright direction to achieve this. A taste of possible targets, challenges, and limitationsis given in Table 1.

xlii Introduction to Tropical Forestry and to This Handbook

It is our desire to make sure that future generations can still experience thefascination with tropical forests that we do today.

References

Dawkins HC, Philip MS (1998) Tropical moist forest silviculture and management.CAB International, Wallingford

FAO (2006) Global forest resources assessment 2005 – progress towards sustain-able forest management. FAO Forestry Paper 147. FAO, Rome

Table 1 A sample of concrete targets, challenges, and limitations for tropical forest managementto contribute to a better world

Targets Principal challenges Limitations

Certification of sustainablemanagement of all relevantnatural tropical forestsManage at least 600 millionha of tropical forestssustainably

Not enough political pressurefor certification (e.g., FSC)

Production cycle only for alimited number of nativespecies/species knownGrowth and yield data onlyfor a limited number ofspecies knownClimatic plasticity of mosttropical species unknown

Close to nature forestplantations on all potentialareas in the tropicsIncrease the plantation areaby 2020 to at least220 million ha

Many tropical countries aremissing the necessary rule oflaw to establish plantationenterprises

From an estimated total ofapproximately 51,000 treespecies, only 215 speciesaccount for 93 % of all treeplantations in the tropics. Thisselection denotes the use ofjust 0.42 % of the availabletree gene pool of the tropics(Pancel 2015)Site specificity only knownfor approximately 60 speciesMixture patterns of plantationspecies almost unknown

Village/communityplantation on all relevantcommunal land in the tropics

Population pressure impedessuccessful establishment ofvillage/communityplantations

Attractiveness of forestproducts (growth and value)cannot compete with cashcrops, land hunger, andcriminal activities

All urban spaces in thetropics have at least 30 %green areas planted with trees

Urban area planningsurrenders to populationpressure and businessplanning interests

Only approximately70 species are utilized in 90 %of all urban greening projectsin the tropicsAir and soil pollutionresistance to onlyapproximately 20 % oftropical species known

Introduction to Tropical Forestry and to This Handbook xliii

FAO (2014) State of the world’s forests; enhancing the socioeconomic benefitsfrom forests. FAO, Rome

Hansen MC, Potapov PV, Moore R, Hancher M, Turubanova SA, Tyukavina A,Thau D et al (2013) High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest coverchange. Science 342:850–853

Mitchard E (2015) The world seen in deforestation. http://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/4/-6.48/-69.49/ALL/grayscale/loss?begin=2001-01-01&end=2014-01-01&threshold=30. Accessed 23 Jun 2015

Paul C, Weber M, Mosandl R (2009) Kohlenstoffbindung jungerAufforstungsflächen. Karl Gayer Institut, Lehrstuhl f€ur Waldbau der TechnischenUniversität M€unchen, Freising

Tomaselli I (2007) Global wood and products flows – trends and perspectives.FAO/stcp, Shanghai

Zomer RJ, Trabucco A, Bossio DA, Verchot LV (2008) Climate change mitiga-tion: a spatial analysis of global land suitability for clean development mechanismafforestation and reforestation. Agric Ecosyst Environ 67–80

xliv Introduction to Tropical Forestry and to This Handbook

Contents

Volume 1

Part I The Global Forestry Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Tropical Forest Resources: Facts and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Jutta Poker and Kenneth MacDicken

International Processes: Framework Conditions forTropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Thomas Schneider and Prem Raj Neupane

Part II Basic Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Geology and Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Wolfgang Zech

Climate Aspects of the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285Michael Richter

Classifications of Climates in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293Michael Richter

The Atmospheric Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303Thorsten Peters and Michael Richter

Radiation and Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333Thorsten Peters

Temperatures in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343Michael Richter

Precipitation in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363Michael Richter

Water Balance in Tropical Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391Thorsten Peters

xlv

Climatic Types of Water Balances in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405Thorsten Peters

Microclimate in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413Michael Richter

Climate Change in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429Thorsten Peters

Design of Data Collection Related to the Climate in the Tropics . . . . . . 445Thorsten Peters

Tree Species Identification in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451Michelle Szejner and Patricio Emanuelli

Tropical Forest Ecology in the Anthropocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471Richard T. Corlett

Classifying Tropical Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479Richard T. Corlett

Tropical Forest Ecosystem Ecology: Water, Energy, Carbon, andNutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491Richard T. Corlett

Ecological Roles of Animals in Tropical Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503Richard T. Corlett

Applied Ecology of Tropical Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511Richard T. Corlett

Scope and Extent of Wood Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519Jörg Fromm, Gerald Koch, and Silke Lautner

Part III Resource Monitoring and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

Fundamentals and Applications of Remote Sensing inTropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545Thomas Baldauf and Abner Josue Jimenez Galo

Acquisition, Characteristics, and Preprocessing of Passive RemoteSensing Images in Tropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571Abner Josue Jimenez Galo

Interpretation and Processing of Passive Sensor Images in TropicalForestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607Abner Josue Jimenez Galo

Image Processing of Radar and Lidar in Tropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . 635Thomas Baldauf and Mariano Garcia

xlvi Contents

Monitoring of Tropical Forest Cover with Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . 663Abner Josue Jimenez Galo

Measurements and Assessments on Field Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687Michael Köhl and Marco Marchetti

Objectives and Planning of Forest Inventories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749Michael Köhl and Marco Marchetti

Sampling in Forest Inventories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777Michael Köhl and Steen Magnussen

Measurement, Reporting, and Verifications Systems inForest Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839Daniel Plugge, Daniel K€ubler, Prem Raj Neupane,Konstantin Olschofsky, and Laura Prill

Volume 2

Part IV Silviculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883

Genetics and Tropical Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885Bernd Degen and Alexandre Magno Sebbenn

Genetics and Forest Seed Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921Lars Schmidt

Forest Seed Collection, Processing, and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959Lars Schmidt

Trade and Transfer of Tree Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995Lars Schmidt

Tropical Nursery Concepts and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005Diane L. Haase, R. Kasten Dumroese, Kim M. Wilkinson, andThomas D. Landis

Planning and Managing a Tropical Nursery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043Kim M. Wilkinson, Thomas D. Landis, Diane L. Haase, andR. Kasten Dumroese

Collecting, Processing, and Treating Propagules for Seed andVegetative Propagation in Nurseries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079R. Kasten Dumroese, Diane L. Haase, Kim M. Wilkinson, andThomas D. Landis

Plant Nutrition in Tropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113Alfredo Alvarado

Species Selection in Tropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203Laslo Pancel

Contents xlvii

Species Files in Tropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221Laslo Pancel

Basic Outline of Tree Plantations in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1441Laslo Pancel

Reforestation Incentives Systems for Tree Plantations inthe Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531Laslo Pancel

Mixed Tree Plantations in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549Laslo Pancel

Forest Restoration and Rehabilitation in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561Laslo Pancel

21st Century Viewpoint on Tropical Silviculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1605Bryan Finegan

Technical Orientation of Silviculture in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1639Laslo Pancel

Mangroves: Unusual Forests at the Seas’ Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1693Norman C. Duke and Klaus Schmitt

Mangrove Management, Assessment, and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725Klaus Schmitt and Norman C. Duke

Volume 3

Part V Forest Resources Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761

Forest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763Thomas Knoke

Tropical Forest Management Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793Laslo Pancel, G€unther Haase, Werner Schindele, and Michael Köhl

Land Evaluation and Forestry Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835Anthony Young

Introduction to Watershed Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1869Hosea M. Mwangi, Stefan Julich, and Karl-Heinz Feger

Watershed Management Practices in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897Hosea M. Mwangi, Stefan Julich, and Karl-Heinz Feger

Forest Hydrology in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1917Stefan Julich, Hosea M. Mwangi, and Karl-Heinz Feger

xlviii Contents

Range Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941A. Swenne

Agroforestry: Essential for Sustainable and Climate-SmartLand Use? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2013Reinhold G. Muschler

Community Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2117Carsten Schusser

Wildlife Management in the Tropics: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145Johannes Bauer

How Environmental and Societal Changes Affect Wildlifein the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2177Johannes Bauer

The Development of Wildlife Governance, Science, and ManagementCapacity in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2197Johannes Bauer

Modern Adverse Trends Which Affect the WildlifeManagement Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2223Johannes Bauer

Re-imagining Wildlife Management for the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2239Johannes Bauer

Nature Conservation in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2255Laslo Pancel

Part VI Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2299

Forest Road Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2301John Sessions, Rudolf Heinrich, and Héctor Castaneda-Langlois

Harvesting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2363Leif Nutto, Jorge R. Malinovski, Gustavo Pereira Castro, andRafael A. Malinovski

Machinery and Equipment in Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2395Gustavo Pereira Castro, Jorge R. Malinovski, Leif Nutto, andRicardo A. Malinovski

Harvesting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2445Gustavo Pereira Castro, Leif Nutto, Jorge R. Malinovski, andRicardo A. Malinovski

Harvesting Costing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2487Rafael A. Malinovski, Jorge R. Malinovski, Leif Nutto, andÉllen C. Bianchi

Contents xlix

Safety and Training in Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2521Ricardo A. Malinovski, Jorge R. Malinovski, Leif Nutto, andNathan S. Sanches

Pest Management in Tropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2561Martin R. Speight and Stephen Woodward

Insects and Other Animals in Tropical Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2607Martin R. Speight

Fire Management in Tropical Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659Johann Georg Goldammer

Volume 4

Part VII Economics/Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2711

From Lifelines to Livelihoods: Non-timber Forest Products intothe 21st Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2713Patricia Shanley, Alan R. Pierce, Sarah A. Laird, Citlalli LópezBinnq€uist, and Manuel R. Guariguata

The Principles of Wood Characteristic Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2761Christoph Richter

Wood Characteristics Inherent in a Tree’s Natural Growth . . . . . . . . . 2785Christoph Richter

Biotically and Abiotically Induced Wood Characteristics;Cracks – Forms and Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2839Christoph Richter

Financial and Economic Evaluation Guidelines for InternationalForestry Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2875Frederick Cubbage, Robert Davis, Gregory Frey,Diji Chandrasekharan Behr, and Erin Sills

Bioeconomic Approaches to Sustainable Management ofNatural Tropical Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2897Thomas Holmes and Erin Sills

Timber Production Cost and Profit Functions for CommunityForests in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2923Frederick Cubbage, Robert Davis, Diana Rodríguez Paredes,Yoanna Kraus Elsin, Ramon Mollenhauer, and Gregory Frey

Financial Analysis of Community-Based Forest Enterprises withthe Green Value Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2949Shoana Humphries and Thomas Holmes

l Contents

Financial and Economic Analysis of Reduced Impact Logging . . . . . . . 2967Thomas Holmes

Identifying the Causes of Tropical Deforestation: Meta-analysis toTest and Develop Economic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2987Stibniati Atmadja and Erin Sills

Concept of Compensation Payments and Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3019Julian Michel, Kay Kallweit, and Evy von Pfeil

Compensation Payment Scheme Requisites and FinancialArrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3027Julian Michel, Kay Kallweit, and Evy von Pfeil

Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3039Julian Michel, Kay Kallweit, and Evy von Pfeil

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3057Julian Michel, Kay Kallweit, and Evy von Pfeil

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and ForestDegradation (REDD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3065Julian Michel, Kay Kallweit, and Evy von Pfeil

Compensation Payments: Opportunities, Risks, andConsiderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3093Julian Michel, Kay Kallweit, and Evy von Pfeil

Forestry Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3097Steve Sepp and Stefan Mann

Forest Market Policy Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3117Frances Maplesden and Steven Johnson

Forest Product Market Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3139Frances Maplesden and Steven Johnson

Forest Market Standards and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3169Frances Maplesden and Steven Johnson

Forest Market Strategy Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3199Frances Maplesden and Steven Johnson

Part VIII Human Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3209

Ergonomics and Labor in Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3211E. Apud, F. Meyer, J. Espinoza, E. Oñate, J. Freire, and F. Maureira

Indigenous People and Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3311Angelika Kandzior

Contents li

Application of a Participatory Approach to Forestry ExtensionActivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3345Angelika Kandzior and Esteban Rivas

Forestry Extension as a Work Approach for Forestry Programsand Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3361Angelika Kandzior and Esteban Rivas

Part IX Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3387

Tropical Forest Policy and Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3389Arnoldo Contreras-Hermosilla

Legal Recognition of Forest Rights of Indigenous Peoples and LocalCommunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3449Fernanda Almeida

Evaluating Formal Recognition of Forest Rights of IndigenousPeoples and Local Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3485Fernanda Almeida

Forest Crime in the Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3525J€urgen Blaser and Astrid Zabel

Changing Trends of Forestry Research Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3559Don Koo Lee, Mohammed N. Salleh, Wai Mun Ho, andMarilyn S. Combalicer

Introduction to Forest Certification Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3571Jörn Struwe and Thorsten Specht

Research Areas in Tropical Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3593

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3603

lii Contents

About the Editors

Laslo Pancel Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ),GIZ El Salvador

Education:1977: Diploma in Forestry at the Albert-Ludwigs University, Freiburg1982: Doctorate at the Chair of World Forestry, University of Hamburg; Degree:

Dr. rer. nat.

Professional Experience:2010: GIZ, Chief Technical Advisor REDD regional programs Central America2002: GTZ, Vietnam, Chief Technical Advisor, GIZ Forestry Programs, Forest

Admin. Reform, Natural Forest Management1996: GTZ, Chile Chief Technical Advisor, Natural Forest Management1990: GTZ, Amman Jordan, Project manager Forestry Project1980: International Forestry Consultant: Africa, Near East, Latin America1977: Latin America, Forestry Officer for Forestry Ecology, FAO

Michael Köhl Center for Wood Sciences, Institute of World Forestry, Universityof Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Education:1983: Diploma in Forestry at the Albert-Ludwigs University, Freiburg, Germany1986: Doctorate in Forest Sciences, University of Freiburg, Germany; Degree:

Dr. rer. nat.1993: Habilitation, Swiss Federal Institute for Technology (ETH) Zürich, Switzerland

Professional Experience:2004: University of Hamburg, Professor for World Forestry2004–2013: Institute Head, Institute for World Forestry, Federal Research Center for

Forestry and Forest Product, Hamburg, Germany1997–2004: Professor for Forest Biometrics and Computer Sciences, Technical

University of Dresden, Tharandt, Germany

liii

1988–1997: Research Group Leader, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow andLandscape Research, National Forest Inventory, Birmensdorf, Switzerland

1987–1988: Biometrician, Pfizer Inc., Medical Research, Karlsruhe, Germany1983–1987: Researcher, University of Freiburg, Department of Forest Biometrics,

Freiburg, Germany

liv About the Editors

Contributors

Fernanda Almeida Almeida Dohrn Consulting Ltda, Berlin, Germany

Alfredo Alvarado Centro Investigaciones Agronómicas, Universidad de CostaRica, San Pedro Montes de Oca, Costa Rica

E. Apud Unidad de Ergonomía, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad deConcepción, Concepción, Chile

Stibniati Atmadja Forests and Livelihoods, Center for International ForestryResearch, Bogor, Jawa Barat, Indonesia

Thomas Baldauf European and International Forest Policy, Federal Ministry ofFood and Agriculture, Bonn, Germany

Formerly Institute for World Forestry, Johann Heinrich von Th€unen-Institute, Ham-burg, Germany

Johannes Bauer Australian Carbon Co-operative Ltd., Bathurst, NSW, Australia

Diji Chandrasekharan Behr World Bank, Washington, DC, USA

Éllen C. Bianchi Malinovski Florestal, Curitiba, Brazil

Citlalli López Binnq€uist Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida,Gainesville, FL, USA

J€urgen Blaser School of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences, Bern Universityof Applied Sciences, Bern, Switzerland

Héctor Castaneda-Langlois San Salvador, El Salvador

Gustavo Pereira Castro Malinovski Florestal, Curitiba, Brazil

Marilyn S. Combalicer Department of Forest Biological Sciences, College ofForestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna,Philippines

Arnoldo Contreras-Hermosilla Labro, Rieti, Italy

lv

Richard T. Corlett Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna TropicalBotanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Yunnan, China

Frederick Cubbage North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

Robert Davis World Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean Division,Washington, DC, USA

Bernd Degen Th€unen Institute of Forest Genetics, Grosshansdorf, Germany

Norman C. Duke TropWATER – Centre for Tropical Water and Aquatic Ecosys-tem Research, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia

R. Kasten Dumroese USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station,Moscow, ID, USA

Yoanna Kraus Elsin World Bank, Washington, DC, USA

Patricio Emanuelli Sud-Austral Consulting SpA, Santiago, Chile

J. Espinoza Unidad de Ergonomía, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidadde Concepción, Concepción, Chile

Karl-Heinz Feger Institute of Soil Science and Site Ecology, TechnischeUniversität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

Bryan Finegan Production and Conservation in Forests Programme, CATIE,Turrialba, Costa Rica

J. Freire Unidad de Ergonomía, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad deConcepción, Concepción, Chile

Gregory Frey USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC, USA

Jörg Fromm Institute for Wood Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg,Germany

Abner Josue Jimenez Galo Geographic Information System and Remote Sensing(GIS/RS), Deutsche Gesellschaft f€ur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH,La Libertad, El Salvador, CA

University of Alcalá (UAH), Madrid, Spain

Faculty of Spatial Sciences, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras (UNAH),Tegucigalpa, Honduras

Mariano Garcia Centre for Landscape and Climate Research, University ofLeicester, Leicester, UK

Johann Georg Goldammer Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC), c/o FreiburgUniversity/United Nations University (UNU), Freiburg, Germany

Manuel R. Guariguata CIFOR C/O Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), LaMolina, Lima, Peru

lvi Contributors

Diane L. Haase State and Private Forestry, USDA Forest Service, Portland, OR,USA

G€unther Haase University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Rudolf Heinrich Logging and Roads Branch, Food and Agriculture Organization,Rome, Italy

Wai Mun Ho Forest Biotechnology Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia,Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia

Thomas Holmes USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, ResearchTriangle Park, Asheville, NC, USA

Shoana Humphries Earth Innovation Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA

Steven Johnson International Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama, Japan

Stefan Julich Institute of Soil Science and Site Ecology, Technische UniversitätDresden, Dresden, Germany

Kay Kallweit Deutsche Gesellschaft f€ur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)GmbH, Eschborn, Germany

Angelika Kandzior Puerto Montt, Chile

Thomas Knoke Institute of Forest Management, TUM School of Life SciencesWeihenstephan, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, TechnischeUniversität M€unchen, Freising, Germany

Gerald Koch Th€unen Institute of Wood Research, Hamburg, Germany

Sarah A. Laird People and Plants International, Bristol, VT, USA

Thomas D. Landis Native Plant Nursery Consulting, Medford, OR, USA

Silke Lautner Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development, Eberswalde,Germany

Michael Köhl Center for Wood Sciences, Institute of World Forestry, University ofHamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Daniel K€ubler Institute for Worldforestry, University of Hamburg, Hamburg,Germany

Don Koo Lee Park Chung Hee School of Policy and Saemaul, Yeungnam Univer-sity, Daegu, Republic of Korea

Steen Magnussen Natural Resources Canada, Victoria, Canada

Kenneth MacDicken Formaly FAO, Rome, Italy

Jorge R. Malinovski Malinovski Florestal, Curitiba, Brazil

Rafael A. Malinovski Malinovski Florestal, Curitiba, Brazil

Contributors lvii

Ricardo A. Malinovski Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil

Stefan Mann ECO Consult Sepp & Busacker Partnership, Oberaula, Germany

Frances Maplesden Maplesden Consulting, Rotorua, New Zealand

Marco Marchetti Department DIBT - BioScienses and Territory, University ofMolise, Pesche, IS, Italy

F. Maureira Unidad de Ergonomía, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidadde Concepción, Concepción, Chile

F. Meyer Unidad de Ergonomía, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad deConcepción, Concepción, Chile

Julian Michel Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Ramon Mollenhauer World Bank, Washington, DC, USA

Reinhold G. Muschler Agroecology and Agrobiodiversity, Agroforestry and Sus-tainable Agriculture Program, Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación yEnseñanza (CATIE), Turrialba, Costa Rica

Hosea M. Mwangi Institute of Soil Science and Site Ecology, TechnischeUniversität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

Biomechanical and Environmental Engineering Department, Jomo KenyattaUniversity of Agriculture and Technology, Juja, Kenya

Prem Raj Neupane University of Hamburg, World Forestry, EFI (European ForestInstitute) Project Centre SURF (Supporting the Global Implementation of REDD+and FLEGT), Hamburg, Germany

Leif Nutto Malinovski Florestal, Curitiba, Brazil

Konstantin Olschofsky Institute for Worldforestry, University of Hamburg,Hamburg, Germany

E. Oñate Unidad de Ergonomía, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad deConcepción, Concepción, Chile

Laslo Pancel Deutsche Gesellschaft f€ur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)GmbH, La Libertad, El Salvador

Diana Rodríguez Paredes World Bank, Latin America and the Caribbean Divi-sion, Washington, DC, USA

Jutta Poker Formerly Institute for World Forestry, Hamburg, Germany

Thorsten Peters Institute of Geography, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany

Alan R. Pierce People and Plants International, Duxbury, VT, USA

lviii Contributors

Daniel Plugge SPC/GIZ Regional Program, REDD+ - Forest Conservation inPacific Island Countries II, Deutsche Gesellschaft f€ur InternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ), Suva, Fiji

Formerly Institute for Worldforestry, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Laura Prill Institute for Worldforestry, University of Hamburg, Hamburg,Germany

Christoph Richter Opitzer Weg 20, Tharandt, Germany

Michael Richter Institute of Geography, Friedrich-Alexander-UniversityErlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany

Esteban Rivas Valdivia, Chile

Mohammed N. Salleh Academy of Sciences Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Nathan S. Sanches Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil

Werner Schindele Forest management expert and Independent Consultant,Hamburg, Germany

Lars Schmidt University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Klaus Schmitt Department of Environment and Natural Resources, DeutscheGesellschaft f€ur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Quezon City,Philippines

Thomas Schneider University of Hamburg, World Forestry, Hamburg, Germany

Carsten Schusser Forest Policy Expert, associated with Chair of Forest and NatureConservation Policy, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

Alexandre Magno Sebbenn Instituto Florestal do Governo do Estado de SaoPaulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil

Steve Sepp ECO Consult Sepp & Busacker Partnership, Oberaula, Germany

John Sessions College of Forestry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA

Patricia Shanley Woods & Wayside International, Hopewell, NJ, USA

Erin Sills Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North CarolinaState University, Raleigh, NC, USA

Thorsten Specht GFA Certification Ltd., Buchholz, Germany

Martin R. Speight St Anne’s College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Jörn Struwe Thuenen Institute of International Forestry and Forest Economics,Hamburg, Germany

A. Swenne Brussels, Belgium

Michelle Szejner German Cooperation Agency (GIZ), Panamá, Panamá

Contributors lix

Evy von Pfeil Deutsche Gesellschaft f€ur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)GmbH, Eschborn, Germany

Kim M. Wilkinson Gibsons, BC, Canada

Stephen Woodward Department of Plant and Soil Science, Institute of Biologicaland Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

Anthony Young School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia,Norwich, UK

Astrid Zabel School of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences, Bern University ofApplied Sciences, Bern, Switzerland

Wolfgang Zech Bodenkunde und Bodengeographie, Universitaet Bayreuth, Bay-reuth, Germany

lx Contributors