i

AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE

PRE- PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

BY

EZOEM NWANZE IGNATIUS PG/MED/07/42506

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

NOVEMBER, 2009

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TITLE PAGE

AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE

PRE- PRIMARY SCHOOLS

BY

EZOEM NWANZE IGNATIUS PG/MED/07/42506

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTERS

OF EDUCATION IN CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

NOVEMBER, 2009

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CERTIFICATION

Ezoem Nwanze Ignatius, a post- graduate student in the

Department of Educational foundations, with registration

number PG/MED/07/42506, has successfully completed the

requirements for the course and research work for the Master

Degree of Education in Childhood Education. The work

embodied in this research is original and has not been

submitted in part or full for any other Diploma or Degree of

this or any other university

____________________ ___________________ Dr (Mrs.) J.U. Ibiam Ezoem N. Ignatius Supervisor Student

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APPROVAL PAGE

This project has been approved for the Department of

Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

By

__________________ __________________ Dr (Mrs.) J. U. Ibiam Dr. J.C. Omeje Supervisor Internal Examiner

________________ __________________ Prof. G.C. Unachukwu Prof. N.O. Ogbonnaya External Examiner Head of Department

_________________________

Prof. G. Offorma Dean of Faculty

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the Glory of God and the less

privileged people who know and fear God.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project could not have been concluded without the

assistance received from numerous sources at one stage or the

other. Some of these assistants are worthy of mention.

The researcher wishes to thank his supervisor, Dr (Mrs.)

J.U Ibiam, who apart from her critical comments on the work,

gave warm and cooperative attitude that are rare to come by.

She created a most friendly supervisor- supervisee

atmosphere, without which this work would have remained a

mirage. The researcher will forever remain grateful to her.

Professor Iyke Ifelunni (my brother and friend) was

another factor that facilitated the work. His scholarly

contributions gave a purposeful pathway to the researcher.

Other scholars in the department who made the researcher to

understand the essential ingredients of research include-

Professor G. Offorma, Professor Onwuka, Professor D.N Ezeh,

Professor B.G Nworgu, Professor A. Ali and Professor E.M

Nwabuisi. Others include Dr (Mrs) J.O. Chukwu, Dr J.C

Omeje, Dr L.N Onuigbo, Dr P.N Onwuasanya and Dr .U. Ezeh.

The researcher is grateful to all.

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Several other persons worthy of mention here include, Dr

G.O lloh (My Provost) who gave me fatherly and spirited

admonition that propelled me into this adventure, Mr. C

Iwuozor, Mr. O. Akilaiya, Mr. G.C Edozie, Mr. C. Nwabudike,

Mr. Asikadi, Mr. I. Esekebor, Mrs. E. Ogboru, Pat Ogosi, Mrs.

Elui, Mrs. Okobah, Mrs. E. lloh, Mr. E.O Okonta, Mr. Ogana,

Miss Blessing Okwuadi, Helen Biose, Tony Ofulue.

Finally, the researcher expresses sincere thanks to his amiable

and beautiful wife (Mrs. Nonye Ezoem) for being there always.

Also my children Obiageli, Ogochukwu, Isioma and Chukwudi.

They provided the enabling environment for the researcher.

God the father, God the son and the Holy Spirit, is ultimately

appreciated.

Ezoem N. Ignatius Department of Educational Foundations University of Nigeria Nsukka November, 2009.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Title Page ii

Certification Iii

Approval Page iv

Dedication v

Acknowledgement vi

Table of contents viii

List of tables xi

Abstracts xiii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 7

Purpose of the Study 8

Significance of the Study 9

Scope of the Study 10

Research Questions 11

Hypotheses 12

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE -13

Conceptual Framework:

Concept/Evolution of Instructional Materials in Early

childhood - 14

Views on Instructional Materials -21

Indoor and outdoor Instructional Materials -28

Empirical studies -39

Availability of Instructional Materials -39

Utilization of Instructional Materials -42

Teachers Qualification and Experience -43

Summary of Literature Review -45

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD -48

Research Design -48

Area of the Study -49

Population of the Study -49

Sample and Sampling Technique -50

Instrument for the Study -50

Validation of the Instrument -51

Reliability of the Instrument -51

Method of Data Collection -52

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Method of Data Analysis -52

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS -54

Presentation of findings -54

Summary of major findings -71

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS, INTERPRETATION OF

RESULTS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

SUMMARY OF THE STUDY -73

Discussion and interpretation of findings -73

Implications of the study -79

Recommendations: -81

Limitations of the study -83

Suggestion for further Research -84

Summary of the study -84

References -88

Appendices -95

i. Instrument for the study -95

ii. List of schools/teachers used for the study -100

iii. Cronbach alpha for reliability co-efficient -102

iv. ANOVA for level of Materials Availability -103

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v. ANOVA for level of Materials Utilization -104

vi ANOVA for Qualification/Utilization -105

vii ANOVA for Experience/ Utilization -106

viii. F Distribution Table -107

ix. Evidence of Instrument Validation -108

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Frequency count of available instructional

Materials in pre-primary schools. -55

Table 2: Mean score of teachers in relation to

adequacy of instructional materials. -60

Table 3: Mean score of teachers in relation to utilization of

Utilization of materials. -61

Table 4: Mean score of teachers on the utilization of

Instructional materials in relation to their

qualification. -62

Table 5: Mean some of teachers on the utilization of

instructional materials in relation to experience-64

table 6: Analysis of variance on availability of instructional

Materials in both public and private pre-primary

schools. -66

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Table 7: Analysis of variance on utilization of instructional

Materials by teachers in both private and public

pre-primary schools. -67

Table 8: Analysis of variance on utilization of instructional

Materials in relation to qualification. -68

Table 9: Analysis of variance on utilization of instructional

Materials in relation to experience: -70

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ABSTRACT This research work was designed to investigate the extent to which instructional materials are available and utilized in public and private pre-primary schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area of Delta State. The sample for the study consisted of one hundred and fifty (150) teachers drawn from eight public and sixteen private pre-primary schools. To guide the study, five research questions were posed and four hypotheses tested. The instrument for the study was the instructional material availability and utilization inventory (IMAUI). In analyzing the data, frequency counts, percentages and mean scores were used for the research questions while the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for the hypotheses. The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed among others that:

1. Not all required instructional materials are available in pre-primary schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area of Delta State.

2. Teachers do not make maximum use of the available materials in the schools.

3. Teachers’ qualifications affect their utilization of instructional materials.

4. Teachers experience also affects their utilization of available instructional materials.

Implication of these findings for education was also highlighted and appropriate recommendations were made. Among these recommendations are:

1. Teachers in the pre-primary schools should be trained continuously so that they become familiar with the instructional materials and their use.

2. Experts who know the skills should be employed to teach in pre-primary schools.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

The history of pre-primary education in Nigeria can be

traced back to the colonial days when only the colonial

administrators were privileged to give their young children pre

– school education. The National Policy on Education (2004)

refers to pre-primary education as the education given in an

educational institution to children prior to their entering the

primary school. It includes the crèche, the nursery and the

kindergarten.

The importance of pre-primary education cannot be over –

emphasized. Maduewesi (2002), Olagbaju (2005) and Anuna

and Smith (2006) see this period of education as the most

crucial and the foundation of an individual’s later life. It is at

this level that the child takes a stride into life outside the

mother’s breast. The pre–school education also allows for

individual attention and imbibes confidence in the child for

full development of his or her potentialities (Igwe, 1998).

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The purpose of pre-primary education according to the

National Policy on Education (2004) include to inculcate in the

child the spirit of enquiry and creativity through the

exploration of nature, the environment, art, music and playing

with toys, etc.

The venues for the education were homes of the white

colonial over – lords, the churches and make-shift buildings

(Anuna and Obi, 2006). The number of children who had

access to the type of education was limited.

Prior to the advent of this colonial education in Nigeria,

children were trained and cared for by their parents and other

adults. In the words of Esu (2002) and lloh (2003), children in

pre- colonial era, were owned by everybody in the community.

They were brought up to obey orders and the style of their

upbringing was traditionally authoritarian. Neighbours and

housemaids assist in the training of the child and whenever

any form of misbehaviour was identified in the child, he is

publicly disciplined and the community assisted in the

direction.

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With the dawn of independence in 1960, the number of

pre–school institutions in the country increased. This

according to Anuna and Smith (2006) was as a result of the

influx of foreign immigrants from Europe and America into the

country to boost the economy. There were also educated

Nigerians who were fast emulating the European officials and

wanted also to give their children pre – school education. In

the same vein, there was the need for the Nigerian woman to

take up white–collar job. This further enhanced the

development of pre–primary education (Akinbote, Oduolowu

and Lawal, 2001).

The rapid development of pre-primary education can be

attributed to the benefits accruing from it. Some of the

benefits include the socialization of the child, provision of

custodial care, inculcation of the spirit of enquiry and

creativity through the exploration of nature, the environment,

art and playing with resources as well as ensuring a smooth

transition to the primary level of education.

There has been scientific evidence that the first years in a

child’s life are crucial time for learning. Most cognitive

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theorists agree that childhood is the period where children are

susceptible to intervention, therefore, the care and nurture

given to them during these formative years will either make or

mar their cognitive development (Piaget; 1958; Akinbote,

(1978; Ogbose. 1984; Olabode, 1992; Arnold, 2000; and

Adegoke, 2005). From age two through five, a child develops

language skills, fundamental social skills, and the base for

learning to learn that translates into school readiness.

Character and personality are largely formed and major social

and moral values are transmitted. From age six through eight,

a child consolidates on earlier learning, begins to learn

conceptually and manipulate ideas and enters the age of

reason (Evans 2000 and Adebola, 2005).

The environment of the child plays significant role in the

intellectual development of the child and intelligence has been

attributed to the product of many hereditary and

environmental factors. Materials in the environment of the

child are very important for the mental and social development

of the child. This may therefore explain why the recommended

strategy for teaching at the pre- school level is play and this

xviii

strategy can be affectively utilized through the provision of

instructional materials (Olagbaju, 2005).

It is also important to state that the effective socialization

of the child can be done through many means and agencies.

Prominent among the agencies according to Akande (1998)

and Bulus (2006) are human and material agents. The human

agents are made up of significant others–parents, teachers,

doctors, to mention but few. On the other hand, the material

agents include the mass Media, real objects, hardware and

software, television, radio, newspapers, books and magazine.

These human and materials agents are referred to as

instructional materials. .

Instructional materials provide a stimulating

environment for the child’s exploration, develop the sensory

skills (tasting, touching, and feeling, seeing, and smelling),

develop eye and body co-ordination and increases finger and

gross motor skills through manipulating objects.

When resources are well selected and skillfully used, they

multiply and widen the channel of communication between

the teacher and the learner. On the other hand, inefficiency in

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the use of resources in teaching discourages pupils

practices (Bajah, 1991).

The use of instructional materials in teaching and

learning is of paramount importance in the education process.

It is a pivot that learning stands upon. Educators are in

support of the fact that resources have the ability to expand

the sensory, motor and perception skills of young children.

They maintain that when children have a good supply of

resources available to them, they interact with these and such

interactions lead to new discoveries and mastery in solving

new problems (Olagbaju, 2005). Additionally, the presence of a

resource person other than the teacher in the classroom

brings relief from routine classroom work, interrupts

monotony and adds variety to instruction.

Recent situation and policy analysis (SAPA 1999) indicate

that teachers and care-givers are poorly trained and they lack

requisite qualification and experience in pre-primary

education. Olagbaju (2005) equally pointed out that the

quality of teachers is an important input in effective learning

and proper resource utilization since quality input demands

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quality output. The teacher interprets the aims and objectives

of education as well as plans the method of curriculum

implementation. The teacher factors such as age, qualification,

experience and style of teaching can influence the level of

resources provision and utilization (Olagbaju, 2005)

The quality of the teacher in instructional materials

utilization is very important because resources can be

misused on learners. One of the steps in resource utilization is

presentation of materials. This skill requires some elements of

showmanship which means that the teacher should be

familiar with the techniques necessary for effective resource

utilization and hence for learning to take place.

Based on the foregoing background, it has become necessary

to carry out a study on the availability and utilization of

instructional materials at the pre- primary level of our

educational system.

Statement of the Problem

Irrespective of the fact that government, educators and

teachers alike, have recognized the pre-primary education

structure as an important one in our educational system, not

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much has been achieved to make it work as reported by

Anuna and Smith (2006). People have pointed accusing fingers

at a variety of possible causes. However knowing fully well that

play and resource materials are necessary ingredients if the

objective of this level of education are to be achieved, it has

become worrisome whether these resource materials are

available. If they are available, are they being properly

utilized? Is there any difference in the level of availability and

utilization of these resource materials in the public and private

pre-primary schools? These are the issues that constitute the

problem of this study, namely; what is the extent of availability

and utilization of resource materials in public and private pre-

pre-primary schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area

of Delta State?

Purpose of the Study

Generally this study was aimed at investigating the

availability and utilization of instructional materials in public

and private pre-primary schools in Oshimili South Local

Government Area of Delta State. Specifically, the study

investigated;

xxii

1. what instructional materials are available in Private

and Public pre- primary schools in Oshimili South

Local Government Area of Delta State

2. extent of adequacy of the instructional materials in

public and private pre-primary schools in Oshimili

South Local Government Area of Delta State.

3. the extent of teachers utilization of resources in both

private and public pre- primary schools

4. the extent to which teachers qualification affect their

utilization of instructional materials.

5. the extent to which teachers experience affect the

utilization of instructional materials

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will provide information on the

state of pre- primary education in Delta State in relation to

availability and utilization of instructional materials. The

education authorities and the proprietors of the schools will be

able to know the materials that are available and how they are

being utilized

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This study will help education authorities such as

Ministries in charge of education and proprietors of nursery

schools to understand the influence of teachers’ qualification

and experience, on the utilization of resource materials. This

knowledge will enable them to know the category of teachers

to be posted to the pre- primary schools.

This study will also help to expose the education

planners as well as the proprietors to the variety of

instructional materials needed for the education of the child in

public and private pre- primary schools.

Scope of the Study

This study specifically focused on investigation of the

availability of instructional materials and their utilization by

teachers in public and private pre-primary schools in Oshimili

South Local government Area of Delta State. The teacher’s

qualifications and experiences was also on focus because

these variables were considered to affect their utilization of the

instructional materials.

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Research Questions

The following research questions were answered in this

study:

1. What instructional materials are available in both

public and private pre-primary schools in Oshimili

South Local Government Area of Delta State?

2. How adequate are instructional materials in both

public and private pre-primary schools in Oshimili

South Local Government Area of Delta State?

3. To what extent do the teachers utilize the available

instructional material in public and private pre-

primary schools in Oshimili South Local Government

Area of Delta State?

4. To what extent does teachers’ qualification affect their

utilization of instructional materials in public and

private pre-primary schools?

5. To what extent does teachers’ experience affect their

utilization of instructional materials in public and

private pre-primary schools?

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Hypotheses:

The following hypotheses were formulated and

tested for the study at 0.05 level of significance.

1. There is no significant difference between the

instructional materials available in the public and

private pre- primary schools as responded to by the

respondents.

2. There is no significant difference in the utilization of

instructional materials between teachers in the public

and private pre- primary schools.

3. There is no significant difference between teachers

qualification and their utilization of instructional

materials.

4. There is no significant difference between teachers

experience and their utilization of instructional

materials.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents reviewed literature relevant to the

present study under Conceptual Framework, Empirical

Studies and Summary of Literature Review.

1 Conceptual Framework

- Concept/Evolution of Instructional Materials in Early

Childhood Education

- Views on Instructional Materials

- Indoor and Outdoor Instructional Materials

2 Empirical Studies

- Availability of Instructional Materials

- Utilization of Instructional Materials

- Teachers Qualification and Experience

3 Summary of Literature Review

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Conceptual Framework:

Concept/Evolution of Instructional Materials

The concern for children and their education started long

ago. Philosophers like Plato, Aristotle made mention of early

education of the child and the importance of play in their

education. Some of the philosophers who stressed the use of

materials and activity in the early education of the child

include John Comenius, Rousseau, John Pestallozi, Frobel,

Maria Montessori, Piaget etc.

John Comenius believed that young children should be

educated through involvement in practice activities using

concrete objects. The use of objects he believed will train the

sense which leads to true learning Maduewesi (1999).

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) maintained that the

child should be left alone as much as possible and be given

freedom to explore and to share his experience with others in

order to satisfy his interests and needs. He said the child

should be allowed to develop in an open and unrestrained

atmosphere. He, therefore, criticized the schools in those days

xxviii

for forcing children sit for long hours at their desks

memorizing facts.

John Pestallozi on his part stressed the use of the hand,

heart and head in learning. His theory includes going from

known to unknown, using objects and materials to help

children learn rather than requiring them to learn by rote or

by memorization (Maduewesi, 1999)

Fredrick Frobel (1782-1982) advocated the use of play

and specialty designed toys for toddlers and children under six

years of age. His curriculum included building with wooden

blocks, creative activities using natural materials like pebbles,

leaves, shells, finger, plays and activity games. He advocated

bringing pets into the classroom and using mothers as aids.

Maria Montessori successfully taught mentally retarded

and disturbed children with a set of materials. Her teaching

method stressed a prepared environment. The prepared

environment is an organized and coordinated one with sets of

materials and equipment which will promote significant

learning in the children. The arrangement of the prepared

environment is predicted upon the child’s need to order and

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attach meaning to his world. The environment must also be

scaled physically and conceptually to children’s size. She

insisted that teacher should be model to the children, should

be imaginative and loving to them. She has to be sensitive,

but not domineering and she must learn to leave the children

undisturbed to do their own learning without interference.

John Dewey asserted that the child must learn through

action. He stated that in contrast to passive learning, learning

should be from experience and activity. He said that children

like adult, learn best from experience by studying from real as

well as books.

Piaget stated that the realization, by the child that

objects have properties, that object can be classified in various

ways is the result of the child’s activities with the objects. The

more curious the child is, the more he/she will explore and

the more knowledge he/she will gain from the materials

available in his/her environment. By implications, the

materials in the pre-school should be well selected and

strategically arranged so as to present and confront the child

with challenges (Osanyin 1998).

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Piaget theory of learning by assimilation and

accommodation explain that the child’s mental structures are

progressively built up from his experimental world. As the

child comes in contact with his environment, he assimilates

the various stimuli he encounters into already existing mental

structures and as a result of this process of assimilation, his

mental structures are built up and gradually changed. This

progressive maturation and adoption is referred to by Piaget as

the process of accommodation. (Olatunji 1989). This theory

suggests that cognitive growth and learning require intrinsic

motivation or self initiated activity and that such motivation in

itself is only stimulated novel and challenging experiences. It

follows therefore, that the more a child sees, heard and

touches, the more the interest with objects in his environment

and enjoys mutual experiences with other children and adults,

the more he will learn and be motivated to learn. The theory

lays emphasis on the important role of play in the cognitive

development of the young child, since this encourages

meaningful activity and the handling of toys and other

materials such as sand, water, plastic or bricks which

xxxi

provides sensory stimulation and fosters the development of

motor skills. By implication if a child’s experiences are

restricted since accommodation or the adoption of mental

structures cannot take place unless the child first of all

assimilates visual and auditory stimuli (Olatunji, 1989).

The importance of resources in impacting knowledge has

been stressed by recent researchers. Oduolowu (1991) asserts

that projected aids are useful in describing, analyzing and

transmitting impression, firm, size, colour and other

characteristics. Adeogun (1997) asserts that resources are

very important in the development of qualitative education.

The success or the failure of any system of education depends

on the quality and quantity of recourses made available to it

and Fuller (185) discovered that students who have used two

or more books were almost three times better than those who

has had no text-books in schools.

Oduolowu also stated that different types of materials in

the child’s environment help in the development of the

different cognitive, physical and social skills of the child.

Resources according to her can motivate children to learn and

xxxii

it can also be used to change attitude. It stimulates children’s

imagination which can lead to creativity. When children

interact with materials, it gives them idea for creation.

Nowadays in which we live in an era of technology, scientific

aptitude in children can be geared up through the use of

materials resources.

Human resources can be regarded as one major factor

that stands out in the various inputs into the educational

sector. Considering the fact that humans are needed to put

other educational resources into use in other words, human

resources make use of material resources (Akinmusire, 2004).

Ajayi (1998) pointed out that human resources are the best

assets any nation can posses to advance economically, socially

and politically since it is man who has to supply the personnel

skills in directing, planning, controlling, leading, organizing

and co-ordination.

Material resources has been defined by Udoh (1999) as

all items that teachers and pupils use in enhancing the

learning process, which implies that material resources in

learning are practically unlimited. Material resources are

xxxiii

used by resource persons to provide learning experiences for

the students. They are therefore aids to learning and not

teachers substitute. Adeogun (1997) sees material resources

as the usable and consumable facilities like time, programme,

policy issues, text books, diaries, registers, chalkboard,

electricity, stationery, biros, pencils and others employed to

increase the effectiveness of the teachers and make teaching

method meaningfully. Maduewesi (1999) states that material

resources to be provided for children at the pre-primary level

must be those that will make the children use their senses.

Among other things they must help to:

i. Develop co-ordination between mind and muscle

ii. Develop their full emotional, intellectual, physical and

social potential

She stated that the following criteria must be taken into

consideration when selecting materials for pre-primary schools

a. Durability and sturdiness.

b. Satisfaction of intellectual and emotional needs.

c. Interest for children (i.e. colourful).

d. Safety storage facility.

xxxiv

e. Budgeting consideration.

Experts View on Instructional Materials

The views of certain persons, who are knowledgeable in

the area of the development of the child is of important to this

research work. It is the light of this that we will be examining

the opinion of Montessori, Piaget, and Froebel on materials

concepts as should be used in educating the child.

(A) Montessori Material Concept:

In several of her researcher, Maria Montessori discovered

that material are not meant to be substitute for the child’s

world, nor should it be used as the sole way of imparting

knowledge about the world, but they are rather meant as an

aid and guild for the child’s inner work as it conceives it.

She further ascertained that we do not isolate the child

from the world but give it the tools with which it can master

the whole not to be confused with the world itself (Montessori,

1944). The child should be given toys which will help to

develop him, but toys must be used along with other concrete

objects to teach the child.

xxxv

For Montessori “external development materials” are the

“material imprint of inner development” she pointed out that

we have to give the child the philosophy of things. What she

means is that qualities abstracted form things such as

colour, dimension, shape, smell, noise and weight have to be

offered to the child as materialized abstraction, in the form of “

tactile objects” while the child can concern itself with. Tactile

perception refers to the ability to recognize and discriminate

among objects by touching. Therefore when a child feels the

shape of a square and sees it, he is able to recognize it better.

This intention of materializing the abstract idea is the basis.

For the development of sensory materials which she labels

sensory development aid. The materials (bell, coloured block,

etc.) vary in respect of sound, colour and shape and allow the

senses to be trained individually.

Montessori [1944] elaborated that if toys like the coloured

blocks must appeal to children, and then they must fulfill

certain criteria, such as being suitable for child like activity

and must be appealing. Children find attraction in colours,

therefore construction blocks should be in varied shaped and

xxxvi

multi-coloured so as to appeal to the child as well as introduce

him to the world of different colours.

She further argued that objects for exercises of practices

life, sensory materials, linguistic materials such as jigsaw, flip

and mathematics materials are of necessary to the child.

B Piaget’s Material Concept: In his numerous works

concerning children, Piaget has been particularly identified to

be interested in working with nursery children (3- 5) years.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive mental intellectual development

stipulates different stages of development which determine the

child’s capacities for learning and understanding as well his

perception of objects such as toys.

The second stage of the cognitive development covers the

period from 2 to 3years, which is referred to as the pre

operational period. Here, the child’s representation of

phenomena is simple and intuitive. The stage is characterized

by gradual acquisition of ability to conserve and decipher, use

of language and symbolic representation. Piaget has amply

documented the inability of the pre- operational child to

decenter temporal relations from the dominant perceptual

xxxvii

spatial cues when the two are not in direct correspondence. He

suggests that before 7 years, children’s narrative remain

purely egocentric, events are linked together on the basis of

personal interests and not on the real order of time.

Piaget (1962) described a development sequence in which

reality play, where in objects and persons are treated

realistically, proceeds to fantasy play, where the child pretends

to be other people or objects. This, he says allows the child the

freedom to express his inner thoughts. That is why

educational toys like the kitchen set, doctor’s representational

toys are important at this stage, with this pretence or role play

toys, children are able to dramatize adult roles as they

perceive them. Thus role playing is a symbolic thinking. To a

pre- scholar for instance, a drinking straw is just a hallow

tube. It becomes a symbol when it is now placed in the middle

of a heap of sand to represent a real cake and a candle for

birthday.

Piaget (1963) pointed out that pre- school children use

symbolic thinking in three ways as a convenient way of

remembering objects and experiences, the symbol swing can

xxxviii

help them to think and solve problems about their experience.

It also helps them to communicate what they know, even after

they have had the experience.

Piaget (1930) further argued when he wrote, that children

younger than 6-7 years show “primitive psychological

causality” that is, the belief that any desire whatsoever can

influence, objects, the belief in the obedience of external

things. The nursery child’s egocentrism is a tendency to focus

on only one aspect of an object or situation and ignore other

aspect, when given a tall and short glass containing same

volume of liquid; the pre- scholar will insist that the taller

glass contains more liquid without giving attention to the

width of the shorter glass.

The nursery school teacher can however, use simple

criteria for classification of objects. To understand the different

between numbers five and three, a mixture of two coloured

beads can be used for five of the beads of same colour and

three of the other colour. This task can easily be sorted out by

the pre- scholar.

xxxix

For Piaget (1962, 1964, 1967), the origin of both

perception and imagery is the motor imitative activity of the

child. He went further to say that with factual input alone, the

child can represent familiar objects by a static mental image at

between 3 and 5 years of age.

Piagetian activities involving the physical manipulation of

concrete objects such as matching objects and sorting them

into sets constitute appropriate mathematics activities for the

nursery school child. The child encounters the use of number

in many ways like in counting bottle tops, abacus, giant Bedas

and many others. The interaction of the child and the activity

is very important as he counts on one to one basis, his

thinking is challenged and he is able to develop his intellectual

capacity and his mathematical understanding. Thus, the five

year old can utilize imposed imagery to remember picture

pairs, to solve problems through experiences and to

communicate what they know.

Froebel’s Material Concept: In his work, Froebel’s

educational materials were really rather dull, consisting of

such things as wooden blocks and activities with paper. He

xl

speaks on materials in relation to children’s play. To him,

carefully planned play materials are essential to the child for

proper education. Therefore, varieties of educational toys

such as Jombo reels, fun button, touch and tell, and creative

templates can be carefully planned for nursery children to play

with, as then, there will be incidental learning taking place.

Arguing further, Froebel (1846): views a child’s play in

which he used play materials as eminently serious and

profoundly significant for it is nothing less than both the

model and imitation of human life as a whole” he concludes

that this gives birth to joy, freedom and satisfaction. The

child’s ice- skating and sledging is viewed as an instrument

used by the child to strive towards his goal along a smooth

path, at a great speed and without hindrance a quality which

is so clearly and vitally present in the child’s spirits.

Educational toys such as picture arrangement kit,

picture dominoes often give the nursery school child a lot of

pleasure. He finds enjoyment in using them uninterrupted,

and in his own way. He is able to construct what he feels is

meaningful to him. It is left to the teacher to make his own

xli

judgment and give meaning to what the child was able to

create or construct.

Indoor and Outdoor Instructional Materials

Indoor materials are resources used inside the classroom

by teacher and children in order to achieve educational

objectives. The outdoor resources are materials used outside

the classroom.

Categorization of indoor and outdoor instructional materials

xlii

Sand – box Small table and chairs Water play toys Rocking chair Merry- go – rounds Easel brushes Teeter- totters Painter’s brushes Swing Feather dusters Gilders Colour games puzzles Acrobat bars Nesting toys Tires Abacus Horizontal tire swing Alarm clock Punching bag balance scale counting puzzle Climbing rail Counting cubes Rocking boat Counting sets Sawhorses Fractional shape puzzle Rocking horses measuring cups Bike Number games Balls Number scales Wheel toys Play cards Scooters Stop watch Boxes Tape measure Plants thermometer Ladders Cutlery Concrete tunnels Musical instrument Drums First aid box Simple cooking equipment Clothing Garden Shelves & cupboard Cleaning materials e.g. soap sponge Dust bin Wooden block Toys (different types)

Material Resources

Outdoor Indoor

xliii

Over head projector

Educational media

Audio – visuals

Audio

Visuals

Projected Visuals

Non- projected visuals

Radio Audio Tape Disc Record Audio CD

3- Dimensional -Models -Realia -Specimen -Globes -Mock – ups

2- Dimensional - Graphic -Charts - Maps -Posters -Illustrations -Diagrams -Photographs -Printed materials Journals Text- books

Magazines Newspapers Pictures

Films Video Computer Teaching Machine

CATEGORIZATION OF EDUCATION MEDIA

xliv

Educational Media:

Media are channels, carries of message, go- in between

channels through which information pass. Educational media

are audio, visual and audio- visual materials which help in the

achievement of specific objectives. They are a collection of

materials and equipment that can be used effectively for

communication. They are information carrying techniques that

are used for instructional purpose with the hope of delivering

educational information very quickly and very widely

(Schramn 1977). They are used for instructional purposes.

Udoh (1999) has classified materials resources into

visual, audio and audio-visual, audio and audio- visual

materials. Visual materials require the pupils to visualize and

or manipulate things so as to facilitate learning. They help

pupils concretize learning and furnish them with direct

experience as they see the material aids consequently aiding

the retention of what is learnt.

xlv

Henrick, Molenda and Russel (1989) stressing the

importance of visuals in instruction noted that most people

learn about ten percent from listening, but over eighty percent

what they see. They remember only twenty percent what they

hear but over 50% of what they see and hear. Visual are

iconic and have the primary function of serving as a reference

to meaning than the spoken words, which are arbitrary

symbols. Visual materials are further classified as projected

and non- projected. The projected visual include - slide,

filmstrip, opaque, over head projectors. The non- projected

visual include: three dimensional visual which are models,

Realia, specimen, Globes and mock – ups others which are

called 2- dimensional include: graphic, charts, maps, globes,

poster, illustration, diagram, photographs, printed materials.

The printed materials are: text- books, work- books,

supplementary books, encyclopedia, newspaper, magazines.

Realia – they are real things, objects, specimens and samples

living or preserved natural or man- made and their models

(Udoh, 1999). Heinich, Molenda and Russel (1985) stated that

regalia are means of presenting information, raising questions,

xlvi

and giving hands – on – learning experiences, regalia can also

play a valuable role in the evolution phase of instrument.

Real objects can be used for identification, classification,

description, discussion and comparison of objects.

Maps and Globes – Abimbade (1999) and Udoh (1999) noted

that the importance of maps and globes in formal education

and social life is to provide dimensional materials. Atlas is a

book which contains flat maps, wall maps, outline maps are

different types of used to enhance teaching and learning

(Abimbade, 1999).

Poster

Poster combines lines, colour and words for the purpose

of catching and holding attention at least long enough to

communicate a brief message. They give precise information,

direction and invitation. Posters are commercially made

pictorial designs which deliver their message instantly or at a

glance. Balogun (1995) distinguished two types of poster

namely single glance poster and the stop – and glance poster.

The single glance poster are like the graphic visuals produced

by commercial organizations, airlines and even government

xlvii

agencies to advertise a product, a service or a cause, usually

carrying some pictorial information which is very colourful

and vivid to attract attention (Abimbade, 1999). The pictorial

information may be supplemented by using a very brief

caption to produce a very colourful attraction and eye-

catching visual massage which the audience can quickly

absorb (Balogun, 1995).

Classroom use of posters

It could be used to stimulate interest of learners in an

area of study e.g. read a book today. It could be used to create

awareness towards a cause e.g. Brush YOUR TEETH EVERYDAY.

It could be used to decorate the classroom. It should be

changed after sometime, since the message might loose its

impact if it left there for long period of time. Moreover, posters

can be used to develop awareness in or favourable feeling

towards any school subject.

Printed materials- printed materials include textbooks,

workbooks, supplementary book, encyclopedia, newspapers,

magazines etc., textbooks are the most popular and most

widely printed materials. Fuller (1986) revealed that students

xlviii

who have used two or more books were almost three times

better than those who have no text in schools. He also

stressed that the number of books available to students is a

key factor influencing their level of reading ability. Elley

(1995) also found out that the numbers of books in school

library is an indication of the extent to which schools are

prepared to encourage students to read.

Charts

Charts are commonly used for classroom instruction. It

can be teacher – made or made commercially. The specific use

of charts as pointed out by Abimbade (1999) include- showing

relationship among things, ideas and events showing

important features of things and events, showing numeral or

proportional relationship, representation of sequence of events

in a process, showing comparison and contrasts between

things, ideas and events.

Udoh (1999) asserted that the major advantage of charts

is that they provide the opportunity to visualize some ideas or

concepts which could be more difficult to understand if

presented in spoken or written words.

xlix

Features of Good Charts

- Must be one concept

- Must have a clear, well defined

instructional purpose

- Must contain minimum of visual and

verbal information needed for

understanding

- The lettering should be conspicuously

bold and simple and all words written

horizontally.

Types of charts- Types include line charts, bar chart, pie

chart an organizational chart, classification chart, flow chart,

pictorial chart (which are commonly and wieldy used in pre-

primary education) still picture is also a visual materials. It

includes photographs, drawings, film strips, slides and

paintings. Henrich (1989) identified still picture most

commonly used in instruction as photographs, postcard,

illustrations from books, periodical, catalogues and study

prints. Still pictures can translate abstract ideas into a more

realistic format; it allows instruction to move down from the

l

level of verbal symbols to the more concrete level. They are

readily available in books, magazines, newspapers, calendar

etc. They are easy to use and relatively inexpensive.

Photograph as a still picture attract impression in the

form of drawings and paintings (Udoh 1999). A photograph

can motivate when it provides emotional effects in the

beholder as well as provides communication and information

Abimbade (1999).

Films

Films are electronic and it can be used for instruction in

the classroom. It is an audio – visual device. Ogunranti

et al (1985) asserts that films make it possible for students to

“visit every parts of the world and are a valuable aid to

teaching in practically every field in which man has a teaching

interest.

Abimbade (1999) identified the following types of films as

follows documentary, factual, fictional, training pictorial,

reports and religious films, films have the ability to show

motion and are very useful in instructional situations in which

the concept or depiction of motion can contribute to the

li

learning process. It also permits safe observation of

phenomena that might be hazardous to view directly. The

ability of films to dramatize events and situations make it

particularly suitable for instruction in social sciences and

humanities. Open ended filmic episodes can be used effectively

in problem solving instruction situation e.g. a problem

situation can be dramatized on film and its resolution left to

the class. They are ideal for instruction of heterogeneous

groups with common interest. They can be shown to large

audiences with a minimum of instructor intervention.

Television

This is another audio–visual device. It is a rich source for

instruction and training. The advantage of television include: it

can present colour, moving picture with sound. It can be

transmitted long distance and its signals can be recorded and

play back instantly.

Audio Material

Audio materials deal only with hearing. Audio materials

include: audio tape recorder, record players and radio. Audio

media are inexpensive, they are readily available and very

lii

simple to use. They can be easily adapted to any vocabulary

level. Audio can present stimulating verbal messages more

dramatically than print can.

Empirical Studies on :

(i) Availability of Instructional Materials

Over the years, serious effort has been made to find the

place and effect of instructional materials on the teaching/

learning enterprise. Many researchers have found out that

instructional materials, though important for effective

learning, are not in sufficient quantity in our educational

institutions. Presently, effort shall be made to review some of

these studies already carried out and related to the present

study.

Hallack (2001) identified resources as a major factor

contributing to academic achievement in the school system. In

a study conducted using 350 teachers in private secondary

schools in New York, Hallack found that in most cases these

resource materials were inadequate and where they are

available, they are not sufficiently used. Supporting this

liii

finding of Hallack, Babalola (2002) and Olowookere (2005)

maintained that the inadequate provision of the resource

materials account for the show place of pupils learning. In a

research conducted by Babalola using 600 teachers in Ogun

State of Nigeria, he found that resource materials are not

enough for the learners to concretize what they have leant.

Olowookere in his research conducted in Ondo West local

government area of Ondo State, discovered that indoor play

toys outdoor play toys and water and sand toys were all

inadequate. He used six nursery schools and 42 teachers for

this study. In the same vein Bajah (2005) in a paper on

“implementation of the new senior secondary school

chemistry” noted that the inadequate provision of resource

materials is the bane of education in Nigeria. Earlier in 2002,

Arubayi had carried out a comparative study of correlates of

selected extrinsic variables with student’s academic

performance in Delta State. From the target population of one

hundred and eight two (182) secondary schools, twenty

schools were randomly selected. The results of this study

showed a positive relationship between resources materials,

liv

recommended textbooks, library, teacher’s qualification and

experience and the students’ academic achievement.

Another empirical study of Fuller (2006) carried out in

rural area of Brazil recorded that students who were exposed

to enough resource materials in their learning, were almost

three times as likely to pass their examinations. The total

sample for the study equaled one thousand and six (1006)

primary school students.

However, contradicting these findings were those of Bello

(2003) and Munya (2005). Bello carried out a study on the

effect of availability of resource materials on school children in

Bichi Local Government Area of Kano State. In the study, he

used 425 primary school pupils and concluded that without

resource materials, learning can still take place. He attributed

this possibility to effective teachers’ communication and

knowledge of subject matter. Munya conducted an empirical

study in twelve (12) elementary schools in Kenya. In his

study, he used two hundred pupils and One hundred teachers

in an experimental study. He found that there was no

significant difference between the achievement level of pupils

lv

exposed to many resource materials and those not exposed to

any resource material.

(ii) Utilization of Instructional Materials.

Some scholars have found that the problem of teaching

lies greatly on the fact that teachers do not make effective use

of available instructional materials. Ogunde (2000), Sadam

(2001) and Olagbaju (2005) have all agreed that teachers do

not make good use of instructional materials available in their

schools. Ogunde conducted a survey research in Edo State

using 325 teachers who responded to his instrument in

Resource Utilization for Edo State schools. Using the chi-

square statistic he found that of the 325 teachers, only 70

(about twenty two percents) made use of resource materials in

teaching the students.

Sadam carried out another study in Uyo, Akwa Ibom

state and found that teachers do not make use of resource

materials in their schools. In the study, Sadam investigated

33 schools using one hundred and twenty four (124) teachers

in primary schools (17 public schools and 16 private schools).

lvi

He concluded that teachers do not make effective use of

resource materials that are provided in the schools.

Olagbaju in a study titled “Availability and utilization of

resource materials in Ibadan South East Local Government

Area of Oyo State”, discovered that the non-utilization of the

available resources affected the pupils in schools. The study

involved sixteen private and ten public pre-primary schools.

In these schools a sample size of 110 teachers was used.

Contradicting these findings, Adegoke (2005) revealed

that most of the schools do not have toys that can be used by

the teachers. In a study he conducted in Ibadan South West

Local Government Area of Oyo State, he used ten nursery

schools and one hundred and fifty (150) teachers. After

analyzing his data using the t-statistic, he found that the

problem of resource in learning is not attributed to the

teachers but to the inadequacy of these materials.

((iii) Teachers’ Qualification and Experience

Teachers have been recognized as indispensable human

resource and in fact, the single most important element in the

school system, more important than the quality of equipment

lvii

and materials (Bowles, 2001). The quality of the education

system, according to Bowles depends on the quality of the

teachers. In a survey carried out in Southern Mexico, Bowles

used forty seven elementary schools. In twenty of the schools,

the pupils were made to study on their own without a teacher

while the rest schools have teachers. At the end of the

exercise, all the pupils were subjected to the same

examination and Bowles found that the children who were

taught by teachers did not perform better than those who were

left to study on their own. Supporting this finding, Odebiyi

(2001) noted that teachers are the limbs of the educational

system, and that the success of the system depends on their

number, quality and experience. Odebiyi in his study

discovered that out of three hundred teachers used, one

hundred and twenty has first degrees and above in secondary

schools in Oyo South Local Government of Oyo State while the

remaining has NCE. The performance of the teachers with at

least first degree was better than those with lesser

qualifications.

lviii

In the same vein, Olagbaju (2005) agreed with Odebiyi

but found that teachers in both public and private schools are

not adequate in terms of experience. Adejoke (2005) and

Olowookere (2005) agreed with the findings above.

Summary of Literature Review

The review of literature above clearly shows that the

teaching learning process in the pre-primary school can be

enhanced through the adequate provision and effective

utilization of instructional materials.

The concern for children and their education started long

ago with philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, to mention but a

few. Some of these philosophers stressed the need for

materials and activity in early education of the child. They

include John Cornelius, Rousseau, Piaget among others. All

these philosophers believed that young children should be

educated through involvement in practice activities using

concrete objects.

Piaget in his theory of learning by assimilation and

accommodation explained that the child’s mental structures

are progressively built up from his experimental world. These

lix

resources have been defined as everything in the pupil’s

environment that contributed in any way to the learning

situation. These resources can be human or material. They are

also usable and consumable. These must be materials that

can make use of the children senses.

Studies also have shown that teacher qualifications and

experience are very important in the utilization of instructional

materials in the schools The literature has shown us the

importance of resource materials in the training and

development of the child. It has also shown government and

individual (public and private) involvement in running pre-

primary education. The place and categories of resource

materials in the training of children were also seen in this

review.

Irrespective of all the efforts made by governments at different

levels, one still finds parents preferring one school or the other

for the education of their children. Some schools are

recognized as high class schools while others are neglected.

This has created a gap in the provision of pre- primary

education thereby leaving pre-primary education in a

lx

dilemma. In addition, it has been established that pre-primary

children learn better through play and toy materials within the

immediate environment .One however wonders if these

instructional materials are available and are being effectively

utilized. This study intends to fill this gap by examining the

availability and utilization of the instructional materials in

both public and private pre-primary schools in Delta State,

using Oshimili South Local Government Area.

lxi

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter is concerned with the type of research

design used, the area of study, the population, sample and

sampling technique for the study, instruments, methods of

data collection and data analysis.

Research Design

The type of design used in this study is the descriptive

survey method. Survey research according to Nworgu [2006] is

one in which a group of people or items is studied by collecting

data from only a few people or items considered to be

representative of the entire group. This design was used

because there was no need to manipulate any variable since

all the variables were already in place for the study.

lxii

Area of the study

The area covered by this research is Oshimli South Local

Government Area of Delta State. This Local Government Area

is among others in the state that has numerous public and

private pre- school establishments. The Local Government

Area was also chosen because it houses the capital of Delta

State, Asaba hence it occupies a prominent position in the

state.

Population of the study

All the teachers in all the public and private pre- primary

schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area of Delta

State constituted the population of this study. The population

is approximately one hundred and fifty (150) teachers

comprising thirty–five (35) in the public pre – schools and one

hundred and fifteen (115) in the private pre- schools. There

are 8 public schools and 16 private schools operating the pre-

school sections. (Oshimili South Local Government manual on

Education, 2007).

lxiii

Sample

The entire population of 150 teachers was used for the study.

The researcher decided to use the entire population because it

is not too large.

Instrument for the Study

The instrument used for this investigation is called the

Instructional Materials Availability and Utilization Inventory

(IMAUI). The inventory consisted of three sections.

The first part (section A) consisted of personal data of the

teacher such as type of school, qualification and experience.

Section (B) housed thirty items on the availability of

instructional materials in the schools. It has two options –

number required and number in use while section C is on the

adequacy of instructional materials thus: always available in

sufficient quality, sometimes available in sufficient quality,

available but not sufficient and not available. The respondents

are to tick the accurate options as they apply to them.

lxiv

Section (D) consisted of items that elicited information from

the teachers on their utilization of the available materials. It

has four options of – Always, often, rarely and not used

Validation of the Instrument

After the construction of the instrument, they were given

to three experts; two in childhood education and one in

measurement and evaluation. (See appendix 2).The validators

were to check the items generated for the study and scrutinize

them for validity. The experts subjected the questionnaire

items to serious scrutiny and the items were modified along

the lines suggested.

Reliability of the Instrument

To determine the reliability of the instrument, reliability

test was carried out using ten (10) pre-primary schools in

Aniocha North Local Government Area of Delta State. This

Local Government has almost the same characteristics such

as having public and private pre – primary schools. In these

ten schools 38 teachers were used and their responses were

collected and the researcher calculated the internal

consistency using the cronbach alpha. From the computation,

lxv

a score of 0.72 was obtained. This score is high enough for the

instrument’s measure of reliability.

Method of Data Collection

The questionnaire was administered directly to the

respondents by the researcher. The services of ten (10)

assistants were also employed because of the spread of

schools. On the whole, one hundred and fifty (150) teachers

were given the questionnaire and they were all returned.

Method of Data Analysis

The items in section B enabled us know the quantity of

available instructional materials in the schools. Sections C

and D were allocated scores thus – always available (4),

sometimes available (3) available but not sufficient (2) not

available (1) then always (4), often (3), rarely (2) and not used

(1)

From the ratings, the decision on the questionnaire was taken

with a mean score of 2.50 and above for each item in sections

C and D. The mean score of 2.50 was also used as the cut–off

mark for each item as well as the entire questionnaire. For

lxvi

instance, a mean score above 2.50 for section C, means that

instructional materials are available for teachers to use. Any

score less than 2.50 indicated non- availability of the

instructional materials. This also applied for resource

utilization.

In analyzing the data generated for the study, the

following was used;

For the research questions frequency counts score and

mean score and percentage were used. To test the

hypotheses stated for this study, the one-way Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) was used. All the hypotheses were tested

at 0.05 level of significance. Computation was by means of

the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

lxvii

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS This chapter is concerned with the presentation of data

from the investigation of the study. In presenting the findings

for this study, this chapter has been organized in such a

manner that answers to the research questions are provided

first, using percentage and mean scores. The hypotheses for

the study were tested thereafter using the analysis of variance

statistic.

Presentation of Findings

Research Question 1:

What instructional materials are available in both

public and private pre- primary schools in Oshimili South

Local Government Area of Delta State?

The answer to this research question is provided in

table 1 below.

lxviii

Table 1

Frequency count of available instructional materials in pre- primary schools.

PRIVATE PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS

S/N Materials Number

Required

Number

in use

% Available

lxix

1 Acrobat bars 64 48 75

2. Water play toys 320 240 75

3. Work books 800 672 84

4. Television 64 48 75

5. Pictorial books 384 320 83

6. Abacus 448 384 86

7 Puzzles 256 208 81

8 Counting cubes 2240 2048 91

9 Wheel toys 160 96 60

10. Bike 160 96 60

11. Saw horse 288 192 67

12. Horizontal swing 48 48 100

13 Tires 224 160 71

14 Merry go round 96 80 83

lxx

15 Cooking area 32 16 50

16 Swing 64 48 75

17. Number game 624 576 92

18. Measuring cup 640 544 85

19. Counting set 192 160 83

20. Crayon 320 320 100

21. Charts 800 736 92

22. Photographs 288 192 67

23. Water play area 48 32 67

24. Rocking boat 48 32 67

25.Climbing rail 48 32 67

26. Sand box 64 32 50

27. Projector 32 16 50

28. Computer 96 80 83

29. Education toys 960 768 80

30. Balls 1096 960 88

10004 9184 91.8% REQUIRE D

lxxi

PUBLIC PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS:

S/N MATERIALS NUMBER

REQUIRED

NUMBER IN

USE

1. Acrobat bars 32 16

2. Water play toys 160 80

3. Work books 400 128

4. Television 32 8

5. Pictorial books 192 64

6. Abacus 224 96

7. Puzzles 128 80

8. Counting cubes 1120 488

9. Wheel Toys 80 24

10. Bike 80 16

11. Saw horse 144 40

12. Horizontal swing 24 8

%

50

50

32

25

43

33

63

43

30

20

28

33

lxxii

13. Tires 112 24

14. Merry go-round 48 16

15.Cooking area 16 -

16. Swing 32 8

17. Number game 312 48

18. Measuring cup 320 48

19. Counting set 96 32

20. Crayon 160 40

21. Chart 400 112

22. Photographs 144 48

23.Water play area 24 0

24 Rocking boat 24 0

25. Climbing rail 24 0

26. Sand box 32 8

27. Projector 16 0

28. Computer 48 8

29. Education toys 480 144

30. Balls 548 144

5452 1728

21

33

0

25

15

15

33

25

28

33

o

o

o

25

o

17

30

26

31.70%

lxxiii

The tables above revealed that out of the total number of

5452 materials required in the public pre-primary schools,

only 1728 or 31.7% are available for use. In the private

schools out of a table of 10004 materials required, only 9184

or 91% are available. In the public schools, most of the

instructional materials such as cooking area, water play area,

rocking boat, climbing rail and projectors are not available.

Research question 2

How adequate are instructional materials in both public

and private pre- primary schools in Oshimili South Local

Government Area of Delta state?

lxxiv

Table 2:

Mean score of teachers in relation to adequacy of instructional materials N X Group mean

(X)

Public 35 1.68

Private 115 3.01

2.35

From the table above, the group mean of 2.35 showed

that there is inadequacy of instructional materials in the pre-

primary schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area of

Delta State. This is because; the mean is below the cut off

mark of 2.50. It thus however appeared that we have adequate

instructional materials in the private schools with 3.01 mean

score as against 1.68 in the public schools.

Research Question 3

To what extent do the teachers utilize the available

instructional materials in public and private pre- primary

lxxv

schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area of Delta

State?

Table 3: Mean score of teachers in relation to utilization of instructional materials.

N X Group X

Public 35 1.98

Private 115 3.07 2.53

With a group mean score of 2.53 as shown above, the

teachers appear to make use of available instructional

materials in the schools. However, this is more evident y in the

private schools with a mean score of 3.07 as against 1.98 in

the public schools.

Research Question 4

To what extent does teacher’s qualification affect their

utilization of instructional materials in public and private pre-

primary schools?

lxxvi

Table 4 Mean Score of Teachers on the Utilization of Instructional Materials in relation to their Qualification.

Qualification N X Group

Mean

Public TCII 16 1.50 1.98

School cert. 10 0.91

NCE 5 2.50

B.ED 4 2.90

Private TCII 18 2.70 3.07

SCH. CERT. 22 2.40

NCE 47 3.40

BED 28 3.80

Grand Mean = 2.53

From the table above, qualification seem to affect the

teachers utilization of instructional materials because the

more the teacher is exposed to higher training in teaching, the

more he makes use of instructional materials.

lxxvii

Hence B.ED holders with the higher qualification have

the highest mean score of 2.90 and 3.80 in the public and

private pre-primary schools respectively. Also from the table

we can see that teachers mean score increase as they secure

the TCII, NCE and B.ED qualifications respectively.

Research Question 5

To what extent does teachers experience affect their

utilization of instructional materials in both public and private

pre- primary schools?

lxxviii

Table 5 Mean score of Teachers on the utilization of instructional materials in relation to experience School Type

Experience No. of teachers

- X

Group Mean

Public 1-10 18 0.70

11-20 8 1.71

21-30 3 2.60

31-35 6 2.80

Private 1-10 46 2.20 1.98

11-20 42 2.60

21-30 18 3.60

31-35 9 3.90 3.07

Grand mean =2.53

From the table above, one can see that the higher the

experience (No of years on the job), the higher the extent of the

teacher’s use of instructional materials. Hence in the public

lxxix

schools the mean scores increased from 0.70 to 1.71, 2.60 and

2.80 as the years of experience changed from 1-10, 11-20, 21-

30, and 31-35 years respectively. In the same manner, in the

private schools, the mean scores increased from 2.20 to 2.60,

3.60 and 3.90 as the years of experience increased,

Testing the hypotheses

Hypothesis one

There is no significant mean difference in the quantity of

instructional materials available in the public and private pre-

primary schools as responded to by the teachers.

The analysis of this hypothesis is presented below with

table 6.

lxxx

Table 6

Analysis of variance on availability of instructional materials in both public and private pre- primary schools.

Source of variance

df Sum of squares

Mean sum of squares

Calculated value of F

Critical value of F

Decision

Between 1 24944 24944 0.46 3.91 Ns

Group

Within 148 8046060 54365

group

Total 149 8071004

NS = Not Significant

From the table above the critical value of F = 3.91 while

the calculated value is 0.46. Since the calculated value is less

than the table value, the null hypothesis is accepted, and not

rejected. The difference in the amount of instructional

materials, available in both public and private pre-primary

schools, is not significant.

lxxxi

Hypothesis 2

There is no significant mean difference in the utilization

of instructional materials between teachers in public and

private pre-primary schools.

The analysis of this hypothesis is presented below with

table 7.

Table 7 Analysis of variance on utilization of instructional materials by teachers in both private and public pre – primary schools Source of variance

df Sum of squares

Mean sum of squares

Calculated F Critical F- value

Decision

Between 1 35594 35594 1.83 3.91 NS

Groups

Within 148 2879506 19456

Groups

Total 149 2915100

NS = Not Significant

lxxxii

From the table above, the calculated F value of 1.83 is

less than the table value of 3.91. The null hypothesis which

stated that there is no significant difference in the utilization

of instructional materials between teachers in bothpublic and

private pre-primary schools, is accepted

Hypothesis 3

There is no significant different between teachers

qualification and their utilization of instructional materials

The analysis for the hypothesis is presented below in

table 8

Table 8 Analysis of variance on utilization of instructional materials in relation to qualification.

Sources of Variable

Df Sum of Square

Mean sum of Squares

Calculated f Value

Critical F- Value

Decision

lxxxiii

Between 3 88627 29542 14.8 3.91 S

Groups

within 146 291915 1999

Group

Total 149 380542

S = Significant

From the table above, the calculated F value is 14.8 and

this is greater than the critical F value of 3.91. Therefore the

null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between

teacher’s qualification and their utilization of instructional

materials is rejected. It can therefore be concluded that there

is significant difference between teachers’ qualification and

their utilization of instructional materials

Hypothesis 4

There is no significant mean difference in teachers

experience and their utilization of instructional materials.

To analysis the hypothesis above, see table 9 below.

lxxxiv

Table 9 Analysis of variance on utilization of instructional materials in Relation to experience. Source of variance

Df Sum of Square

Mean sum of square

Calculated F. value

Crtical F- value

Decision

Between 3 102631.2 34210.4 8.3 3.19 S

Groups

Within 146 609112 4172

group

Total 149 711743.2

S = Significant

From the table above the calculated F value of 8.30 is

greater than the table value of 3.91. Based on this, the null

hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference

between teachers experience and their utilization of

instructional materials, is rejected. The opposite that there is

significant difference is therefore accepted.

lxxxv

Summary of major findings

Based on the research questions and the hypotheses

tested, the major findings of the study are presented in this

subsection.

1. There is inadequate supply of instructional materials

in the pre-primary schools.

2. Private pre-primary schools have more instructional

materials than public pre-primary schools.

3. Teachers make use of available instructional materials

in the pre –primary schools.

4. Teacher’s qualification affects their utilization of

instructional materials in the pre-primary schools.

5. Teacher’s experiences affect their utilization of

instructional materials in both public and private pre-

primary schools.

lxxxvi

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSIONS, INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS,

IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATION AND

SUMMARY OF THE STUDY.

In this chapter, the results of the study based on the

data analysis in chapter four are examined and interpreted.

Conclusions based on the analysis are also made. The

discussion deals with the research questions posed and the

hypotheses postulated to direct the study. The chapter starts

with discussion and interpretations of findings of the study

and ends with a summary of the entire work.

Discussion and Interpretation of Findings

In this section of the chapter, the discussion is organized

using the following headings.

- Availability of instructional materials in both private

and public pre-primary schools.

- Utilization of instructional materials in both public

and private pre – primary schools.

lxxxvii

- Teachers qualification and their utilization of

instructional materials

- Teacher experience and their utilization of

instructional materials.

Availability and Adequacy of Instructional Materials in

Public and Private Pre –Primary Schools.

Research questions 1 and 2 as well as hypotheses

one, sought to find out the level of availability and adequacy

of instructional materials in the pre-primary schools. As

shown in table 1 in chapter four, from the results obtained

seventy percents (70) of the instructional materials needed

are available but the private pre-primary schools with

91.8% account for this result as they virtually have all

instructional materials required. The opposite is what was

observed in the public pre- primary schools with 31. 7%.

This shows that in the public schools there is shortage of

instructional materials. However this difference can be

attributed to the fact that there are more private schools

than public schools running pre-primary section.

lxxxviii

This finding agrees with the earlier ones by Esu

(2002) and Olagbaju (2005). They both agreed based on

their findings that there is inadequate supply of

instructional materials especially in public pre-primary

schools. Private schools have more instructional materials.

There are more play materials in the private pre-

primary schools than in the public pre-primary schools in

Oshimili South Local Government Area of Delta State. The

private schools have more instructional materials because

there is laid down guidelines which must be followed before

the approval and registration of such a school. Therefore,

the private schools tend to meet to a large extent the

requirement for approval. Without approval, schools are

not recognized by government, unlike the public schools

which are recognized with or without the required facilities

and materials.

Utilization of Instructional Materials in Both Public and

Private Pre- Primary Schools.

Research Question 3 and Hypotheses 2 addressed

this aspect of the study. As shown in table 3, with a mean

lxxxix

score of 2.53, teachers make use of available instructional

materials in their schools. Once again, this result is

consequent upon the observed high mean score in the

private pre-primary school of 3.07 as against the 1.98 for

the public pre-primary schools. The result showed that

generally teachers make use of the available instructional

materials but comparatively, the teachers in the public

schools do not make use of available instructional

materials. Hypothesis 2 which was tested on table 7 also

showed a significant difference in the utilization of

instructional materials between public and private pre-

primary schools.

The observed difference may not be unconnected

with the fact that private schools closely supervise their

teachers more than public schools. It thus appear that the

normal attitude, that any thing government, should not be

taken seriously, prevails in the public schools.

The findings above supports that of Abinbade

(1999), Olagbaju (2005) and Olowookere (2003) which

revealed that materials availability does not guarantee

xc

utilization. Olowookere noted that instructional materials

are more used in the private schools. This phenomenon

exists because of the close supervision of the teachers by

the proprietors/Head teachers.

Teachers Qualification and their Utilization of

Instructional Materials in Pre-Primary Schools.

Research Question 4 and Hypothesis three were

postulated to analyse this. From the analysis of the

research question in table 4, we find that teachers

qualification affect the utilization of instructional materials.

The more the qualifications the teacher gets, the more they

use instructional materials. With a grand mean of 2.5, the

teacher’s qualification affects his usage of instructional

materials.

However, the influence of qualification on the use of

instructional materials is more pronounced in the private

pre-primary schools with a mean score of 3.07 against the

mean score of 1.98 for public pre-primary schools. It was

also found that as the teachers acquire higher professional

qualification (TCII, NCE, B.ED), their level of usage of

xci

instructional materials increased respectively. In the public

schools, it is 1.50, 2.50 and 2.90 while in the private

schools, it is 2.70, 3.40 and 3.80 for TCII, NCE and B.CD

respectively (see table 4).

In the analysis of hypotheses 3 on table 8, it was found

that there is a significant difference between teachers

qualification and their utilization of instructional materials.

The possession of a higher professional qualification has

influence on the teachers’ utilization of instructional

materials.

The findings above agree with Bowles (2001), Odebiyi

(2001) Ologbaju (2005) and Olowokere (2005). They all

maintained that the teachers qualification have significant

influence on the teachers utilization of instructional

materials. This has become so as a result of the fact that as

they acquire higher certificate and degrees, they acquire

more exposure and knowledge on instructional materials.

xcii

Teachers Experience and their Utilization of Instructional

Materials.

Research question 5 and hypothesis 4 were to provide

information for the subheading above. The analysis for the

research question is on table 5. From the table, with a grand

mean of 2.53, we can say that experience affects teachers’

utilization of instructional materials. As the years of

experience increase, the mean score increases in both public

and private pre-primary schools. In the public schools, the

more experience teachers (31-35 years) had the highest mean

score of 2.80 and in the private schools, the mean score is

3.90, also the highest. In both public and private pre-primary

schools, the mean scores for the age of experience brackets of

1-10 years, 11-20 years, 21-30 years and 31-35 years,

increased respectively from 0.70, 1.71, 2.60 and 2.80 for

public schools and 2.20, 2.60, 3.60 and 3.90 for private pre-

primary schools.

Hypothesis 5 was tested on table 9 and the result showed that

there is significant difference between teachers experience and

their utilization of instructional materials. With an F

xciii

calculated of 8.3 being greater than the critical value of F of

3.91 at 0.05 level of significances, the null hypothesis that

there is no significant difference between the teachers

experience and utilization of instructional materials was

rejected and the opposite that there is difference, accepted.

What must have accounted for the difference is the fact

that as the teachers grow on the job, they realize the

importance of the use of instructional materials on the

teaching learning enterprise. The finding of this study

corroborates earlier findings by Eta (1986), Bello (1987)

Odebiyi (2001) and Olagbaju (2005). These researchers agree

that experience rather than any other variable accounts more

for a teachers ability to impact knowledge through the use of

instructional materials.

Implication of the study

This sub-section deals with the implication of the study

based on the findings. Specifically, the following deductions or

implications are made which can benefit or promote pre-

primary education.

xciv

1. The study has been able to establish the fact that not

all the required instructional materials are available in

pre-primary schools in Oshimili South Local

Government Area of Delta State. However this shortage

is more pronounced in the public pre-primary schools.

The agencies responsible for the education of the child

must therefore take into account this fact so that

necessary steps can be taken to address the shortage.

2. The study also showed that teachers generally do not

utilize the available instructional materials to the

maximum. The implication of this is that even when all

needed materials are provided, the zeal to utilize them

may not be there; even the available materials will

then rot away. The implication here too, is that

teachers may be using other methods of teaching that

are not suitable for pre-primary pupils.

3. With qualification as a factor in teachers’ utilization of

instructional materials, it implies that teachers who

are not exposed to higher certificates/ degrees will not

be able to teach effectively and most private schools

xcv

usually engage this low level teachers for economic

gains.

4. As experience also affects the teachers utilization of

instructional materials, it implies that teachers who

have stayed long on the job will tend to put in their

best if they are motivated and will leave the job if not.

They should therefore be encouraged to remain on the

job.

Recommendations

From the findings of the study, and the

discussion therefore, the following recommendations

are made.

1. Government should ensure that the same guideline for

the establishment of pre-primary schools apply to both

public and private owners. This is to raise the

standard of the public school to some appreciable

level. Government and its agencies should also

monitor and supervise the schools to make sure that

xcvi

all required instructional materials are available before

registration/ approval.

2. There is the need to train and retrain the teachers of

pre-primary schools. Some of them are not familiar

with some of the instructional materials they are to

use in the school. Therefore, training workshops

should be organized for teachers and proprietors/

proprietresses of pre- primary schools to familiarize

them with necessary materials.

3. Teachers at the pre-primary schools should be well

taken care of in terms to good salary, and conducive

environment for work (job satisfaction) provided. These

incentives will keep them long in the job. By this, they

will gain experience which they need for effective

utilization of the instructional materials.

4. Teachers who are specialists in pre-primary education

should be employed. They should be exposed to the

skill of improvisation so that where there is shortfall in

supply of materials, they can improvise.

xcvii

5. Companies and individuals should also assist

government in the provision of instructional materials

because governments alone cannot fund education.

Limitations of the study

The study was constrained by a number of

problems, prominent among which are.

1. The focus on Oshimili South Local Government Area of

Delta State is a limitation. It is hoped that

investigation into other Local Government Areas of the

state may or may not confirm the findings of the

present study.

2. The present study also only concentrated on the

teachers’ qualification and experience as they relate to

utilization of instructional materials. If other teacher’s

attributes such as sex and age are used, they may not

yield the same findings as contained in the present

study.

3. Another shortcoming of the study is in connection with

the use of questionnaire as the method of data

collection. This is so because since surveys deal

xcviii

mainly with opinions, the respondents could

deliberately fake their responses. If this is so, the

generalizability of the study becomes limited.

However, the researcher ensured that the validity and

reliability of the instrument were maximally

maintained.

Suggestions for further research

Based on the findings and limitation of the study,

further researchers could address the following areas.

1. Carry out another study of this nature on a wider

scope, including primary schools in the state.

2. Carry out a similar study using teachers’ gender and

age as correlates of their usage of instructional

materials.

Summary of the study

The general hues and cries against the low

recognition accorded the pre-primary level of our

education system have necessitated the present study

to investigate the availability and adequacy of

instructional materials for the level of education.

xcix

Teachers’ qualification and experience as they affect

their use of the instructional materials were also

investigated.

The purpose of the study was to find out

whether instructional materials are available and

adequate, also to find out whether teachers

qualification and experience do affect their utilization

of instructional materials.

In pursuance of the aforementioned objectives, 5

research questions were posed and 4 hypotheses

postulated. The instrument for data collection was the

instructional materials available and utilization

inventory (IMAUI). It contained 30 items. Subjects for

the study consisted of 150 teachers in pre-primary

schools in Oshimili South Local Government Area of

Delta State. This is made up of 115 teachers in private

pre-primary schools and 35 teachers in public pre-

primary schools.

The research questions were analyzed using

frequency counts, percentage and mean scores while

c

the hypotheses were tested using the one way analysis

of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 level of significance.

Highlight of the findings are as follows.

1. Not all the required instructional materials are

available in pre-primary schools in Oshimili South

Local Government Area of Delta State.

2. Teachers do not make maximum use of the available

instructional materials in the schools.

3. The teachers’ qualification affects their utilization of

instructional materials.

4. Teachers experience has a significant influence on

their use of instructional materials in the pre-primary

school.

5. The study also showed that more instructional

materials are in privately owned schools than in public

schools.

ci

6. The teachers in private schools also make more use of

instructional materials than those in the public

schools.

Implications of these findings were also

highlighted and the recommendations made thus:

1. Government should ensure that the same guidelines

for the establishment of pre-primary schools apply to

both public and private owners.

2. Government and its agents should closely monitor and

supervise the schools to ensure that needed

instructional materials are provided before registration

and approval.

3. There is need to train and re-train pre-primary school

teachers.

4. Incentives should be provided for teachers in the pre-

primary schools so as to keep them long on the job.

5. Individuals and companies should assist government

in the provision of instructional materials because

government alone cannot fund education.

cii

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cix

APPENDIX I

INSTRUMENT FOR THE STUDY

Department of Educational

Foundations (Childhood Education)

University of Nigeria

Nsukka.

Date:

Dear Respondent,

This questionnaire titled Instructional Materials

Availability and Utilization Inventory (IMAUI) is given to you for

the purpose of finding out the availability and utilization of

resource materials in your school. Your honest responses are

highly solicited. Also be assured that your responses would be

kept strictly confidential and used only for this study.

Thank you for your co-operation.

Yours sincerely,

Ezoem, Nwanze Ignatius PG/MED/07/42506

cx

Section A:

1. Type of school --------------------------------------------

Public Private

2. Highest Educational qualification; Grade II

School certificate NCE , B. ED

, M.ED

3. Teaching Experience in the pre- primary class

1-10 years 11-20yrs 21-30yrs

31-35 years

SECTION B

INDOOR AND OUTDOOR INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIALS AVAILABILITY

INSTRUCTION; Please indicate the quantity as

applicable to you.

cxi

S/N Materials Number Required

Number Available

%

1 Acrobat bars 2 Water - play toys 3 Work books 4 Television 5 Pictorial books 6 Abacus 7 Puzzles 8 Counting cubes 9 Wheel toys 10 Bike 11 Saw horse 12 Horizontal tire swing 13 Tries 14 Merry – go round 15 Cooking Area (stove 16 Swing 17 Number game 18 Measuring cup 19 Counting set 20 Crayon 21 Charts 22 Photographs 23 Water play area 24 Rocking boat 25 Climbing rail 26 Sand – box 27 Projector 28 Computer 29 Education toys 30 Balls

cxii

SECTION C: ADEQUACY OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Instruction: Kindly tick the appropriate column as applicable

to you

S/N Materials Always available sufficient quantity

Some times available sufficient quantity

Available but not in sufficient quantity

Not available

1 Acrobat bars 2 Water - play toys 3 Work books 4 Television 5 Pictorial books 6 Abacus 7 Puzzles 8 Counting cubes 9 Wheel toys 10 Bike 11 Saw horse 12 Horizontal tire swing 13 Tries 14 Merry – go round 15 Cooking Area (stove 16 Swing 17 Number game 18 Measuring cup 19 Counting set 20 Crayon 21 Charts 22 Photographs 23 Water play area 24 Rocking boat 25 Climbing rail 26 Sand – box 27 Projector 28 Computer 29 Education toys 30 Balls

cxiii

SECTION D: INDOOR AND OUTDOOR INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS UTILIZATION

How often do you use these materials? Kindly tick (√) the

appropriate column as applicable to you.

11 Saw horse 12 Horizontal tire swing 13 Tires 14 Merry go round 15 Cooking area (stove) 16 Swing 17 Number game 18 Measuring cup 19 Counting set 20 Crayon 21 Charts 22 Photographs 23 Water play area 24 Rocking boat 25 Climbing rail 26 Sand box 27 Projector 28 Computer 29 Education toys 30 Balls

S/N Materials Always Often Rarely Not used 1 Acrobat bars 2 Water - play toys 3 Work books 4 Television 5 Pictorial books 6 Abacus 7 Puzzles 8 Counting cubes 9 Wheel toys 10 Bike

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APPENDIX II

LIST OF PRE - PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS USED

FOR THE STUDY

S/N SCHOOL TYPE NO OF

TEACHERS

1 Abu- Ato Pri Sch 1, Asaba Public 4

2. Ahabam Pri Sch, Asaba Public 5

3. Anala Pri sch, Oko-Anala Public 4

4. Asagba Pri sch 1, Asaba Public 4

5. Ogbe – Olie Pri sch 1, Asaba “ 4

6. Okwe Pri sch 1, Okwe “ 6

7. Uzoigwe Pri sch 1, Asaba “ 3

8. Zapa Pri sch1, Asaba “ 5

9. Little Saints Private sch. Private 6

Asaba

10. Lucia group of schools Okwe private 7

11. Lumen Christ Private sch, private 7

Asaba

12. Marble Hill sch. Asaba private 6

13. Nkadi Unique Nur/pri sch

Asaba private 8

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14. Nwanonyei Nur/pri sch Asaba private 7

15 Ogeah In’t sch, Asaba private 8

16. Oshimili South L.G.A Nur/pri sch ” 6

Asaba

17. play learn Nur/pri sch. Asaba “ 7

18. Regina Mundi (OLA) Nur/pri sch, “ 7

Asaba

19. Rosebud Nur/pri sch Asaba “ 8

20. Spring Nur/pri sch, Asaba “ 8

21. Staff Dem. FCE (T), Nur/pri sch, “ 7

Asaba

22. Standard life Nur/pri sch, Asaba “ 8

23. Stella Maris Nur/pri Asaba “ 8

24. Unique foundation Nur/pri sch. “ 7

Asaba.

Total = 150 teachers

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[[

APPENDIX III

Cronbach Alpha for calculating the reliability coefficients

of the Instrument

K – K – Vi 1 VE Where: K = No of items

Vi = item variance

Vt = Total item variance

Applied here:

For IMAUI = 30 = 1. 03 (1-100 29 35 99

1. 03 ( 1- 0.30) 1. 03 (0.70) = 0.72

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APPENDIX IV

ANOVA ON AVAILABILITY OF INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIALS

x = T = 10912

X2 = 8839872

SST = x2 – T2 N 8839872 – 119071744 150 8839872 - 793811.6 8046060.4 Ssb = 91842 + 17282 - 10912 115 35 150 733442 + 85313 – 793811 24944 8046060 148 =54356 F =24944/54365 =0.46

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APPENDIX V

ANOVA ON UTILIZATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

x = T = 12597

x 2 = 3972996

ST = x2 – T2 = 3972996 - 15 8684409 N 150 Sb = 113103225 + 3849444 - 158684409 115 35 150

= 983506 + 109984 - 1057896

= 1093490 – 1057896

SSw = SST – SSb = 2915100 – 355954 = 2879506

SST = dft = 150 – 1 = 149

Ssb = dfb = 2-1 = 1

Ssw = dfw = 150-2 = 148

Msb = SSB = 35594 dfb

MSW = 2879506 = 19456 148 F – ratio = 35594 = 1.83

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19456 APPENDIX VI

ANOVA ON QUALIFICATION

x = T = 12403

x2 = 1, 406, 105

SST = 1, 406105 – 1025,563 = 380542

SSb = 26282 + 20042 + 41352 + 36362

34 32 32 52 - 12403

= 203129 + 125501 + 531320 + 254240 – 1025563 SSW = SST- SSW = 291915 df for SST = 150 -1 = 149 df for SSb = 4-1 = 3 df for SSw = 150 – 4 = 146 MSB = SSB = 88627 = 29542 MsN = 291915 = 1999 146 F = 29542 = 14.8 1999

2

150

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APPENDIX VII

ANOVA ON EXPERIENCE

x = T = 12412

x2 = 1437317

SST = 147317 – 1027052 = 410265

SSb = 17572 + 26322 + 38882 + 4135 – 12412 64 50 21 15 150 = 48235 + 138548 + 719835 + 1139882 – 1027052 = 1019448 Sw = SST – SSb = 609183 df = 150 -1 = 149 SSb df = 4 -1 = 3 SSW df = 150 – 4 =146 Msb = 34210 msN = 4172 F = 34210/4172 F = 8.2