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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

History of work-life programs can be traced back to 1930s, when introduction of reduced

working hours with four shifts of six-hours instead of the usual three daily eight hours shifts in

W.K. Kellog Company resulted to enhanced employee morale and productivity (Lockwood,

2003). Still, it took the next decades (1980s) for the concept to gain importance with the

consideration of certain aspects as job satisfaction, reward systems, physical work environment,

worker participation, rights and esteem needs.

Most of them, particularly textiles, cement, bakery, leather, paper manufacturing and many

others are all producing with machinery that were procured in the 1960s and 1970s, giving rise to

frequent breakdown and reduction in capacity consumption rates (Anyanwu, 2007). Low

technology is responsible for the inability of local industry to produce capital goods such as raw

materials, spare parts and equipment, the bulk of which are imported.

Low Level of Capacity Utilization Rate: Capacity utilization rate in the manufacturing sector is

between 30 and 40 per cent, indicating gross under-utilisation of resources. This has been liable

largely on recurrent power outages, lack of funds to procure inputs, fallen demand for

manufactures and frequent strikes and lockouts by workers and their employers.

Low savings: Lack of funds has made it hard for firms to make investments in modern machines,

information technology and human resources development which are critical in reducing

production costs, raising productivity and improving competitiveness. In addition, banks

perceive manufacturing as a high risk venture in the Nigerian environment, hence they prefer to

lend to low-risk ventures, such as commerce, in which the returns are also very high (Anyanwu,

2007).

High Price of Production: Giving that the introduction of SAP, high and growing cost of

production has been recorded by most business organisations as a major limitation on their

operations (CBN Business Surveys, 2010). Increased cost, traced mostly to poor performing

infrastructural amenities, high interest and exchange rates and diseconomies of scale, has

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resulted into increased unit price of manufactures, low effective demand for goods, liquidity

squeeze and fallen capacity utilization rates.

Inflation: This can be described as constant increase in the general price level constitutes a

discouragement to saving for future use and thereby retards investments and growth. It also

encourages speculative activities and diverts resources from productive ventures.

Poor Performing Infrastructure: Poor performance of infrastructural facilities, characterized by

frequent disruption in electric power and water supplies and incompetent telecommunication and

transportation systems, is a major constraint on productivity. As firms have to invest huge capital

to provide alternative infrastructural facilities to run their businesses, enterprises are forced to

carry high cost structure which reduces efficiency and results in loss of competitiveness for their

products (Anyanwu, 2007).

The individuals who form the human capital of an organization are an integral part of the family

in particular and the society in general, and these two parts may be difficult to separate. In

today‘s business world, employee performance is a key determinant in the achievement of

organizational goals. As a result, organizations look for different and modern ways of motivating

their employees, in order for them to give their best to the organization. One of these ways is

recognizing that the heart is as good an asset, as the head of the employee.

Since home is where the heart is, organizations, especially in the developed economies, are

beginning to realize that employee welfare transcends the work environment and extends to the

homes and families of employees (Azeem and Akhtar, 2014). Such sayings as east, west, north

and south, home is the best; charity begins at home; and even Igbo sayings such as ―ana e si

n’ulo ama mma puta iro” . emphasize the influence of the family and home on the work-life of

the employee. Also, studies indicate that when workers come from happy homes, the work

environment tends to be conflict free (Kotter, 2001; Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeanx and

Brindley, 2005).

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However, discovering an appropriate balance between work and life is a challenge for both

employer and employees in an organization. Work-Life Balance (WLB) is a very important

phenomenon that is of great concern to various employees in both private and public sectors

(Orogbu, Onyeizugbe and Chukwuemeke, 2015). It goes beyond prioritizing the work role and

one‘s personal life; and also affects the social, psychological, economic and mental wellbeing of

the individual.

The term gained importance in the late 1960s due to concerns about the effects of work on the

general wellbeing of employees (Maurya, Singh, Reddy, Singh, Maurya and Arora, 2015)

Karatepe & Tekinkus, 2006 reveal that employers‘ concern was on work design and working

conditions improvement until the mid-1970s. In this period, study on working mothers and dual

earner families came into light as women‘s contribution grew significantly in the workforce

(Lewis, Gambles &Rappaport, 2007).

Rappaport and Bailyn (1996) studied how in the agrarian societies, work and family were closer

to each other and how the industrial revolution in the 18th and the 19th century created a divide

between work and personal life, and further how electricity and machines made mass production

possible which essentially meant setting up of factories away from home. Their research studied

segmentation of work and family life due to movement of work away from home/family to the

factories and cities. Also, their study covered a limited scope of work-life balance as it was

primarily concerned with work and its impact on family and did not relate work to its impact on

other aspects of life.

Still, theirs was a significant beginning and more research followed soon as prior to then, ‗work‘

and ‗family‘ were primarily treated as separate segments (Blunsdon, Blyton, Reed and

Dastmalchian, 2006). Interdependence of ‗work‘ and ‗family‘ was highlighted by Kanter (1977)

who decked aspects of work affecting family life and aspects of family life touching work.

During the same time, Pleck (1977) analyzed work-family role system as a compilation of male

work role, female work role, male family role and female family role. He further stated that

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women knowledge spill-over from family role into work role and men experience spill-over from

work role into family role. Much of this development is alluded to changing demographic

makeup of the workforce, changing social roles, the changing responsibilities of organizations

and legislative pressure. This is illustrated by the increasing number of women in the workforce

wishing to combine family and work responsibilities.

An ageing workforce became another demographic factor which raised the importance of the

work-life balance discourse for older employees who may wish to remain at work, but work less

hours or different change patterns. Maurya et al (2015) argue that the most popular reason

employers introduce work-life balance policies were recruitment and retention.

Despite the increased interest in developing WLB policies, a survey by Strathmore Business

School (2011) on WLB in Kenyan organizations shows that 41% of managers felt that the value

of working life had got poorer over the years. The review concluded that most companies in

many countries like Kenya, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bhutan lack human resource

policy that supports the well-being of their employees. Corroborating this position using India as

an example, Maurya et al (2015) avers that most major nationalized banks in India have their

busiest branches in the metro and considerably bigger cities which implies that employees work

longer hours under pressure because of huge number of customers; and experience more

complex and intensified work.

The study found that employees were experiencing nervousness, workload, loss of control,

pressure, long hours and inadequate personal time. This has been blamed on the competition for

market leadership in the manufacturing sector (Karatepe and Tekinkus, 2006) which compel line

managers to give their workers unnecessary work load in order to meet up with set targets.

Employees try their best to be retained in the organization by putting in more time at work which

may be at the detriment of their personal life.

All these may affect the nurture of children, lead to broken and unhappy homes and poor social

life (Azeem, et al, 2014). This is peculiar to developing economies like Nigeria, faced with

serious economic challenges and labour market pressures added to poor social infrastructures,

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poverty, high joblessness and dishonesty. These conditions further worsen the work and life of

the common Nigerian worker whose aim is to make a living and who may have to laboriously

build up accommodating arrangements and cognitive mental coping behaviours that stimulate

desirable satisfaction and effectual functioning both at work and at home (Fapohunda, 2014).

Epie (2011) states that the Nigerian manufacturing industry is known for its long hour culture,

and high work load of employees. NASCO group, Zuma Paint and Chemicals, and Tito Yoghurt

Limited may not be exempted from this culture. They are accountable to issues of work-life

balance, due to the nature of the work environment and the competitiveness of the market.

Policies exist to improve work-life balance, but its implementation has become an issue that

needs to be looked into.

The Nigerian economy is in a state of recession and organizations are experiencing incremental

production costs while facing the challenge of maintaining output and value point. It is more

difficult to import production components and raw materials given the dwindling value of the

Naira in addition to high and frequent expenditure on alternative power supply. All these have

led to managers having higher expectation of employees‘ contribution to organizational

performance at the cost of their personal life.

The proposition is that work-life balance incentives like, leave entitlement, flexi time, and family

and welfare policies, are not adhered to organizational management which are also increasingly

under pressure to deliver. These entail that employees work round the clock with little attention

to themselves and their families. Clarke, Koch and Hill (2004) allude that such a situation may

result to broken homes and poor parental upbringing with subsequent societal implications. This

multifaceted demand between work and home responsibilities have assumed increased relevance

for employees in the Nigerian manufacturing industry in recent years.

This is amidst the difficulties they face in prioritizing between work roles and personal lives.

Hence, the study of work-life balance and organizational performance is essential.

Organizational performance highlights achievements influenced by its operational activities in

utilizing the resources owned (Helfert in Rivai, 2007). Nigerian governments (past and present)

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have always acknowledged the performance issues of its manufacturing industry. In addition, the

performance issues of the Nigerian manufacturing industry is not without precedence in

literature. Olugbemi (1987), Phillip (1988) and Olusanya (1997) all find a middle ground in the

argument that the manufacturing sector is characterized by low efficiency in relation to universal

best standards. They suggest that most Nigerians usually prefer foreign made goods to locally

produced ones ranging from rice to cars and the situation is made worrisome considering that

Nigeria still imports ordinary toothpick and wooden ruler from other countries. Manufacturing

remains one of the most powerful engines for economic growth.

It acts as a means to change the economic structure of countries, from simple, slow-growing and

low-value actions to more productive activities that enjoy greater limits, are driven by

technology, and have higher growth prospects. But its potential benefits are even greater today.

Nigeria‘s developed manufacturing has suffered from neglect, since the country‘s economy has

depended on the petroleum sector since the 1970s. As the government tries to expand the

economy, it is working to reinvigorate the manufacturing sector so as to increase its contribution

to Nigeria‘s prosperity.

Lagos and its surroundings are home to about 60% of Nigeria‘s industrial base (Bureau of Public

Enterprise, 2006). Other key industrial centres are Kano, Ibadan and Kaduna. Nigeria‘s most

significant manufacturing industries include cement, food processing, textiles and detergents.

Manufacturing contributed about 4.2% GDP in 2009, up from 3.6% in 2008. The sector‘s

contribution to GDP has changed little over the course of the decade.

Even as industries like cement and beverages draw venture from home and abroad, other

industries are closing up shop; between 2000 and 2010, more than 850 manufacturing companies

either shut down or temporarily halted production. Capacity utilization in manufacturing is

around 53%. Imports of manufactured goods dwarf sales of homegrown products –

manufactured goods have constituted the biggest category of imports since the 1980s. Billion

fund to help banks extend credit to the manufacturing sector, following the decline in available

financing after the onset of the global economic crisis. The biggest problem facing

manufacturers over the past decade has been inadequate infrastructure in general and lack of

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power supply in particular (BPE, 2006). The country set the aim of generating 6,000 MW of

electricity by the end of 2009, but expected national demand is 25,000 MW. Yet, that target was

not met as manufacturers have mainly installed their own generators to compensate for spotty

supply from the state.

The manufacturing industry as a whole generates around 72% of its own energy needs (Elbadawi

and Mwega, 2000). Operating these generators greatly increases the cost of manufacturing

goods, and the cost increase is passed on to the consumer, making it difficult for Nigerian goods

to contend with cheaper imports. Anyanwu (2007) recounts that high organizational performance

in the Nigerian manufacturing sector has been constrained by many factors which include the

following: Low Level of knowledge: This is conceivably the greatest barrier constraining

performance in Nigeria as developments in knowledge and innovations are the primary forces

propelling industralisation today (Anyanwu, 2007). Unfortunately, industries in Nigeria cannot

acquire modern machines that have reduced processes.

These are the issues that prompted an investigation into the effect of work-life balance on

organizational performance in selected manufacturing firms in Nigeria. The essence is that the

majority of research on the correlation between work and family life refers to WLB and

organisation policies, WLB and organisation culture, WLB and HR management, WLB and

work commitment, WLB and job satisfaction, WLB and gender equality, WLB and family life,

and many more (Casper, Eby, Bordeaux, Lockwood and Lambert, 2007). There are a number of

studies exploratory WLB and workers wellbeing too.

These studies however were mainly conducted in the United States (Grzywacz and Marks,

2000), the United Kingdom (Wise, Bond and Meikle, 2003), Australia and New Zealand

(Bochner, 2003). This leaves a significant gap with respect to effect of WLB on organizational

performance with special emphasis on the manufacturing industry of a developing economy like

Nigeria.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

There is a growing interest in the importance and ramifications of WLB among organization

experts. This growing interest may be attributable to the current shift from public sector to that of

private sector driven economy. Consequently, organizational development expert‘s focus is on

issues that enhance the compettivenees of growth sectors like manufacturing industry.

Most organizations in the manufacturing industry have been bedeviled by various challenges that

border on WLB issues. Due to high cost of doing business arising from shortage of

manufacturing inputs due to inflation and foreign exchange procurement issues, most

manufacturing firms have trimmed down (downsized) their staff strength. The effect is long

hours of work for the same pay for those still in service, high performance targets, reduced

incentives and delayed or denied promotion The immediate to long term consequences of these

are burnout, frequent ill-health and generally, work dissatisfaction. Several employees react

differently to these. Some play truancy and absenteeism, others resort to cutting corners and

indulge in fraudulent practices and worse still, others leave the organization entirely. All these

impact negatively on the objectives of the organizations and on the WLB of the employees.

There have been a considerable number of studies on WLB among developed countries (United

States, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand) on almost all aspects of WLB.

The same however, cannot be said of the developing economies. In Nigeria, the interest in WLB

is growing but most of the earlier studies were on the banking industry which is largely owned

by Nigerians of southern origin. Again most, studies seem to focus on the female workforce,

individuals with children or single-parent families, rather than on all employees. Consequently,

there is little research efforts on WLB for all employees in the manufacturing sector of the North

Central Zone of Nigeria. It is this gap that this study intends to fill.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The aim of the study is to determine the effect of work-life balance on organizational

performance of the Nigerian manufacturing firms. The specific objectives of the study are to:

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i. Determine the effects of leave policy on employee turnover in the Nigerian

manufacturing firms.

ii. Ascertain the relationship between flexible scheduling and effective service

delivery in the manufacturing firms.

iii. Highlight the effect of emotional intelligence on organizational commitment in the

manufacturing firms.

iv. Assess the relationship between workplace support system and willingness to work longer

hours in the Nigerian manufacturing firms.

v. Identify the key challenges to effective work-life balance programme in the

Nigerian manufacturing firms.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions guided the investigation:

i. To what extent does leave policy affect employee turnover in the Nigerian manufacturing

firm?

ii. What is the relationship existing between flexible scheduling and efficient service

delivery in the Nigerian manufacturing firm?

iii. What is the effect of emotional intelligence on organizational commitment in the

Nigerian manufacturing firm?

iv. What is the relationship existing between workplace support system and job pleasure in

the Nigerian manufacturing firm?

v. What are the key challenges to effective work-life balance programme in the Nigerian

manufacturing firm?

1.5 Hypotheses Formulation

The research hypotheses were formulated as follows:

i. Leave policies significantly affect employee turnover decisions.

ii. There is significant relationship between flexible scheduling and efficient service

delivery in the manufacturing firm.

iii. Emotional intelligence significantly affects staff commitment in the manufacturing firm.

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iv. Workplace support significantly influences staff willingness to work longer hours

v. Organizational culture and poor communication processes are the key challenges to

effective work-life balance programme in the Nigerian manufacturing firm.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study has both theoretical and practical significance. It is significant theoretically because

its findings serve to enrich literature in this area of research interest. It is empirically significant

to scholars in the sense that it will generate original and indigenous data on the effect of WLB on

managerial performance in the manufacturing industry in Nigeria.

Practically, the findings provide an objective outlook to the Manufacturing Association of

Nigeria (MAN) on the relationship between WLB and organizational presentation in the

Nigerian manufacturing industry.

The findings and recommendations of this study will help the firms and other manufacturing

firms in Nigeria to map out strategies of dealing with WLB issues within their organizations.

The study is equally beneficial to future researchers who will find it a relevant research material

for their study.

It serves as a reference material for students on similar topics by providing them with empirical

insight into the effect of work-life balance on organizational performance in the Nigerian

manufacturing firm.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focused mostly on the aspects of WLB that is yet to receive much literature attention

in the Zone such as leave policies and practices, work scheduling, emotional intelligence and

workplace support. The area of the study is delimited to the North Central Zone where there is a

dearth of studies on WLB in the manufacturing industry. Specifically, the study was restricted to

Plateau, Abuja and Benue states respectively because it is where the head offices of the selected

companies are located Using the appropriate fully explained in chapter three the following firms

were selected for this study: NASCO group, Zuma Paint and Chemicals, Queensway Aluminum,

Lucky Fibres Limited, UAC Foods, I-Tex Furniture Limited, Sarplast Fiberglass Company,

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Dangote Cement Plc and Tito Yoghurt Limited all located in the North Central zone of Nigeria.

The researcher chose these companies because they represent significant sectors of the Nigerian

manufacturing industry. Secondly, they are world class companies whicho are expected to

observe global best practices in their operations.

The time scope covers a period of 17 years (1999 to 2015), representing the situation as it stands

since inception of this democratic period.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

Attitude of the Respondents: There is the expected typical reluctant attitude on the part of some

respondents to fill the questionnaire or grant interview. In some cases, some respondents expect

to be paid for the use of their time and knowledge; if otherwise, they were very reluctant in

giving the required information. Some hoard information in keeping with the oath of secrecy. In

spite of repeated assurance of confidentiality most of them fear the loss of their job.

1.9 Operational Definition of Terms

This section presents the operational definition of key words used in the study as follows:

Work-Life Balance: This concept is used in this study to mean proper prioritizing between

"work" (career and ambition) and "lifestyle" (health, pleasure, leisure, family and spiritual

development/meditation) in such a way that the employee maintains a healthy equilibrium

between the two.

Flexible Scheduling: Flexible scheduling is affording employees the flexibility of choosing how

long, where and when to work.

Workplace Support: This is the degree to which employees believe that their organization

values their contributions and cares about their wellbeing and fulfils their socioemotional needs.

Workplace support includes things like, providing catering services in-situ, children day care

services, health cilinic within the office premises, etc.

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1.10 Profile of the Companies under Study

1.10.1 NASCO Group

Nasco Group Nigeria Limited manufactures and markets consumer products. The company

offers detergents and soaps, biscuits, cornflakes, carpets and blankets, cosmetics, industrial

chemicals, and packaging materials. Nasco Group Nigeria Limited, formerly known as Northern

Nigeria Fibre Products Ltd., was founded in 1963 and is based in Jos, Nigeria.

Source: www.nascogrp.com (2016)

1.10.2 Zuma Paints and Chemicals Nigeria Ltd

Zuma Paint and Chemical Ltd. is engaged in the manufacturing and supply of paint products.

Zuma Paint marine and protective coatings give protection to all types of structures ranging from

steel, non-ferrous metals, concrete and other masonry substrates.

Source: http://www.zumapaints.com.ng (2016)

1.10.3 Tito Yoghurt Company Limited

Tito Yoghurt Company Limited is located in Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria. The company is

mainly into Beverages, Dairy Products, Drinks and offering Yoghurt.

Source: Bllomber.com/titoyorgurtnig (2016)

1.10.4 Dangote Cement Company Plc Gboko Plant

Dangote Cement Company Plc Gboko Plant started as Benue Cement Company (BCC) Gboko

and was integrated as a limited liability company in 1975 with an installed production capacity

of 900,000 metric tonnes of cement per annum. In 1990, the company was privatized and also

underwent a capital restructuring and became known as Benue Cement Company Plc.

It was consequently incorporated as Public Liability Company (PLC) in 1992. According to the

Annual Report and Accounts (2009:2), Dangote Industries Limited became core investor in the

government of Nigeria‘s 65% majority equity in the company and effectively took over in

January, 2004 and changed the name to Dangote Cement Company Gboko. The company has

continued to expand and is quoted on the Nigerian Stock Exchange Market and has a staff

strength of 730 direct employees made up of 703 operatives and 27 management staff. From an

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initial installed capacity of 900,000 metric tonnes, the company has expanded its production

capacity to 4.0 million metric tonnes per annum.

The company has faced several challenges; some industry-based while some are company-

specific. For instance, the company faces scarcity and persistent increase in the prices of

petroleum products particularly fuel oil, un-coordinated tax administration, unstable financial

policy measures, increased insecurity to lives and assets among others. The public affairs

Manager of the Company, Chiegina (2012) in an interview on the British Broadcasting

Corporation (BBC) enumerated some of the challenges of the company to include, persistent

protest by host communities, forced leave for staff of the company in December 2012 due to

cement glut from imported sources.

Therefore, the company suspended production. Makoju (2013) confirmed that, in Gboko

factory, 890 Nigerians were affected by the shut down while 30 expatriates were also affected by

the exercise. All these were direct employees. Indirect employees who were also affected by the

closure included those selling cement within the plant environment, the casual workers, the

contract staff, and drivers.

Source: www.dangotegroupplc.com (2016)

1.10.5 Nigeria Breweries Plc

Nigerian Breweries (NB Plc) is a subsidiary of the Dutch brewer, Heineken. The company is

Nigeria‘s pioneer and largest brewer with current annual production capacity estimated at 10 mn

hectolitres. Founded in 1946, NB operates 5 breweries in Nigeria. The first was commissioned in

Lagos in 1949 and four others have consequently been established in Aba (1957), Kaduna

(1963), Ibadan (1982) and Ama (2003), providing a geographical spread across the country,

albeit bias for cities in the southern part of Nigeria.

NB along with Guinness Nigeria constitutes a formidable oligopoly in the Nigerian beer market,

with an 80% combined market share. Over the years, NB has launched a series of alcoholic and

non-alcoholic brands carefully crafted for the Nigerian end user these includes Star Lager Beer,

the company‘s flagship product. Others include Gulder Larger Beer, Heineken (Larger), Maltina

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(Malt drink in four variants - Maltina Classic, Maltina Strawberry, Maltina Exotic and Maltina

with Pineapple) and Legend Extra Stout.

Listed on the Nigerian Stock Exchange in 1990, NB is one of the most capitalised and actively

traded companies outside the banking and insurance sectors. As at December 2007, the company

had 131,026 shareholders. Heineken N.V. of Holland has a majority shareholding of 54.1%. In

its resolve to maintain leadership of the beer market, NB launched the local production of the

Heineken brand, an International high quality premium beer, in 2004. This marked the highpoint

of a two-year process to position Heineken, which was previously imported into the country, as a

locally produced brand.

Currently, the company produces Heineken beer in its new state of the art brewery in Ama. In

addition, NB recently introduced MALTINA SIP-IT, a variant of Maltina in a ‗Handy Pack‘.

One of the latest additions to NB's product range is the new Gulder Max - a stronger, darker and

higher gravity brewed variant of the regular Gulder with a 6.5% alcoholic content. The

introduction of GulderMax was designed to strengthen the existing brands and to increase the

beer options as obtained elsewhere in the world.

Despite its rapid growth in recent years, NB is noted for its efficient cost management, an effort

that contributed to the liquidation of the company's huge debt profile in 2006 and won the

company an award for the best cost saving company within the Heineken group.

Product Brands

Star beer has implicit the image and stature of a national icon. A beer associated with brightness,

social fun, high quality taste and style - a world-class brand brewed by Nigerian Breweries Plc

(NB Plc). Star was introduced into the Nigerian market in 1949 as the first indigenous beer

brand. The beer market had hitherto been dominated exclusively by imported brands. Shortly

after its entry into the market, the beer quickly overcame the problems of market acceptance.

Star is largely responsible for the growth of the Nigerian indigenous beer industry. The

popularity gave other prospective investors courage to consider the establishment of new

breweries.

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Gulder Lager Beer was introduced in 1970 and then re-launched in 1972. Gulder was introduced

on a platform of uniqueness and distinction for the confident, socially active consumer driven by

a desire for success. Gulder comes packaged in a unique brown 60cl bottle (at the time of launch,

the only brown bottle in Nigeria) with 5.2% alcohol content. The beer is made from malted

barley, hops and water with a characteristically bitter taste.

Gulder is available in many parts of West Africa, particularly Ghana, Republic of Benin and

Togo. It is also exported to the United Kingdom. Maltina is Nigeria‘s premier malt drink is now

available in four varieties (Maltina classic, Maltina strawberry, Maltina exotic andMaltina with

pineapple) Amstel Malta is a non-alcholic malt beverage, meaning it is brewed from barley,

hops, yeast, and water much like beer. Corn and caramel color may also be added. Legend Extra

stout brand now re-launched in a brand new and fashionable packaging. The new Legend Extra

Stout now comes with a new attractive body and neck Label.

For the first time in the brand‘s history, a back label has also been introduced. The back label

provides detailed information about the product, such as ingredients, alcoholic contents etc. A

unique, bottom-fermenting alcoholic beverage produced from sorghum malt, sorghum and maize

and flavored with a natural stout aroma compound with 7.4% alcohol content. The company

delivers its products through 147 key distributors and wholesalers (2006: 149).

NB does not own and is not liable for the logistics related to the distribution of its products. It

key distributors are carefully selected to ensure that the company's products are available across

Nigeria.

Aba Brewery: Established in 1957.

Enugu Brewery: Established in 1993 but discontinued in2004.

AMA Brewery: Established in 2003.

Ama Brewery is the biggest brewery in Nigeria and the most modern in the world.

Kaduna Brewery: Established in 1963

Ibadan Brewery: Established in 1982

Lagos Brewery: Established in 1949

Source: nigerianbreweriesreport.pdf (2016)

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1.10.6 Sarplast Fiberglass Company

Sarplast Fiberglass Company, based in Suleja, Niger State, has a factory area of 40.000 m² of

which 3.000 m² covered, has two discontinuous production lines from ND 150 to ND 2000. It

has a production capacity of 6.000 tons/year and employs 80 workers. Sarplast Fiberglass, thanks

to its qualifications and engineering skills, can supply its products both for the Oil and Gas and

civil market in Nigeria, with the capacity of manufacturing fittings and spools prefabrication.

Sarplast Fiberglass has its own laboratory, where it can perform quality tests on raw materials

and finished products. The plant in Suleja is the first and only GRP pipe factory in Nigeria.

Source: http://www.sarplast.com/eng/company-sarplastfiberglass.php

1.10.7 UAC Foods

UAC of Nigeria Plc (UAC) is a leading diversified company, operating in the food and

beverages, real estate, paint and logistics sectors of the economy.

Source: www.uacnplc.com

1.10.8 iTex Furniture Limited

iTex Furniture Limited (―iTex‖), an indigenous furniture making company based in Abuja, is

tactically positioned to be one of the leading furniture makers in Nigeria with the opportunity to

export NIGERIAN MADE goods to foreign countries. Over the last decade, itex has acquired an

impeccable record of delivering products of international standard to local off-takers, most of

whom have been the different arms of the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and

other corporate bodies.

Itex now finds it imperative to address the needs in the private sector, both local and foreign. Itex

Furniture thus requests for a facility to create an expansion in its furniture production facility.

The company has concluded arrangements with some European Furniture giants for technical

support and to acquire contemporary machines from furniture machine manufacturers to improve

technology to minimize waste of materials, time and human resources while increasing

productivity; utilization of large and growing local raw material base of steel, aluminium, glass,

plastics, in addition to plywood, chipboard and various hard and soft woods which complement

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imported high quality upholstery fabrics like leather suede, and accessories like knobs and

handles locks and lock-sets, rollers stands, legs, slides and tracks.

iTex Furniture Limited, was originally incorporated as itex Limited on the 11th

of April 1996, but

subsequently changed its name to reflect its core business as a furniture maker. Its operations in

the recent past, has ensured its emergence as a leader in the competitive Nigerian furniture

industry. Until recently, Abuja has been its primary market focus but has now been expanded to

other towns as well as some neighbouring countries. The business model is structured along

product design and manufacture geared towards total satisfaction of clients‘ requirements,

satisfaction of comfort, ergonomics and aesthetic requirements etc.

iTex is affiliated with highly renowned international corporate bodies that have made their mark

in the furnishing industry across the globe. It has developed a healthy working relationship with

firms like Talin s.p.a. of Italy, Arrben snc. Of Italy, Torre s.p.a. of Italy, RDB SRL, Italy and

Vitra International AG, Brirsfelden, Germany. This wide base of experience, production

technology and product resource provides our alidity ion with the ability to meet the demands

of large scale furnishing jobs for large corporate bodies and organizations.

In addition to the domestic resources, when the need arises, the company uses the combined

resources of our select affiliate companies in Europe in Planning, Designing and Production of

appropriate office furniture and accessories with the following primary considerations:

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layout and use of certain office spaces.

18

iTex recipe for success is based on a futuristic approach to Total Quality Management in all

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19

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22

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Conceptual Framework

This section discusses in details the conceptual framework of the variables which make up the

study. The concepts discussed herein relate to Work Life Balance (WLB), which is the

independent variable and organizational performance (the dependent variable). In core, while

Work Life Balance in the West has received enormous research exposure, far less attention has

been devoted to exploring the concept of Work Life Balance of individuals in Nigeria (Ojo

2014). The term is not merely related to work and life; it is a positive state of mind.

2.1.1 Work-Life-Balance

Work-life balance, in its broadest sense, is defined as a satisfactory level of participation or ‗fit‘

between the numerous roles in a person‘s life (Hudson, 2005). It is about the interaction between

paid work and other activities, including unpaid work in families and community, leisure and

personal development. Greenhaus, Collins and Shaw (2003) referring WLB to work-family

balance opines that work-family balance is ―the extent to which an individual is equally–self

engaged and equally satisfied with his or her work role and family role‖.

However, it can be argued that work-family balance is more limited in extent than the former

because the focus in work-family balance is more on the relations between work and family. The

term work life balance is commonly used as a more comprehensive expression to describe

policies that have been previously termed ‗family-friendly‘, but are now extended beyond the

scope of the family.

It refers to the elastic working arrangements that allow both parents and non-parents to avail of

working arrangements that provide a balance between work responsibilities and personal

responsibilities (Redmond Valiulis and Drew, 2006). Work-life balance does not signify an

equal balance in units of time between work and life but is about proper understanding of the

priorities of the professional and personal level.

23

It has to do with prioritizing between work and lifestyle (health, pleasure, leisure, family and

spiritual development) (Clark, 2009). The concept of work-life balance is based on the idea that

paid work and private life should be seen less as opposite priorities and more as corresponding

essentials of a full life. Lewis (2008) observes that the way to achieve this is to adopt a system

that is conceptualized as a two way process which considers the needs of the workers as well as

those of employers.

In order to take on employers in this procedure it is imperative to show the benefits that can be

obtained from employment policies and practices that sustain work-life balance, and the scope

that subsists for extenuating their negative effects on the management of the business. Clark

(2009) defines work-life balance as contentment and good functioning at work and at home with

negligible role conflicts. Work-life balance is about finding the right balance between one‘s work

and one‘s life (outside work) and about feeling comfortable with both work and non-work

commitments.

Many people find it difficult to manage their time in a way that is healthy for work and for

personal life not because they are poor at time management, but basically because a good part of

the time is not theirs. However, work-life balance is tricky to individually accomplish without

organizational encouragement. Bird (2010) reaffirms that, work-life balance does not mean an

equal balance adding that one‘s best individual work-life balance would vary over time. The

right balance for one person today will without reservations be different for the same person

tomorrow.

The right balance for a single person will be dissimilar at marriage, during child bearing; at the

start of a new career versus close to retirement. There is no perfect, one-size fit all balance that

should be struggled for. The best work-life balance is different for everyone because we all have

different priorities and diverse lives. However, at the centre of an effective work-life balance

definition are two significant everyday concepts that are pertinent to everyone namely

Achievement and Enjoyment.

24

Greenhaus (2009) indicates that while work-life balance has conservatively been presumed to

involve giving equal amounts of time to paid work and non-work roles, more recently the notion

has been accepted as more difficult and has been expanded to integrate extra components.

Instead, it implies employee satisfaction with work roles or family roles at the same degree.

Clarke, Koch and Hill (2004) aver that work-life balance is generally associated with equilibrium

between the amount of time and effort somebody devotes to work and personal activities, in

order to maintain an overall sense of harmony in life. The study adopts this assertion as the

conceptual framework of work-life balance.

Work- life balance reflects a person‘s orientation across career and non-career life roles as a

mismatched inter-role phenomenon. Three kinds of balance can be mentioned (Greenhaus,

Collins and Shaw, 2006). They are:

1.Time balance: Sparing time to work and life roles at the same degree.

2.Commitment balance: Showing psychological commitment to work-life roles at the same

degree.

3.Content balance: Being pleased with work-life roles at the same degree.

Studies like Bond (2009), Hochschild (2007) and Okeke (2011) affirm that in the absence of

these balances, people spend too many hours at work, and spend less with their families, which

results in deteriorating health and work performances.

The costs comprise rises in juvenile crime, more drug abuse, a decrease and unwillingness to

take responsibility for care of elderly relatives and for the disadvantaged (Bond, 2009). To

alleviate this, Barrera (2007) proposes a situation that involves employers working constructively

with their employees to put in place arrangements, which take into account the needs of the

business as well as the non-work aspects of employees‘ lives.

These arrangements and applications are facilities which are utilized by organizations to gain

advantage to balance the voluntary employees‘ personal and work lives.

These advantageous facilities are - flexible working hours, autonomy in the work facilities (Hill,

Hawkins, Ferris and Weitzman, 2001; Tausing and Fenwick, 2001; Barribal, Coopamah, Roberts

25

and Watts, 2007; Dwyer, Jamieson and Moxham, 2007), choosing the hours of start and end of

the work, tele-working, home working, electronic working, family permissions, assistance

programs for employees, counselling services, child care services etc. (Thomas and Ganster,

1995).

Employees and employers are both middle to the subsequent use and successful accomplishment

of these policies and practices. A review of the work-life prose reveals that Work Life Balance

initiatives can be broadly divided into four dominant categories which include flexible working

arrangement (home working, compressed hours); leave arrangement (annual leave, Parental

leave); dependent care assistance (Child care arrangements and Crèche) and general services

(Employment assistant programs) (De Cieri, Holmes, Abbott and Pettit, 2005; De Cieri and

Bardoel, 2009).

Organizations can implement various work-life balance initiatives that may assist employees to

better balance their work and family responsibilities, gain improvements in well-being and

provide organizational benefits (Greenhaus, 2009). There are a large variety of family friendly

policies which include, but are not limited to the following: flexible working hours, job sharing,

part-time work, compressed work weeks, parental leave, telecommuting, on-site child care

facility (Hartel, 2007).

In deciding to facilitate employees‘ work-life balance, organizations can also choose from other

array of options such as job-sharing which is a system where two people share a job (Fapohunda,

2014). She further asserts that job sharing involves persons with the same job, who split the

hours, payments, holidays and benefits (each employee has a part-time position). This gives them

ample time to attend to non-work activities to achieve a good degree of work-life balance.

Using modern communication technology, employees can carry out their jobs without

necessarily having to be at the office. This is referred to as telecommuting (Fapohunda, 2014).

Often, they can work from home or in satellite offices or telecentres close to them. It allows

employees to attend to family or non-work issues once production or excellence is not affected.

Gradually more sophisticated and realistically priced technologies have made it more feasible for

26

employees to keep contact with work employing several methods, such as e-mails, computers,

and mobile phones, which enable them to complete their work beyond the physical restrictions of

their offices.

Employees may respond to an email or a voice mail after-hours or during the weekend, normally

while not officially ―on the job‖. Researchers (De Bruin and Dupuis, 2009; Fapohunda, 2014)

have found that employees who consider their work roles to be an imperative component of their

personalities will be more apt to use these communication technologies to work while in their

non-work domains. One may argue that tele-commuting is not suitable or achievable for every

job even where it has found to save inestimable time, money, and commuting stress for

employees.

Impliedly, it may not be suited to the manufacturing industry in Nigeria with its attendant

infrastructural issues. Other options consist of providing leave with pay or options for reduced

hours, workplace supports such as personal time off, paid leave, on-site or nearby childcare,

financial assistance for childcare, and other family-friendly policies all of which are workplace

policies that could resolve the work-life balance problem (De Bruin and Dupuis, 2009). Again,

there is Child Care. Child care assistance can boost output and drive among employees (Hartel,

2007). It also reduces turnover, accidents and job satisfaction. Childcare options for working

parents can be significant in work life balance and job satisfaction. The leaning is towards dual-

earning families because life is now excessively costly for a prospective money-maker to stay at

home (Fapohunda, 2014). People with families no longer possess the extravagance to stay at

home for child care. Therefore as Vlems (2008) observes the demand for child care options as a

means of helping employees achieve work-life balance is becoming more and more imperative.

There is also the Flexi-time option which is a scheduling policy that allows full-time employees

to choose starting and ending times within guidelines specified by the organization (Clark,

2009). It permits employees to focus on non-work requirements without taking time off work.

Employees who have this flexibility boost productivity and have less work-family spill over and

they are less likely to miss work due to family related issues. A flexible schedule gives

27

employees more options and is especially appropriate in jobs where specific work hours really do

not matter (De Bruin and Dupuis, 2009).

Other options of work-life balance policies that direct to better-off and more productive workers

include educational classes, such as classes on the wellbeing of a newborn or family, put on by

the organization, that has been shown to be associated with less reported work-life conflict

(Fapohunda, 2014). Some of these proxies of WLB were employed by the study with respect to

their relevance to the Nigerian manufacturing industry. The study proxied WLB with flexible

scheduling, social welfare policies, workplace support system, emotional intelligence and leave

policy.

2.1.2 Leave Policy

Leave is the amount of hours/days employees of an organization are allowed to be away from

their employment position within a period of time without consequences (Fapohunda, 2014).

This time off is paid by the company and employees are allowed to request the time for any

reason they wish to be off work. It also gives the ability for employee to release themselves from

work stress and create a balance between work and their family activities. Leave can also be

referred to as a period of time that one must be away from one‘s primary job, while maintaining

the status of employee (Cook, 2004).

In this illustration, it contrasts with normal periods away from the office and ―working from

home programs, in that they are considered exceptional circumstances, rather than benefits. This

type of work life balance helps employees to perform other duties outside work, which creates a

balancing effect between work activities and life activities. Generally, such an arrangement has a

predefined termination at a particular date or after a certain event has occurred.

Frequently work life balance practices do not work if employees wait unaware of work life

entitlements such as leave arrangements. Lending credence to the foregoing is a survey which

revealed that 50% of workers in developing countries do not know about family-friendly

entitlements offered by their organization (Beauregard, 2009). In fact, many Employees are

reluctant to use the practices in spite of knowing them (Clark, 2009). In comparison to female

28

employees, few men use these family leave programs (Fapohunda, 2014). They opt for vacation

or some days off because of child birth or other family event. There is a great deal of evidence on

how male and female employees are perceived differently on taking family leaves. Women are

perceived similar regardless of their choice of these programs while men on the other hand are

not viewed as good citizens if they take family leave (Fapohunda, 2014). She further asserts that

male employees usually give priority to work before family, do not help coworkers and prove to

be less punctual in presence of these programs.

There are different types of leave policy and these are indicated as follows:

1. Annual leave: Annual leave can be defined as the amount of hours or days employees of an

organization is permitted to be away from their employment position within a year's time without

consequences. This time off is paid by the company and employees are allowed to request the

time for any reasons they wish to be off of work. Nigeria has been greatly influenced by the

British system. The provisions of the Nigerian Labour Act (1974) mainly concern blue-collar

workers and are very basic with limited government regulations for employers. Daily hours of

work are to be fixed by mutual agreement or by collective bargaining between the employer and

employee (section 13:1). Provision is made for rest intervals of no less than one hour in total if

the day‘s work is longer than 6 hours (section 13,3), and for one day‘s rest per week (section

13:7). After twelve months of continuous service, a worker is entitled to an annual leave of at

least six working days that may not be deferred by more than twelve months (section 18).

2. Parental Leave: Parental Leave is an official permission given to employees with child care

giving responsibilities. Women are entitled to twelve weeks‘ maternity leave with at least half

pay but usually the customary benefits are more generous with maternity leave fully paid. The

female employees often times are the greater beneficiaries of this leave in Nigeria where

maternity leave allows a nursing mother to be away from work for 3 months.

3. Career’s leave: Career‘s leave is an official permission for an employee to take time off to

take care for an immediate family or household member who is sick or injured or help during a

family emergence. However, this comes out of the employee personal leave balance.

29

4. Paid Family and Medical leave: Paid Family and Medical leave relates to an officially

granted leave of absence from work to attend to dependent care challenges or personal health

concerns of the employee (Olumuyiwa Akinrole, Oludayo, 2015). Generally, family leave

encompasses maternity and paternity leave, as well as any other paid or unpaid family leave

policies.

5. Sick leave: Sick leave is time off from work that an employee can use to address their health

and safety needs without losing pay.

6. Study leave: Study leave is given to any staff member who is undertaking an approved study

course. Training leave is given to an employee for self-development and organization

development.

2.1.3 Flexible Scheduling

Flexible working is defined (by the London Financial Times Lexicon) as giving employees

flexibility on how long, where and when they work (Cook, 2004). Flexible work hours are

designed to keep employee‘s motivated in a competitive business environment. The flexible

schedules permit workers to vary their start and finish times provided a certain number of hours

are worked. This can allow them to meet family or personal commitments/emergencies (enable

employees to respond to both predictable and unpredictable circumstances), during the day or to

reduce their commuting time by starting and ending work before or after the rush hour. Flexible

scheduling can also be referred to as flexible schedule, flexible hours, flexible working, flexi-

time, flextime etc.

Hill (2010) opines that flextime assists employees to manage their work and family

responsibilities by allowing them to reduce work–family conflict and to improve functioning and

performance at work and at home. Similarly, Delco‘s and Daley (2009) stresses that flexi-time

allows employees to choose when, where and for how long they engage in work-related tasks.

By implication, each working day has a core of six hours surrounded by a ‗flexibility band‘ in

which employees may exercise their discretion (Robbins et al., 2004). When implemented with

both employer and employee interests in mind, flexible works schedules can increase efficiency,

30

work focus, and empower individuals to self-manage work time (Halpern, 2005). This is

consistent with research from the Families and Work Institute which found that employees with

greater control over work schedules are more likely to show increased engagement, retention, job

satisfaction and overall well-being (Powers, 2004).

Johnson (2004) argues that flexible hours arrangement propose new working life patterns such as

letting go of traditional 8 hours of office sitting from rigid 9:00am to 5:00pm in the evening, five

days a week, right from graduation until the retirement period. This correlates with adopting

flexibility in the dominant monotonous working methods that are already in place. This has two

implications.

Firstly, in order to have such an arrangement in the organization, there are some prerequisite

changes that need to be made such as new form of work organization and management along

with the adoption of a culture that makes the flexible practices not just conducive but effective.

Secondly, it is an initiative that abridges an employee‘s personal needs (say, family

commitments) and business objectives by bringing some novelty in work practices and methods

(Johnson, 2004).

While compressed work week is a different component of work life balance, the study finds it

essential to discuss it as a subset of flexible scheduling. Ronen and Primps (2001) describe

compressed workweeks as a substitute work schedule where there is a transaction between

number of hours worked in a day and the number of hours worked in a week so that the

designated number of weekly hours are achieved in less than 5 days. It is an arrangement

whereby employees work longer shifts in exchange for a reduction in the number of working

days in their work cycle (e.g. on a weekly or biweekly basis). This is basically an extended form

of flexible scheduling. It has been employed in various public and private sectors which includes

offices, banks, data-processing centers, hospitals, police forces, utilities and manufacturing

facilities.

31

Rudy (2006) advocates that the practice of compressed work week was wrongly expected to be a

passing fad but did not turn out to be just that. Compressed work weeks can be beneficial for

employees in terms of additional days off work (say, longer weekends allowing ‗mini vacations‘)

and reduced commuting time, whereas employers can extend their daily operating hours, with

less need to resort to overtime. This has been found to have a positive impact on several

variables such as turnover, job satisfaction, recruitment, morale and productivity (Johnson,

2004). Therefore, compressed work weeks arrangements may be particularly useful for

employees who wish to reduce the number of days per week spent at work, but who cannot

financially afford to decrease their working hours.

They are often initiated by the employee, but sometimes the employer may initiate the option to

improve operational efficiency, to maximize production (reduced daily start-up costs) or to

establish longer business hours which can enhance customer service. Common arrangements for

a forty-hour work week are working ten hours per day, four days a week; working an extra hour

a day with one day off every two weeks; or working an extra half hour a day and having one day

every three or four weeks off.

2.1.4 Emotional Intelligence

In providing a definition of emotional intelligence, Van Jaarsveld (2003) differentiates intellect

quotient (IQ) from emotional intelligence (also referred to as emotional quotient, EQ). IQ has to

do with the assessment of an individual‘s intellectual, analytical, logical and rational abilities

(Van Jaarsveld, 2003). It gives an indication of the individual‘s ability to learn things, focus on

tasks, and retain and recall objective information. He further explains that it reveals how he

reasons, manipulates numbers, is able to validate abstract and analytical thinking, as well as how

he is able to solve problems through the application of prior knowledge. EQ, on the other hand,

has to do with the non-cognitive dimensions of intelligence and refers to the ability to read the

political and social environment, to grasp intuitively what others want and need, and what their

strengths and weaknesses are. It points to an ability to read others‘ emotions.

Broadly, Schutte, Malou, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, Golden and Dornheim (1998) define

emotional intelligence as the ―ability to adaptively recognize emotion, express emotion, regulate

32

emotion and harness emotions‖. This is usually a trait of good management. Orme (2001:6)

offers a simplistic definition of emotional intelligence, ―Being emotionally intelligent involves

tuning into emotions, understanding them and taking appropriate action.‖ Contrary to most

conventional thinking, emotions are inherently neither positive nor negative; rather they serve as

the single most powerful source of human energy, authenticity and drive, and can offer a

wellspring of intuitive creative wisdom (Cooper and Sawaf, 1997:4). The three elements in

Orme‘s (2001) definition involve both ―our‖ own emotions and those of others:

I. Tuning into the emotions of ourselves and others

II. Understanding emotions in ourselves and others

III. Taking appropriate action on the emotional content that we find.

Studies have indicated that people who are intellectually the brightest are often not the most

successful, either in business or their personal lives – hence emotional intelligence requires that

individuals learn to acknowledge and understand feelings in others and themselves (Cooper and

Sawaf, 1997). Being emotionally intelligent applies not just to how individuals respond to life

experiences but also to other life crises – job redundancy, divorce, bereavement, major disputes,

loss of a child and so on. In essence what emotional intelligence is, is an ability to use emotions

to help solve problems and thus give rise to a more effective life, (Orme, 2001).

Cooper and Sawaf (1997) offer a further explanation of why our emotions matter. ―Our

emotions, as much or more than our bodies and minds, contain our histories, every line and verse

of every experience, deep understanding, and relationships in our lives. They comprise the

feeling of who we are and enter our systems as energy.‖ As emotional intelligence is increased,

the form of the energy within the individual is shifted, resulting in changes in the individual‘s

experience of work, life and relationships. They further explain that this shift in leadership

capacity and scope is the result of specific and growing changes in business life, in general, and

results in trusting, collaborative and innovative human interactions at work. The following

section focuses on important key points of emotional intelligence and is purely intended to create

a deeper theoretical understanding and basis for what is to follow.

Orme (2001) highlights the following important key points of emotional intelligence:

(a) Emotional Intelligence can be learned and developed – Emotional intelligence can be

33

improved, regardless of the current level of emotional intelligence. Given the proper

support, activities and commitment, emotional intelligence can be improved at any age in

life, (Orme, 2001:17).

(b) Emotional Intelligence increases with life experience – Research by Bar-on as cited by

Orme (2001:17) confirms that emotional intelligence increases with age, peaks in the age

group forty to forty-nine and then levels out.

(c) Everyone’s emotional intelligence needs are different – All people live among other

people, in a family, community or place of work. Therefore, being able to understand,

interpret and use the emotional content of life is useful for all people. However, different

jobs may require different levels of emotional intelligence, e.g. frontline workers may

need more of an ability to manage emotions, whilst a counsellor may need a higher

ability to understand their own emotions.

(d) There are some differences between men and women – ―Women are more aware of their

emotions, demonstrate more empathy, relate better interpersonally, and act more socially

responsible than men; on the other hand, men appear to have better self-regard, are more

independent, cope better with stress, are more flexible, solve problems better, and are

more optimistic than women.‖ (Orme, 2001).

(e) Being emotionally intelligent adds to your general intelligence – An awareness of the

emotional aspects of what is happening will add to the abilities measured by intelligence

quotient (IQ). As psychologist. David Wechsler put it in 1940, ―individuals with identical

Iqs may differ very markedly in regard to their effective ability to cope with the

environment.‖ (Orme, 2001:18).

(f) Emotional Intelligence affects our ability to make decisions – It may not be fully alidity

but most decisions are made through the pathway of emotions. This aspect is explored in

greater detail within this work.

(g) Emotional Intelligence is reflected in relationships – According to Orme (2001) people

with high emotional intelligence tend to enjoy close relationships, and are comfortable

with themselves and others.

34

(h) Emotional Intelligence can be measured – Numerous studies have been conducted,

(Orme, 2001) and prove that a focus on emotional intelligence has benefits to health,

business success, and relationships. Some of the benefits recorded by HeartMath Europe

included reduced blood pressure, higher levels of personal productivity and team

effectiveness.

The jury is still out on whether or not there is a scientifically meaningful measure of emotional

intelligence (Matthews, 2002:3). The concept of emotional intelligence is invalid both because it

is not a form of intelligence and because it is defined so broadly and inclusively that it has no

tangible meaning (Locke, 2005:425). Literature overwhelmingly supports the view that

emotional intelligence is a scientifically valid construct, albeit with ongoing discussion of a

unitary concept and further factor analysis (Palmer, 2005) and reservations held about internal

consistency and factor structure (Perez, 2005). Palmer (2003) examines the reliability and

factorial validity of a number of emotional intelligence tests with an Australian population

sample.

He conducted a systematic review of the variables assessed by different measures of emotional

intelligence looking for common dimensions of the construct, and alidity ion a five-factor

model representing the communality amongst the alternative measures of emotional intelligence

assessed.

a. Emotional Recognition and Expression

The ability to identify one‘s own feelings and emotional states, and the ability to express

those inner feelings to others.

b. Understanding Others Emotions

The ability to identify and understand the emotions of others and that manifest in external

stimuli (that is, workplace environments, staff meetings, literature, artwork, and so on).

c. Emotions Direct Cognition

The extent to which emotions and emotional knowledge is incorporated in decision-

making and/or problem solving.

35

d. Emotional Management

The ability to manage positive and negative emotions both within oneself and others.

e. Emotional Control

The ability to effectively control strong emotional states experienced at work such as

anger, stress, anxiety and frustration.

Caruso‘s (2004) framework proposed the term emotional intelligence be reserved for intelligence

or ability-based models of emotional intelligence. This approach (a mental ability model) was the

preferred theory of Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000) because it was theoretically defined as

more distinct from traditional intelligences, such as, verbal, performance, and social intelligence.

Mayer et al. (2000) argue that:

the central difference among models is that the mental ability models operate in a region defined

by emotion and cognition, whereas mixed (that is, trait and competency) models label a

multitude of components as emotional intelligence’ (Mayer et al., 2000a:403).

Caruso (2004) did not indicate where or if Palmer‘s model fitted into his three approaches to

emotional intelligence. Palmer (2003:171) argues that ‗... there is some common variance shared

between the various models and measures of EI (emotional intelligence)‘ and believes his five-

factor model better represented the different approaches to emotional intelligence (as a definition

of the construct) than the theoretical distinctions that had been made between them. His findings

revealed that his proposed argument of emotional intelligence had similarities to Mayer and

Salovey‘s (1997) and Goleman‘s (2001) position on emotional intelligence. Palmer argues that

Goleman‘s (2001) argument did not include the capacity to alidity or reason with emotions in

thought, which he theoretically identified as a common facet of EI models and measures. He also

argued that Mayer and Salovey‘s (1997) position on emotional intelligence involved ‗a single

emotional perception factor‘ and a ‗single emotional management facet‘ whereas his involved

one‘s own – and others‘ – emotion in these areas.

Palmer (2003) concludes that while the distinction between ‗trait‘ (self-report) and ‗ability‘

(performance-based) measures of emotional intelligence may assist one in understanding

36

conceptually the voluminous literature on emotional intelligence, his findings suggested that it

may be premature to describe these aspects of emotional intelligence as two fundamentally

distinct constructs. He reflected on the conclusion that the different approaches to the

alidity tonal on and measurement of emotional intelligence tend to be complementary rather

than contradictory (Ciarrochi, 2000), suggesting this may better reflect the confirmatory findings

of his study pertaining to this issue.

On the other hand, Goleman (2005) drew a distinction between competencies and EI

competencies. He held that competencies are technical skills, relying purely on cognitive

intelligence based in the neocortex. EI competencies, he argued, were abilities combining

neocortical and subcortical skills, likened to Mayer, Salovey and Caruso‘s mental abilities

theory. Goleman (2005) believes that whether one used the term ―emotional intelligence‖ or ―EI

competence‖ was not the issue. More important was whether the working relationship between

the two levels was well understood. Palmer‘s (2003a) findings suggest that emotional

intelligence may best be validity tonal as a set of related yet distinct variables (be they abilities,

competencies, emotion-related personality traits or otherwise). This finding, Palmer believes,

was consistent with Salovey and Mayor‘s (1990) original conception of the construct, and later

theories (Bar-On 1997).

Summarily, emotional intelligence refers, in part, to ‗an ability to alidity the meanings of

emotional patterns and to reason and solve problems on the basis of them‘ (Mayer, 2000:400). It

is ‗the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking‘ (Mayer,

2004:197). In other words, even without going through a formal emotional intelligence

assessment, how an individual ―is‖ in a particular situation will determine how emotionally

intelligent he really is. Emotional intelligence is not just about knowing what to do and doing it;

instead it is more about how an individual ―is‖ as he goes about the knowing and doing that

makes the difference. She further points out that people are human ―beings‖ not human ―doings‖.

2.1.5 Workplace Support System

This approach is based on extraneous considerations whereby organizations support employees

with soft loans, advance pay, sponsored training programmes, study leave etc. In some

37

nomenclatures, it is referred to as organizational support system. Organizational support (OS)

can be defined as the degree to which employees believe that their organization values their

contributions and cares about their well-being and fulfills socioemotional needs (Eisenberger,

Huntington, Hutchison and Sowa, 1986). OS is generally thought to be the organization‘s

contribution to a positive reciprocity dynamic with employees, as employees tend to perform

better to reciprocate received rewards and favorable treatment. This idea bloomed from

Eisenberger and Rhoades‘ organizational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986).

Research on OS began with the observation that managers‘ concern with their employees‘

commitment to the organization is positively correlated with employees‘ focus on the

organization‘s commitment to them. For employees, organizations serve as important sources of

socioemotional resources like respect and care, as well as tangible benefits like wages and

medical benefits. Being regarded highly by the organization helps to meet employees‘ needs for

approval, esteem, and affiliation. Positive evaluation by the organization also provides an

indication that increased effort will be noted and rewarded. Employees, therefore, take an active

interest in the regard with which they are held by their employer. OS can also be used to offer an

explanation for organizational cynicism. Organizational cynicism is related to job satisfaction

and job attitude; it is an attitude toward an organization reflecting one‘s beliefs about his or her

experience as part of the organization. Just as OS explains employees‘ feelings of value,

meaning, identity, etc., it explains employees‘ feelings of discouragement and distance from their

organization (Dean, 1996).

Although there were relatively few studies of OS until the mid-1990s, research on the topic has

burgeoned in the last few years. Rhoades and Eisenberger‘s meta-analysis covered some 70 OS

studies carried out through 1999, and over 300 studies have been performed since. The meta-

analysis found clear and consistent relationships of OS with its predicted antecedents and

consequences. The three common antecedents of perceived organizational support are fairness,

supervisor support, and organizational rewards and job condition (Eisenberger et al., 1986)

When employees see that they are receiving fair treatment in comparison to their coworkers, they

perceive more support and have favourable work attitude. The equity theory says that employees

38

feel entitled to what they are given as workers based on their inputs to the job. Therefore,

fairness can be perceived even if the rewards differ in size, based on employee rank.

Supervisor support was found by Eisenberger and Rhoades (1986) to be strongly related to

employees‘ perception of support. Typically, people view their employer‘s actions, morals, and

beliefs to be indicative and representative of the organization‘s actions, morals, and beliefs. OS

tends to be higher when the supervisor or higher employer is thought to care about the

employee‘s experience at work and does what he or she can to show appreciation for the work

done. Organizational rewards and job conditions play a large role in perceived organizational

support as well. Sometimes, extrinsic motivation can mean more to an employee than intrinsic

motivation because perceived appreciation has the power to turn a bitter employee into a content

employee.

Eisenberger and Rhoades (1986) discuss the many ways that employers can show appreciation

and reward their employees. A few examples are paying their employees fairly; recognizing their

employees for new ideas, exceptional work, etc.; promoting their employees when they deserve

it; providing job security as incentive to remain with the organization; encouraging autonomy to

correspondingly increase production and morale; reduce stress when made aware of it; and to

provide proper training, to ensure employees‘ confidence in their jobs. Some of these factors

carry less weight than others do. Being autonomous increases an employee‘s desire to continue

to remain loyal to his or her organization because if he feels competent and confident in his

ability to do well, he will be less likely to give up or lose faith.

There are many possible consequences of OS discussed in Eisenberger and Rhoade‘s meta-

analysis of studies done on OS. The first is organizational commitment. There are three kinds of

organizational commitment (Levy, 2913): affective commitment, continuance commitment, and

normative commitment. Affective commitment, or feeling an emotional tie to one‘s organization,

is important in employees because it demonstrates a deeper meaning for work than simply

earning money. Continuance commitment, or knowing that staying with one‘s organization will

be less costly in the end than leaving, is telling of extrinsic motivation to remain wherever one

will profit the most. Normative commitment, or feeling compelled to stay because everyone else

39

is, is less significant than the first two (Levy, 2013) but is still considered to have an effect on

employees.

Some other consequences of OS include changes in withdrawal behavior, the desire to remain,

strains on employees, performance, job related affect, and job related involvement (Eisenberger,

et al., 1986). Levy (2013) also discusses absence rates, turnover, and counterproductive

behaviors. The study attempts to determine the effect of OS on staff turnover as a consequence

of Levy‘s position. Levy (2013) suggested that in carrying out such study, the measurement

items for OS would be:

A. My organization cares about my opinions.

B. My organization really cares about my well-being.

C. My organization strongly considers my goals and values.

D. Help is available from my organization when I have a problem.

E. My organization would forgive an honest mistake on my part.

F. If given the opportunity, my organization would take advantage of me (item is reverse-

coded)

G. My organization shows very little concern for me. (item is reverse-coded)

H. My organization is willing to help me, if I need a special favor.

By using specific facets in the survey, respondents are able to provide specific answers about

problems that may be unknown to employers. If aware of a general problem, employers might be

unable to take action because they do not know how to fix specific issues. The Job Descriptive

Index (JDI) is the most frequently used measure of job satisfaction that does not specifically

measure perceived organizational support but does have the ability to make clear areas that are in

need of improvement (Levy, 2013).

2.1.6 Challenges to Work-Life Balance Policies (WLBPs)

In spite of the foregoing, and the seemingly extensive devotion to the philosophy of work-life

balance, studies such as Bond (2009), Hochschild (2007) and Okeke (2011) show that the mere

availability of far-reaching and liberal work-life balance policies does not necessarily result in

prevalent employment by workers or subsequent advances in work-life balance and reductions in

40

work-life conflict. Lending credence, De Bruin and Dupuis (2010) posit that creating work-life

balance programmes is one thing, getting employers to make use of them is a totally different

matter. There is considerable contention about the effectiveness of organizational work-life

balance policies in delivering flexibility and reducing stress and job dissatisfaction in the modern

workplace.

An important aspect of all these policies is the management support and work environment that

go along with it. Organization management must show support for the achievement of effective

work-life balance if there is to be an up-take of work-life balance opportunities by employees.

Because managers make unspoken and open choices about the adoption of workplace practices,

they can actively encourage or discourage employees‘ effort to balance their work and non-work

lives even where the policies exist (Viems, 2008). In other words, where workers feel that using

a policy will affect their chances of advancement they are more likely to refuse its use. Managers

can either encourage or discourage employees‘ efforts to balance their work and family lives.

Also, where supervisors enthusiastically support the integration of paid work and other

responsibilities, employees are more likely to take up available work-life programmes. Again,

organizational culture determines whether workers take advantage of work-life policies (Anikwe,

2015). Organizational work-life cultures affect the extent to which flexible work options can be

utilized and work-life balance achieved. Reynolds (2009) observes that an overriding thread

linking the reasons work-life benefits go unused is organizational culture. Work-life balance

initiatives must be based on an appraisal of organization culture to ascertain its openness and

readiness to support work-life balance programmes (Viems, 2008).

Another factor that has been strongly associated with the underutilization of work-life policies is

the perception of negative career consequences. For instance. In the part-time work option career

drawbacks tend to be inherent (Fapohunda, 2014). Part-time workers often receive less training,

are paid less and advance more slowly because employers attach a higher risk to investing in

them. Again, they are sometimes worse off, in terms of promotion prospects and entitlement to

fringe benefits, than those who worked more hours a week (Fapohunda, 2014). The success of

WLBPs depends among others, on the existence of a family-supportive culture in the

41

organization, and the role that managers play in that context (Reynolds, 2009). Employers would

for instance have to allow parents to leave work to take care of children and they would have to

pay them for it as well.

Furthermore, studies like Spinks (2004), Kiger (2005), Mordi and Ojo (2011) indicate that a very

low percentage of employees actually make use of available WLBPs in organizations. Several

factors are believed to be responsible for this. For instance, Mordi and Ojo (2011) suggest factors

like the lack of information and training on work-life balance for the low usage. Their study

found that most employees were unaware of the WLB policies in place in their organizations and

were surprised to learn that their organizations had flexible work deals. Another factor

recognized relates to equity. Dex and Smith (2007) affirms that many workers do not fancy

becoming visible as special cases or requiring special treatment to their colleagues. Again Allen

(2009) suggests that co-workers tend to perceive employees who alidity WLBPs to be less

committed and that this perception significantly implicates subsequent reward allocation,

advancement opportunities, and salary increases.

Moreover, time-demands or norms concerning the number of hours which employees are

supposed to devote to work or work-related activities influences the effective utilization of

WLBPs in organizations. Working long is usually taken to mean working hard and this creates

strong organizational norms for face-time and workaholic hours. Another challenge is that many

of the policies are designed without ample appreciation of the needs of employees (Reynolds,

2009). Where employees do not see any value in the WLBPs in their organizations, they are

wary of using them irrespective of how impressive the policies are or how well informed the

employees are about them. Again, personal values may discourage employees from using

WLBPs. Glass and Finley (2006) note that determined employees may decide to concentrate on

their careers relinquishing the gains of any WLBPs obtainable in the organization.

Parkash and Jyoti (2016) in their study on the impact of work-life balance on performance of

employees in business organizations highlighted the barriers to achieving a Work-life Balance

policy. This is stated as follows:

42

i. Unsupportive work culture and work environment: Employees using flexible working options

feel they are being placed under the close observations by their colleagues and required to justify

their use of the options.

ii. Career decisions: Some employees feel they are placing their career in jeopardy. They believe

they could be or are overlooked for promotion, or that they might miss the challenging and

interesting work.

iii. Mismatch between policies and life stages: Research tells us that younger people want choice

and the freedom to exit and enter the paid workforce without fear of damaging career or

promotional prospects (Corporate Leadership Council, 2003). Middle-aged sought to undertake

pursuits outside the workplace in a manner that would not negatively impact on career and job

opportunities. Similarly, people in the later phase of their working lives expressed the desire to

be able to exit the workforce in a manner that matched their financial status and personal

circumstances.

iv. Job and work design: Job and work design influence employees‘ ability to take up the flexible

working options that may contribute to a better work-life balance. Often employees feel

specialized work or the type of work a work unit/team undertakes is indicative of a person‘s

ability to utilize work-life balance options. It was generally felt senior management believed

flexible working arrangements were not compatible with ‗core business‘.

v. Role of the manager: Supportive manager is the key to achieving work-life balance. If

managers did not understand the available flexible working options and how to successfully

implement them, then flexible working options tended to be unavailable for access by staff. The

role of managers was implicit in employee‘s perception of their empowerment and autonomy.

vi. Self-perceptions: There is a distinct delineation between senior executives‘ views on their

staff utilizing the policies and their own practices. The focus group of senior executives stated

that while they did not believe they could use current policies due to levels of workload, time

43

management and other constraints, it was important for less senior staff to access policies and

initiatives.

vii. Communication: Effective communication by line managers, supervisors, and senior staff is

a major driver of employees‘ level of satisfaction with work-life balance; absence of this also

becomes a barrier.

viii. Empowerment: Empowerment is the key to attaining a work-life balance. Empowerment is

embedded in an individual‘s knowledge, awareness and ability to effectively communicate and

negotiate with managers and work teams. The participants identified that knowledge of the

available options was critical to their ability to access and utilize the policies and initiatives that

facilitate work-life balance.

ix. Measuring effectiveness: Shifting the focus from time in the office to the outputs/outcomes

achieved was seen as a way of encouraging work-life balance and avoiding some of the costs

mentioned earlier. Facilitating flexibility within a workgroup was seen to be an added burden on

the manager but, ultimately, a worthwhile exercise due to the benefits it provided.

x. Role models: A dominant topic among participants was the senior managers‘ role in actively

demonstrating their commitment to attaining and managing a satisfactory work life balance.

Participants stated that the influence of senior management in supporting and actively using the

policies was very important in setting the culture and practices of the alidity ion as a whole

(Parkash and Jyoti, 2016).

Of course the work life balance proxies will be linked to organizational performance proxies so

as to establish the relationship between the two variables of the study. A closer look at

organizational performance was undertaken by the study. Organizations have an important role

in our daily lives and therefore, successful organizations represent a key ingredient for

developing nations (Allen, 2009). Thus, economists consider organizations similar to an engine

in determining the economic, social and political progress. Precisely for this reason, in the last 22

years, there were 6 Nobel prizes awarded to researchers who have focused on the analysis of

44

organizations and institutions (Richard, 2009). Akpala (1990) defines organization as the

combination of people or individual effort working together in pursuit of certain common

purposes called organizational goals.

Continuous performance is the focus of any organization because only through improved

performance organizations are able to grow and progress. Performance is the difference between

actual outcome and planned outcome (Richard, 2009). Organizational performance comprises the

actual output or results of an organization as measured against its intended outputs (or goals and

objectives). According to Richard (2009), it encompasses three specific areas of organizational

outcomes:

(a) financial performance (profits, return on assets, return on investment, etc.);

(b) Product market performance (sales, market share, etc.); and

I shareholder return (total shareholder return, economic value added, etc.).

Thus, organizational performance is one of the most important variables in management

research. Although the concept of organizational performance is very common in the academic

literature, its definition is difficult because of its diverse meanings. For this reason, there isn‘t a

universally accepted definition of this concept. In the ‗50s organizational performance was

referred to as the extent to which organizations, viewed as a social system, fulfilled their

objectives (Georgopoulos and Tannenbaum, 1957). Performance evaluation during this time was

focused on work, people and organizational structure.

Later in the 60s and 70s, organizations have begun to explore new ways to evaluate their

performance so performance was defined as an organization‘s ability to exploit its environment

for accessing and using the limited resources (Yuchtman and Seashore, 1967). The years 80s and

90s were marked by the realization that the identification of organizational objectives is more

complex than initially considered. Managers began to understand that an organization is

successful if it accomplishes its goals (effectiveness) using minimum resources (efficiency). This

was termed organizational performance. Organizational theories that followed supported the idea

of an organization that achieves its performance objectives based on the constraints imposed by

limited resources (Lusthaus and Adrien, 1998).

45

In this context, profit became one of the many indicators of performance. Lebans and Euske

(2006) provide a set of definitions to illustrate the concept of organizational performance:

a. Performance is a set of financial and nonfinancial indicators which offer information on the

degree of achievement of objectives and results (Lebans and Euske 2006 after Kaplan and

Norton, 1992).

b. Performance is dynamic, requiring judgment and interpretation.

c. Performance may be illustrated by using a causal model that describes how current actions

may affect future results.

d. Performance may be understood differently depending on the person involved in the

assessment of the organizational performance (for instance, performance can be understood

differently from a person within the organization compared to one from outside).

e. To define the concept of performance, is necessary to know its elements characteristic to each

area of responsibility.

f. To report an organization‘s performance level, it is necessary to be able to quantify the results.

Specialists in many fields are concerned with organizational performance including strategic

planners, operations, finance, legal, and organizational development. In recent years, many

organizations have attempted to manage organizational performance using the balanced

scorecard methodology where performance is tracked and measured in multiple dimensions such

as:

i. financial performance (e.g. shareholder return)

ii. customer service

iii. social responsibility (e.g. corporate citizenship, community outreach)

iv. Employee stewardship (Upadhaya, Munir and Blount, 2014).

46

Organizational performance has been defined differently by different scholars but some of them

are in agreement that organizational performance describes the attainment of set goals. To this

end, Daft (2000) defines organizational performance as the organizational ability to attain its

goals by using resources in an efficient and effective manner. Quite similar to Daft (2000),

Ricahardo and Wade (2001) define organizational performance as the ability of the organization

to achieve its goals and objectives.

Previous research has used many variables to measure organizational performance. These

variables include profitability, gross profit, return on asset (ROA), return on investment (ROI),

return on equity (ROE), return on sale (ROS), revenue growth, market share, stock price, sales

growth, export growth, liquidity and operational efficiency (Snow and Hrebinak, 1983; Segev,

1987; Gimenez, 2000). There has not been any single measure or best measure of organizational

performance. Organizations adopt different objectives and measurements for organizational

performance. Hamel and Prahalad (1989) and Doyle (1994), however reiterate that profitability

was the most common measurement used for organizational performance in business

organizations. This view is supported by Nash (1993) who stresses that profitability was the best

indicator to indentify whether an organization met its objectives or not.

In line with this argument, the study peroxide organizational performance with relevant proxies

as employee turnover, efficient service delivery, organizational commitment and job satisfaction.

This is consistent with the position of Upadhaya, Munir and Blount (2014).

2.1.7 Employee Turnover

Employee turnover is an important denominator in organizational performance discourse.

Replacing employees can affect a business‘ productivity, expenses and overall performance

(Curtis, 2016). He goes ahead with the definition that staff turnover is the process through which

staff leaves a business or organization and that business or organization replaces them. Voluntary

turnover occurs when the employee makes the decision to leave on his own (Masemola, 2011).

This occurs when the employee perceives another opportunity as better than his current position.

This includes more pay, more recognition or a more convenient location. It can also occur when

47

the employee has to leave for health or family reasons. If an employee plans to voluntarily retire

from a position, that‘s voluntary turnover, too.

On the other hand, involuntary turnover intention is a measurement of whether the organization

in question plans to remove an employee from a position, causing the turnover (Curtis, 2016).

This can happen if an organization isn‘t happy with an employee‘s job performance and chooses

to fire him. It also happens when a business has to eliminate positions due to economic pressures

or downturns in business.

2.1.8 Efficient Service Delivery

Ricarhado and Wade (2002) opine that efficiency is the comparison of what is actually produced

or performed with what can be achieved with the same consumption of resources (money, time,

labor, etc.). It is an important factor in determination of organizational performance. It signifies a

level of performance that describes a process that uses the lowest amount of inputs to create the

greatest amount of outputs (Investopedia.com, 2016). In terms of service delivery, efficiency

relates to the use of all inputs in producing any given output, including personal time and energy.

It is a measurable concept that can be determined by determining the ratio of useful output to

total input (Daft, 2000). It minimizes the waste of resources such as physical materials, energy

and time, while successfully achieving the desired output.

Efficient service delivery refers to the optimization of resources in order to best serve each

person in that economic state (Ricarhado and Wade, 2002). There is no specific threshold that

determines efficient service delivery in an organization, but indications include goods being

produced at the lowest possible cost and labor being performed with the greatest possible output

(Upadhaya, Munir and Blount, 2014). This is relevant to the Nigerian manufacturing industry

where mostly tangible goods are produced. Richard (2009) lends credence to the foregoing with

the assertion that efficient service delivery refers to the ability to render a quality service without

wasting materials, time, or energy. The foregoing is echoed by Daft (2000) who asserts that

efficient service delivery is a component of business that defines the interaction between

providers and clients where the provider offers a service, whether that is information or a task,

and the client either finds value or loses value as a result. This implies that good service delivery

48

provides clients with an increase in value. It is also critical for the long-term competitiveness and

profitability of organizations.

Efficient service delivery has been linked to timely delivery too. In the services sector, success

starts with on-time, on-budget project delivery – and that happens more easily when sales,

service delivery, and finance are all on the same page (Bennet, 2014). However, this is easier

said than done and, as with most functions in modern organizations, the answer lies in a

combination of people, processes and technology. The ability of the organization to manage

employees‘ delivery time is a testament of organizational performance as delays in output may

lead to setbacks and customer dissatisfaction. Project delivery time can be measured with

absenteeism, late-coming, leaving before dismissal, lack of work focus etc. (Lean Construction

Institute, 2014).

Customer satisfaction has been mentioned as a measure of efficient service delivery. This is

because it affects the customers‘ satisfaction, getting and retaining existing customers,

complaints handling, targets achieved, sales turnover, profits, market shares and good will of the

company (Lash, 1999). Customer satisfaction is one of the most important components in a

customer‘s decision to keep or switch a product or service provider and this is a function of the

service delivery rate of the organization (Lemon, 2002). Customer satisfaction is at the heart of

the organization‘s existence and it is the desire of all organizations in business (Ifediora, 2014).

At a very low level of customer satisfaction (level one), customers are likely to abandon the

company and even bad-mouth it. At a high level, the customer is very likely to repurchase and

even spread good word of mouth about the company. High satisfaction or delight creates an

emotional bond with the brand or company, not just a rational preference. For instance Jones and

Sasser (1995) reported that Xerox‘s senior management found out that its ―completely satisfied‖

customers were six times more likely to repurchase Xerox products over the following 18

months than its ―very satisfied‘ customers.

Customers are the most important people for any organization. They are the resource upon which

the success of the business depends. When thinking about the importance of customers, it is

useful to remember the following issues:

49

1. Repeat business is the backbone of any organization. This helps to provide business and

certainty to the organization.

2. Organizations are dependent upon their customers. If they do not develop customer

loyalty and satisfaction, they would lose their customers.

3. Without customers the organization would not exist.

4. The purpose of the organization is to fulfill the needs of the customers

5. The customer makes it possible for the business to achieve its goals/aims.

One estimate is that it costs five times as much to attract new customers as it does to keep an

existing one (Ifediora, 2014). Whether the customer is satisfied after the purchase depends on the

product performance in relation to the customer‘s expectation (Kotler and Keller, 2006).

Customers form their expectations from several sources, including, past buying experience,

friends‘ and associates advice and marketer‘s and competitors information and promises. In

general, satisfaction refers to a customer‘s feeling of pleasure or disappointment resulting from

comparing a service/product‘s perceived performance (or outcome) in relation to the customer‘s

expectations.

If performance falls short of expectations, the customer is dissatisfied. If the performance

matches the expectations, the customer is satisfied. More importantly, if performance exceeds

expectations; the customer is highly satisfied or delighted (Kotler and Keller, 2006). Customer-

centered firms seek to create high customer satisfaction and the civil service is quite inclusive.

However, this should be subject to delivering acceptable levels of satisfaction to other

stakeholders (e.g. employees and shareholders), given the firm‘s total resources.

Therefore, service delivery which is a component of organizational performance is dependent on

customer satisfaction as it indicates ‗where‘, ‗when‘ and ‗how‘ the service product is delivered to

the customer (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2004). The service delivery process can be broken down into

service encounters that comprise the main part of the whole process (Danaher and Mattsson,

1994) and, as noted by Chowdhary and Prakash (2007), some generalization within service types

is possible for different services and service providers, and managers may have to consider this

50

in its design. Thus, the power to deliver optimal service quality will get the service firms

competitive advantages among others in the same industry (Turel, Serenko and Bontis, 2007).

Service delivery is a component of business that defines the interaction between providers and

clients where the provider offers a service, and it could be an information or task (Lash, 1999).

The jobs of offering the services are assigned to employees and the performance on the job

matters a lot; this is where WLB comes in with respect to the employee‘s state of mind. The

performance of employees is important to organizational performance, not only in manufacturing

but other service sectors. Better performance gives satisfaction to the customers. Services are to

be provided with minimum processing and waiting time, proper response, promptness and the

desire to handle many customers as the demand arises.

2.1.9 Organizational Commitment

Commitment has more positive outcomes for the organization in terms of employee

performance. The concept of organizational commitment has attracted considerable interest in an

attempt to understand and clarify the intensity and stability of an employee‘s dedication to the

organization (Lumley, 2011). The concept of organizational commitment derives from an article

―The Organization Man‖ written by Whyte in 1956. It has become one of the most fashionable

variables studied in the last three or four decades (Brown, 1969).

Like every other psychological construct, it is quite hard to have a universally accepted

definition. However, it has been defined and measured in several different fashions. Grusky

(1966) relates commitment with ―The nature of the relationship of the member to the system as a

whole‖. Gbadamosi (2003) contends that the more favourable an individual‘s attitudes towards

the organization, the greater the individual‘s acceptance of the goals, as well as their willingness

to exert more effort on behalf of the organization. Mathieu and Zajac (1990) believe that

developing a better perception.

Brown (1969) categorizes commitment as:

(1) Something of the notion of membership;

(2) The current position of the individual;

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(3) a special predictive potential, providing predictions concerning certain aspects of

performance, motivation to work, spontaneous contribution, and other related outcomes; and

(4) Suggests the differential relevance of motivational factors.

These imply that commitment is the process by which the goals of the organization and those of

the individual become increasingly integrated or congruent. Arguing in favour of the foregoing,

Meyer and Herscovitch (2002) opine that commitment is a force that binds an individual to a

course of action of relevance to one or more targets. ‗Binding‘ refers to the maintenance of the

relationship with the commitment object and is seen as the most important outcome of

commitment (Meyer et al. 2002). Thus, committed individuals stick to the object(s) of their

commitment. As is the case in private life, many individuals have conflicting commitments in

work life, such as those towards work, profession, career, colleagues, department, and the

organization as a whole. There are different forces that can compel an individual to a particular

course of action. We may do so because we like it (affective bonding), because we feel obliged

(normative conformity) and/or because people have good reasons for their commitment (rational

choice) (Allen and Meyer, 1990). Meyer and Allen (1997) stress that commitment is a

psychological state that characterizes the employee‘s relationship with the organization and has

implication for the decision to continue membership in the organization.

Dordevic (2004) argues that the commitment of employees is an important issue because it may

be used to predict employee‘s performance, job satisfaction and other behaviors. Muthurveloo

and Rose (2005) opine that the organizational commitment is the subset of employee

commitment, which is related to work commitment, career commitment and organizational

commitment and also added that greater the organizational commitment can aid higher

productivity. In essence, measuring organizational commitment is an assessment of the

congruence between an individual‘s own values and beliefs and those of the organization

(Swailes, 2002). Organizational commitment is characterized as employees‘ willingness to

contribute to organizational goals. When employees are sure that they will grow and learn with

their current employers, their level of commitment to stay with that particular organization is

higher (Okpara, 2004).

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Commitment can sometimes be perceived simply in terms of feelings of obligation or emotional

attachment. However, in the last 2 decades, a growing consensus has emerged that commitment

should be viewed as a multidimensional construct. Allen and Meyer (1990) developed an early

model that has received considerable attention. The three-component model they advocated was

based on their observation that existing definitions of commitment at that time reflected at least

three distinct themes: an affective emotional attachment towards an organization (Affective

Commitment); the recognition of costs associated with leaving an organization (Continuance

Commitment); and a moral obligation to remain with an organization (Normative Commitment).

i Affective Commitment is based on how much individual ‗want‘ to remain in the organization.

Employees with affective commitment continue service with organization because they want to

do so. Porter and Mowday (1979) describe affective approach as the relative strength of an

individual‘s identification with and involvement in a particular organization. Therefore, an

individual who is affectively committed or emotionally attached to the organization,

• believes in the goal and values of the organization

• works hard for the organization and

• intends to stay with the organization (Mowday et al.,1982).

Meyer and Allen (1996) correlates affective commitment with work experiences where

employees experience psychologically comfortable feelings (such as approachable managers),

increasing their sense of competence (such as feedback). The development of affective

commitment involves recognizing the organization‘s worth and internalizing its principles and

standards (Beck and Wilson, 2000). Affective commitment is the form that has most potential

benefit for an organization, as it directly influences how employees perform their jobs. This form

of commitment is increasingly referred to as ‗engagement‘ among HR professionals and is the

form most usually measured by organizations.

ii. Continuance Commitment refers to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving the

organization. When employees enter into the organization, they are bound to maintain a link with

the organization or committed to remain with the organization because of lack of alternative

opportunity or awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization. The cost

53

associated with leaving includes attractive benefits, the threat of wasting the time, disrupting

personal relationships.

This was more appropriately addressed by Allen and Meyer (1990) who proposed that

continuance commitment develops on the basis of two factors:

I. number of investment (side–bets) individuals make in their current organization and

II. Perceived lack of alternatives. These investments can be anything that the individual

considers valuable such as pension plans, organization benefits, status, etc. that would be lost by

leaving the organization. Similarly, lack of employment alternatives also increases the perceived

costs associated with leaving the organization and therefore increase the continuance

commitment of employees to the organization (Allen et al, 1990). Kanter (1968) defines

continuance commitment as ―cognitive – continuance commitment as that which occurs when

there is a profit associated with continued participation and a cost associated with leaving‖.

Somers (1993) suggests that continuance commitment can be subdivided into high sacrifice

commitment (―personal sacrifice‖ associated with leaving) and low alternative commitment

(―limited opportunities‖ for other employment). The approach of continuance commitment

develops when an individual recognizes that he or she loses investments (the money they earn as

a result of the time spent in the organization ), and/or perceives that there are no alternatives or

other course of action. Meyer and Allen (1991) also specified that an individual who‘s most

important connection with the organization is based on continuance commitment stay with the

organization simply because they have no choice. Whereas affective commitment is, where

individuals remain with an organization because they want to and because they are familiar with

it and they have emotional attachment with it. Also, an employee who has low affective and

normative commitment, but who has high continuance commitment is unlikely to yield

performance benefits. The main reason such an employee remains with an organization is for the

negative reason that the costs associated with leaving are too great.

iii. Normative Commitment reflects a feeling of obligation to continue employment.

Employees with a high level of normative commitment feel that they ought to remain with the

organization. Normative commitment develops on the basis of earlier experiences influenced by,

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for example family-based experiences or cultural experiences (sanctions against ―job-hopping‖)

(Allen et al, 1996). Normative commitment can increase through beliefs that the employees have

that employers provide more than they can give. The normative aspect develops as individuals‘

perception of their moral obligation to remain with a specific organization, irrespective of how

much status improvement or fulfilment the organization gives the individual over the years

(March and Mannari 1977).

In more recent years, this typology has been further explored and refined to consider the extent

to which the social environment created by the organization makes employees feel incorporated,

and gives them a sense of identity. O‘Malley (2000) contends that a review of the commitment

literature produces five general factors which relate to the development of employee

commitment:

a. Affiliative Commitment: An organization‘s interests and values are compatible with those of

the employee, and the employee feels accepted by the social environment of the organization.

b. Associative Commitment: Organizational membership increases employees‘ self-esteem and

status. The employee feels privileged to be associated with the organization.

c. Moral Commitment: Employees perceive the organization to be on their side and the

organization evokes a sense of mutual obligation in which both the organization and the

employee feel a sense of responsibility to each other. This type of commitment is also frequently

referred to in the literature as Normative Commitment.

d. Affective commitment: Employees derive satisfaction from their work and their colleagues,

and their work environment is supportive of that satisfaction. Some researchers (Allen et al,

1991) suggest that this is the most important form of commitment as it has the most potential

benefits for organizations. Employees who have high affective commitment are those who will

go beyond the call of duty for the good of the organization. In recent literature this form of

commitment has also been referred to as ‗engagement‘ and is the form of commitment that is

most usually measured by organizations.

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e. Structural commitment: Employees believe they are involved in a fair economic exchange in

which they benefit from the relationship in material ways. There are enticements to enter and

remain in the organization and there are barriers to leaving. This type of commitment is also

frequently referred to in the literature as Continuance Commitment. With reference to the above

typology, when an organization is considering assessing the commitment of its workforce, not

only should it ask how much commitment exists, but also what types of commitment exist.

The performance benefits accrued from increased employee commitment have been widely

demonstrated in literature. To list but a few, these include:

1. Increased job satisfaction (Vandenberg and Lance, 1992)

2. Increased job performance (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990)

3. increased total return to shareholders (Walker Information Inc., 2000)

4. increased sales (Barber, 1999)

5. decreased employee turnover (Cohen, 1991)

6. decreased intention to leave (Balfour and Wechsler, 1996)

7. decreased intention to search for alternative employers (Cohen, 1993)

8. Decreased absenteeism (Cohen, 1993, Barber, 1999)

Antecedents of Commitment

Antecedents of commitment refer to the various variables that influence the commitment of an

employee to the organization. These are:

a) Demographics

Lok and Crawford (2004) opine that a number of demographic variables, such as age (Mathieu

and Zajac, 1990; Micheals, 1994; Williams and Hazer, 1986), organization tenure (Mathieu and

Hamel, 1989; Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) and position tenure (Gregersen and Black, 1992;

Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) have been found to be positively associated with organizational

commitment.

For a variety of reasons, age has been found to be a positive predictor of employee commitment.

As Mathieu and Zajac (1990) suggest, the older employees become, the less alternative

56

employment options are available. As a result, older employees may view their current

employment more favourably. In addition, Dunham (1994) suggest older employees may be

more committed because they have a stronger investment and greater history with their

organization. With regard to gender, a number of studies (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) have

reported women as being more committed than men. This is typically explained by women

having to overcome more barriers than men to get to their position in the organization. Marital

status has also been shown to relate to commitment, with married employees usually showing

more commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990).

However, it is suggested that the reason for this is because married employees will typically have

greater financial and family responsibilities, which increases their need to remain with the

organization. Note, however, that this refers to continuance commitment in that the cost

associated with leaving the organization increases commitment to the organization. As

mentioned previously, structural commitment does not necessarily relate to increased

performance.

b) Recruitment Procedures

O‘Malley (2000) suggests that organizations need to pay more attention to addressing

employees‘ social need to affiliate and belong. He argues that employees want to be in

environments that make them feel comfortable. Organizations have goals and values, and people

recruited by the organization should share these. The argument here is that in order to create

commitment, the organization must have the right sort of employees in the first instance.

Employees‘ feelings of belonging start to develop long before employees join the organization.

As Parks and Floyd (1996) point out, there are several things organizations can do to make

employees feel welcomed and valued as the recruitment and selection process develops:

1. Share details about the organization

2. Provide employees with help and support throughout the recruitment and selection process

3. Convey the interests and values that the organization shares with employees.

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c) Met Expectations

This line of research suggests that employees will be more committed if there is a good match

between what the people is looking for in a job, and what the job provides (Dawis, 1992). A

related notion is that commitment will be greater when employees‘ experiences on the job match

their pre-entry expectations. As Sturges and Guest (2000) note, unmet expectations are

commonly cited as a cause of dissatisfaction. Such expectations usually relate to the type of work

employees are given to do and the opportunities they receive for training and development. With

this in mind, realistic job previews (giving candidates real experience of what the job is like) can

be very useful.

d) Relationships with Managers

This refers to how the quality of the relationship between managers and their employees relates

to the development of commitment. Several studies have found significant positive relationships

between the two variables, that is, employees who have good relationships with their immediate

managers have greater commitment (Green, 1996; Nystrom, 1990; Settoon, 1996). This implies

that employees‘ commitment reflects their day to day contacts with their line managers about

their job, and the way in which objective targets are set.

e) Relationships with Colleagues

Although good relationship with the management is an important element, it is not enough on its

own. Emotional attachment to colleagues in the workplace has been found to be equally

important. Baumeister and Leary (1995) argue that organisations that want to build high levels of

commitment should look for ways to build this through group activities both in and out of work.

To build commitment, being a member of a particular organization must not only satisfy

employees‘ social need to affiliate and belong, but must also create a sense of collective identity

that differentiates the group from other organizations. The more exposure that employees have,

the more likely they will be to feel like a part of the group and to incorporate that membership

into their concept of who they are.

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f) Organizational Justice and Trust

It is also argued that employees evaluate their experiences at work in terms of whether they are

fair and reflect a concern on the part of the organization for the well-being of the employees

(Meyer, 1997). Research findings (McFarlin and Sweeney, 1992) suggest that employees‘

commitment to the organization might be shaped, in part, by their perception of how fairly they

are treated by the organization. The implication is that by treating them fairly, organizations

communicate their commitment to employees. This suggests that organizations wanting to foster

greater commitment from their employees must first provide evidence of their commitment to

their employees. Organizational justice also has links with the concept of trust. According to

Kramer (1999), trust in an organization can promote the acceptance of organizational initiatives.

O‘Malley (2000) identifies four areas in which employees‘ sense of trust in the employer can be

increased:

1. Growth: As most employees want to be more proficient in their job, a good way to instill trust

is to attend to employees‘ development needs.

2. Work-Life balance: Most employees would like organizations to allow greater personal time

when needed.

3. Individual accommodation: Acts of organizational flexibility or benevolence toward

employees.

4. Health and Safety: Organizations that are committed to protecting employees‘ health and

safety are more likely to be trusted.

g) Promotion

Policies and practices concerning promotion can also affect commitment. For example,

Schwarzwald (1992) found that commitment was higher among employees who had been

promoted, and was also related to employees‘ perceptions that the organization had a preference

of recruiting from their internal labour market. Such a policy might be perceived as an example

of the organization‘s commitment to the employee as discussed earlier. Among those who are

considered for promotion, the outcome of the decision is likely to have an effect on commitment.

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h) Job Satisfaction

It is often believed that employees who enjoy their jobs will work harder and stay longer with

their employers than employees who do not. In relation to commitment, job satisfaction and

work-life satisfaction are very important. Job satisfaction is an enormous area; however, to be

concise a satisfying job typically has three properties:

1. It has intrinsically enjoyable features: Mathieu and Zajac (1990) found that the strongest

correlation with commitment was obtained for job characteristics, particularly job scope

(enrichment).

2. It provides an opportunity for growth and development.

3. It makes employees feel effective in their roles (that they can positively influence

organizational outcomes). A positive relationship between job satisfaction and commitment,

using a variety of satisfaction and commitment measures, has been consistently reported in the

literature (Balfour and Wechsler, 1990, 1991; Cook and Wall, 1980; Green, 1996).

i) Pay and Reward

As mentioned previously, employees may remain with an organization because there are

constraints against leaving and incentives for staying. Pay makes continuation of the

employment relationship worthwhile because there is mutual dependence. Organizations that add

on benefits are establishing the foundation for richer forms of commitment by producing a need

for the relationship (i.e. creating dependence). Therefore, organizational commitment indicates

that workers accept the organizational aims, values, struggle to reach these aims and desire to

keep being member of this organization (Swailes, 2002).

Job Satisfaction

As job satisfaction is a widely researched and complex phenomenon, it follows that there are

numerous definitions of the concept (Ivancevich and Matteson, 2002; Spector, 1997). In defining

job satisfaction, reference is often made to Locke‘s (1976) description of job satisfaction as a

―pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one‘s job or job

experiences‖ (Jex, 2002:116). Ivancevich and Matteson (2002) define job satisfaction as an

individual‘s total feeling about their job and the attitudes they have towards various aspects or

60

facets of their job. Spector (1997) explains that for researchers to understand these attitudes, they

need to understand the complex and interrelated facets of job satisfaction.

A facet of job satisfaction can be described as any part of a job that produces feelings of

satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Spector, 1997). This perspective can be useful to organizations

that wish to identify employee retention areas in which improvement is possible (Saari and

Judge, 2004; Westlund and Hannon, 2008). Sempane (2002) offers a more comprehensive view

with the assertion that job satisfaction is a result of an individual‘s perception and evaluation of

their job influenced by their own unique needs, values and expectations, which they regard as

being important to them.

Berghe (2011) tries to simplify the definition by arguing that job satisfaction is connected to how

our personal expectations of work are in congruence with the actual outcomes. Lending

credence, Rothmann and Coetzer (2002) agree that job satisfaction can be viewed as a reaction to

a job, arising from what an individual seeks in a job in comparison with the actual outcomes that

the job provides to the individual. This may not be so for someone in an unfavourable job that

had a negative premonition about that particular job. Though the expectations match the

outcome, they may only be in the job as a stop gap till they get their dream job. Consequentially,

job satisfaction can be seen as an employee‘s positive attitude towards his or job.

This is consistent with Visser, Breed and van Breed (2007) who opines that job satisfaction is a

pleasurable positive state resulting from one‘s job and job experience. In agreement, Tett, Meyer,

and John (1993) opine that job satisfaction is understood to be affective response to the job

viewed either in its entirety or with regard to particular aspects (facet satisfaction such as pay,

supervision, etc.). Putting in a similar view, Voydanoff (2000) defines job satisfaction as the

positive orientation of an individual towards the role which he/she is presently occupying, while

Hackman and Oldham (1975, cited in Kamfer, 1989:15) define it as ―the degree to which the

employee is satisfied and happy with his job‖.

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According to Visser, et al (2007), research on job satisfaction has identified two aspects to

understanding the concept of job satisfaction, namely, facet satisfaction and overall satisfaction.

These two concepts are explained as follows:

i. Facet Satisfaction: Facet satisfaction refers to the tendency for an employee to be more

or less satisfied with specific aspects of the job (Johns, 1988). For instance, ―Overall, I love my

job, but my schedule is difficult to manage.‖) (Mueller and Kim, 2008). According to Visser, et

al (2007), measurements of job facet satisfaction may be helpful in identifying which specific

aspects of a job require improvements. The results may aid organizations in improving overall

job satisfaction or in explaining organizational issues such as high turnover (Voydanoff, 2000).

ii. Overall Satisfaction: Overall satisfaction focuses on the general internal state of

satisfaction or dissatisfaction within the individual. Example, ―Overall, I love my job.‖ (Mueller

and Kim, 2008).

Meanwhile Luthan (1998) asserts that there are two important dimensions to job satisfaction:

I. Job satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation: This implies that it cannot be seen,

it can only be inferred.

II. Job satisfaction is often determined by how well outcomes meet or exceed expectations: For

instance, if employees feel that they are working much harder than others in the department but

are receiving fewer rewards they will probably have a negative attitude towards the work, the

boss and or co-workers. On the other hand, if they feel they are being treated very well and are

being paid equitably, they are likely to have positive attitudes towards the job.

This clarification is necessary due to the importance of job satisfaction to an organization. Many

employers or superiors would not hesitate to know whether or not their employees or

subordinates are satisfied with their jobs. According to Lok and Crawford (2004), the variable

closely related to commitment is job satisfaction. Job satisfaction represents several related

attitudes which are most important characteristics of a job about which people have effective

response: These to Luthan (1998) are: the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision

and co-workers. Whatever the case, Robbins and Judge (2009) stress that there are consequences

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to the organization when employees like or dislike their jobs. An insight into the job satisfaction

variables will add a comprehensive view to the discourse.

Job Satisfaction Variables

Job satisfaction is the feelings or a general attitude of the employees in relation with their jobs

and the job components such as the working environment, working conditions, equitable

rewards, and communication with the colleagues (Ting, 2007). Research has indicated that job

satisfaction does not come about in isolation, as it is dependent on organizational variables such

as structure, size, pay, working conditions and leadership, which represent the organizational

climate (Sempane et al. 2002). Visser, et al (2007) presented a summary of job dimensions that

have been established to contribute significantly to employees‘ job satisfaction. The particular

dimensions represent characteristics associated with job satisfaction. The dimensions are:

I. The Work Itself

II. Pay

III. Promotions

IV. Working Conditions

V. Supervision

VI. Co-Workers

The Work Itself

The nature of the work performed by employees has a significant impact on their level of job

satisfaction. According to Ting (2007), employees derive satisfaction from work that is

interesting and challenging, and job that provides them with status. Lok et al (2004) advocates

that work that is personally interesting to employees is likely to contribute to job satisfaction.

Similarly, research suggests that task variety may facilitate job satisfaction (Eby and Freeman,

1999). This is based on the view that skill variety has strong effects on job satisfaction, implying

that the greater the variety of skills that employees are able to utilize in their jobs, the higher

their level of satisfaction (Ting, 2007).

Robbins and Judge (2009) postulate that the single most important influence on a person‘s job

satisfaction experience comes from the nature of the work assigned to them by the organization.

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They claim that if the job entails adequate variety, challenge, discretion and scope for using

one‘s own abilities and skills, the employees doing the job is likely to experience job

satisfaction. Smucker and Kent (2004) found in their study of Indian managers, that the nature of

work was the most important factor in determining job satisfaction for the top managers, and job

security as the most important factor in job satisfaction for managers at the bottom.

Pay

Pay refers to the amount of financial compensation that an individual receives as well as the

extent to which such compensation is perceived to be equitable. Remuneration and earnings are a

cognitively complex and multidimensional factor in job satisfaction. According to Luthans

(1998), salaries not only assist people to attain their basic needs, but are also instrumental in

satisfying the higher level need of people. Previous research (Voydanoff, 2000) has shown that

monetary compensation is one of the most significant variables in explaining job satisfaction. In

their study of public sector managers, Taylor and West (1992, cited in Bull, 2005) found that pay

levels affect job satisfaction, reporting that those public employees experienced lower levels of

job satisfaction. According to William et al (2006) (cited from Till and Karren, 2011), the actual

pay level and pay satisfaction is probably a function of the discrepancy of perceived pay level

and the amount that employee believes their pay should be.

Meanwhile, Lawler (1991) (cited from Smucker et al, 2004), had presented a perspective that

views pay satisfaction as a discrepancy between how much pay one feels one should receive and

how much one feels is actually received. The primary goal of the present study is to seek a better

understanding of the antecedents of pay satisfaction, and specifically, to focus on pay

comparisons and the perceptions of fairness and organizational justice. Pay level serves as

function of personal characteristic of employees, is substantial evidence and as an illustration

from the combinations of various pay level and benefit (William et al, 2006). Pay level also is

related with aggregate pay satisfaction and organizational performance, with the three points,

which can be elaborated with the individual pay satisfaction or dissatisfaction leads to

differential individual behavior outcomes.

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Supervision

Research indicates that the quality of the supervisor-subordinate relationship will have a

significant, positive influence on the employee‘s overall level of job satisfaction. Research (Ting,

1997; Billingsley and Cross, 1992; Cramer, 1993) appears to suggest that individuals are likely

to have high levels of job satisfaction if supervisors provide them with support and corporation

in completing their tasks. These researchers generally hold that dissatisfaction with the

management supervision is a significant predictor of job dissatisfaction. The above findings are

corroborated by Staudt‘s (1997) research based on social workers in whom it was found that

respondents, who reported satisfaction with supervision, were also more likely to be satisfied

with their jobs in general. Voidanoff (2000) maintains that supervisors who allow their

employees to participate in decisions that affect their own jobs will, in doing so, stimulate higher

levels of employee satisfaction.

Promotion

An employee‘s opportunities for promotions are also likely to exert an influence on job

satisfaction (Landy, 1989; Larwood, 1984, Moorhead and Griffen, 1992; Kinicki and Vecchio,

1994). Robbins (1998) maintains that promotions provide opportunities for personal growth,

increased responsibility and increased social status. Bull (2005) postulates that many people

experience satisfaction when they believe that their future prospects are good. This may translate

into opportunities for advancement and growth in their current workplace, or enhance the chance

of finding alternative employment. They maintain that if people feel that they have limited

opportunities for career advancement, their job satisfaction may decrease. According to Visser et

al (2007), employees‘ satisfaction with promotional opportunities will depend on a number of

factors, including the probability that employees will be promoted, as well as the basis and the

fairness of such promotions.

Moreover, not all employees wish to be promoted. The reason therefore is related to the fact that

promotion entails greater responsibility and tasks of a more complex nature, for which the

individuals may consider themselves unprepared. If employees perceive the promotion policy as

unfair, but do desire to be promoted, they may still be satisfied. Nonetheless, opportunities for

promotion appear to have a significant positive correlation with Staudt‘s (1997) job satisfaction

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report on a study that indicates the opportunity for promotion was found to be the best and only

common predictor of job satisfaction in child welfare, community mental health, and family

services agencies. Promotional opportunities therefore have differential effects on job

satisfaction, and it is essential that this be taken into account in cases where promotion policies

are designed to enhance employee satisfaction.

Co-Workers

Research (Smucker and Kent, 2004) suggest that job satisfaction is related to employees‘

opportunities for interaction with others on the job. Studies have shown that the better

relationship, the greater the level of job satisfaction (Sempane, 2002). According to Smucker et

al (2004), such social relations constitute an important part of the ‗social climate‘ within the

workplace and provide a setting within which employees can experience meaning and identity.

When cohesion is evident within the work environment, it usually leads to effectiveness within a

group and the job becoming more enjoyable. However, if the opposite situation exists and

colleagues are difficult to work with, this may have a negative impact on job satisfaction. The

impact of friendship on workplace outcomes is shown by results that indicate that friendship

opportunities were associated with increases in job satisfaction, job involvement and

organizational commitment, and with a significant decrease in intention to turnover (Luddy,

2005).

Working Conditions

Working conditions is another factor that has a moderate impact on the employee‘s job

satisfaction (Luthans, 1992: Moorhead and Griffen, 1992). According to Luthans (1998), if

people work in a clean, friendly environment, they will find it easier to come to work. If the

opposite should happen, they will find it difficult to accomplish tasks. Vorster (1992) maintains

that working conditions are only likely to have a significant impact on job satisfaction when, for

example, the working conditions are either extremely good or extremely poor. Moreover,

employee complaints regarding working conditions are frequently related to manifestations of

underlying problems (Luthans, 1992; Visser, 1990, Vorster, 1992).

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Occupational Level

Richford and Fortune (2004:855) examined the proposition that the organizational position held

by a job incumbent influences the attitudes, job satisfaction and performance levels of

employees. They found that position largely determines the job demands and characteristics of

the work environment experienced by workers. Rousseau (2007:533) concludes that ―job

satisfaction appears to link responses to positional characteristics‖. In other words, the effect of

organizational position on an employee‘s attitudes and behaviour appears entirely attributable to

the characteristics of the job he or she performs. Gazioglu and Tanzel (2002:186) found that

mangers, professionals and clerical employees were more satisfied with the influence of their job

although this was less apparent in clerical grade staff, with the sense of achievement and with the

respect they get from their supervisors, as compared to sales employees. However, they were less

satisfied with the amount of their pay as compared to the sales employees.

Clerk (2006:360) also found that those at the higher end of the occupational scale reported higher

satisfaction with various aspects of their work, but were less satisfied with their pay. Burker

(2006:123) found that men and women at more senior levels in an organizational reported higher

levels of job satisfaction in relation to administrative, clerical and secretarial staff. Several other

researchers have also found support for a positive association between job level and satisfaction.

Results from a study by Robic, Ryan, Schmeider, Parra and Smith (1999:41) reveal a consistent

and significant positive relationship between these two variables. They maintain that the positive

correlation between rank and job satisfaction may be attributed to the fact that higher level jobs

tends to be more complex and have better working condition, pay, promotion prospects,

supervision, autonomy, and responsibility. Vorster (2002:168) presents a similar argument. The

evidence from the literature seem to suggest, therefore, the job level is a reliable predictor of job

satisfaction with employees at higher ranks being generally more satisfied with their jobs than

employees at lower level are.

Tenure

Tenure, here, refers to the length of time for which the individual has worked for the

organization (Lim, 2008:334). Research (Jinnett and Alexander, 2007:66; Johnson, 2006:45;

Staw, 2005:78) indicate that employees with longer tenure have a greater propensity to be

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satisfied with their jobs than employees with shorter tenure. Lending credence, Chamber

(1999:65) established that employees with longer tenure were satisfied with their work itself as

well as their level of pay. From this it might be concluded that satisfaction increases with time,

also those benefits that increase in time such as security and experience, are likely to have an

important influence on employee satisfaction. On the other hand, Lambert (2001:44) argues that

an inverse relationship exists between tenure and job satisfaction. The reason the literature is

both inconsistent and inconclusive in this regard may be because the relationship between these

variables depends on the specific organization and how tenure may be viewed as a liability in

other organizations (Lambert, 2001:47).

Ebru (2005) argues that job satisfaction naturally depends on the economically, social and

cultural conditions in a given country. An employee who cannot get a sufficient wage will be

faced with the problem of maintaining his or her family‘s life. This problem puts the employee

far from being satisfied. Low wages and lack of status and social security affect motivation. Job

satisfaction cannot be talked of where there is absence of motivation. Job satisfaction of the

teacher who has an important place in educating the society will affect the quality of the service

he renders. In this respect, the question of how the material and moral element affect the job

satisfaction of the teachers gains importance. Job satisfaction is so important in that its absence

often leads to lethargy (Levinson, 1997; Moser, 1997). Lack of job satisfaction is a predictor of

quitting a job (Alexander, Litchtenstein and Hellmann, 1997; Jamal, 1997). Sometimes workers

may quit from public to the private sector and vice versa. At the other times the movement is

from one profession to another that is considered a greener pasture.

The latter is common in countries grappling with dwindling economy and its concomitant such

as poor conditions of service and late payment of salaries (Ting, 2007). In such countries, people

tend to migrate to better and consistently paying jobs (Voydanoff, 2000). Explaining its nature,

some researchers (Armentor, Forsyth, 1995; Flanegan, Johnson and Berret, 1996; Kadushin and

Kulys, 1995) tend to agree that job satisfaction is essentially controlled by factors described in

Locke (1976) (discussed earlier). From this viewpoint satisfaction on a job might be motivated

by the nature of the job, its pervasive social climate and extent to which workers‘ peculiar needs

are met. These needs are influenced by working conditions that are similar to local and

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international standard (Osagbemi, 2000), and extent to which they resemble work conditions of

other professions in the locality. Other inclusions are the availability of power and status, pay

satisfaction, promotion opportunities, and task clarity (Bolarin, 1993; Gemenxhenandez, Max,

Kosier, Paradiso and Robinson, 1997).

Studies of job satisfaction seem to consistently show there is a relationship between professional

status and job satisfaction. High levels of job satisfaction are observed in those professions that

are of good standing in society (Ebru, 2005). Davis (1988) argues that age is one of the factors

affecting job satisfaction. Different studies conducted show that older workers are more satisfied

(Davis, 1988:100). He finds an ally in Kose (1985) who found a meaningful relationship between

age and job satisfaction. Other arguments on job satisfaction variables were propounded by

Hamshari (1983) – age and professional experience; Delia (1979) and Hamshari (1986) –

educational level; Well-Maker (1985) and Hamshari (1986) – level of wages; Vaugan and Dunn

in Adeyemo (1997) – sex; a view also shared by D‘elia (1979) and Lynch and Verdin (1983). St.

Lifer (1994) reports that key variables of job satisfaction include compensation and benefits,

advancement opportunities and technological challenges. His study showed that salaries and

benefits are related to job satisfaction.

Causes of Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction

Since people tend to be evaluative, they look at their work experiences in terms of liking or

disliking and develop feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction regarding their job, as well as the

organization in which they work (Jex, 2002). There are many probable influences that affect

how favorably an individual appraises his or her job: specifically, an individual‘s attitude toward

his or her job. To explain the development of job satisfaction, researchers have taken three

common approaches: job characteristics, social information processing (organizational

characteristics), and dispositional (worker characteristics) (Glisson and Durick, 1988; Jex, 2002).

I. Job Characteristics

In relation to the job characteristics approach, research has revealed that the nature of an

individual‘s job or the characteristics of the organization that the individual works for

predominantly determines job satisfaction (Jex, 2002). According to Hackman and Oldham

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(1980) a job characteristic is an aspect of a job that generates ideal conditions for high levels of

motivation, satisfaction, and performance. Furthermore, Hackman and Oldham (1980) proposed

five core job characteristics that all jobs should contain: skill variety, task identity, task

significance, autonomy, and feedback. Hackman and Oldham (1980) also defined four personal

and work outcomes: internal work motivation, growth satisfaction, general satisfaction, and work

effectiveness. These characteristics have been added to the more popular dimensions of job

satisfaction assessment: the work itself, pay, promotional opportunities, supervision, and co-

worker relations (Smith, Kendall, and Hulin, 1969).

A common premise in research of the effects of job circumstances on job satisfaction is that

individuals determine job satisfaction by comparing what they are currently receiving from the

job and what they would like to or believe that they should receive (Jex, 2002). This comparison

would apply to each job facet including: skill level, seniority, promotional opportunities,

supervision, etc. (Jex, 2002). According to Locke (1976), this process becomes complex since

the importance of work facets differs for each individual. For example, one employee may feel

that pay rate is extremely important while another may feel that social relationships are more

important. To explain the effects of these differences, Locke (1976) put forward the ideas of the

range of affect theory. The hypothesis of this theory is that employees weigh facets differently

when assessing job satisfaction (Locke, 1976). Consequently, this leads to an individual measure

of satisfaction or dissatisfaction when expectations are or are not met. For example, the job

satisfaction of an employee who places extreme importance on pay would be positively impacted

if he or she receives a salary within expectation. Conversely, his or her level of pay would

minimally impact the job satisfaction of an employee who places little importance on pay.

II. Social Information Processing (Organizational Characteristics)

Based mainly on Festinger‘s (1954) Social Comparison Theory, Jex (2002) explains that during

social information processing, employees look to coworkers to make sense of and develop

attitudes about their work environment. In other words, if employees see that their co-workers

are positive and satisfied then they will most likely be satisfied; however, if their co-workers are

negative and dissatisfied then the employee will most likely become dissatisfied as well.

Accordingly, organizations are counseled that new hires can become ―tainted‖ during the

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socialization process if they are placed around employees who are dissatisfied (Jex, 2002).

Although laboratory studies have found that social-information has a prevailing impact on job

satisfaction and characteristic perceptions, organizational tests have been less supportive (Jex

and Spector, 1989). Generally, ―the research on social information processing theory supports

the idea that social environment does have an effect on employees‘ attitudes and behaviors‖

(Aamondt, 2009:374).

III. Dispositional (worker characteristics)

Internal disposition is the basis of the latest method to explaining job satisfaction and hints that

some people are inclined to be satisfied or dissatisfied with their work no matter the nature of the

job or the organizational environment (Jex, 2002). More simply, some people are genetically

positive in disposition (the glass half full), whereas others are innately negative in disposition

(the glass half empty). Furthermore, although individuals change jobs and employers, individual

disposition has been shown to be consistent by the use of survey results on job satisfaction (Staw

and Ross, 1985).

Many years of research has been conducted on the dispositional source of job satisfaction and

has presented strong evidence that job satisfaction, to some extent, is based on disposition (Judge

and Larsen, 2001). Dispositional affect is the predisposition to experience related emotional

moods over time (Judge and Kammeyer-Mueller, 2008). Accordingly, this approach assumes

that an employee‘s attitude about his or her job originates from an internal (mental) state.

Positive affect is a predisposition favorable to positive emotional experience, whereas negative

affect is a predisposition to experience a wide array of negative emotions (Watson, Clark, and

Carey, 1988). Positive affective people feel enthusiastic, active, alert, and optimistic (Watson,

Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). On the contrary, negative affective people feel anger, contempt,

disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness (Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988).

Beyond the field of business management, other perspectives relevant to worker characteristics

are the Big Five personality traits and core self-evaluations found in clinical psychology. Out of

the five personality traits - neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and

openness (Funder, 2010), neurotisicm, extraversion, and conscientiousness were most closely

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related to job satisfaction (Judge, Heller, and Mount, 2002). Extraversion and conscientiousness

were positively related to job satisfaction, whereas neuroticism was negatively related. Core self-

evaluations refer to beliefs people hold about their functions in the world in general and consist

of factors such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, emotional stability, and locus of control (Sirgy,

2012). Meta-analysis conducted by Judge and Bono (2001), showed a strong positive correlation

between core self-evaluations and job satisfaction.

There is also strong evidence supporting disposition causing job satisfaction from a Social

Cognitive aspect as well. Causation through disposition indicates that job satisfaction can be

determined by an individual's general overall outlook. The automated thoughts and processes

(Beck, 1987) resulting from irrational and dysfunctional thinking perpetuate emotions of

depression and unhappiness in individuals. Judge and Locke (1992) examine these concepts in

detail. They discuss cognitive processes like perfectionism, over-generalization, and dependence

on others as causation for depression leading to unhappiness. They claim that subjective well-

being resulting from an affective disposition leads to individuals experiencing information recall

regarding their job. In short, happy individuals tend to store and evaluate job information

differently than unhappy individuals do. This type of recollection indicates that job satisfaction

can be influenced by subjective well-being.

Also, Bandura (1986) states that individual's aspirations become their standards of self-

satisfaction indicating that those with high goals, theoretically, should be harder to satisfy than

people with low goals. This would indicate that a high level of ambition resulting from high

standards can point to a lower satisfaction as an end result. In addition, it is oftentimes the case

that unsatisfied workers are highly ambitious but unhappy as a result of their inability to be

promoted within an organization. For this reason, ambition can negatively influence job

satisfaction. However, Judge and Locke (1992) caution that dysfunctional thinking is not

singularly responsible for dispositional factors affecting job satisfaction. They mention self-

esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, intelligence, and ambition as well.

All three of the above-mentioned causes have been found to contribute to job satisfaction;

however, researchers have not conducted simultaneous comparison of all three of these

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approaches (Baker, 2004). Summarily, job characteristics have been shown to impact job

satisfaction (Baker, 2004). Recent studies on social informational processing have found that

leadership actions influence job satisfaction (Baker, 2004). Various research findings have

indicated that a relationship between disposition and job satisfaction does in fact exist. For

instance, Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) advocate that emotionally significant procedures at work

may be influenced by disposition, which in turn influences job satisfaction. Job characteristics

have been favored in research (Thomas, Bubholtz, and Winklespecht, 2004); however, less

research has been conducted on the dispositional approach, since it is fairly new (Coutts and

Gruman, 2005).

Managing Job Satisfaction

Syptak, Marsland, and Ulmer (1999) argue that there are numerous aspects of a job that an

organization can manage to increase satisfaction in the workplace, such as:

i. Company Policies - Policies that are clear, fair and applied equally to all employees will

decrease dissatisfaction. Therefore, fairness and clarity are important and can go a long

way in improving employee attitude. For example, if a company has a policy for lunch

breaks that are the same length and time for everyone, employees will see this as the

norm and it will help cut down on wasted time and low productivity.

ii. Salary/Benefits - Making sure employee salaries and benefits are comparable to other

organization salaries and benefits will help raise satisfaction. If a company wishes to

produce a competitive product they must also offer competitive wages. In addition, this

can help reduce turnover, as employees will often be more satisfied when paid

competitive wages as opposed to being underpaid.

iii. Interpersonal/Social Relations - Allowing employees to develop a social aspect to their

job may increase satisfaction as well as develop a sense of teamwork. Co-worker

relationships may also benefit the organization as a whole; given that, teamwork is a very

important aspect of organization productivity and success. Moreover, when people are

allowed to develop work relationships they care more about pulling their own weight and

not letting co-workers down.

iv. Working Conditions - Keeping up to date facilities and equipment and making sure

employees have adequate personal workspace can decrease dissatisfaction. A cramped

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employee is a frustrated employee plus faulty equipment provides frustration in trying to

get work done.

v. Achievement - Making sure employees are in the proper positions to utilize their talents

may enhance satisfaction. When employees are in the proper role and feel a sense of

achievement and challenge, their talents will be in line with the goals best suited for

them.

vi. Recognition - Taking the time to acknowledge a job well done can increase the likelihood

of employee satisfaction. Positive and constructive feedback boosts an employee's morale

and keeps them working in the right direction.

vii. Autonomy - Giving employees the freedom of ownership of their work may help raise

satisfaction. Job satisfaction may result when an individual knows they are responsible

for the outcome of their work.

viii. Advancement - Allowing employees, who show high performance and loyalty, room to

advance will help ensure satisfaction. A new title and sense of responsibility can often

increase job satisfaction in an employee.

ix. Job Security - Especially in times of economic uncertainty, job security is a very high

factor in determining an employee's job satisfaction. Giving an employee the assurance

that their job is secure will most likely increase job satisfaction.

x. Work-life Balance Practices - In times where the average household is changing it is

becoming more important for an employer to recognize the delicate balancing act that its

employees perform between their personal life and work-life. Policies that respond to

common personal and family needs can be essential to maintaining job satisfaction.

Everett (1995) suggests that organization managers in managing job satisfaction in their

organizations should posit the following questions to employees:

a) When have you come closest to expressing my full potential in a work situation?

b) What did it look like?

c) What aspects of the workplace were most supportive?

d) What aspects of the work itself were most satisfying?

e) What did you learn from that experience that could be applied to the present situation?

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Measures of Job Satisfaction

The following are measures of job satisfaction as outlined by Fields (2002):

1. Overall Job Satisfaction - Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins, and Klesh (1983) developed

this measure as part of the Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire (OAQ).

In this measure three items are used to describe an employee‘s subjective response to

working in the specific job and organization (Fields, 2002:20).

Job Descriptive Index (JDI) - This was originally developed by Smith, Kendall, and Hulin

(1969). There are 72 items on this index which assess five facets of job satisfaction which

includes: the work, pay, promotions, supervision, and coworkers. Through the combination of

ratings of satisfaction with the faces, a composite measure of job satisfaction is determined.

Roznowski (1989) updated the JDI to include work atmosphere, job content and work

technology. A shorter, 30-item version, was developed by Gregson (1990) based on 6 items

which included work, pay, promotions, supervision and co-workers (Fields, 2002:23).

2. Global Job Satisfaction - Warr, Cook, and Wall (1979) developed this measure which

includes 15 items to determine overall job satisfaction. Two subscales are used for

extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of the job. The extrinsic section has eight items and the

intrinsic has seven items (Fields, 2002:27).

Job Satisfaction Relative to Expectations - Bacharach, Bamberger, and Conley (1991) developed

this measure. It assesses the degree ―of agreement between the perceived quality of broad

aspects of a job and employee expectations‖ (Fields, 2002:6). It is most effective to determine

how job stresses, role conflicts, or role ambiguities can hinder an employee from meeting job

expectations (Fields, 2002:6).

3. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)- The long form of this survey is made up

of 100 questions based on 20 sub scales which measure satisfaction with ―ability,

utilization, achievement, activity, advancement, authority, company policies and

practices, compensation, co-workers, creativity, independence, moral values, recognition,

responsibility, security, social service, social status, supervision-human relations,

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supervision-technical variety, and working conditions‖ (Fields, 2002:7). There is a short

version of the MSQ which consists of 20 items. This can also be separated into two

subscales for intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction.

Job in General Scale - This measure was developed by Ironson, Smith, Brannick, Gibson, and

Paul (1989). It consists of 18 items which describe global job satisfaction and can be used in

conjunction with the JDI, which assesses satisfaction with five job facets. This was developed to

―assess global satisfaction independent from satisfaction with facets‖ (Fields, 2002).

4. Job Satisfaction Survey - This was developed by Spector (1985) and contains 36 items

based on nine job facets. The job facets include pay, promotion, supervision, benefits,

contingent rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, nature of work and

communication. When it was initially developed, it was specific to job satisfaction in

human service, nonprofit and public organizations (Fields, 2002).

5. Job Satisfaction Index - Schriescheim and Tsue, (1980) developed this measure. It

consists of six items that form and index which determines overall job satisfaction. The

items are the work, supervision, co-workers, pay, promotion opportunities, and the job in

general (Fields, 2002).

6. Job Diagnostic Survey - Hackman and Oldham (1974) developed this survey which

measures both overall and specific facets of job satisfaction. There are three dimensions

of overall job satisfaction which includes general satisfaction, internal work motivation,

and growth satisfaction, which are combined into a single measure. The facets which are

measured on the survey include security, compensation, co-workers, and supervision

(Fields, 2002).

7. Career Satisfaction - Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990) developed this

measure. This is a measure of career success, as opposed to job satisfaction. It assesses

general satisfaction with career outcome, but also satisfaction with career progress

(Fields, 2002).

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Fields outlines specific types of employee satisfaction measures which describe an employee‘s

satisfaction with one or more aspects of their job. These include the following (Fields, 2002):

Employee Satisfaction with Influence and Ownership developed by Rosen, Klein, and Young

(1986).

Satisfaction with Work Schedule Flexibility developed by Rothausen (1994).

Satisfaction with My Supervisor developed by Scarpello and Vandenberg (1987).

It is pertinent to note that there are several misleading notions that exist about job satisfaction.

One such fallacy is that a happy employee is a productive employee (Syptak, Marsland, and

Ulmer, 1999). Research has offered little support that a happy employee is productive;

furthermore, some research has suggested that causality may flow in the opposite direction, from

productivity to satisfaction (Bassett, 1994). Another purported fallacy is that pay is the most

important factor in job satisfaction as can be seen earlier in Locke (1976). In reality, employees

are more satisfied when they enjoy the environment in which they work (Berry, 1997). An

individual can have a high paying job and not be satisfied because it is boring and lacks

sufficient stimulation. In fact, a low paying job can be seen as satisfying if it is adequately

challenging or stimulating.

There are numerous factors that must be taken into consideration when determining how

satisfied an employee is with his or her job, and it is not always easy to determine which factors

are most important to each employee. Job satisfaction is very circumstantial and subjective for

each employee and situation being assessed. In summary, job satisfaction can be seen as a

function of:

i. the features of a job,

ii. the view of others,

iii. The employee‘s personality.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Agbaeze (2004) explains that theories provide the rational basis, for explaining or interpreting

the results of research and relationship between the problem and a given theory. This study is

anchored on the spillover theory by Guest (2002).

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2.2.1 Spillover Theory

The spillover theory postulates the conditions under which spillover between the work micro

system and the life micro system occurs. It can either be positive or negative. If work life

interactions are rigidly structured in time and space, then spillover in terms of time, energy and

behavior is negative (Guest, 2002). When flexibility occurs which enables individuals to

integrate and overlap work and life responsibilities in time and space, it leads to positive spill

over which is instrumental in achieving healthy work life balance (Fapohunda, 2014). Guest

(2002) posits that the determinants of work life balance are located in the work and home

contexts.

Contextual determinants include demands of work, culture of work, demands of home and

culture of home. Individual determinants include work orientation (i.e. the extent to which work

(or home) is a central life interest), personality, energy, personal control and coping, gender and

age, life and career stage. The variables of the study are under the contextual determinants,

which are leave policy and service delivery. The leave policy is the culture of work, while the

service delivery is the demand of work.

The nature of work life balance was defined both objectively and subjectively. The objective

indicators include hours of work and hours of uncommitted or free time outside work. Subjective

Indicators refer to the states of balance and imbalance. He also noted that balance may be

reported when equal weight is given both to work and home or, when home or work dominates

by choice. Spillover occurs when there is interference of one sphere of life with another. Also,

numerous outcomes of work life balance which include personal satisfaction and wellbeing at

work, home and life as a whole, performance at work and home; impact on others at work,

family and friends. The relevance of this theory to the study is that organizations are expected to

adopt positive work life balance policies that will enable employee have a positive work life

balance which will make them be effectively committed to achieving the organization‘s goals.

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2.3 Model Evaluation

2.3.1 Biological Model

Kreitner and Kinicki (1998) in addressing the question of organizational performance, opine that

organizational theorists not only drew upon the field of general systems theory that emerged in

the 1950s, but suggested a more dynamic model for modern organisations. The proposed model

likens organizations to the human body; hence it has been labeled the biological model. The

biological model as illustrated in Figure 2.1 identifies the organization as an open system that

transforms inputs into various outputs.

Figure 2.1 the Organization as an Open System: The Biological Model

Source: Kreitner, R. and Kinicki, A. (1998). Organizational Behaviour. 4th

Ed. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

The Organisation as an Open System: The Biological Model

Goals and value

Subsystem

- Outline - Philosophy - Overall goals - Group goals - Individual goals

Psychosocial

subsystem

- Human Resources - Attitudes - Perceptions - Motivation - Group dynamics - Leadership - Communication - Interpersonal relations

Technical subsystem

- Knowledge - Techniques - Facilities - Equipment

Structural

subsystem

- Tasks - Work flow - Authority - Information flow

- Procedures - Rules

Managerial subsystem

- Goal setting - Planning - Assembling resources

- Organizing - Implementing - Controlling

Inputs

- Material - Money - Human effort - Information

Outputs

- Products - Services - Human - Satisfaction - Organizational - Survival and growth - Social benefit

Feedback

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Figure 2.1 shows that the outer boundary of the organization is permeable – people, information,

capital, goods and services move back and forth across this boundary. Each of the five

organizational subsystems – goals and values, technical, psychological, structural and managerial

subsystems is dependent on the other. Feedback about aspects such as sales and customer

satisfaction enables the organization to self-adjust and survive despite uncertainty and change.

Kreitner and Kinicki (1998) offer four ways to assess organizational performance in order to

better understand the complexities associated with this subject.

These performance criteria, apply equally to large or small and profit or not-for-profit

organizations (Kreitner and Kinicki, 1998). A multidimensional approach is required when

applying this approach; the following four criteria will be discussed briefly.

Goal Accomplishment – Performance is measured or gauged by how well the

organization meets or exceeds its goals. Goal accomplishment is the most widely used

performance criterion for organizations.

Resource Acquisition – This second criterion relates to inputs rather than to outputs. An

organization is deemed effective in this regard if, it acquires necessary factors of

production such as raw material, labour, capital and managerial and technical expertise.

Internal Processes – This third criterion is often referred to as the ―healthy systems‖

approach. An organization is said to be a healthy system if information flows smoothly

and if employee loyalty, commitment, job satisfaction, and trust prevail.

Strategic Constituencies Satisfaction – Organizations both depend on people and affect

the lives of people. Consequently, many consider the satisfaction of key interested parties

to be an important criterion of organizational performance. Figure 2.2 is a graphic

explanation of the four ways in which organizations can reach or achieve organizational

performance (Kreitner and Kinicki, 1998).

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Figure 2.2: Four Ways to assess Organizational Performance

Source: Kreitner, R. and Kinicki, A. (1998), Organizational Behaviour, 4th

Ed. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

Still, it is important to note that in all four of the above-mentioned criteria used for assessing

organizational performance – the human factor remains a critical component of achieving

success in each. Apart from the four elements that underpin the process of assessing

organizational performance, consideration needs to be given to the change management skills

and capabilities that exist within an organization (Roberts, 2009).

A clear distinction needs to be made between the concepts of efficiency and effectiveness as

components of organizational performance (Carnall 1999). According to Carnall, efficiency

comprises achieving existing objectives with acceptable use of resources. Effectiveness means

efficiency plus adaptability; in essence, effective organisations are both efficient and able to

modify their goals as circumstances change. He further suggests that change should not only be

Goal Accomplishment

The organization achieves

its stated goals

Internal Process

The organization functions smoothly with a minimum of internal strain

Resource Acquisition

The organization acquires the resources it needs

Strategic constituencies

Satisfied

The demands and expectations of key interests groups are at leas t minimally satisfied

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introduced when things are going wrong. To the contrary, he emphasizes the importance of

organizations‘ continually adapting to a changing world even when they are doing well. He

further states that handling change effectively helps to sustain and create effectiveness in the

future. The extent to which organizations are able to implement and manage change effectively,

will determine to what extent such organizations will achieve organizational effectiveness

(Carnall, 1999).

2.4 Empirical Review

The push for improved performance in organizations is not a new phenomenon. One of the

primary tasks of managers is to motivate people in the organization to perform at high levels

(Steers and Porter, 2000; Caldwell, 2001; Christesen, 2002). It is generally agreed that the more

accurately managers can answer the question of what motivates their employees, the more

effective they will be at enhancing performance and advancing the notion of organizational

accountability (Chernis and Kane, 2004).

Until now, a lot of studies have been done in the area of work-life balance. In the literature,

according to employees‘ demands there are studies on flexible working applications (Brannen

and Lewis, 2000; Den Dulk, 2001), the relationship between stress, commitment, fertility and

work-life balance (Bedeian, 1988; Darcy and McCarthy, 2007; Frone, 1992; Grady and

McCarthy, 2008; Lambert, 2000; McCarthy and Cheveland, 2005) and on the effect of work life

balance and the performances of employees (McCarthy and Cheveland, 2005; Grady and

McCarthy, 2008).

2.4.1 Leave Policy and Employee Turnover

Martin and Kaufman (2013) queried whether satisfaction with leave policy matters when it

comes to retaining employees using 480 extension agents with less than 6 years of employment

representing 12 states in the southern United States of America. Using Ordinary Least Square

Regression, they found that significant relationships between employee‘s perceived fairness of

leave policy and intention to quit. Employee retention is one of the most difficult operational

areas for human resources managers to determine exactly why employees leave the organization,

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and what they can do to retain them (Cook, 2004). However, some researchers have attributed it

to satisfaction with leave policy.

Perceived fairness of leave policy has a significant relationship with employee retention (Kazi

and Zadeh, 2011). Dissatisfaction with leave policy leads to job turnover (Kazi and Zadeh,

2011b). Imbalance or dissatisfaction in work leads to dissatisfaction in personal life. This can

lead to job turnover (Swift, 2007). People who are happy with life are happier employees and

show better organizational citizenship, courtesy and conscientiousness (Bright, 2008). Carsten

and Spector (1987) conducted a meta-analysis of 42 studies, and found the correlation between

satisfaction with leave policy and turnover is 0.24. They conclude that one obvious factor

affecting turnover would be an economic downturn, in which unsatisfied workers may not have

other alternative business opportunities.

Karsh, Booske and Saintfort (2007) studied job and organizational determinants of nursing home

employee commitment, job satisfaction and intent to turnover. Having sampled a total of 6584

nursing home employees from 76 nursing homes in mid-western United States with

questionnaire, they found that job and organizational factors predicted commitment and

satisfaction while commitment and satisfaction predicted turnover intentions. Chughtai and Zafar

(2006) examined the influence of leave policy on turnover intentions and on job performance.

Muthuveloo and Rose‘s (2005) study explores that job satisfaction leads to positive

organizational outcomes in terms of turnover.

Meyer, Paunonen, Gellatly, Goffin, and Jackson (1989) examined facts of a positive correlation

between satisfaction with leave policy, organizational commitment and employee turnover and

found that low job satisfaction correlates with low commitment which subsequently increases the

chances of employee turnover. They conclude that this series of action has also been associated

with low levels of morale; a finding that agrees with DeCottis and summers (1987). A study by

Mowday, Porter and Steers, 1982) shows that non-satisfied and non-committed employees may

depict the organization in negative terms to outsiders thereby inhibiting the organization‘s ability

to recruit high-quality employees; and decrease measures of altruism and compliance (Schappe,

1998).

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Shore and Martin (2014) studied the differential associations that perceived fairness of leave

policy and organizational commitment have with job performance and turnover intentions using

a sample of bank tellers and hospital professionals. Results showed that perceived fairness of

leave policy was more strongly related than commitment with turnover intentions for the tellers,

but not for the professionals. Fairness of leave policy was related more strongly than

organizational commitment with supervisory ratings of performance for both samples. The

findings suggest that specific compensation packages are more closely associated with the task-

related outcomes such as performance ratings, whereas global organizational attitudes are more

closely associated with organization-related outcomes like turnover intentions.

Nayeem and Tripathy (2014) examined the relationship of satisfaction with leave policy and

turnover intentions and burnout levels among teachers in technical Institutions. The study

pointed out that leave policy was a major contributor towards job satisfaction and males

experienced higher degree of turnover intentions compared to female teachers. The study

identified that leave policy and employee turnover had a positive relationship. Sakthivel and

Jayakrishnan (2014) demonstrated that work life balance and employee turnover were positively

correlated among nursing professionals and can act as a predictor. Arup Laboratories, a Medical

and Testing Reference Laboratory with 1,789 employees in Salt Lake City, has reported that

offering flexible scheduling has helped them to more than double their employee base from 700

in 1992 to 1,700 employees in 2004, whilst reducing turnover from 22% to 11% (Hartel, 2007).

Shree (2013) identified significant relationship between work life balance and employee turnover

among Critical Care Nurses in Private Hospitals at Coimbatore, India. Rathi and Barath (2011)

conducted a study among 148 police personnel based in India. Their study demonstrated work-

to-family and family-to-work conflict to be negatively correlated with job satisfaction. They

identified a significantly moderate relationship of social support from co-workers to work-to-

family and family-to-work conflict and family satisfaction.

Chimote and Srivastava (2011) conducted a survey on call center employees in Gurgaon, in India

and identified that organizations could benefit in terms of reduction in absenteeism and turnover,

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improvement of productivity and image, and assured loyalty and retention, while, employees

perceived increased satisfaction with leave policy, job security, and autonomy, reduced stress

and improved health out of WLB. However, correlation analysis indicated that while

organizational perspective of WLB benefits significantly correlated with job satisfaction,

employee perspective of WLB benefits exhibited significant correlation with job satisfaction and

autonomy. Hobson, Delunas and Kesic (2007) proposed that the continuous inability of

employees to balance work and life responsibilities may contribute to organizational

performance in terms of increased absenteeism and turnover.

2.4.2 Flexible Scheduling and Efficient Service Delivery

Studies examining groupings of flexible working arrangements has associated employee

participation in these arrangements with higher levels of self-reported focus, concentration, and

motivation (Williams, 2000), Chow and Keng-Howe‘s (2006) study of workers in Singapore

revealed that the more flexible their schedules, the greater their self-reported productivity. A

study of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers‘ by Meyer, Mukerjee, and Sestero (2001)

revealed that organizations offering work-life balance practices enjoyed increased profit rates.

This was particularly the case for the practices of family sick leave and telework, which were

related most strongly to increased profits. The authors posited that telework encouraged longer

work hours by employees who were constantly available for work and who no longer needed to

commute.

Agbola (2002) conducted a study on flexible scheduling and attitude of workers in Nigerian

banks. The following objectives were set out for the study: to determine the impact of motivation

on behaviours; to determine the effect of flexible scheduling on employee performance. Ten

commercial banks were used for the study. The population of the study was 1701 and sample

size was 368. The findings of the study indicate that flexible scheduling is slightly important

because of its lack of significance as a determinant of performance and its intangible nature. The

study concluded that flexible scheduling as a tool in improving work attitude is not significant.

In a study conducted by Lockwood (2006) on a sample of five research and four academic

libraries using survey research design, it was found, after data analysis with Pearson Multiple

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Correlation; that a positive correlation exists between flexible scheduling and performance.

Albers-Sonke (2002) investigated sales force management – compensation, motivation, selection

and training; the objectives of the study include: to determine the relationship between training

and development and motivation; to ascertain the influence of flexible scheduling on sales ratio.

The study indicates that there is a positive relationship between training and development,

flexible scheduling and improved sales performance ratio in the organization.

Becker, Billings, Evelleth and Gilbert (2004) investigated the relationship between flexible

scheduling and organizational performance. Using survey research design, they found that

flexible scheduling and organizational performance are largely unrelated. This was countered by

the findings by Mueller, Wallace and Price (2012) who looked at organizational performance and

hypothesized that employee commitment is empirically related to enhanced organizational

performance. Analyzing data with confirmatory factor analysis, they found that employee

commitment has a strong correlation with organizational performance but when aided with other

contributory factors, the result may differ.

Studies examining groupings of flexible working arrangements has associated employee

participation in these arrangements with higher levels of self-reported focus, concentration, and

motivation (Williams, 2000). Chow and Keng-Howe‘s (2006) study of workers in Singapore

revealed that the more flexible their schedules, the greater their self-reported productivity.

Oyedele (2011) in his study on team management: lessons from the leadership styles of

successful team managers; investigated the possible relationship that exists between flexible

scheduling and the individual‘s job performance. Also examined was the influence leadership

style had on motivation of the employee. To examine this relationship, four hypotheses were

tested using a survey that examined flexible scheduling and performance. Five organizations

agreed to participate in the study. Each organization was sent 80 surveys to distribute to their

employees. Out of the 400 surveys distributed, a 77% response rate was achieved and the

findings indicate that a relationship does indeed exist between individual‘s flexible scheduling

and the individual‘s job performance.

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Ng‘ang‘a (2010) carried out a study on international non-governmental organizations in the

health sector in Kenya which recommends the adoption of quality WLB practices. The proposed

WLB initiatives include compressed work schedules, alternative work schedules, job sharing,

childcare facilities, wellness programmes and telecommuting. The study noted an increase in

employee motivation and productivity in the organizations that adopted these WLB initiatives.

Flexible working schedules positively influence employee productivity at the Judiciary.

The European Working Conditions Survey (2010) found that 85% of those working less than 30

hours per week were satisfied with their work–life balance. Furthermore, part-time workers and

those working less than 35 hours a week reported the lowest levels of both physical and

psychological health problems (Clarke et al., 2004). While part-time work is likely to reduce

general experiences of work-life conflict, it is also widely observed that part-time hours often

involve work that is lower paid and less secure, involving less autonomy and skill discretion

(McDonald et al., 2009). Hence, reduced hours may improve work-life outcomes, but other

important aspects of job quality, opportunity and financial security are substantially reduced.

Many studies have suggested that flexible work arrangements would help the employees to attain

a better blend between work and non work activities and help the organizations to recruit, retain

and motivate their employees (Clarke et al, 2004; Fapohunda, 2014). Hill (2006) conducted a

study on 6,451 employees of IBM in USA and the study empirically suggested the importance of

flexible work timings and location of work place to reduce employee‘s work life imbalance. The

study demonstrated that individuals with perceived job flexibility have the benefit of good work

life balance and was capable of working longer hours. Christensen and Staines (2012) identified

that flexi-time work arrangement reduced late comings, absenteeism, and turnover. The study

concluded that flexible time strategy improved employee productivity by reducing absenteeism,

turnover and work family conflict.

Lingard, Francis and Turner (2008) conducted a study among project-based construction workers

in a large civil engineering construction project in Melbourne, Australia. The study captured data

with regard to the number of hours worked, satisfaction with work life balance and capacity to

complete required tasks at work and at home. Results demonstrated a strong correlation between

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hours worked each week and participants‘ work and life experiences. The time series modelling

revealed that workers taking a short, temporary break from work can contribute to improve work

life balance. Wayne (2014) suggested that limiting work hours may benefit workers to increase

the level of work family balance because fewer work hours may contribute to reduction in work

family conflict. Hill et al. (2006) propounded that, flexi time helps employees to manage their

work and family responsibilities effectively there by allowing them to minimize work family

conflict and to improve the performance at work and home.

Julien, Somerville and Culp (2015) had examined the role of alternative work arrangements that

helps to reduce work life conflict in the public sector. The Results revealed that a compressed

work week is considered as an alternative work life arrangement that reduces work-life conflict

and helps to enhance work-life balance. High levels of management and superior support of

flexible work arrangements such as flexible hours and compressed work week were positively

related with the ability to balance personal, family and work demands.

Madipelli, Sarma and Chinnappaiah (2010) investigating the factors influencing work life

imbalance among female teachers at home and at work place observed that, organizations having

ineffective work arrangements, poor working conditions, long working hours, lower income,

pressurized work environment etc., may be responsible for monotony, frustration and stress

towards work and home among employees, which leads to work life imbalance. Marital

relationship, attitude and cooperation of husband and family members were the other factors may

also relate to WLB amidst working women.

Arup Laboratories, a Medical and Testing Reference Laboratory with 1,789 employees in Salt

Lake City, has reported that offering flexible scheduling has helped them to more than double

their employee base from 700 in 1992 to 1,700 employees in 2004, whilst reducing turnover

from 22% to 11% (Hartel, 2007). It is also notable that a variety of ‗best employer‘ surveys

regularly use availability of work-life balance practices as an evaluation criterion, thus indicating

the connection between corporate image and the availability of such practices. SC Johnson, a

family-owned consumer-goods company in New Zealand, says improved staff retention as a

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result of work-life initiatives saves the company more than $200,000 a year.

(www.worklifebalance.com, 2004)

Drake (2011) carried out a study on successful ways to motivate people to perform at higher

levels of customer service, quality, sales and other key metrics. The purpose of the study was to

determine the effect of motivation on performance. The study which had a scope of over twenty

plus years used 600 employee focus groups and individual interviews of more than 2,000 people

in Canada. The researcher adopted the survey research method. The finding of the study

indicated that a positive and significant relationship between flexible scheduling inspired

motivation (as indicated in the questionnaire) and organizational performance and thus made the

following recommendations:

3. Highly value each individual‘s role or contribution: no matter how inconsequential it

seems to the bigger picture. Knowing how one‘s role contributes to the organization‘s

overall success is a key longer-term motivator and morale builder. As the manager, you

should regularly reinforce ―role importance‖ with each employee on your team.

2. Accurately match the employee‘s skill set with the right job: There is little chance an

employee will get motivated for very long, or have the inclination to perform at higher levels if

they are not placed in the right job. You can utilize hiring and skills assessment tools to make

more accurate fit-for-job decisions.

3. Expectations must be made crystal clear: Employees must know your organization‘s values as

well as your expectations in fulfilling those standards or values. Studies indicate that

organizations with clear, high standards outperform those without. This factor is undervalued in

too many companies. Consequently, this is largely unrecognized among more seasoned

managers—as well as new managers or supervisors.

4. Deal aggressively and promptly with poor performers or you will destroy the motivation and

drive of your better performers: One study found that 50% of employees believed that their

manager was too tolerant of poor performers. It‘s a killer to employee morale and negates

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virtually any improvement initiatives whenever a manager sees underperformance but looks the

other way.

5. Consistently reward and affirm employees for performance that fulfills your expectations: Do

not wait until something‘s perfect before you mention it. People respond positively to a manager

that gives well-deserved praise, expresses appreciation, or gives consistent encouragement – it

tells them that their efforts were noticed and appreciated.

6. Consistently correct: for alidity that falls short of your expectations by giving helpful

employee performance reviews. This is an area of common and serious dissatisfaction among

employees, and the secret to effective employee reviews is not as difficult as it may seem.

7. Grant as much decision-making authority or autonomy as possible: in each position or job. By

far, most people want and are motivated by the autonomy to do their job (within the guidelines)

as they see necessary. You can grant more autonomy or work independence through successful

delegation, increasing decision making rights or assigning temporary special projects. The

benefits you‘re likely to notice are increased levels of creative problem solving, a greater sense

of urgency and higher morale.

8. Seek out and ask for opinions and ideas: The four most motivating words are, ―What do you

think?‖ Everyone likes to feel a part of something bigger than them. You can help your

employees feel greater ownership by making them an active part of your strategies or planning.

9. Do not leap to conclusions about a lapse in an employee‘s performance or what‘s possibly

behind the motives of an abrupt attitude change: On the surface, or at first glance, an employee‘s

performance or alidity may create real stress for you. It‘s always a good idea to open dialogue

with someone first, inquire as to what‘s going on, or learn more about why they did/didn‘t take a

particular action when you thought they understood your expectations. Taking sudden action

before finding out the real reasons can lead to harming the trusting relationship you‘ve worked

hard to build.

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10. Be accessible and approachable: Employees will be motivated when you make an effort to be

available, return their calls promptly and come across as approachable. Knowing you are there to

support and get them the help they need, to the best of your ability, is motivating.

11. Take an active interest in the success and well-being of each person under your supervision:

People need to know that you want them to succeed; moreover, that you will take an active role

in checking in on their progress and will do whatever you can to help them reach their goals.

12. Raise the bar: Good managers fix things and watch over the bottom-line or budget with a

close eye for detail. But great managers do that too, plus, they raise the bar for people. Keeping

your employees motivated and inspired to reach greater results is made possible when you raise

expectations or set new goals, create a sense of urgency, as well as provide essential resources

and training people will need to achieve goals at excellent levels.

13. Measure everything: Many organizations fail to measure the most important activities to their

company, such as: not measuring closing ratios of salespeople; failing to regularly measure

customer service or customer satisfaction levels, job satisfaction levels by department and levels;

and not measuring leadership or supervisory effectiveness through candid employee surveys.

These are just a few of the critical areas every organization should regularly monitor. People

need clear guidelines, but it‘s just as vital to know that everyone will be held accountable to

achieving the work-related goals or standards, and that means measurement.

14. Maintain strong communications with people: Poor communications is one of the three most

common weaknesses for every organization. Keeping people informed is key to them having a

sense of belonging and individual importance and excellent employee communications are key to

employee motivation as well as achieving consistent levels of high performance. Failing to keep

people adequately informed about the company‘s goals, progress or results will produce a

general sense of unnecessary alarm, and increase rumours.

15. Provide sufficient training or resources for high performance to occur: Studies point out that

organizations which invest disproportionately higher in employee training have lower turnover

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and perform better than the general market. Almost any organization today, no matter its size,

can afford online training options, mentoring and individualized coaching.

Okoo (2013) examined the impact of flexible scheduling on team performance in SOS

Children‘s Village, Eldoret. This study adopted descriptive research design. The target

population for this study was 111, comprising of management and all other employees of SOS

Children‘s Village, Eldoret. Using the Morgan and Krejcie Table for determining Sample Sizes,

a sample size of 92 respondents, representing 83% of the total population of SOS workers was

drawn from each of the category of management and the general employees using stratified

random sampling technique. Stratified random sampling was used to identify respondents. The

researcher used questionnaires, interviews, document reviews and observation techniques to

collect data. Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. From

the findings, the study established that team performance was to be achieved through recognition

of achievement, promotions, good working environments, flexible scheduling and fair rewards

and remunerations.

Wali (2010) in her work on promoting human resources in the public sector: critical role of

human capital in the performance of public services in Africa; investigated the relationship

between flexible scheduling and performance as one of the objectives. Her study was domiciled

in Marrakech Morocco. Based on literature and hypothesis, a theoretical, conceptual and

structural equation model was set up through a questionnaire survey and sample of about 6

companies. Partial least square were used in the analysis and the results were tested with

regression. Her findings argued that flexible scheduling had a significant relationship with

performance in all the sampled organizations in Morocco.

Research by Sheikh, HafizUllah, Murad and Zulqarnain analyzes the effect of flexible

scheduling on organizational performance about the staff members of Higher Education

Department of Khyber Pakhtoon Khawa (KPK), Peshawar Province of Pakistan. Several

measures of employee performance were analyzed including esprit de corps, team trust and

recognition and rewards. There is clear evidence that flexible scheduling was positively related

with organizational performance. The self-administered questionnaires were distributed within

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the Directorate of Higher Education, (KPK) Peshawar, including four Government Degree

Colleges (GDC‘s) of boys and girls located in Peshawar and Kohat area.

The study used regression and correlation techniques in order to analyze the relationship between

two variables that is Flexible Scheduling and Performance. The result of the study shows that

there is a significant positive impact of predictors on the response variable. The study

recommends adapting flexible scheduling in order to enhance the organizational performance.

Future research areas have also been indicated in this study.

Study by Boakye (2015) sought to identify the impact WLB has on organizational performance.

The objective of this study was to identify factors associated with WLB, identify the positive or

negative effects of WLB on employees and to examine the impact of WLB on organization

performance. The research analyzed the impact of WLB on organizational performance on

the employees of Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital and Ejisu Government Hospital.

Several measures of WLB were analyzed including flexible scheduling and compressed work

weeks.

Convenience sampling technique was used to select the employees while purposive sampling

technique was used to select management in the organization. A self-structured questionnaire

was used in the data collection. The study used correlation techniques in order to analyze

the relationship between two variables that was WLB and Organizational Performance.

There was clear evidence that WLB was positively related with organizational performance. The

result of the study shows that there was a significant positive impact of WLB on organizational

performance.

Delarue, Van Hootegem, Procter and Burridge (2008) researched a paper which presented a

review of recent survey-based research looking at the contribution of flexible scheduling to

organizational performance. In particular, it focuses on empirical studies in which both flexible

scheduling and performance are directly measured in a quantitative way. The review shows that

flexible scheduling had a positive impact on all four dimensions of performance. It also reveals

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that, when flexible scheduling is combined with organizational structural change, performance

can be further enhanced.

2.4.3 Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Commitment

Several empirical studies have supported that employees‘ experience of work-life balance

contributes to favorable evaluation of their organizations and affective commitment (Muse,

2008). Similarly, work interference with family and family interference with work are negatively

related to affective commitment (Allen et al., 2000). Organizational interest in the management

of the Work life balance is derived from evidence that there is little doubt any more that there is

a clear connection between the way people are managed and organizational performance and that

with the onset of predicted skill-shortages, the ability to offer effective Work life balance

employment opportunities may become a source of competitive advantage (Purcell, 2002).

Research by Tayfun and Catir (2014) domiciled in Turkey on the relationship between work/life

balance and organizational commitment had the main objective of examining the relationship

between employees‘ work/life balance and the level of organizational commitment. Besides, the

other objective was to determine whether there is a significant difference between the perception

of work/life balance, level of organizational commitment and employee‘s age, education, the

duration of service in the job, the duration of service in the hospital. 391 copies of the

questionnaire were administered to nurses and the results were analyzed statistically. After the

analysis, a positive-sided relationship between work/life balance of nurses and affective and

normative commitment was found but in terms of continuance commitment, the relationship was

a negative one. Creating a work/life balance has significant importance in increasing employees‘

affective and normative commitment.

Hye (2014) examined the effect of work-life balance on affective commitment and in-role

performance and to explore the mediating role of affective commitment to link work-life balance

and in-role performance in the Korean context. Through the literature review, the hypothesized

model and hypotheses were developed. Using data gathered from 293 Korean workers, the

current study tested hypotheses using structural equation modeling (SEM) and regression

analysis. The results showed no direct effect of work-life balance on in-role performance.

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However, it was found that employees‘ experience of work-life balance increases affective

commitment and that affective commitment has a positive influence on in-role performance.

Affandi and Raza (2002) investigated the association between leader‘s emotional intelligence

and its impact on quality of work life, burnout and employee performance among medical

doctors working in various hospitals across Pakistan. Results indicated that leaders‘ emotional

intelligence is positively linked with quality of work life and can be considered as a strong

predictor of quality of work life, and employee performance while it is not associated with

employee burnout. Rangreji (2009) found that IT employees in Bangalore city, India exhibited

higher regulation of emotion in the self, followed by appraisal and recognition of emotion in

others, use of emotion to facilitate performance and appraisal and expression of emotion in the

self.

Palmer (2003) examines the reliability and factorial validity of a number of emotional

intelligence tests with an Australian population sample. He conducted a systematic review of the

variables assessed by different measures of emotional intelligence looking for common

dimensions of the construct, and alidity ion a five-factor model representing the communality

amongst the alternative measures of emotional intelligence assessed.

3. Emotional Recognition and Expression

The ability to identify ones owns feelings and emotional states, and the ability to express those

inner feelings to others.

b. Understanding Others Emotions

The ability to identify and understand the emotions of others and that manifest in external stimuli

(that is, workplace environments, staff meetings, literature, artwork, and so on).

c. Emotions Direct Cognition

The extent to which emotions and emotional knowledge is incorporated in decision-making

and/or problem solving.

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d. Emotional Management

The ability to manage positive and negative emotions both within oneself and others.

e. Emotional Control

The ability to effectively control strong emotional states experienced at work such as anger,

stress, anxiety and frustration.

Rahim and Malik (2010:1) in their study titled emotional intelligence and organizational

performance. The study assessed the effect of demographical factors on the level of emotional

intelligence that leads to organizational performance among male and female employees. The

study tested four hypotheses;

1. Age has significant effect on the level of emotional intelligence that leads to better

organizational performance of the employees.

2. Emotional level of employees have a positive effect on the level of emotional intelligence that

leads to better organizational performance of the employees.

3. There are differences of marital status with respect to the level of emotional intelligence that

leads to better organizational performance of the employees and

4. There are differences with respect to the level of emotional intelligence that leads to better

organizational performance of the employees.

The hypotheses were tested empirically using data collected from 196 middle-level managers

working in different banks in Pakistan, mainly in the cities of Peshawar and Islamabad, the

managers include 144 males and 52 females. The results of the statistical analyses demonstrate

that;

1. Age has got negative relationship with the level of emotional intelligence that leads to

organizational performance.

2. The education level of employees has a positive effect on the level of emotional intelligence.

3. Marital status has negative relationship with the level of emotional intelligence and

4. Gender has a positive relationship with the dependent variable emotional intelligence that

leads to better organizational performance.

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Khurram (2011) carried out a study in the African Journal of Business Management in Pakistan.

The aim of the study was to explore the impact of emotional intelligence on employee‘s

performance among telecom employees. The study examined the impact of four significant

aspects of emotional intelligence that is self awareness, self management, social awareness and

relationship management. Data was collected from five telecom companies by using

questionnaire. The results revealed that a positive relationship exists between social awareness

and relationship management and employee‘s performance while self awareness and self

management were not found significantly related to employee‘s performance.

Hassan, Saeid and Sirous (2011), in their study titled impact of emotional intelligence on

performance of employees in Tehran. The study was undertaken to understand the performance

level of managers and employees in educational administrations of Iran. The study focused on

understanding the emotional intelligence of the managers and employees and its link to their

performance level on the job. Data were collected from 155 sampled respondents through

questionnaire administration. The findings of the study indicate that emotional intelligence has a

positive impact on the performance level of the managers and employees in educational

administrations of Iran.

With respect to the effect of emotional intelligence on organizational commitment, few empirical

studies exist and most are not indigenous (Taleo, 2009). Still, it is essential to review empirical

studies on the determinants of organizational commitment. Dixit and Bhati (2012) linked

employee commitment and organizational performance in Indian auto-component industry.

Using correlation and regression analysis and a sample of 69 firms, they found a positive

correlation between the availability of employee benefits and commitment which invariably

impacted positively on performance. Their study is consistent with research by Taleo (2009) who

found that organizations that recognize and offer compensation to employees are perceived by

employees as showing greater care and concern, and as being fair in their dealings with

employees. They conclude that this improves organizational performance in the concerned

organizations.

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Similarly, Cohen and Gattiker (1994) examined the link between organizational commitment and

customer satisfaction. They found that commitment was more strongly related to customer

satisfaction than to actual income. Khan, Rehman and Akram investigated the role of employee

commitment as an active catalyst for improving customer satisfaction. In this research employee

satisfaction is taken as dependent variable and employee commitment is employed as

independent variable, whereas organizational performance is used as moderating variable.

Sample for this study was selected from employees working in various private and public

organizations of major cities of Lahore, Faisalabad and Karachi. Data is collected through close-

ended questionnaire and statistically analyzed through SPSS by applying descriptive statistics

and t-test. Results revealed that the there is a moderate level of interdependence between these

variables. So they rejected the alternate hypothesis and accepted null hypothesis.

Adhikari and Gautam (2011) studied employee commitment and organizational performance in

Nepal. The paper presented a typological framework showing compliance-commitment matrix.

Based on this framework a number of new HR mandates recommended for the improvement in

the situation of low degree of commitment and compliance affecting level of performance in

Nepalese workplaces. Hard and soft HRM perspectives were incorporated to analyze the issues

and develop theories. Typological framework showing commitment-compliance matrix as an

organizational performance determinant was the main contribution of the paper.

Gul (2015) analyzed impact of employee commitment to organizational development using

customer satisfaction as a proxy for organizational development. The population of the study was

Comprised of middle level managers of all telecommunication companies of Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Primary data was collected from 370 managers. Simple

random sampling method was used for the selection of respondents. Questionnaire was

administered to collect Primary data. Organizational development and employee commitment

were taken as dependent ad independent variables respectively. Analysis of data was carried out

by applying SPSS 20.

Correlation and regression analysis tests were carried out to establish link between employee

commitment and organizational development, and also to find out the predictor of organizational

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development. The study revealed a high degree of correlation between employee commitment

and its factors and organizational development. Regression analysis confirmed that employee

commitment is predictor of organizational development. This study has great value for the

managers and academicians as it will help them in designing an integrated and comprehensive

system for creating commitment among the employees for improving performance of

organization.

The need for the study by Igbaekemen and Idowu (2014) arose from the acknowledgement of

organizational commitment on employee performance as the most critical in all organizational

analyses, and the determinant often found between goals of the organizational all the needs of

employee within it, therefore, necessary to empirically study how the impact of organizational

commitment on employee are coping with the challenges of employee performance. The findings

of their study indicated a positive relationship between both variables.

Irefin and Mechanic (2014) examined the Effect of Employee Commitment on Organizational

Performance with special interest in Coca Cola Nigeria Limited. Much of the interest in

employee commitment stems from concern for the behavioural consequences that may result

from it. The paper focused on the influence of employee commitment on Organizational

Performance and Employees‘ turnover. Both descriptive and explanatory research methodologies

were adopted in this study. A five point numerically scaled Likert-Type questionnaire was

constructed and administered among selected Staff of Coca Cola Nigeria Limited. The research

hypotheses were tested using the Pearson Correlation Coefficient.

The result shows that: the level of employee commitment of the Staff of Coca Cola Company Plc

is very high; there is a fairly high relationship between employee commitment and organizational

performance; there is also a very high relationship between employee commitment and

employees‘ turnover etc. Some of the recommendations made are that: the management should

hire employees who are likely to become linked to the organization; management should create

clear and realistic job and organizational previews.

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Ahmad, Iqbal, Javed and Hamad conducted a study with the purpose of investigating the impact

of Organizational Commitment and Employee Performance on Customer Satisfaction. They used

statistical population of Banking Sector which covers 110 employees of 10 banks and data was

collected through a self administrative questionnaire. Correlation coefficient, Regression analysis

and ―ANOVA were tested for the data analysis. There were two independent variables 1)

Organizational commitment 2) Employee performance whereas Customer satisfaction was taken

as dependent variable. Results showed Positive relationship between Organizational commitment

and Customer satisfaction and similarly Employee Performance has Positive relationship with

Customer satisfaction.

Bushra and Yasir analyzed the impact of work life balance on job satisfaction and organizational

commitment among university teachers at the University of Gujrat, Pakistan. The paper explored

the impact of work life balance on job satisfaction and organizational commitment among

teaching employees of university of Gujrat. A sample of 171 employees gathered via stratified

random sampling which has been provided the basis for analysis. Data was collected through

questionnaire and analyzed through SPSS. The correlation result shows that significant positive

relationship exists between work life balance and job satisfaction of university teachers. So their

hypothesis one was accepted. The Pearson correlation results also indicate that there is positive

relationship exists between work life balance and organizational commitment of university

teachers. Thus, their hypothesis two was also accepted.

2.4.4 Workplace Support and Job Satisfaction

Grover and Crooker (1995) used data collected in a national survey of over 1,500 US workers to

examine the relationship between how they perceive their organization‘s support and turnover.

They found a positive correlation between positive Workplace Support or Organizational

Support (OS) and job satisfaction, even for those who were not happy with their remuneration.

Judge, Thoreson, Bono and Patton (2001) found that after correcting the sampling and

measurement errors of 301 studies, the correlation between OS and job satisfaction increased to

0.30. It is important to note that the connection between OS and job satisfaction is higher for

difficult jobs than for less difficult jobs (Saari and Judge, 2004).

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Fathima and Sahibzada (2013) had identified colleague support and job resources to be

positively related with the work life balance while unfair criticism at job has negative relation

with work life balance among university teachers in Pakistan. On the other hand, research

conducted by Organ (1988) concluded that a stronger connection between organizational

performance and OS was not found because of the narrow definition of organizational

performance. Organ (1988) believes that when the definition of organizational performance

includes behaviors such as organizational citizenship (the extent to which one‘s voluntary

support contributes to the success of an organization), the relationship between OS and

performance will improve.

One of the more widely researched topics in Industrial Psychology is the relationship between

OS and employee job satisfaction (Cheloha and Farr, 1980). It seems natural to assume that if

individuals dislike their jobs then they will often call in sick, or simply look for a new

opportunity (Johns, 1997). Ayeni and Phopoola (2007) have found a strong relationship between

OS and job satisfaction. They concluded on the basis that organizational support had the highest

impact on high employees‘ commitment and productivity. Hobson, Delunas and Kesic (2007)

proposed that the continuous inability of employees to balance work and life responsibilities may

contribute to organizational performance in terms of increased job satisfaction and turnover.

In a study conducted by Tella, Ayeni and Popoola (2007) on a sample of five research and four

academic libraries using survey research design, it was found, after data analysis with Pearson

Multiple Correlation; that a positive correlation exists between motivation, job perception and

turnover. Becker, Billings, Evelleth and Gilbert (2004) investigated the relationship between

workplace support and absenteeism. Using survey research design, they found that workplace

support and absenteeism are largely unrelated. This was echoed by the findings by Mueller,

Wallace and Price (2012) that looked at absenteeism and hypothesized that the effect of

organizational support is not significant. Analyzing data with confirmatory factor analysis, they

found that organizational support had a weak correlation with employee commitment and

absenteeism.

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A recent study by Bateman and Strasser (2014) domiciled in Texas and Ohio on longitudinal

analysis of the antecedents of organizational commitment using absenteeism as proxy with

longitudinal data from 129 nursing department employees. Organizational commitment was

found to be antecedent to OS rather than an outcome of it. Shah (2011) examined employee

career commitment factors in a public sector organization of a developing country. His study was

based on a theoretical approach to identify the proposed relationships of job perception,

organizational commitment and job promotion variables with employee career commitment.

Using a cross-sectional survey, the study found that independent variables such as job

perception, organizational commitment and job promotion have positive and significant

relationships to dependent variable – employee career commitment.

Tremblay, Genin and Loreto (2006) illustrated the importance of organizational support to work-

life balance in a demanding work environment among police officers and agents in Québec using

case study methodology involving a questionnaire and in-depth interviews. The findings

substantiated the importance for organizations to offer formal and informal support to employees

in the work environment to balance their work and family aspects. Lumley, Coetzee, Tladinyane

and Ferreira (2011) were saddled with the objective of exploring the relationship between

employees‘ job perception (as measured by the Job Perception Survey) and organizational

commitment (as measured on the Organizational Commitment Scale). They conducted a cross-

sectional survey on a convenience sample of 86 employees at four information technology

companies in South Africa. Correlational and stepwise regression analyses revealed a number of

significant relationships between the two variables.

Ismail (2012) examined the relationship between components of job satisfaction and perceived

organizational support among employees at Higher Learning Education Institutions in Kelantan.

The study generated a 96.3 percent response rate from 300 respondents. The result showed that

staff job satisfaction was not found to have significant positive relationship with perceived

organizational support. Celik (2010) analyzed the relationship between components of turnover

and POS of tax office employees in Turkey. Factor analysis was conducted on the data obtained

through employee turnover scale developed by Meyer and Allen (1990). Cronbach‘s alpha

coefficient and also test item total correlation were calculated for reliability of the factors. For

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two groups comparisons Mann Whitney U test and more than two groups comparisons Kruskall

Wallis test were used. The study found a significantly positive correlation between POS and

employee turnover.

Leaker (2008) estimated that the United Kingdom had approximately lost £19.2 billion in 2007

to direct and indirect costs of employee job satisfaction. The impact of job satisfaction on firms

or even a nation‟ s economy is enormous, taking account of the costs associated with it. A better

understanding of the determinants of job satisfaction can be valuable for firms and policymakers

(Störmer and Fahr, 2010). For this reason, governments are intensively researching better ways

of handling with this problem (e.g. legislative). This resulted for example in a parliamentary

inquiry in the Netherlands in 1993. Shellbery and Shannon (2003) found that workers who rated

their work environment as healthy reported higher job satisfaction, morale, and organizational

commitment; and lower absenteeism and intent to quit.

The Dutch absence rate had a long history of high sickness absence and work disability rates

compared with other European countries (Geurts, Kompier and Gründemann, 2000). As

Whitaker (2001) and Gimeno, Benavides and Benach (2004) explain, the consequences of job

satisfaction make sickness absence one of the top priorities for European Union Governments.

A difficulty of researching employee absence is that, as stated by Barmby, Ercolani and Treble

(2002), absence is not purely a medical condition. While employee absence often is described as

sickness, there are more aspects which play a role or have an effect on the absence alidity of

employees. Johns and Nicholson (1982) describe this as an essential problem, because job

satisfaction is actually a variety of behaviours with different causes masquerading as a unitary

phenomenon.

Whitaker (2001) also stressed this aspect; sickness is a complex phenomenon that is influenced

strongly by factors other than health. Throughout previous research many determinants have

been tested upon their possible explanatory abilities on employee absence alidity. While these

determinants often showed similar results it is sometimes difficult to compare these outcomes

since other exogenous factors influenced them. Gimeno (2004) explains that studies have

examined the relationship between psychosocial work conditions and sickness absence. Some

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have found that sickness absence is related to high demands, low control, or a combination of

both, while other studies have found no relation.

Another example of different relations found in previous research concerns the relationship

between absence and an employee‘s age, some found positive relationships while others were

negative. Despite the wide variety of determinants used, they did not provide conclusive insights

in their explanatory power on job satisfaction due to the differences found including other

factors. Another issue for finding usable determinants for decreasing absenteeism is that

extensive research was executed for some determinants, while others have been given less

attention (Gimeno, 2004). Concurringly, Fitzgibbons (1992) and Rhodes and Steers (1990)

discussed that the vast majority of absenteeism research has focused on the determinants of work

attitudes like job satisfaction.

Besides the restrictions for the determinants itself, employee absence has also been proven to

differ between countries (Lusinyan and Bonato, 2007; Gimeno, Benavides and Benach, 2004).

Lusinyan and Bonato (2007) explain that although the empirical literature on work absence in

individual countries is vast there are a few cross-country comparative studies. Gimeno,

Benavides and Benach (2004) stress that surprisingly little research had considered the feasibility

of using sickness absence in cross national comparisons. They further support their point by

stating that international comparisons are urgently needed. They may not only help in assessing a

country‘s economic performance, but also enable overall patterns across countries to be

observed, indicating which policies are working for both public health and economic.

Generally, Vishwa et al (2015) investigated Empirical analysis of work life balance policies and

its impact on employee‘s job satisfaction and performance. The aim of the research was to

analyze the relationship between work life balance policies and employee job satisfaction.

Questionnaire was filled by 240 respondents who were used for the survey. The Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the quantitative data using correlation.

The findings of this study emphasized that each of the work life balance policies on its own is a

predictor of job satisfaction.

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Research by Susi and Jawaharrani (2010) explains how work-life balance and employee

engagement becomes a visible benchmark among high performing organizations. The study

indicated many family-friendly organizations feel the need for work-life balance which includes

recruitment and retention of valuable work force, reduced absenteeism, reduced employee stress,

health benefits, job satisfaction, and better life balance. The study suggested that an effectiveness

of work-life balance policies and practices must incorporate the effects of workplace culture and

supervisor support of employee‘s efforts to balance work and family responsibilities.

Azeem and Akhtar (2014) investigated the influence of work life balance and job satisfaction on

organization commitment of health care employee. This was aimed at exploring the influence of

work life balance and job satisfaction has on organization commitment among healthcare

employee. Questionnaire was distributed to 275 respondents in the healthcare sector. The

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the quantitative data

including correlation and reliabilities. The finding of the empirical test shows that employee in

the health care sector have a moderate level of perceived work life balance, job satisfaction and

commitment. There is a positive relationship between work life balance, job satisfaction and

organization commitment.

Ojo, Salau and Falola (2014) investigated the concept of work-life balance policies and practices

in three sectors of the Nigerian Economy namely the Banking, Educational and Power Sector.

The types of Work Life Balance initiatives available in the three sectors were explored and the

barriers to implementation of the Work Life Balance initiatives were identified. Quantitative

method was used to investigate the work-life balance practices in three sectors of the Nigerian

Economy. This was achieved using an in-depth case study analysis of these sectors.

The data set comprised of responses from both managers and employees in the Banking sector

with five hundred and eighty six copies of the questionnaire retrieved. The Educational sector

comprised of both managers and employees with five hundred and thirty one copies of the

questionnaire retrieved; while five hundred and seven copies retrieved from the Power Sector.

The findings reveal that there is diversity in terms of how respondents perceive the concept of

Work-Life Balance. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the

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quantitative data including Anova .There is a wide gap between corporate Work Life Balance

practices and employees‘ understanding of the concept; the paper suggests some policy

implications which would aid the implementation of Work Life Balance policies in the studied

sectors.

Fapohunda (2014) studied the effect of work life balance on productivity. The aim of the study

was to explore the connection between work life balance and organization productivity and

whether work life balance practice possibly decreases employee turnover and increases job

satisfaction. 200 respondents in the banking industry were used for the survey. A structured

questionnaire was used to collect data. Chi square was used to analyze the data. The finding of

the result was that there is a positive relationship between work life balance practice and

employee turnover. It also found out that management support was not satisfactory.

Kamau, Muleke, Makaya and Wagoki, (2013) investigated work life balance practices on

employee job performance at eco bank Kenya. The main objective was to determine the effect of

organization work life balance on employee performance. Fifty-Five (55) Eco Bank employees

were drawn through quota sampling method who also responded to survey questionnaires.

Spearman‘s Correlation Analysis was used to test the candidates‘ work life balance, their

performance to the organization. The finding of the empirical study shows that there was

correlation between work life balance and employee performance.

Dissanayaka and Ali (2013) analyzed the impact of work life balance on employee performance.

The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between work life balance and employee

performance. 96 employees were used for the survey and questionnaire was distributed to them

in which the data was used to run analysis. Pearson moment correlation was used to analyze the

data. The finding of the result was that there is a positive relationship between work life balance

and employee performance. Also there is a need for systematic effort to enhance work life

balance of the employee to achieve better employee performance.

Ojo (2012) examined work life balance practices and policies manager and employee experience

in Nigeria banking sector. The aim of the research is to explore the extent to which work life

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balance policies/ practices in organization in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument

and 600 respondents were used for the survey. Spearman‘s correlation analysis was used to

analyze the data. The finding of the empirical study shows that there is need to enlighten

employee about the various work life balance.

Sakthivel, Kamalanabhanb and Selvarania (2011) investigated work life balance reflections on

employee satisfaction .The aim of the research was to analyze the relationship between employee

satisfaction and work/life balance. The construct used for this research consists of career

opportunity, recognition, work tasks, payments, benefits, superior subordinate relationship,

employee satisfaction, and work/life balance. Questionnaire was filled by 210 respondents

working in IT organization. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to

analyze the quantitative data including multiple correlation and regression. Findings of the

empirical test show that high correlation exists between work task and employee satisfaction

with a mediator variable namely work-life balance.

Similarly, Simonetta and Manfred (2010) looked at ―work life balance which was an audit of

staff experience at oxford Brookes University‖ investigated the significance of work life alidity

for the university. They looked at the various work life balance practices in the university and

how they were utilized by staff of the university. The sample included 492 staff of the oxford

brooks university. The finding shows that it is important to achieve a balance between paid work

and personal life and that this enables them to work better. The staff agreed that for this to be

achieved it is a joint responsibility between the employers and the employee.

Warner and Hausdorf (2012) conducted a study on work life issues among health care workers in

Canada. The results indicated that a positive relationship exists between the organization and

supervisor support for work-life issues and reduction of work-to-family conflict. Howard,

Donofrio and Boles (2008) conducted a study among police personnel and revealed that work-

life balance significantly related to job satisfaction. Hughes and Bozioneles (2009) in a study

among bus drivers identified work-life imbalance to be a major source of dissatisfaction for the

participants rather than a source of concern. In addition, participants demonstrated appreciable

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association between work-life imbalance and withdrawal behaviours, including turnover and

non-genuine sick absence.

Keeton (2005) explored the factors influencing career satisfaction, work life balance, and

burnout among physicians. They observed that both women and men to be highly satisfied with

their careers while only moderately satisfied with work life balance and emotional resilience.

The findings of the study revealed that work life balance was significantly associated with career

satisfaction and the relationship is mediated by key factors namely, control over schedule, total

work hours, marital status, and having child dependents in the household. In addition,

generational and gender shifts also strongly and significantly contribute to career satisfaction,

work–life balance, and burnout, while, older age was consistently associated with more work–

life balance and less burnout.

Ilies, Wilson and Wagner (2002) examined the role of work-family integration in the spillover of

daily job satisfaction upon daily marital satisfaction and emotional states experienced by

employees at home. The samples chosen from university employees including administrative

professionals, supervisors, and clerical-technical employees, indicated that employees with

higher daily job satisfaction to experience lower negative effect at home. Smith (1996) in his

study on work-life balance perspectives of Millennial (those born between 1980 and 1995) job

candidates observed that work-life balance to have higher priority for current generation of

workers in comparison to previous generation. Results of the study indicated that the incumbents

consider healthy work-life balance as a vital source for person‘s quality of work, job

performance, ethical decision making, and long-term job satisfaction and generally declined

extra pay in lieu of vacation and flex time.

Saif, Malik and Awan (2008) examined the relationship of employee work satisfaction and

prevalence of work life balance (WLB) practices among layoff survivors in two big

organizations operating in Pakistan. The results of regression analysis showed a positive

relationship among the variables without any significant differences between top, middle and

lower level management. Noor (2007) identified the relationship between perceived work-life

balance and the intentions to leave among academia in Malaysian public higher education

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institutions. The results indicated that perceived satisfaction with work life balance was

negatively correlated to intention to leave the validity ion partially mediated by job satisfaction

and validation commitment.

Rani, Kamalanabhan and Selvarani (2008) demonstrated the relationship between employee

satisfaction and work life balance among employees working in IT organizations in validity,

India. The study revealed high correlation between work task and employee satisfaction with

WLB being a mediator variable. The results demonstrated positive relationship between

employee satisfaction and variables such as career opportunity, recognition, work task, benefits,

work/life balance and superior subordinate relationship while being negatively associated with

pay. The study proposed a SEM model in which the observed endogenous variables were

employee satisfaction and the work/life balance and the observed exogenous variables were

career opportunities, recognition, work task, pay and superior subordinate relationship.

Varatharaj and Vasantha (2007) conducted an exploratory study among women service sector

employees with reference to alidity city, India to demonstrate their work life balance as source

of job satisfaction. Their study revealed that greater part of the women employees feel

comfortable in their work place irrespective of their personal and work place disturbances and

demonstrated ability to balance their duties and responsibilities both in job as well as families.

Chawla and Sondhi (2011) in their survey conducted among teachers and BPO women

professionals revealed that job autonomy and organizational commitment are in positive relation

with work-life balance. The study indicated that the more proactive schools/BPO companies

which value the contribution of a committed and contributing human resource will need to

provide more autonomy to sustain their employee‘s work-life balance. While work load and

work family conflict indicated negative relation with work-life balance.

Shanti and Sundar (2012) in their study of work-life balance of women employees in the IT

industry analyzed that programs implemented by IT firms of Chennai satisfy different categories

of employees differently. Data were collected from 350 women employees working in various IT

Companies the study measured the satisfaction levels of the respondents across various work-life

balancing parameter. 55% of the employees were highly satisfied with the current work-life

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initiatives.

Ignacia Levy (2012) in his study of working mothers and their perceived work-life balance

showed that the age of the children is not that significant but the child-care support remains an

important factor in determining perceived work-life balance. The study also highlighted another

parameter called role conflict having negative impact on work-life balance. Pandu (2013)

analyzed work-life balance of professional women among IT and ITES based on demographic

information, work load, work environment, feelings about work, family dependants and absence

from work. The sector wise regression analysis demonstrated that feelings about work, family

dependants and absence from work were the strong contributors for a sense of balance for an

employee. However, no significant relationship has been obtained between work environment

and work life balance.

Madipelli (2013) in their research on factors causing work-life imbalance among school teachers

showed that most of the teachers feels stress with too many work demands, working conditions

and long working hours. The multiple roles played by women at work place and home reflecting

boredom, frustration and stress lead to work-life imbalance. Marital relationship, attitude, co-

operation of husbands and family members are highly influencing factors which create

imbalance among working women.

The study of Ajith (2013) on work-life balance for role prioritization of IT employees showed

that the employees were able to fulfill their professional and personal commitments at the same

time, because of better work-life balance policies. The relationship between work-life balance

policies and role prioritization was significant. The study was conducted on variables like

travelling time, depression, temper, work etc., to know the relation between work-life balance

and stress management.

Parkash and Jyoti (2016) analyzed the impact of work-life balance on performance of employees

in Indian organizations. The paper aimed towards understanding the meaning of work-life

balance in the context of employment relations and knowing the importance of work-life balance

for employers and employees. The target population comprises of two hundred regular

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employees of the different branches of HDFC Bank, Bajaj Alliance, and Punjab National Bank

situated in Jammu City of the J and K State. The findings indicate that work-life balance

approach is positively associated with employees‘ performance in the organization and is

applicable through joint efforts of the employees and employers.

Vishwa et al (2015) conducted a study on the analysis of work life balance policies and its

impact on employee‘s job satisfaction and performance from a descriptive statistical approach.

The objectives were based on analyzing the relationship between work life balance policies and

employee job satisfaction. The target population was two hundred and forty respondents.

Statistical primary data was collected using questionnaires, and analyzed using statistical

package for management and social sciences. The findings of this study emphasized that each of

the work life balance policies on its own is a predictor of job satisfaction. The goodness of fit, R

= 0.618 showed a good strength of the relationships between independent variables and the

dependent variable. The result explored herein makes the recommendation that managers in

banks should improve the work life balance policies offered to employees in order to increase

their job satisfaction, to improve staff commitment and productivity.

Bell, Rajendran and Theiler (2016) examined job stress, wellbeing, work-life balance and work-

life conflict among Australian academics. Drawing on Spillover theory (Zedeck, 1992), the study

alidity ion that high levels of perceived job pressure stress and job threat stress would predict

increased levels of work-life conflict, and decreased levels of work-life balance. Due to the well-

documented relationship between stress and health, the influence of job stress on wellbeing was

also investigated in this sample of academics (N =139). Perceived job stress (threat and pressure-

type stressors) was associated with poorer work-life balance, and increased conflict between

academics‘ work and personal lives. Perceived job threat-type stress made a stronger

contribution and was a significant predictor of work-life balance and work-life conflict scores,

than perceived job pressure-type stress. Perceived job threat-type stress among academics was

also a significant predictor and associated with poorer wellbeing and increased ill-being, but

perceived job pressure-type stress was not related to academics‘ wellbeing or ill-being.

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Maiya and Bagali (2016) conducted an empirical investigation on work-life balance among

working mothers in India. An experimental survey of equal number of Public and Private sector

employees was carried out. Both the sectors were evaluated on 6 sub scales viz: personal factors,

balancing factors, organizational support, motivational factors, career advancement and

psychological factors. The results reveal the picture of difficulties faced in balancing the work

demand and the life (family) responsibility. There was high correlation between the difficulties

faced and the balancing act to be performed. The significant results reflected in the areas of

career advancement factors, organizational support and Psychological factors.

An empirical study on work life balance and quality of life of working women in public and

private sector in India by Hetanshi (2010) sought to explore the work-life balance and quality of

life among women employees of public and private sector. A sample of 94 was taken and two

scales were used to assess the two parameters. Findings show that most of the work-related

factors have a negative impact on quality of life. The results also highlight that employed women

are not favorably placed and this has severe implications on the families, organizations and

society in general. It was highly recommended for organizations to have women-friendly

policies; on the other hand, families should also be more supportive and encouraging so that

women have harmony, good quality of life and a work-life balance.

Yamamoto and Matsuura (2012) investigated the effect of work-life balance practices on firm

productivity using evidence from Japanese firm-level panel data from the 1990s. They observed

a positive correlation between the WLB practices and TFP among sampled firms. However, that

correlation vanished when they controlled for unobserved firm heterogeneity, and found no

general causal relationship in which WLB practices increase firm TFP in the medium or long

run. For firms with the following characteristics—large, manufacturing, and have exhibited labor

hoarding during recessions—the study found positive and sizable effects. Since these firms are

likely to incur large fixed employment costs, they infer that firms investing in firm-specific

human skills or having large hiring/firing costs can benefit from WLB practices through a

decrease in turnover or an increase in recruiting effectiveness.

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Singh and Kapoor (2012) advanced research on Worklife Balance in select organizations to

know if there is any difference in perception about presence or absence of work life balance

programs due to the demographic variables (age, gender, and marital status) and if the perception

about availability or non-availability of work-life balance programs leads to any difference on

perception of the employees related to scheduling control, job satisfaction, and mental health

level. A structured questionnaire was used to analyze if the perception about availability of

work-life balance practices depends on the respondents‘ demographic variables and if the

perception about availability of work-life balance programs leads to a significant difference in

perception of employees‘ about the autonomy available in scheduling their time and work, job

satisfaction, and mental health. The study was conducted on a sample of 30 employees each from

13 organizations totaling 390 respondents.

The survey instrument was found to be reliable using Cronbach‘s alpha test. Statistical analytical

tools such as chi-square, Mann Whitney, and other descriptive statistical scores were used for

analyzing the data and hypotheses testing. The results of the data revealed significant difference

in perception about availability of work-life balance programs on the basis of marital status in IT

and FMCG sector and on the basis of age in FMCG sector. However, the strength of such

relationship was found to be negligible. Also, a significant difference was found in perception

about scheduling control and mental health on the basis of perception about presence of work-

life balance programs.

2.4.5 Challenges to Effective Work Life Balance Policy

Research conducted amongst organizations in the UK suggests that employees often remain

unaware of their work-life entitlements following the implementation of work-life balance

practices (Kodz, 1998). A survey of 945 employees in six different organizations across three

sectors of employment (local government, supermarkets, and retail banking), found that 50% of

employees were unaware of the family-friendly practices offered by their organizations

(Yeandle, 2002). Five distinct aspects of work-life culture have been identified from previous

studies (McDonald, 2005), all of which should be considered by organizations when attempting

to improve employees‘ work-life balance. These are outlined as follows:

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Managerial Support: Managerial support is consistently emphasized in discussions and studies as

a factor influencing work-life balance. Managers play an important role in the success of

work/life programs because they are in a position to encourage or discourage employees‘ efforts

to balance their work and family lives. Where supervisors enthusiastically support the integration

of paid work and other responsibilities, employees will be more likely to take up available work-

life programs. On the other hand, it has been suggested that even in ‗family-friendly‘

organizations, managers may send negative signals indicating that the use of flexible benefits is a

problem for them, their colleagues and the organization as a whole (Hudson Resourcing, 2005).

Career consequences: The second factor associated with a barrier to the successful

implementation of work-life practices is the perception of negative career consequences. In a

study of 463 professional and technical employees in biopharmaceutical firms, Eaton (2003)

found that the provision of work-life practices improved employees‘ organizational commitment,

but only to the extent that employees felt free to use the practices without negative consequences

to their work lives—such as damaged career prospects.

Similarly, Cunningham (2001), cites an American Bar Association report that although 95% of

American law firms have a part-time employment policy, only 3% of lawyers have used it due to

fear of career derailment. The perception that using work-life balance practices will have a

negative impact on their career prospects appears to be a powerful demotivator for employees‘

use of these practices (Kodz, Harper, Dench, 2002).

Organizational time expectation: Another factor that influence the uptake and overall

supportiveness of work-life policies is organizational time expectations the number of hours

employees are expected to work; how they use their time (such as whether employees are

expected to take work home); In several studies, however, long working hours have been

identified as a signal of commitment, productivity and motivation for advancement (Kodz,

Harper, Dench, 2002). One study, based on interviews with engineers in a Fortune 100 company

in the US, concluded: ―If one is to succeed, one has to be at work, one has to be there for long

hours, and one has to continuously commit to work as a top priority. To be perceived as making

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a significant contribution, productivity alone is not enough. One has to maintain a continual

presence at work‖ (Beauregard and Lesley 2008)

This is particularly the case in organizations with ―presenters‖ cultures where those who succeed

are the ones who come in early and stay late as a matter of course. Known as ―face time‖ being

visibly at workplace, often for long hours—is seen as a sign of commitment, of loyalty, of

competence and high potential (Beauregard and Lesley 2008), but also is seen as a major barrier

to achieving work/life balance. Employees who do not give the maximum amount of time

possible to the organization are often defined as less productive and less committed, and is

therefore less valued than employees working longer hours. Still, it is very difficult to implement

flexible work arrangements in organizations where the focus is on hours rather than output, and

presence rather than performance.

Co-worker support: An increasing amount shows that workers who make use of work-life

practices suffer negative perceptions from colleagues and superiors. Beauregard and Lesley

(2008) found that employees who used work life balance practices were perceived by co-workers

as having lower levels of organizational commitment, which was thought to affect the

subsequent allocation of organizational rewards such as advancement opportunities and salary

increases. Some staff that use flexible arrangements have reportedly experienced ‗family-

friendly

Backlash or resentment from coworkers in other organizations, employees without dependent

care responsibilities interpret ―family friendly‖ as favoritism and complain that they are being

―unfairly‖ or inequitably treated. In conclusion regarding such perceptions, it is therefore not

surprising why work-life practices tend to be underused by male employees, single employees

and career-oriented mothers; and that apprehension of negative career consequences for using

practices has been associated with increased levels of work-life conflict.

2.5 Summary of the Reviewed Literature

The review of the relevant literature on work life balance shows that scholars have identified the

critical variables that have been linked to work life balance such as, leave programs, flexible

working schedules (Schutte and Eaton,2004; Williams et al, 2004; Morrison, 2005; Nganaga,

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2010). Although a number of studies have found these variables to have significant impact on

organizational performance, several studies have argued that these variables only provide partial

insight into enhancing employee performance and that alternative new variables should be

brought into work life dynamics (Mc Donald et al,2009; Gargi and Rastogi,2006).

Also, the majority of research on the correlation between work and family life refers to WLB and

organizational policies, WLB and organizational culture, WLB and HR management, WLB and

work commitment, WLB and job satisfaction, WLB and gender equality, WLB and family life,

and many more (Casper, Eby, Bordeaux, Lockwood and Lambert, 2007). Ojo, Salau and Falola

(2014) studied on the concept of work-life balance policies and practices in three sectors of the

Nigerian Economy namely the Banking sector. There are a number of studies examining WLB

and workers wellbeing too. Some of the study was conducted in the United States (Grzywacz and

Marks, 2000), the United Kingdom (Wise, Bond and Meikle, 2003), Australia and New Zealand

(Bochner, 2003). This leaves a significant gap with respect to effect of WLB on organizational

performance with special emphasis on the manufacturing firms of a developing economy like

Nigeria.

2.6 Gap in the Related Literature

Critical examination of the literature shows that while WLB has been extensively researched in

the developed countries, it is just beginning to gain attention in sub-Saharan Africa in general

and in Nigeria in particular.. Therefore, this concept is under-explored in the Nigerian context.

There remains much to learn about Nigeria and how best to support their capacities to support

employees‘ work-life balance, especially on how to schedule for leave during this time of

increased economic pressure. It is this gap in knowledge that research seeks to fill. Other gaps

identified included little documented research work- on the influence of WLB on organizational

performance in the Nigerian manufacturing firms of the North Central Zone of Nigeria.

Specifically , there is scant records on studies showing the influence of leave programs and

flexible working schedules on organizational performance in the manufacturing sector. These are

some of the issues that prompted an investigation into the effect of work life balance on

organizational performance in selected manufacturing firms in Nigeria.

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133

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The main purpose of this chapter is to describe the design and procedure of the study. To this

end, attempt was made to describe the research method, the population and sample to be used.

The sources of data, instrument that was used for data collection as well as the validity and

reliability of the instrument were discussed. Also discussed were the procedures for data

presentation and analysis.

3.2 Research Design

The study adopted descriptive design utilizing the survey method. This research design was

adopted for the study in consistence with Osuala (2001) who avers that survey research studies

large and small populations by selecting and studying samples chosen from the populations to

discover the relative incidence, distribution and interrelations of sociological and psychological

variables as evident in this work.

3.3 Sources of Data

The primary data for this study were sourced from key informants and respondents drawn from

the workforce of the manufacturing firms from the Zone. These primary data for this study were

collected through the use of a structured questionnaire and oral interview schedule.

3.4 Population for the Study

The population of the study comprises all the employees of all the manufacturing firms in the

North Central Zone of the Nigeria. Using the list procured from Manufacturers‘ Association of

Nigeria (MAN), the total population of manufacturing firms in the Zones is 200. Out of this

population, 10 firms were purposively selected based on the age and size of the firm. Care was

also taken to ensure that more sectors of the manufacturing industry were included. The ten

selected organization and the corresponding total population are captured in Table 3.1:

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Table 3.1: Population Distribution of Organizations under Study

S/No. ORGANIZATIONS POPULATION

DISTRIBUTION

1 NASCO Group 703

2 Zuma Paint and Chemicals 167

3 Tito Yoghurt Nigeria 62

4 Nigerian Breweries Plc 1,006

5 Dangote Cement Plc 859

6 UAC Foods 328

7 Sarplast Fiberglass Company 221

8 iTex Furniture 78

9 Queensway Aluminum 62

10 Lucky Fibres Plc 56

TOTAL 3,542

Source: Human Resource Department of Organizations under Study (2016)

Table 3.1 shows that the population of the study is 3,542.

3.5 Sample Size Determination

The sample size for administering the questionnaire was obtained using Cochran (1963:75)

formula for populations that are large and is finite. This will yield a representative sample for

proportions. See the formula and computation as follows:

n = Z2Npq

Ne2+ Z

2pq

Where

N = Population of the study

n = the sample size

Z = Standard score corresponding to a given level which this study given as 95% (i.e. 1.96)

p = the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population or % of the success

rate = 50% (Israel, 1992).

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q = the estimated proportion of an attribute that is not present in the population or % of the

failure rate = 50% (Israel, 1992).

e = Proportion of sampling error in a given situation i.e. 5% or 0.05.

Therefore:

n = (1.96)2 x 3,542 x (.5)(.5)

3,542(.05) 2

+ (1.96)2 (.5)(.5)

= 3757.7078 = 3757.7078

8.855 + 1.0609 9.9159

n = 378.95781523 = 379.

This is considered low for a study at this level (Unyimadu, 2005); ―the larger a sample becomes,

the more representative of the population it becomes and so more reliable and valid the results

based on it will become‖ (Nwana, 1992). To this end, the researcher depending on a suggestion

by Israel (1992) decided to add 10% (i.e. 38 copies) to cater for persons that the research may or

may not reach; the researcher will also be required to provide for additional 30% (114 copies) to

take care of non-respondents in line with Nwana‘s view (1992). This will ensure that the desired

levels of confidence, precision and validity are attained (Israel, 1992).

Thus the sample size drawn from the population of the study was arrived at as follows:

Using Cochran formula n = 379

10% to take care of inaccessible respondents = 38

30% to take care of non-responses = 114

Sample size for manufacturing firm staff = 531

This number, 531, was allocated proportionally to managers and non-managers of the

organizations under study.

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3.6 Distribution of Sample among Selected firms and Sampling Techniques

The sample size of the study was apportioned to organizations in proportion to their staff

strengths as shown in table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Stratification of Organizations under Study

S/No. ORGANIZATIONS SAMPLING

DISTRIBUTION

1 NASCO Group 105

2 Zuma Paint and Chemicals 25

3 Tito Yoghurt Nigeria 10

4 Nigerian Breweries Plc 151

5 Dangote Cement Plc 129

6 UAC Foods 49

7 Sarplast Fiberglass Company 33

8 iTex Furniture 12

9 Queensway Aluminum 9

10 Lucky Fibres Plc 8

TOTAL 531

Source: Field Survey (2016)

A combination of stratified and random sampling techniques were used to select the sample from

the population. The total employees poplation was first stratified according to sections before

using random sampling technique to select the appropriate number from each section.

3.7 Description of the Research Instruments

The study made use of oral interview guide and a Likert scale structured questionnaire which

was administered to the respondents by the researcher personally. The researcher opted for the

questionnaire because, in terms of spread and coverage, it is the most effective way of reaching

out to a very large number of people at the same time from whom similar types of data can be

obtained. Also, respondents may have greater confidence in their anonymity and thus feel freer

to express their views.

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The questionnaire was designed in two sections. Section A was for the Bio-data of the

respondents while section B focused on issues of WLB and organizational performance in the

manufacturing industries in Nigeria (see appendix II). 531 copies of the questionnaire were

administered.

3.8 Validity of the Instrument

For the instrument for data collection in the study to measure what it intended to measure, it was

subjected to content validity. The researcher designed the instrument in a very simple language

to avoid ambiguity, misinterpretation or misunderstanding of the questions or statements. The

questionnaire was designed to reflect the research framework. Thereafter, the instrument was

given to experts in Management Sciences, Education Administration and Statistics. Their views

and suggestions were reflected accordingly.

3.9 Reliability of the Instrument

In testing the reliability of the instrument statistically, Cronbach‘s Alpha was used. Firstly, a

pilot study was conducted, where 20 senior staff were selected at convenience from each of the

ten selected companies. Copies of the questionnaire (see Appendix II) were administered to

them. They displayed good knowledge of the subject matter and gladly filled the questionnaire.

Upon testing the reliability of responses to the items in the test instrument, an Alpha of 0.92 and

an inter-item (standardized) coefficient of 0.92 were obtained. This indicates that the instrument

is very reliable (see Appendix IV for detailed result).

3.10 Method of Data Analyses

Data collected were presented in tables and the corresponding values expressed in percentages.

Hypotheses 1 to 4 were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation approach while

hypotheses 5 was tested using Z-test. All the hypotheses were tested at 5% error using SPSS

version 21.

3.11 Decision Rule

The decision rule was:

Reject Ho if p value < 0.05.

138

References

Cochran, W. G. (1963). Sampling Techniques, 2nd Ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Israel, G. D. (1992). Sampling the Evidence of Extension Program Impact, Program Evaluation and

Organisational Development. IFAS, University of Florida, PEOD-5, In: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.

Nwana, O.O. (1981). Introduction to Educational Research for Student – Teachers. Ibadan:

Heinemann Educational Books Ltd,

Unyimadu, S. O. (2005). Research Methods and Procedures in the Social Sciences, Management

Sciences, Education, Science and Engineering. Benin City: Harmony Books.

139

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES

4.1 Introduction

This chapter dealt with the presentation and analysis of the data obtained from the respondents in

the manufacturing firms under study. The study was conducted to determine the effect of work

life balance on organizational performance in selected manufacturing firms in North-Central

Nigeria. The presentation and interpretation of data were based on questionnaire administered to

the staff of the companies in Abuja, Plateau and Benue. This was done with the use of a Likert

scale structured questionnaire and follow-up personal interview conducted to complement the

questionnaire. A total of Five Hundred and Thirty-One (531) copies of the questionnaire were

distributed, out of which, Four Hundred and Sixty-Seven (467) were fully completed and

returned.

4.2. Data Presentation

The data presented and subsequently analyzed and discussed bear direct relevance to the problem

and objectives of the study, and which apparently are relevant to the testing of the hypotheses

formulated in this study. Table 4.1 shows the marital status of the respondents in the

manufacturing organizations under study.

4.2.1 Bio Data

Table 4.1 Marital Status

Options Respondents % of Respondents

by Marital Status

Married 223 46

Single 244 54

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016.

As table 4.1 reveals, 223 respondents representing 46% were married, 244 representing 54%

were single, separated or widowed. This means that almost half of the respondents were married

140

and it would be interesting to ascertain the effect of work-life balance on their general

contribution towards the performance of their organizations.

Table 4.2: Most Recent Educational Qualification of Respondents

Options Respondents % of Respondents

by Educational

Qualification

First School Leaving

Certificate

40 9

Senior Secondary Certificate

Examination/National

Examination Council

73 15

National Diploma/National

Certificate Examination

143 31

Bachelor of Science/Higher

National Diploma

134 29

Post Graduate 77 16

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016.

The educational qualifications of the respondents were studied in order to find their literacy level

considering their input in the industry and understanding of the scope of this study. The result of

the analysis as shown in table 4.2 reveals that 40 respondents had FSLC while 73 respondents

had SSCE/NECO as their most recent educational qualifications. 143 (31%) respondents had

OND/NCE, 134 (29%) of the respondents were holders of B.Sc/HND; while 47 (16%) of the

respondents were holders of Post Graduate degrees. This result shows that the respondents had

an appreciable level of education as half of the population had B.Sc/HND and above.

141

4.2.2 Questionnaire Responses

4.2.2.1 What is the effect of leave policy on employee turnover in the Nigerian

manufacturing firms?

Table 4.3: Leave period brought forward from previous year has negatively affected

employee job involvement

Rating Percentage

Respondents %

Strongly Agree 100 22

Agree 169 48

Undecided 63 9

Disagree 72 12

Strongly Disagree 63 9

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016.

The result of the analysis as shown in table 4.3 reveals that 22% of respondents strongly agreed

that leave period brought forward from previous year has negatively affected employee job

involvement. 48% of the respondents agreed to the assertion, 9% of the respondents were

undecided; 12% believed there was no effect, while 9% strongly opined that leave period

brought forward from previous year has not negatively affected employee job involvement.

Table 4.4: Lesser time off for family emergency has negatively affected employee loyalty to

the organization.

Rating Percentage

Respondents %

S. Agree 160 45

Agree 108 26

Undecided 62 8

Disagree 72 12

142

S. Disagree 65 9

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016

From the result of the analysis as shown in table 4.4, it could be seen that 45% of the respondents

strongly opined that lesser time off for family emergency has negatively affected employee

loyalty to the organization. 26% agreed with this view, 8% of the respondents were undecided,

12% disagreed while 9% strongly disagreed that lesser time off for family emergency has

negatively affected employee loyalty to the organization.

Table 4.5: Lack of time for employee study and professional development has a negative

effect on employee retention.

Rating Percentage

Staff %

Strongly Agree 110 26

Agree 110 26

Undecided 60 8

Disagree 95 21

Strongly Disagree 92 19

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016

From table 4.5, it could be seen that 26% of the respondents strongly agreed that lack of time for

employee study and professional development has a negative effect on employee retention. 30%

agree to the assertion, 21% disagreed while 19% strongly disagreed, with none undecided.

143

Table 4.6: Scheduling of preferred day-offs lacks support of co-workers or supervisor.

Rating Percentage

Staff %

Very Significant 131 34

Significant 135 36

Undecided 62 8

Insignificant 72 12

Very Insignificant 67 10

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016

The result of the analysis as shown in table 4.6 demonstrates that 34% of the respondents

strongly agreed, 36% agreed with the statement, 8% were undecided, 12% disagreed with the

assertion while 10% strongly disagreed that scheduling of preferred day-offs lacks support of co-

workers or supervisor.

4.2.2.2 What is the relationship between flexible scheduling and efficient service delivery in

the Nigerian manufacturing firms?

Table 4.7: Rigid scheduling of preferred day-offs has a negative effect on quality of job

done.

Options

Percentage

Staff %

Strongly Agree 117 29

Agree 118 29

Undecided 69 11

Disagree 90 19

Strongly Disagree 73 12

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016

144

The result of the analysis as shown in table 4.7 reveals that 29% representing 117 respondents

strongly believed that rigid scheduling of preferred day-offs has a negative effect on quality of

job done, 29% representing 118 respondents agreed while 11% representing 69 respondents were

undecided. On the other hand, 19% of the respondents do not believe that rigid scheduling of

preferred day-offs has a negative effect on quality of job done while 12% expressed this

sentiment strongly.

Table 4.8: Schedule conflict between social and work events has a positive relationship with

delay in task completion.

Options Percentage

Staff %

Strongly Agree 145 39

Agree 85 17

Undecided 64 9

Disagree 100 23

Strongly Disagree 73 12

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016

From table 4.8, 39% representing 145 respondents said that schedule conflict between social and

work events has a positive relationship with delay in task completion. 17% representing 85

respondents agreed; 9% representing 64 respondents were undecided, 23% representing 100

respondents were of the view that schedule conflict between social and work events has no

positive relationship with delay in task completion while 12% representing 73 respondents were

undecided.

145

Table 4.9 Long office hours positively influence organization’s ability to meet set targets.

Options Percentage

Staff %

Strongly Agree 114 28

Agree 117 29

Undecided 93 20

Disagree 83 16

Strongly Disagree 60 7

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016

Table 4.10 shows that 28% representing 114 respondents opined that long office hours positively

influence organization‘s ability to meet set targets. 29% agreed to the assertion; 20% were

undecided; 16% disagreed while 7% of the respondents strongly disagreed.

Table 4.10: Employee has frequently experienced mental distraction at work due to

unfulfilled social responsibilities.

Options Percentage

Staff %

Strongly Agree 164 47

Agree 103 24

Undecided 67 10

Strongly Disagree 68 10

Disagree 65 9

Total 467 100

Source: Field Survey 2016

146

Table 4.11 shows that 47% representing 164 respondents opined that employee has frequently

experienced mental distraction at work due to unfulfilled social responsibilities. 24% agreed;

10% were undecided; 10% disagreed while 68 respondents (9%) strongly disagreed.

4.2.2.3 What is the effect of emotional intelligence on organizational commitment in the

Nigerian manufacturing firms?

Table 4.12: Effect of streamlined relationship between manager and subordinate on

employee attention to duty is positive

Rating Percentage

Staff %

Strongly Agree 67 10

Agree 70 11

Undecided 67 10

Disagree 102 24

Strongly Disagree 161 45

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

For the question on effect of streamlined relationship between manager and subordinate on

employee attention to duty is positive, table 4.12 shows that the responses were strongly agree

(67, 10%); agree (70, 11%); undecided (67, 10%); disagree (102, 24%) and strongly disagree

(161, 45%).

Table 4.13: Use of employee initiatives has a positive effect on job responsibility

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 87 18

Agree 127 32

Undecided 82 16

Disagree 110 26

S. Disagree 61 8

Total 467 100

Sources: field survey 2016

147

For the assertion on whether use of employee initiatives has a positive effect on job

responsibility, table 4.13 shows that the responses were: strongly agree (87), agree (127),

undecided (82), disagree (110) and strongly disagree (61). These gave percentages of 18, 32, 16,

26 and 8 respectively.

Table 4.14: Effect of industrial harmony on employee motivation is positive

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 90 19

Agree 155 43

Undecided 60 7

Disagree 95 21

S. Disagree 67 10

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

For the assertion on whether effect of industrial harmony on employee motivation is positive,

evidence from Table 4.14 shows that the responses were: strongly agree (90), agree (155),

undecided (60), disagree (95) and strongly disagree (67). These gave percentages of 19, 43, 7, 21

and 10 respectively.

Table 4.15: Effect of organizational consideration of employee values and goals on

employee job satisfaction is positive in the organization

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 97 21

Agree 111 27

148

Undecided 82 16

Disagree 100 22

S. Disagree 77 14

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

Table 4.16 highlights that on the assertion on whether the effect of organizational consideration

of employee values and goals on employee job satisfaction is positive in the organization, the

responses were: strongly agree (97), agree (111), undecided (82), disagree (100) and strongly

disagree (77). These gave percentages of 21, 27, 16, 22 and 14 respectively.

4.2.2.4 What is the relationship between workplace support system and job satisfaction in

the Nigerian manufacturing firms?

Table 4.17: Relationship between employee participation levels in decision making and

general job perception is positive

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 90 19

Agree 145 39

Undecided 70 11

Disagree 95 21

S. Disagree 67 10

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

Table 4.17 shows that on the issue of whether relationship between employee participation levels

in decision making and general job perception is positive, the responses were: strongly agree

149

(90), agree (145), undecided (70), disagree (95) and strongly disagree (67). These gave

percentages of 19, 39, 11, 21 and 10 respectively.

Table 4.18: Relationship between available help from organization in times of trouble and

job anxiety is positive

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 67 10

Agree 123 31

Undecided 65 9

Disagree 130 34

S. Disagree 82 16

Total 467 100

Sources: field survey 2016

Table 4.18 indicates that on whether relationship between available help from organization in

times of trouble and job anxiety is positive, the responses were: strongly agreed (67), agree

(123), undecided (65), disagree (130) and strongly disagree (82). Thus giving percentages of 10,

31, 9, 34 and 16 respectively.

150

Table 4.19: Relationship between extended resources from organization to family

emergencies and job attitude is positive

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 110 27

Agree 137 36

Undecided 65 9

Disagree 83 16

S. Disagree 72 12

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

For the assertion on whether relationship between extended resources from organization to

family emergencies and job attitude is positive, table 4.19 reveals that the responses were:

strongly agree (110), agree (137), undecided (65), disagree (83) and strongly disagree (72).

These gave percentages of 27, 36, 9, 16 and 12 respectively.

Table 4.20: Relationship between employee recognition level and job security is positive

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 122 31

Agree 130 34

Undecided 65 9

Disagree 78 14

S. Disagree 72 12

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

151

For the assertion on whether the relationship between employee recognition level and job

security is positive, table 4.20 highlights that the responses were: strongly agree (122), agree

(130), undecided (65), disagree (78) and strongly disagree (72). These gave percentages of 31,

34, 9, 14 and 12 respectively.

4.2.2.5 What are the challenges to effective work-life balance programme in the Nigerian

manufacturing firm?

Table 4.21: Organizational culture is a major challenge to effective work life balance

programme in the organization

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 138 37

Agree 128 33

Undecided 67 10

Disagree 67 10

S. Disagree 67 10

Total 467 100

Sources: field survey 2016

Table 4.21 shows that with the regards to the assertion on whether organizational culture is a

major challenge to effective work life balance programme in the organization, the responses

were: strongly agree (138), agree (128), undecided (67), disagree (67) and strongly disagree (67).

These gave percentages of 37, 33, 10, 10 and 10 respectively.

152

Table 4.22: Poor communication processes is a major challenge to effective work life

balance programme in the organization

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 164 46

Agree 105 24

Undecided 63 9

Disagree 68 11

S. Disagree 67 10

Total 467 100

Sources: field survey 2016

For the assertion on whether poor communication processes is a major challenge to effective

work life balance programme in the organization, according to table 4.21, the responses were:

strongly agree (164, 46%), agree (105, 24%), undecided (63, 9%), disagree (68, 11%) and

strongly disagree (67, 10%).

Table 4.23: Increased time-demands is a major challenge to effective work life balance

programme in the organization

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 108 25

Agree 128 34

Undecided 75 13

Disagree 90 19

S. Disagree 66 9

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

153

Table 4.22 suggests that for the assertion on whether increased time-demands is a major

challenge to effective work life balance programme in the organization, the respondents stated

strongly agree (108, 25%), agree (128, 34%), undecided (75, 13%), disagree (90, 19%) and

strongly disagree (66, 9%).

Table 4.24: Mismatch between work policies and real life situations is a major challenge to

effective work life balance programme in the organization

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 156 43

Agree 127 30

Undecided 67 10

Disagree 65 9

S. Disagree 62 8

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

The presentation of data in table 4.23 shows that on the assertion that Mismatch between work

policies and real life situations is a major challenge to effective work life balance programme in

the organization, the responses were: strongly agree (156), agree (117), Undecided (67), disagree

(65) and strongly disagree (62). These gave percentages of 43, 30, 10, 9 and 8 respectively.

154

Table 4.25: Career progression sentiments is a major challenge to effective work life

balance programme in the organization

Rating Percentage

Staff %

S. Agree 118 30

Agree 100 22

Undecided 67 10

Disagree 120 30

S. Disagree 62 8

Total 467 100

Sources: Field Survey 2016

For the assertion on whether career progression sentiments present major challenge to effective

work life balance programme in the organization, the respondents according to table 4.24

strongly agreed (118), agreed (100), were undecided (67), disagreed (120) and strongly disagreed

(62). Thus giving percentages of 30, 22, 10, 30 and 8 respectively.

4.3 Test of Hypotheses

The five hypotheses formulated in Chapter One were tested with various statistical tests using

Statistical Package for Social Sciences software (version 21). Specifically, hypotheses one to

four were tested with Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient while hypothesis five

was tested using Z- test.

4.3.1 Hypothesis One

H1: Leave policy si Leave policies significantly affects employee turnover decisions

Our goal was to determine the effect of leave policy on employee turnover in the Nigerian

manufacturing industry. Based on the outcome, correlation was employed using the relevant area

155

of the SPSS, as related to research question one and hypothesis one, the result in Table 4.25

emerged.

Table 4.26: Descriptive statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

Leave policy

Employee turnover

1.8845

2.2450

1.04327

1.08782

467

467

Table 4.25 displays the descriptive statistics of leave policy and employee turnover. Leave policy

had a mean score of 1.8845, standard deviation of 1.04327 and number of cases 467, employee

turnover had mean score of 2.2450, standard deviation of 1.08782 and number of cases as 467.

Table 4.27: Correlations

Leave

policy

Employee

turnover

Space analysis Pearson Correlation 1 .889**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 467 467

Employee efficiency Pearson Correlation .889** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 467 467

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

The result in the correlation table 4.26 shows that there is significant positive effect of leave

policy on employee turnover in the organizations under study (r = .88). Table 4.25 shows the

descriptive statistics of the effect of leave policy on employee turnover.

Table 4.26 is the Pearson correlation matrix on the effect of leave policy on employee turnover

showing the correlation coefficients, significant values and the number of cases. The correlation

coefficient shows 0.889 with p-value = 0.000. This value indicates that correlation is significant

156

at 0.05 level (2tailed) and implies that the relationship between leave policy and employee

turnover is significantly positive (r = .88).

4.3.2 Hypothesis Two

Our goal is to analyze the relationship between flexible scheduling and efficient service delivery

in the manufacturing sector. Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used in testing the

hypothesis at 5% level of significance.

Table 4.28: Descriptive Statistics

Mean

Std.

Deviation N

Flexible scheduling

4.5020 .73615 467

Delivery 4.5219 .72489 467

Table 4.29: Correlations

Flexible

scheduling

Efficient

service

delivery

Flexible scheduling Pearson Correlation 1 .988**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 467 467

Efficient service

delivery

Pearson Correlation .988**

1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 467 467

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

The result in the correlation table 4.28 shows that the effect of flexible scheduling on efficient

service delivery is significant in North-Central Nigeria based manufacturing organizations (r =

.98). Table 4.27 shows the descriptive statistics of the effect of flexible scheduling on efficient

service delivery. However, with a mean response of 4.50 and standard deviation of .73 for

flexible scheduling and a mean response of 4.52 and standard deviation of .72 for efficient

157

service delivery, it can be said that there is about the same variability of data points amongst the

variables.

Table 4.28 is the Pearson correlation matrix on the effect of flexible scheduling on efficient

service delivery showing the correlation coefficients, significant values and the number of cases.

The correlation coefficient shows 0.988. This value indicates that correlation is significant at

0.05 level (2tailed) and implies that the relationship between flexible scheduling and efficient

service delivery is significant (r = .98).

4.3.3 Hypothesis Three

Our goal is to analyze the correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational

commitment in North-Central manufacturing firms in Nigeria. Pearson Product Moment

Correlation was used in testing the hypothesis at 5% level of significance.

Table 4.30: Descriptive Statistics

Mean

Std.

Deviation N

emotional intelligence 1.8491 1.17861 467

organizational

commitment 1.6772 1.11378 467

Source: SPSSWIN 19.00 Version output

Table 4.31: Correlations Matrix on the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and

Organizational Commitment

emotional

intelligence

organization

al

commitment

emotional

intelligence

Pearson

Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

1

467

.809**

.005

158

N

467

organizational

commitment

Pearson

Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

N

.809**

.005

467

1

467

Source: SPSSWIN 19.00 Version output

Table 4.29 shows the descriptive statistics of the effect of emotional intelligence on

organizational commitment. However, with a mean response of 1.84 and standard deviation of

1.17 for emotional intelligence and a mean response of 1.67 and standard deviation of 1.11 for

organizational commitment, it can be said that there is about the same variability of data points

amongst the dependent variables.

Table 4.30 is the Pearson correlation matrix on the effect of emotional intelligence on

organizational commitment showing the correlation coefficients, significant values and the

number of cases. The correlation coefficient shows 0.809. This value indicates that correlation is

significant at 0.05 level (2tailed) and implies that the relationship between emotional intelligence

and organizational commitment is significantly positive (r = .80). The computed correlations

coefficient is greater than the table value of r = .195 with 283 degrees of freedom (df. = n-2) at

alpha level for a two-tailed test (r = .80, p< .05).

4.3.4 Hypothesis Four

The goal is to analyze the relationship between workplace support system and absenteeism.

Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used in testing the hypothesis.

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Table 4.32: Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

workplace support system

9.8464 7.65811 467

Absenteeism

13.8786 5.97542 467

Table 4.33: Correlations Matrix on the Relationship between Workplace Support System

and Absenteeism

Correlations

VAR00001 VAR00002

workplace support system

Pearson Correlation .998 .005

Sig. (2-tailed)

.992

N

467 467

Absenteeism

Pearson Correlation .005 .998

Sig. (2-tailed)

.992

N

467 467

In table 4.31, the descriptive statistics of mean (m), standard deviation (std. deviation) and

number of cases (respondent) (N) are displayed for workplace support system and absenteeism.

Workplace support system had mean of (9.8464), std. deviation (7.65811) and number of

respondents (467); while absenteeism had mean of (13.8786), std. deviation (5.97542) and

number of respondents (467).

Table 4.32 is the Pearson correlation matrix of both variables, showing the correlation

coefficient, significant values and the number of cases. The result in the Pearson correlation

matrix shows that there is a direct relationship between workplace support system and

absenteeism (r=.998). The computed correlation coefficient being almost equal to 1 is greater

160

than the table value of r=.195 with 293 degrees of freedom (df) at .05 alpha level (r=.998, p<.05).

Thus, there was a statistically significant direct relationship between workplace support system

and absenteeism (r .998, p< .05).

4.3.5 Hypothesis Five

The goal is to identify the challenges to effective work-life balance programme in the Nigerian

manufacturing industry. Z-test was used in testing the hypothesis.

Table 4.34: Descriptive Statistics

N

Mean Std.

Deviation

Minimum Maximum

Organizational culture and

poor communication

processes were the key

challenges to effective work-

life balance programme in the

Nigerian manufacturing

industry

467 1.8845 1.04327 1.00 5.00

Table 4.35: One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

Organizational culture and

poor communication processes

were the key challenges to

effective work-life balance

programme in the Nigerian

manufacturing industry

n 467

Normal Parametersa,b

Mean 1.8845

Std. Deviation 1.04327

Most Extreme Absolute .283

Differences Positive .283

161

Negative -.198

Kolmogorov-Simrnov Z 6.443

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .005

a. Test distribution is Normal

b. Calculated from data

From table 4.34, the computed Z-value of 6.443 against 1.96 and a significance of .005, indicates

that the null hypothesis should be rejected and alternate accepted. Thus, an indication that

organizational culture and poor communication processes were the key challenges to effective

work-life balance programme in the Nigerian manufacturing industry.

Decision Rule

The decision rule is to not reject the null hypothesis if Z calculated is less than the table Z (1.96),

otherwise reject the null hypothesis.

Decision

Since the computed Z = 6.443 is greater than the table value of Z =1.96, reject the null

hypothesis. State here what you accepted as your main finding

4.4 Analysis of the Interview Responses (See Appendix III)

The interview schedule on appendix III is semi-structured with pre-set questions which in

accordance to Kothari (2004), allows more space for open-ended answers. These were formatted

so as to align with the objectives of the study. The participants were questioned on various issues

bordering on the effect of work-life balance on organizational performance of manufacturing

firms in North-Central, Nigeria.

On the real issues at hand, 70.25% of all the participants answered in the affirmative that leave

policy has a significant effect on employee turnover in the selected organizations. In respect of

the effect of flexible scheduling on efficient service delivery, the result indicates that 71.16% of

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those interviewed opined that the effect of flexible work scheduling on efficient service delivery

is significant, while 20.53% and 8.41% of the interview respondents indicated low effect and no

idea respectively.

When questioned concerning the correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational

commitment, 71.06% showed a good understanding of the question and opined that there is a

positive correlation between emotional intelligence and organizational commitment, while

28.94% indicated that the success of such relationship depends on sincerity and consistency.

The interview respondents were also questioned on the relationship between workplace support

system and absenteeism. 83.89% of the participants indicated a direct relationship between both

variables. On the other hand, 16.03% believed the connection could not be easily established.

Regarding the question on the challenges to effective WLB programme, there was a unison that

it is costly and difficult to sustain. Bureaucracy was cited as a main obstacle to effective WLB

practices given by the percentage of respondents who share the same opinion (62.4%). Others

(28.3% of the respondents) cited poor communication while 9.3% of the respondents blamed the

challenges on ignorant owners.

4.5 Discussion of Results

Discussion of Results Related to the Objectives

In this section, we discussed the research results based on the presentation, analysis and

hypotheses testing. The discussions revolved around the objectives of the study as presented in

chapter one. The findings made in this work were compared with findings made in other related

studies to determine the level of consistence or disparity with the results of the study.

163

Research Objective 1

To determine the effect of leave policy on employee turnover in the Nigerian

manufacturing firms.

From the analysis of data collected from the researcher‘s field survey in table 4.26, it was

observed that the relationship between leave policy and employee turnover is significantly

positive as reported in the probability value of (r = .88, P<.05).

The findings synchronized with Martin and Kaufman (2013) who queried whether satisfaction

with leave policy matters when it comes to retaining employees using 480 extension agents with

less than 6 years of employment representing 12 states in the southern United States of America.

Using Ordinary Least Square Regression, they found that significant relationships between

employee‘s perceived fairness of leave policy and intention to quit.

The study is also consistent with the work of Nayeem and Tripathy (2014) who examined the

relationship of satisfaction with leave policy and turnover intentions and burnout levels among

teachers in technical Institutions. The study pointed out that leave policy was a major contributor

towards job satisfaction and males experienced higher degree of turnover intentions compared to

female teachers. The study identified that leave policy and employee turnover had a positive

relationship.

The study also agrees with the findings of Chimote and Srivastava (2011) who conducted a

survey on call center employees in Gurgaon, in India and identified that organizations could

benefit in terms of reduction in absenteeism and turnover, improvement of productivity and

image, and assured loyalty and retention, while, employees perceived increased satisfaction with

leave policy, job security, autonomy, reduced stress and improved health out of WLB. However,

correlation analysis indicated that while organizational perspective of WLB benefits significantly

correlated with job satisfaction, employee perspective of WLB benefits exhibited significant

correlation with job satisfaction and autonomy.

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Research Objective 2

To ascertain the relationship between flexible scheduling and effective service delivery in

the manufacturing firms.

The analysis in table 4.28 addresses this objective. The results show that the relationship between

flexible scheduling and efficient service delivery is significant. This is indicated by the

correlation result which shows a significantly positive relationship (r = .98).

The finding correlates with a study conducted by Lockwood (2006) on a sample of five research

and four academic libraries using survey research design, it was found, after data analysis with

Pearson Multiple Correlation; that a positive correlation exists between flexible scheduling and

performance. This is consistent with the findings by Mueller, Wallace and Price (2012) who

looked at organizational performance and hypothesized that employee commitment is

empirically related to enhanced organizational performance. Analyzing data with confirmatory

factor analysis, they found that employee commitment has a strong correlation with

organizational performance but when aided with other contributory factors, the result may differ.

However, the work disagrees with Becker, Billings, Evelleth and Gilbert (2004) who

investigated the relationship between flexible scheduling and organizational performance. Using

survey research design, they found that flexible scheduling and organizational performance are

largely unrelated.

The study is in consistence with research by Okoo (2013) who examined the impact of flexible

scheduling on team performance in SOS Children‘s Village, Eldoret. This study adopted

descriptive research design. The target population for this study was 111, comprising of

management and all other employees of SOS Children‘s Village, Eldoret. Using the Morgan and

Krejcie Table for determining Sample Sizes, a sample size of 92 respondents, representing 83%

of the total population of SOS workers was drawn from each of the category of management and

the general employees using stratified random sampling technique. Stratified random sampling

was used to identify respondents. The researcher used questionnaires, interviews, document

reviews and observation techniques to collect data. Statistical Package for Social Scientist

(SPSS) was used to analyze the data. From the findings, the study established that team

165

performance was to be achieved through recognition of achievement, promotions, good working

environments, flexible scheduling and fair rewards and remunerations.

Wali (2010) in her work on promoting human resources in the public sector: critical role of

human capital in the performance of public services in Africa; investigated the relationship

between flexible scheduling and performance as one of the objectives. Her study was domiciled

in Marrakech Morocco. Based on literature and hypothesis, a theoretical, conceptual and

structural equation model was set up through a questionnaire survey and sample of about 6

companies. Partial least square were used in the analysis and the results were tested with

regression. Her findings argued that flexible scheduling had a significant relationship with

performance in all the sampled organizations in Morocco. This position is in agreement with the

study.

Study by Boakye (2015) sought to identify the impact WLB has on organizational performance.

The objective of this study was to identify factors associated with WLB, identify the positive or

negative effects of WLB on employees and to examine the impact of WLB on organization

performance. The research analyzed the impact of WLB on organizational performance on

the employees of Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital and Ejisu Government Hospital.

Several measures of WLB were analyzed including flexible scheduling and compressed work

weeks.

Convenience sampling technique was used to select the employees while purposive sampling

technique was used to select management in the organization. A self-structured questionnaire

was used in the data collection. The study used correlation techniques in order to analyze

the relationship between two variables that was WLB and Organizational Performance.

There was clear evidence that WLB was positively related with organizational performance. The

result of the study shows that there was a significant positive impact of WLB on organizational

performance and this was consistent with the findings of this study.

166

Research Objective 3

To ascertain the effect of emotional intelligence on organizational commitment in the

manufacturing ifirms.

Analysis for the purpose of achieving this objective was conducted in table 4.30. The questions

that generated the analyzed data were designed to examine the correlation between emotional

intelligence and organizational commitment. The correlation coefficient shows 0.809. This value

indicates that correlation is significant at 0.05 levels (2tailed).

The findings are compatible with empirical study of Affandi and Raza (2002) who investigated

the association between leader‘s emotional intelligence and its impact on quality of work life,

burnout and employee performance among medical doctors working in various hospitals across

Pakistan. Results indicated that leaders‘ emotional intelligence is positively linked with quality

of work life and can be considered as a strong predictor of quality of work life, and employee

performance while it is not associated with employee burnout.

Lending credence to the results obtained by this study is the work of Khurram (2011) who

carried out a study in the African Journal of Business Management in Pakistan. The aim of the

study was to explore the impact of emotional intelligence on employee‘s performance among

telecom employees. The study examined the impact of four significant aspects of emotional

intelligence that is self awareness, self management, social awareness and relationship

management. Data was collected from five telecom companies by using questionnaire. The

results revealed that a positive relationship exists between social awareness and relationship

management and employee‘s performance while self awareness and self management were not

found significantly related to employee‘s performance.

The study agrees with Hassan, Saeid and Sirous (2011) who focused on understanding the

emotional intelligence of the managers and employees and its link to their performance level on

the job. Data were collected from 155 sampled respondents through questionnaire

167

administration. The findings of the study indicate that emotional intelligence has a positive

impact on the performance level of the managers and employees in educational administrations

of Iran and this in consonance with our findings.

Research Objective 4

To determine the relationship between workplace support system and job satisfaction in

the Nigerian manufacturing firms.

In the analysis, the employees‘ response in table 4.32 indicated a significant relationship between

workplace support system and job satisfaction. The result in the Pearson correlation matrix

shows that there is a direct relationship between both variables (r=.998, p< .05).

The finding tallies with a study conducted by Susi and Jawaharrani (2010) which explains how

work-life balance and employee engagement becomes a visible benchmark among high

performing organizations. The study indicated many family-friendly organizations feel the need

for work-life balance which includes recruitment and retention of valuable work force, reduced

absenteeism, reduced employee stress, health benefits, job satisfaction, and better life balance.

The study suggested that an effectiveness of work-life balance policies and practices must

incorporate the effects of workplace culture and supervisor support of employee‘s efforts to

balance work and family responsibilities.

168

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of salient findings emanating from the research. The results

are aligned with the various objectives and hypotheses set out in chapter one of the dissertation.

Conclusion was drawn and necessary recommendations were made from the research findings.

5.2 Summary of Findings

1. It was found that the effect of leave policy on employee turnover was significantly

positive (r = .88, P<.05).

2. The study ascertained that the relationship between flexible scheduling and effective

service delivery was significant (r = .98, P<.05).

3. Study results highlighted that the effect of emotional intelligence on organizational

commitment was significantly positive (r = .80, P<.05).

4. The study also found that there was a direct relationship between workplace support

system and absenteeism in the manufacturing firms under study (r=.99, p<.05).

5. It was identified by the study that organizational culture and poor communication

processes were the major obstacle to effective work-life balance policy in the

manufacturing firms in North Central Nigeria (Zc = 6.443 > Zt 1.96; α = 0.05).

5.3 Conclusion

The findings suggest that employee performance improved after work leaves. Also, service

delivery improved where employees are given flexible work schedules. Performance was

enhanced were employees perceived a sense of belonging with the organization and viewed

management as being approachable. Where organizations were to entrench work-life balance

policies in the formulation of their business policies, organizational performance would be

enhanced. On the basis of the research findings, the study concludes that the effect of work-life

balance on organizational performance of manufacturing firms in North Central Nigeria was

significantly positive.

169

5.4 Recommendations

Based on the findings and contributions of this study, the following recommendations were

made:

i A vibrant and consistent leave policy should be encouraged as it has been found to reduce

employee turnover.

ii Flexible scheduling and its kind such as compressed work weeks are crucial to improved

and efficient service delivery. To improve service delivery, organization managers should

sit down with the employee to analyze and determine how and when to get the best

service from the employee. This is in a bid to ensure that these services are fully aligned

to meet the goals of the organization.

iii Given that humans are emotional beings, organizational managers are advised to improve

employee sense of belonging. Managers should undertake sound welfare policies, which

must be enacted and followed duly as this has been found by the study to improve the

organizational commitment of the employee. Organizations should demonstrate their

preparedness to show concern in attending to worker related problems, evaluate the

workers‘ views and opinions in decision making and put a face to the policies that evolve

from the organization. This will give workers confidence to remain and be committed.

Also, championing a course to assist employees meet their personal needs and aspiration

by the organization will enhance their commitment to the organization. This, of course

will bring about improved performance, high productivity and interpersonal relationship.

Other organizational issues such as aggression, regression, and friction among staff and

school authorities would be reduced.

iv Manufacturing organizations should be aware of the link between their work environment

and employee absenteeism and thus need to develop strategies that will inspire workers to

have great commitment and passion for the job. This, they can achieve by conducting a

research into the goals of the organization and the nature of staff the organization has.

This will help provide a link between the two on how the staff can be managed to attain

the organizational goal. Management staff of manufacturing organizations should make

170

the work environment more friendly and conducive for both the workers and the

customers though seriousness should never be compromised. This will inspire the

organization towards maximum productivity.

v The potency of organizational culture and poor communication processes as a hindrance

to effective work-life balance policy in Nigerian manufacturing organizations could be

minimized if organizational managers do more to realize that employees are not robots

but humans who have issues and who are determined to achieve organizational goals with

the right motivation. Policies should be enacted which consider the job satisfaction of the

employee, balances work and social times bearing the old adage “all work and no play

makes Jack a dull boy” in mind.

5.5 Contribution to Knowledge

This research centers its thought and approach on the effect of work-life balance on

organizational performance of manufacturing firms in North Central Nigeria. The study added to

existing literature with the finding that emotional intelligence had a significant positive

relationship with organizational commitment. This is a significant contribution given that other

studies focused on the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational

performance. The study contributed to literature with the findings that flexible scheduling had a

positive relationship with efficient service delivery. A finding that disagrees with studies such as

Becker, Billings, Evelleth and Gilbert (2004) who found that flexible scheduling and

organizational performance are largely unrelated.

The study contributed to knowledge with the finding that workplace support system with job

satisfaction. A fact that disagrees with studies such as Casper, Eby, Bordeaux, Lockwood and

Lambert (2007). These studies examined mostly the relationship between work environment and

employee performance. Also, the position of this study contributes to literature in its view that

organizational culture and poor communication processes were the main obstacles to the

effective application of work-life balance system in Nigerian manufacturing organizations. This

view was found to negate the findings of Hudson Resourcing (2005), McDonald (2005) and

Yeandle (2002).

171

These studies however were mainly conducted in the United States (Grzywacz and Marks,

2000), the United Kingdom (Wise, Bond and Meikle, 2003), Australia and New Zealand

(Bochner, 2003). The study contributes to knowledge by indigenizing the discourse from a

Nigerian perspective.

5.6 Areas for further Research.

Some of the issues identified from the study for further research are:

(1) It is suggested that this study be replicated in other parts of Nigeria like South West and

South South to either confirm or refute the findings of this study.

172

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APPENDIX I

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

Department of Management,

University of Nigeria,

Enugu Campus,

Enugu.

September, 2016

Dear respondents,

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ASCERTAINING THE EFFECT OF WORK LIFE BALANCE

ON ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF SELECTED MANUFACTURING

FIRMS IN SOUTH EAST NIGERIA.

The researcher is a Doctor of Philosophy Degree student of the department of Management,

University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, and Enugu.

The study is being conducted in order to investigate the Effect of Work Life Balance on

Organizational Performance of Selected Manufacturing Firms in South Easy Nigeria. This

research is for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) degree in Management.

I therefore seek your candid opinion and promise that your responses will be treated with

maximum confidentiality. Thanks for your anticipated cooperation.

Yours faithfully

Egbujie, Cajetan Chukwuma

(Researcher)

190

APPENDIX II

This is to certify that I have read through all the information given to me by the

researcher. I am therefore willing to participate fully in this study.

Signature _____________ Date _______________

SECTION A: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF RESPONDENTS

INSTRUCTION: PLEASE FILL IN THE SPACES PROVIDED AND

TICK ( ) APPROPRIATELY.

S/NO QUESTIONS EXPECTED RESPONSES CODING

1. What is your marital status? Single

Married

1

2

2. What are your present

educational qualifications?

F.S.L.C

WASC/GCE/SSCE/NECO

OND/NCE

HND/First Degree

M.Sc/ Ph.D and others

1

2

3

4

5

191

SECTION B: EFFECT OF WORK LIFE BALANCE ON ORGANIZATIONAL

PERFORMANCE OF SELECTED MANUFACTURING FIRMS IN SOUTH EAST

NIGERIA

Please mark (x) against your choice of response to the questions indicating any of the following

choices:

SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; U = Undecided; D = Disagree; SD= Strongly Disagree.

What is the effect of leave policy

on employee turnover in the

Nigerian manufacturing firms?

Strongly

Agree

Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly

disagree

3 Leave period brought forward from

previous year has negatively

affected employee job involvement

4 Lesser time off for family

emergency has negatively affected

employee loyalty to the organization

5 Lack of time for employee study and

professional development has a

negative effect on employee

retention

6 Scheduling of preferred day-offs

lacks support of co-workers or

supervisor

What is the relationship between

flexible scheduling and efficient

service delivery in the Nigerian

manufacturing firms?

7. Rigid scheduling of preferred day-

offs has a negative effect on quality

192

of job done

8. Schedule conflict between social and

work events has a positive

relationship with delay in task

completion

9. Long office hours positively

influence organization‘s ability to

meet set targets

10 Employee has frequently

experienced mental distraction at

work due to unfulfilled social

responsibilities.

What is the effect of emotional

intelligence on organizational

commitment in the Nigerian

manufacturing firms?

11. Effect of streamlined relationship

between manager and subordinate

on employee attention to duty is

positive

12 Use of employee initiatives has a

positive effect on job responsibility

13 Effect of industrial harmony on

employee motivation is positive

14 Effect of organizational

consideration of employee values

and goals on employee job

satisfaction is positive in the

193

organization

What is the relationship between

workplace support system and job

satisfaction in the Nigerian

manufacturing firms?

15 Relationship between employee

participation levels in decision

making and general job perception is

positive

16 Relationship between available help

from organization in times of trouble

and job anxiety is positive

17 Relationship between extended

resources from organization to

family emergencies and job attitude

is positive

18 Relationship between employee

recognition level and job security is

positive

What are the challenges to

effective work-life balance

programme in the Nigerian

manufacturing firms?

19 Organizational culture is a major

challenge to effective work life

balance programme in the

organization

20 Poor communication processes is a

194

major challenge to effective work

life balance programme in the

organization

21 Increased time-demands is a major

challenge to effective work life

balance programme in the

organization

22 Mismatch between work policies

and real life situations is a major

challenge to effective work life

balance programme in the

organization

23 Career progression sentiments

present major challenge to effective

work life balance programme in the

organization

195

APPENDIX III

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

1. How would you describe your work-life balance programs?

2. How do employees react to those work-life balance programs?

3. How have those work-life balance programs affected employee job satisfaction?

4. How have those work-life balance programs affected employee turnover?

5. How have those work-life balance programs affected employee retention?

6. How have those work-life balance programs affected employee motivation?

7. How have those work-life balance programs affected employee job satisfaction?

8. How have those work-life balance programs affected employee productivity?

9. What are the most challenging parts of being able to utilize the work-life balance

programs?

10. Which work-life balance programs incentives, if any, affected your decision to

continue working for the organization?

196

APPENDIX IV

RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Reliability Test Analysis

Case processing Summary

N %

Cases Valid

Excluded

Total

60

0

60

100.0

0

100.0

a. List wise deletion based on all variables in the procedures.

Reliability Statistics

Cronbach’s

Alpha

Cronbach’s Alpha Based on Standardized items No of items

.922 .916 21