Ethnobotanic and forage uses of plants on mine properties in the Witwatersrand Basin gold fields,...

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Mine Closure 2010 — A. Fourie, M. Tibbett and J. Wiertz (eds) ©2010 Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, ISBN 978-0-9806154-4-9

Mine Closure 2010 • Viña del Mar, Chile

Ethnobotanic and forage uses of plants on mine properties in the Witwatersrand Basin gold fields, South Africa

J. Botha University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

I.M. Weiersbye University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

Abstract The disturbance and contamination of land attributable to over 120 years of gold mining activities in South Africa requires a critical evaluation of current and potential land-use options. The poor often depend on natural resources that they harvest themselves, or purchase at low prices. People utilise wild plants and other natural resources from mine properties and neighbouring lands, but the extent and impact of these activities is uncertain. This report describes the first phase of a study assessing the levels, safety and sustainability of informal harvesting from the properties of large gold and uranium mines situated in the Witwatersrand. Plant species and harvesting sites are being identified to enable assessment of plant populations for natural resource management purposes and to evaluate the potential safety of the consumption of plants harvested from polluted substrata by humans or animals. The study will also contribute to the development of regional protocols for attaining indigenous plant conservation objectives and sustainable land-use, with a particular focus on incorporating the needs of resource-poor members of society. In addition to managing large properties, the mines are implementing various phytotechnologies to control seepage and dust from tailings storage facilities (TSFs), and remediate polluted soils and groundwater. It is important that the plant species grown on such sites are not overly attractive to informal harvesters and herbivores, as this would disturb rehabilitation efforts and carry a potential risk to consumers. In this desktop study, records were obtained for 340 of the 900 plant species previously identified on two gold mining properties. Of the 340 species, 77.4% are used in traditional medicine; 19.4% for food; 16.7% for livestock fodder; 8.5% for building materials; 5.3% for veterinary uses; 5.0% for fuelwood; 5.0% for furniture and/or household implements; 4.4% for a range of uses (tanning, dyes, bleach, pest repellents, insecticides and perfume); 2.4% for weaving and 2.1% as general timber. Most species had multiple uses, with the most highly utilised families being the Asteraceae (14.5%); Poaceae (10.1%) and Fabaceae (7.9%).

1 Introduction Africa has a disproportionate share of the world’s mineral resources and biodiversity, and consequently also of the responsibilities and liabilities associated with mineral extraction. Prior to the promulgation of the Minerals Act (Act 50 of 1991) and the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (Act 28 of 2002), mining companies in South Africa seldom took adequate responsibility for environmental management. The costs and challenges of managing the environmental footprints of mining regions such as the Mpumalanga coalfields, Witwatersrand goldfields and Platinum Corridor, as well as the approximately 6,000 derelict and abandoned mines remaining in the country, are now formidable (Coetzee et al., 2008).

Since gold mining began in the late 1800s, parts of the Witwatersrand Basin have developed into the most densely populated and industrialised regions of South Africa, and include the country’s economic hub (Gauteng Province). Estimates of the area utilised for mine residue deposits and gold tailings storage facilities (TSFs) range from 400–500 km2 of the 1,600 km2 Witwatersrand. Many residues and TSFs are situated in densely populated areas, and the zone of influence is extensive (Chevral et al., 2008; Sutton et al., 2006). In addition to dust generation, the TSFs are sources of acid rock drainage (ARD), resulting in the movement of low pH, saline water and leached metals, including low-grade uranium, into soils, groundwater and entire watersheds (Naicker et al., 2003; Winde et al., 2004; Chevral et al., 2008; Tutu et al., 2008; 2009; Sutton, 2009). Other potential contaminants associated with gold mining activities include nitrogenous explosives, metals used in the milling and metallurgical process (e.g. manganese and vanadium), cyanide and mercury. Many Witwatersrand TSFs have been reprocessed over the past 55 years. Although this removes

326 Mine Closure 2010 • Viña del Mar, Chile


J. Botha and I.M. Weiersbye

contaminant sources (Muir et al., 2005; Sutton, 2009), reprocessing tends to generate ARD and can result in the remobilisation of uranium, other metals and cyanide compounds (Cukrowska et al., 2004; 2010).

Globally, the poor tend to be worse-affected by environmental degradation as they have fewer socioeconomic choices. Apart from slums and low cost housing being developed on or near degraded sites such as TSFs, many of those living in poverty depend on plants that have been harvested from the wild for building materials, food, fuelwood, medicines, weaving, and household implements, among other uses (Shackleton et al., 1999; 2007; Williams, 2003; Botha et al., 2004; Dovie et al., 2004). Most plant species screened on the Witwatersrand Basin gold fields to date lack significant bio-accumulation of metal/loids, and the small number that do provide opportunities for use in phytoremediation of polluted sites. Elevated concentrations of metal/loids in plants could pose a health risk to humans or animals if sufficient quantities are ingested. A few medicinal plants and traditional medicines have been found to contain increased concentrations of metals, including uranium, although the doses administered are usually low and unlikely to pose a health risk (Steenkamp et al., 2000; 2005; 2006). It was not possible to determine whether the metals had been absorbed by the plants, or resulted from surface contamination, pesticides or additives. However, metals associated with traditional medicine have occasionally resulted in fatality (Stewart et al., 2009). The safety of harvesting food and medicinal plants from mine and industrial properties thus needs to be assessed.

In South Africa, the negative environmental impacts of mining and other industries on the poor can no longer be ignored as the Constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) recognises that an environment not harmful to human health is a basic human right. Internationally, reputable mining companies have adopted sustainable development principles into their operational and post-closure strategies (www.icmm.com; AngloGold Ashanti 2009a; b; c). However, reconciling the often conflicting objectives of the economic, social, environmental and governance dimensions of sustainable development is not straightforward.

Phytoremediation biotechnologies (i.e. technologies involving the use of plants) (ITRC, 2009) are now widely employed to control seepage and dust emissions from TSFs, and to remediate contaminated land and groundwater (Dye and Weiersbye, 2010). Species selection depends not only on biophysical factors and environmental conditions, but also on socioeconomic considerations. Growing economically important plants to rehabilitate land to some form of production is frequently an important land-use planning objective, particularly once the mine closes. However, future land-use must be balanced with environmental remediation requirements and avoid exposing people to economic or health risks. For example, if a site is physically fragile or contaminated, it is not desirable to create an “attractive nuisance” by planting valued or palatable species that may attract herbivores or instigate harvesting. Similarly, it is important to identify and map naturally occurring wild species that could be heavily utilised after mine closure.

The University of the Witwatersrand has been assessing the efficacy of ecological engineering and phyto-technology approaches at AngloGold Ashanti Ltd. (AGA) in South Africa for the past 15 years (AGA, 2004; 2008). These results are now being implemented to mitigate the company’s liabilities (AGA, 2008; 2009b; c; 2010). As people harvest plants and other natural resources informally on Vaal River and West Wits Mine properties and adjacent lands, a study was initiated in 2009 to assess the current and potential impacts of harvesting on plant populations, peoples’ health and phytoremediation sites. The grazing or browsing values of species potentially consumed by livestock or wild animals were included for the same reasons.

The objectives are to:

• Identify the plant species being harvested and used by people at an informal level.

• Identify species that are palatable to livestock and wild herbivores.

• Assess the extent of current harvesting activities.

• Establish whether pollutants and the utilisation pathways (e.g. building, burning, consuming, etc.) could potentially create health hazards for those who are utilising these resources.

• Assess which species can be included in phytoremediation projects to remediate land and resources to a state that will be of value to people, without compromising rehabilitation by encouraging over-harvesting or herbivores.

327Mine Closure 2010 • Viña del Mar, Chile

Phytostabilisation and phytoremediation

contaminant sources (Muir et al., 2005; Sutton, 2009), reprocessing tends to generate ARD and can result in the remobilisation of uranium, other metals and cyanide compounds (Cukrowska et al., 2004; 2010).

Globally, the poor tend to be worse-affected by environmental degradation as they have fewer socioeconomic choices. Apart from slums and low cost housing being developed on or near degraded sites such as TSFs, many of those living in poverty depend on plants that have been harvested from the wild for building materials, food, fuelwood, medicines, weaving, and household implements, among other uses (Shackleton et al., 1999; 2007; Williams, 2003; Botha et al., 2004; Dovie et al., 2004). Most plant species screened on the Witwatersrand Basin gold fields to date lack significant bio-accumulation of metal/loids, and the small number that do provide opportunities for use in phytoremediation of polluted sites. Elevated concentrations of metal/loids in plants could pose a health risk to humans or animals if sufficient quantities are ingested. A few medicinal plants and traditional medicines have been found to contain increased concentrations of metals, including uranium, although the doses administered are usually low and unlikely to pose a health risk (Steenkamp et al., 2000; 2005; 2006). It was not possible to determine whether the metals had been absorbed by the plants, or resulted from surface contamination, pesticides or additives. However, metals associated with traditional medicine have occasionally resulted in fatality (Stewart et al., 2009). The safety of harvesting food and medicinal plants from mine and industrial properties thus needs to be assessed.

In South Africa, the negative environmental impacts of mining and other industries on the poor can no longer be ignored as the Constitution of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) recognises that an environment not harmful to human health is a basic human right. Internationally, reputable mining companies have adopted sustainable development principles into their operational and post-closure strategies (www.icmm.com; AngloGold Ashanti 2009a; b; c). However, reconciling the often conflicting objectives of the economic, social, environmental and governance dimensions of sustainable development is not straightforward.

Phytoremediation biotechnologies (i.e. technologies involving the use of plants) (ITRC, 2009) are now widely employed to control seepage and dust emissions from TSFs, and to remediate contaminated land and groundwater (Dye and Weiersbye, 2010). Species selection depends not only on biophysical factors and environmental conditions, but also on socioeconomic considerations. Growing economically important plants to rehabilitate land to some form of production is frequently an important land-use planning objective, particularly once the mine closes. However, future land-use must be balanced with environmental remediation requirements and avoid exposing people to economic or health risks. For example, if a site is physically fragile or contaminated, it is not desirable to create an “attractive nuisance” by planting valued or palatable species that may attract herbivores or instigate harvesting. Similarly, it is important to identify and map naturally occurring wild species that could be heavily utilised after mine closure.

The University of the Witwatersrand has been assessing the efficacy of ecological engineering and phyto-technology approaches at AngloGold Ashanti Ltd. (AGA) in South Africa for the past 15 years (AGA, 2004; 2008). These results are now being implemented to mitigate the company’s liabilities (AGA, 2008; 2009b; c; 2010). As people harvest plants and other natural resources informally on Vaal River and West Wits Mine properties and adjacent lands, a study was initiated in 2009 to assess the current and potential impacts of harvesting on plant populations, peoples’ health and phytoremediation sites. The grazing or browsing values of species potentially consumed by livestock or wild animals were included for the same reasons.

The objectives are to:

• Identify the plant species being harvested and used by people at an informal level.

• Identify species that are palatable to livestock and wild herbivores.

• Assess the extent of current harvesting activities.

• Establish whether pollutants and the utilisation pathways (e.g. building, burning, consuming, etc.) could potentially create health hazards for those who are utilising these resources.

• Assess which species can be included in phytoremediation projects to remediate land and resources to a state that will be of value to people, without compromising rehabilitation by encouraging over-harvesting or herbivores.

• Assess whether certain species used in traditional medicine could be planted on ‘safe sites’ to provide continued access and contribute to biodiversity conservation, as many wild populations are highly pressured through harvesting, loss of habitat and other anthropogenic activities.

• Provide management recommendations.

This study is being conducted in three phases, some of which are concurrent. Phase 1 comprises a desktop survey of the potential ethnobotanic and forage uses of plant species identified in previous studies as occurring on Vaal River and West Wits Mines, the results of which are reported in this paper. In Phase 2, interviews are being conducted with mine employees, residents from settlements near the mines, people who harvest plants locally and shops that sell traditional medicine.

Extensive surveys have previously been undertaken to identify plants growing on TSFs and contaminated soils, and the elemental contents of plants in the region (Weiersbye et al., 2006; Cukrowska and Weiersbye, 2010). The findings of this work and the first two phases of the current study underlie the risk assessment of plants in Phase 3, which will include measurements on plants in the wild, growth trials for elemental uptake and allocation patterns in relation to season and phenology.

This paper is a first step in assessing the resource base, and does not imply that each of the plant species recorded are necessarily being utilised locally, or that those with harvesting potential should be commercialised or even utilised. The volumes of many of the plants growing at Vaal River and West Wits operations may not be sufficient to sustain harvesting regimes.

2 Study area The study is being carried out at AngloGold Ashanti’s Vaal River and West Wits operations in South Africa. Vaal River operations are situated on the boundary of North West and Free State Provinces (26° 56' 07.65" south, 26° 43' 54.41" east) (Figure 1). The North West Province section falls under the City of Matlosana, which has a population of 385,782, while the Free State section occurs within the Moqhaka Local Municipality with a population of 164,716 (Statistics South Africa, 2007a; b). Towns near Vaal River operations include Klerksdorp, Potchefstroom, Orkney, Kanana, Jobbaton and Bothaville.

Figure 1 Map showing the location of the two study areas at Vaal River and West Wits operations




West Wits operations are situated on the border of Gauteng and North West Provinces in the Merafong City Local Municipality, approximately 65 km west of Johannesburg. The Merafong City Local Municipality has a population of 215,865 (including the towns of Carltonville, Wedela, Potchefstroom, Khutsong, Fochville, Kokosi, Greenspark, Welverdiend, and Blybank) (Statistics South Africa, 2007a). Apart from mining, agriculture is an important contributor to the regional economy and the environmental footprint (cattle and game farming; maize, sorghum, groundnuts and sunflowers). Large tracts of indigenous vegetation have been transformed by these two sectors, as well as by urban development (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007).

2.1 Climate and geology The study sites occur within a semi-arid summer rainfall region. Mean annual precipitation for West Wits is 725 mm, and for Vaal River 630 mm, with inter-annual variability of 25–30% (Weiersbye et al., 2006). Mean daily minima (July) and maxima (January) are 0ºC and 25ºC, respectively, at Vaal River, and 1ºC and 29ºC at West Wits, and frost occurs regularly at both sites in winter (AGA, 2009b; c).

The Vaal River operations are situated on approximately 14,000 ha at an altitude of 1,270–1,350 metres above sea level (m.a.s.l.), with one of South Africa’s major rivers (the Vaal River) flowing through the property. The soils are mostly derived from dolomite, with some andesite, sandstone and lava (AGA, 2009b). West Wits is located on 4,176 ha at an altitude of 1,574–1,743 m.a.s.l. on shallow Mispah soils, with deeper soils at the foot of slopes (mainly Hutton, Clovelly, Avalon and Westleigh) (AGA, 2009c). A prominent rocky ridge at West Wits is dominated by shale and coarser clastic sediments and andesites of the Pretoria Group (Transvaal Supergroup) (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007). The Vaal River TSFs are situated on doleritic and sandy soils, whilst those in the West Wits area are constructed on rocky quartzite shale and dolomitic soils (AGA, 2009b; c).

2.2 Vegetation Vegetation at the Vaal River Operations comprises mainly Vaal Reefs Dolomite Sinkhole Woodland (Gh 12) on dolomite and chert, and Vaal-Vet Sandy Grassland (Gh 10), with small pockets of Klerksdorp Thornveld (Gh 13) on quartzites (Mucina et al., 2005; De Castro, 2007a; Mucina and Rutherford, 2007). Riparian vegetation occurs along the streams and rivers, and a metallophyte vegetation, dominated by shrubs, along the outcropping Black Reef (Weiersbye, unpublished; AGA 2009b). Vaal-Vet Sandy Grassland is considered to be Endangered nationally as over 63% has been transformed by human activities. The Vaal Reefs Dolomite Sinkhole Woodland vegetation type is highly localised and considered to be vulnerable, with approximately 25% having been altered. The main vegetation types at West Wits are Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld (SVcb 10) on shale and diabase, which consists of short, semi-open thicket dominated by woody species, and Carletonville Dolomitic Grassland Gh 15 on dolomite (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007; AGA, 2009c). Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld is considered to be vulnerable nationally as approximately 21% has been transformed by human activities, and only 2% of the 24% national conservation target is currently protected in statutory and other reserves (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007).

Much of the vegetation at the two study sites has been disturbed or destroyed by mining and the development of other infrastructure such as housing, roads and railway lines, as well as agriculture and plantations. The remaining indigenous vegetation has been degraded to varying degrees through ARD, seepage, edge effects, habitat fragmentation and the related consequences of these activities, as well as heavy grazing and fire regimes (Clean Stream, 2007a; b). There are two small game farms at Vaal River (Mispah and R.G. Williams), and a 700 ha private nature reserve at West Wits (Kraalkop).

3 Methods: phase 1 Plant species present on AngloGold Ashanti’s Vaal River and West Wits properties were identified through previous studies. A survey of plant species composition and frequencies of 462 taxa was carried out on approximately 12,000 hectares of TSFs and polluted soils between 1995 and 2002 (Weiersbye et al., 2006), with subsequent surveys of species present on the mine properties in general, excluding TSFs (De Castro, 2007 a; b). The results of these studies for both mine properties were pooled for this paper.

Literature was then consulted to collate the ethnobotanic uses of plants (Cunningham, 1992; Gerstner, 1938, 1939; 1941, in Hutchings et al., 1996; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962, in Hutchings et al., 1996; Bryant,



West Wits operations are situated on the border of Gauteng and North West Provinces in the Merafong City Local Municipality, approximately 65 km west of Johannesburg. The Merafong City Local Municipality has a population of 215,865 (including the towns of Carltonville, Wedela, Potchefstroom, Khutsong, Fochville, Kokosi, Greenspark, Welverdiend, and Blybank) (Statistics South Africa, 2007a). Apart from mining, agriculture is an important contributor to the regional economy and the environmental footprint (cattle and game farming; maize, sorghum, groundnuts and sunflowers). Large tracts of indigenous vegetation have been transformed by these two sectors, as well as by urban development (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007).

2.1 Climate and geology The study sites occur within a semi-arid summer rainfall region. Mean annual precipitation for West Wits is 725 mm, and for Vaal River 630 mm, with inter-annual variability of 25–30% (Weiersbye et al., 2006). Mean daily minima (July) and maxima (January) are 0ºC and 25ºC, respectively, at Vaal River, and 1ºC and 29ºC at West Wits, and frost occurs regularly at both sites in winter (AGA, 2009b; c).

The Vaal River operations are situated on approximately 14,000 ha at an altitude of 1,270–1,350 metres above sea level (m.a.s.l.), with one of South Africa’s major rivers (the Vaal River) flowing through the property. The soils are mostly derived from dolomite, with some andesite, sandstone and lava (AGA, 2009b). West Wits is located on 4,176 ha at an altitude of 1,574–1,743 m.a.s.l. on shallow Mispah soils, with deeper soils at the foot of slopes (mainly Hutton, Clovelly, Avalon and Westleigh) (AGA, 2009c). A prominent rocky ridge at West Wits is dominated by shale and coarser clastic sediments and andesites of the Pretoria Group (Transvaal Supergroup) (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007). The Vaal River TSFs are situated on doleritic and sandy soils, whilst those in the West Wits area are constructed on rocky quartzite shale and dolomitic soils (AGA, 2009b; c).

2.2 Vegetation Vegetation at the Vaal River Operations comprises mainly Vaal Reefs Dolomite Sinkhole Woodland (Gh 12) on dolomite and chert, and Vaal-Vet Sandy Grassland (Gh 10), with small pockets of Klerksdorp Thornveld (Gh 13) on quartzites (Mucina et al., 2005; De Castro, 2007a; Mucina and Rutherford, 2007). Riparian vegetation occurs along the streams and rivers, and a metallophyte vegetation, dominated by shrubs, along the outcropping Black Reef (Weiersbye, unpublished; AGA 2009b). Vaal-Vet Sandy Grassland is considered to be Endangered nationally as over 63% has been transformed by human activities. The Vaal Reefs Dolomite Sinkhole Woodland vegetation type is highly localised and considered to be vulnerable, with approximately 25% having been altered. The main vegetation types at West Wits are Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld (SVcb 10) on shale and diabase, which consists of short, semi-open thicket dominated by woody species, and Carletonville Dolomitic Grassland Gh 15 on dolomite (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007; AGA, 2009c). Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld is considered to be vulnerable nationally as approximately 21% has been transformed by human activities, and only 2% of the 24% national conservation target is currently protected in statutory and other reserves (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007).

Much of the vegetation at the two study sites has been disturbed or destroyed by mining and the development of other infrastructure such as housing, roads and railway lines, as well as agriculture and plantations. The remaining indigenous vegetation has been degraded to varying degrees through ARD, seepage, edge effects, habitat fragmentation and the related consequences of these activities, as well as heavy grazing and fire regimes (Clean Stream, 2007a; b). There are two small game farms at Vaal River (Mispah and R.G. Williams), and a 700 ha private nature reserve at West Wits (Kraalkop).

3 Methods: phase 1 Plant species present on AngloGold Ashanti’s Vaal River and West Wits properties were identified through previous studies. A survey of plant species composition and frequencies of 462 taxa was carried out on approximately 12,000 hectares of TSFs and polluted soils between 1995 and 2002 (Weiersbye et al., 2006), with subsequent surveys of species present on the mine properties in general, excluding TSFs (De Castro, 2007 a; b). The results of these studies for both mine properties were pooled for this paper.

Literature was then consulted to collate the ethnobotanic uses of plants (Cunningham, 1992; Gerstner, 1938, 1939; 1941, in Hutchings et al., 1996; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962, in Hutchings et al., 1996; Bryant,

1966, in Hutchings et al., 1996, Fox and Norwood Young, 1982, in Hutchings et al., 1996; Mabogo, 1990 in Hutchings et al., 1996; Pooley, 1993, in Hutchings et al., 1996, Pooley, 1998; Botha, 2001; Botha et al., 2001; Coates Palgrave and Coates Palgrave, 2002; Williams, 2003). The desktop study included the ethnobotanic uses of plants recorded for Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana, Tsonga, Sotho, North Pedi, Swazi (South Africa) and Venda people, as well as records from Lesotho and Swaziland, as mine employees are drawn from each of these cultural groups. Grass species with grazing and thatching values were derived mainly from Van Wyk and Van Oudtshoorn (2009), but are not usually specific to any particular cultural group.

Only a subset of the full species lists have been included in this paper due to space constraints. The full lists are to be housed at AngloGold Ashanti Ltd., S.A. Region (Environmental Management Department) and the University of the Witwatersrand (School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences). The lists will be continuously updated and refined as new species and uses are identified or confirmed through ongoing research. Results will be reported back to the resource users and local leadership in each community. To avoid compromising the intellectual property of Traditional Health Practitioners, only those plants with medicinal values identified through published journals, books and reports are being included in publications.

4 Results and discussion Despite pessimistic assessments of the potential of gold mining areas’ contribution to biodiversity conservation in South Africa (O’Connor and Kuyler, 2005), the two study areas include sites with high levels of plant species diversity. Weiersbye et al. (2006) identified 216 species growing on 1,488 ha of tailings dams and polluted sites at Vaal River, and 168 ha on 765 ha of similar substrates at West Wits, of which only some species occurred at both sites. De Castro (2007a) identified 486 species in the Biodiversity Assessment at Vaal River: 412 indigenous plant species and infraspecific taxa, and 74 naturalised alien species. At West Wits, 568 plant species and infraspecific taxa were recorded, 493 of which are indigenous (De Castro, 2007b). Pooling the three lists yielded approximately 900 species. The high species diversity at Vaal River Operations can be attributed to the presence of three vegetation types, and close proximity to a fourth, viz. Rand Highveld Grassland (Gm 11) (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007). Furthermore, three riparian zones of the Vaal, Jagspruit and Schoonspruit Rivers occur within the study area (AGA, 2009b).

The high species richness and diversity of plant communities at West Wits is ascribed to its close proximity to the Carltonville Dolomite Grasslands (Gh 13) and the Rand Highveld Grassland (Gm 11). West Wits also falls in a transition zone between the savannah and grassland biomes (Mucina and Rutherford, 2007).

4.1 Plant species with recorded uses in the study areas To date, records have been obtained for 340 of the 900 species occurring on the Vaal River and West Wits mine properties: 77.4% were utilised in traditional medicine; 19.4% for food; 16.7% for livestock or wild herbivore fodder; 8.5% for building materials; 5.3% for veterinary uses; 5.0% for fuelwood; 5.0% for furniture and/or household implements; 4.4% for a range of uses (tanning, pest repellents, beauty treatments, insecticides, etc.); 2.4% for weaving, and 2.1% being used as a general timber. Most species had multiple uses. The most highly utilised families were Asteraceae (14.5%), Poaceae (10.1%) and Fabaceae (7.9%).

No rare or threatened plants have been identified at the study sites (De Castro, 2007a; b), although Eucomis autumnalis subsp. clavata and Hypoxis hemerocallidea are included on the Orange list, which highlights plants that are not currently threatened but require monitoring (Victor and Keith, 2004). In addition, Acacia erioloba and Boscia albitrunca are protected tree species which may not be utilised without a permit. The high diversity of species used for medicinal and food plants, combined with diverse vernacular names, creates both natural resource management and risk assessment challenges. Vernacular names can vary considerably across sometimes small geographical ranges (Botha et al., 2001), so it is important to identify the species first-hand as far as possible, which is time consuming and expensive.

4.1.1. Fuelwood

Fuelwood and paraffin remain important sources of energy in South Africa, despite 82.6% of households now being connected to the main electricity supply grid (Statistics South Africa, 2008). In 2008, 26.3% of households overall used paraffin or wood for cooking, with the use being higher in rural areas. The annual consumption of fuelwood in twelve studies across South Africa was approximately 687 kg per person per




annum in the early 1990s (Shackleton, 1993), and 692 kg/capita per annum in a subsequent assessment of one region within Limpopo Province in 1999 (Dovie et al., 2004). The volumes of fuelwood used in the study areas will be assessed during household surveys in Phase 2, but it is expected to be lower than that used by rural households.

Numerous indigenous and exotic trees and shrubs occurring in the study areas are widely used for fuelwood in southern Africa (Table 1). Of these, 17 species are included in rehabilitation plantings at Vaal River and West Wits. Tamarix usneoides, which is not indigenous to the study areas but is being planted to decontaminate ARD (Weiersbye, 2010) is utilised for fuelwood and, increasingly, poles for building materials in the Northern Cape Province.

Table 1 Species used for fuelwood, building, furniture and household implements; * denotes exotic species, and P species being planted for rehabilitation purposes

Species at the Study Sites Fuelwood Timber and Fibre Building Materials Furniture, Household Implements and Fibre Products

Poles, Lattice, Fencing

General Purpose Timber

Thatching

Trees and Shrubs

Acacia caffra P X X X Furniture

Acacia erioloba P X X

Acacia karroo P X X

*Acacia mearnsii X X X

*Acacia melanoxylon X

Acacia robusta P X

Acacia tortilis X X X Furniture

Boscia albitrunca X

Buddleja saligna P X X

Celtis africana P X Implements

Combretum erythrophyllum P X Implements

Dichrostachys cinera X X Rope: inner bark

Diospyros lycioides P X

Diospyros whyteana Implements

Dombeya rotundifolia P X Implements, furniture

Ehretia rigida P X Carving, spoons

Gardenia volkensii Implements

*Grevillea robusta Carvings, implements

Gymnosporia buxifolia P implements

Kiggelaria africana Furniture

Olea europaea subsp. africana P

X Furniture, carvings

Pittosporum viridiflorum X Furniture



annum in the early 1990s (Shackleton, 1993), and 692 kg/capita per annum in a subsequent assessment of one region within Limpopo Province in 1999 (Dovie et al., 2004). The volumes of fuelwood used in the study areas will be assessed during household surveys in Phase 2, but it is expected to be lower than that used by rural households.

Numerous indigenous and exotic trees and shrubs occurring in the study areas are widely used for fuelwood in southern Africa (Table 1). Of these, 17 species are included in rehabilitation plantings at Vaal River and West Wits. Tamarix usneoides, which is not indigenous to the study areas but is being planted to decontaminate ARD (Weiersbye, 2010) is utilised for fuelwood and, increasingly, poles for building materials in the Northern Cape Province.

Table 1 Species used for fuelwood, building, furniture and household implements; * denotes exotic species, and P species being planted for rehabilitation purposes




Thatching

Trees and Shrubs

Acacia caffra P X X X Furniture

Acacia erioloba P X X

Acacia karroo P X X

*Acacia mearnsii X X X

*Acacia melanoxylon X

Acacia robusta P X

Acacia tortilis X X X Furniture

Boscia albitrunca X

Buddleja saligna P X X

Celtis africana P X Implements

Combretum erythrophyllum P X Implements

Dichrostachys cinera X X Rope: inner bark

Diospyros lycioides P X

Diospyros whyteana Implements

Dombeya rotundifolia P X Implements, furniture

Ehretia rigida P X Carving, spoons

Gardenia volkensii Implements

*Grevillea robusta Carvings, implements

Gymnosporia buxifolia P implements

Kiggelaria africana Furniture

Olea europaea subsp. africana P

X Furniture, carvings

Pittosporum viridiflorum X Furniture




Thatching

*Melia azedarach X X Furniture, carvings

*Morus nigra X

Searsia (=Rhus) lancea P X

Searsia (=Rhus) leptodictya P Furniture

Searsia (=Rhus) pendulina P X

*Tamarix ramosissima X X

Tamarix usneoides P X X

Tarconanthus camphoratus P X X Wood for musical instruments

Grasses

Aristida junciformis P Brooms

Arundinella nepalensis X

Cymbopogon validus X

Hyparrhenia filipendula X

Hyparrhenia hirta P X

Imperata cylindrica P X Paper

Schizachyrium sanguineum X

Setaria pallide-fusca P Rope

Triraphis andropogonoides Brooms

Reeds

Phragmites australis P X X

*Phragmites mauritianus X

Typha capensis P X




4.1.2. Building materials, household implements and furniture

Ten tree species were listed as being used for building materials, with eight being used as general purpose timber, and six grass and two reed species being used for thatching (Table 1). Schizachyrium sanguineum tends to be used in the absence of more favourable species (van Wyk and Van Oudsthoorn, 2009). In rural areas of South Africa, people still make household implements and materials from plants. For example, Shackleton et al. (1999) found that a substantial proportion of village households in Limpopo Province made their own hoes, axe handles and other implements from wood. In this study, 18 species were identified as being utilised for household implements such as axe handles, hoes, spoons, brooms and furniture (Table 1). However, it is unlikely that people make their own household implements as extensively as in rural areas, as they have relatively more disposable income and are closer to retail outlets. This needs to be verified during the household interviews in Phase 2 of the study.

4.1.3. Weaving

Weaving does not seem to be a major livelihood activity in the two study areas, although the leaves of Cyperus, Hyparrhenia and Phragmites species, as well as Panicum deustum and Typha capensis are used to weave mats and baskets in other areas (e.g. Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces). Typha capensis is also used elsewhere in South Africa for weaving chairs and hats, as well as for thatch, food and medicine. The T. capensis populations at Vaal River and West Operations are relatively small and have little potential to contribute to local livelihoods. However, larger populations of a variety of wetland species are being established to treat mine effluents, and could include harvestable volumes of T. capensis.

4.1.4. Food

Fruit is used in 34.3% of the 67 species recorded as food plants; leaves in 34.3%; roots, rhizomes, tubers and bulbs in 26.8%; seed in 8%; inflorescence in 5.9%; whole plants in 3.0%; gum in 3.0% and pollen in 3.0% (Table 2). Leaves may be eaten in salads, but are usually boiled and served as a relish known as ‘moroho’ (Sesotho) accompanying maize meal porridge and/or meat. The different forms of ‘moroho’ are popular traditional foods across the social strata of southern Africa, but are critical to the food security of the poor. Women are frequently observed harvesting ‘moroho’ from industrial and mining-polluted areas on the Witwatersrand Basin, and the risk of this practice needs to be evaluated.

Fruit may be eaten raw or cooked. For example, the fruit and roots of Boscia albitrunca can be pounded into a meal which can be made into bread, as can the roots of Typha capensis, seeds of Citrullus lanatus and Acanthosicyos naudinianus. The leaves of Athrixia elata, Dicoma anomala and Helichrysum nudifolium can be used to make tea, while the fruit of Ziziphus mucronata, beans of Elephantorrhiza elephantina and roots of the exotic Taraxacum officinale can be used as coffee substitutes. Beer can be made from the fruit of Searsia lancea and S. leptodictya. Some foods are only eaten in times of famine, e.g. the astringent fruit of Searsia species (‘bush raisins’). People are turning away from many traditional foods in favour of modern options.



4.1.2. Building materials, household implements and furniture

Ten tree species were listed as being used for building materials, with eight being used as general purpose timber, and six grass and two reed species being used for thatching (Table 1). Schizachyrium sanguineum tends to be used in the absence of more favourable species (van Wyk and Van Oudsthoorn, 2009). In rural areas of South Africa, people still make household implements and materials from plants. For example, Shackleton et al. (1999) found that a substantial proportion of village households in Limpopo Province made their own hoes, axe handles and other implements from wood. In this study, 18 species were identified as being utilised for household implements such as axe handles, hoes, spoons, brooms and furniture (Table 1). However, it is unlikely that people make their own household implements as extensively as in rural areas, as they have relatively more disposable income and are closer to retail outlets. This needs to be verified during the household interviews in Phase 2 of the study.

4.1.3. Weaving

Weaving does not seem to be a major livelihood activity in the two study areas, although the leaves of Cyperus, Hyparrhenia and Phragmites species, as well as Panicum deustum and Typha capensis are used to weave mats and baskets in other areas (e.g. Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces). Typha capensis is also used elsewhere in South Africa for weaving chairs and hats, as well as for thatch, food and medicine. The T. capensis populations at Vaal River and West Operations are relatively small and have little potential to contribute to local livelihoods. However, larger populations of a variety of wetland species are being established to treat mine effluents, and could include harvestable volumes of T. capensis.

4.1.4. Food

Fruit is used in 34.3% of the 67 species recorded as food plants; leaves in 34.3%; roots, rhizomes, tubers and bulbs in 26.8%; seed in 8%; inflorescence in 5.9%; whole plants in 3.0%; gum in 3.0% and pollen in 3.0% (Table 2). Leaves may be eaten in salads, but are usually boiled and served as a relish known as ‘moroho’ (Sesotho) accompanying maize meal porridge and/or meat. The different forms of ‘moroho’ are popular traditional foods across the social strata of southern Africa, but are critical to the food security of the poor. Women are frequently observed harvesting ‘moroho’ from industrial and mining-polluted areas on the Witwatersrand Basin, and the risk of this practice needs to be evaluated.

Fruit may be eaten raw or cooked. For example, the fruit and roots of Boscia albitrunca can be pounded into a meal which can be made into bread, as can the roots of Typha capensis, seeds of Citrullus lanatus and Acanthosicyos naudinianus. The leaves of Athrixia elata, Dicoma anomala and Helichrysum nudifolium can be used to make tea, while the fruit of Ziziphus mucronata, beans of Elephantorrhiza elephantina and roots of the exotic Taraxacum officinale can be used as coffee substitutes. Beer can be made from the fruit of Searsia lancea and S. leptodictya. Some foods are only eaten in times of famine, e.g. the astringent fruit of Searsia species (‘bush raisins’). People are turning away from many traditional foods in favour of modern options.

Table 2 Human food plants sorted by parts used: * = exotic species, and P indicates species short-listed for use in rehabilitation at the study sites

Fruit Leaves Bulbs

Acanthosicyos naudinianus Acacia caffra P Dipcadi viride

Boscia albitrunca P Achyranthes aspera Rhizomes, Roots, Tubers

Citrullus lanatus Amaranthus spp. Acalypha peduncularis P

Clutia pulchella P *Bidens pilosa Boscia albitrunca P

*Cucumis anguria Celtis africana P Clutia pulchella P

Cucumis myriocarpus *Centella asiatica Coccinina sessilifolia

Dichapetalum cymosum *Chenopodium album Cyperus esculentus P

Diospyros austro-africana P Clutia pulchella P Cyperus fulgens P

Diospyros lyciodes P Conyza spp. Hemarthria altissima

Ehretia rigida P Crotalaria spp. P Imperata cylindrica P

Englerophytum magaliesmontanum Cucumis zeyheri Pelargonium luridum

Euclea crispa P Cucumis myriocarpus Rhynchosia sp. P

Euclea undulata P Dipcadi viride *Taraxacum officinale

* Opuntia ficus-indica Dombeya rotundifolia P Trachypogon spicatus

Pentarrhinum insipidum Pelargonium luridum P Tragopogon porrifolius

Pogonarthria squarrosa P Pentanisia prunelloides Typha capensis P

Searsia burchellii Pentarrhinum insipidum Veronica anagallis-aquatica

Searsia gracillima P Senecio coronatus P Vigna vexillata P

Searsia lancea P Senecio erubescens Ipomoea bathycolpos

Searsia leptodictya P Silene undulata Gum

Searsia tenuinervis P Sonchus oleraceus Acacia karroo P

Searsia undulata P *Taraxacum officinale Acacia tortilis

Vahlia capensis Trachypogon spicatus Unspecified

Fruit Leaves Cleome monophylla

Ziziphus mucronata P Tragopogon porrifolius Diclis reptans

Trichoneura grandiglumis Schkuria pinnata

Seed Leaves Inflorescence

Acanthosicyos naudinianus Trifolium africanum P Trichoneura grandiglumis

Citrullus lanatus Stems Trifolium africanum P

Coccinina sessilifolia Senecio coronatus P Pollen

Cucumis myriocarpus Senecio erubescens Typha capensis P

Elephantorrhiza elephantina P Shoots

Urochloa mossambicensis Typha capensis P

Vigna vexillata P




4.1.5. Fodder and bee-keeping

The leaves of 19 trees and shrubs are considered palatable to livestock and game, as well as the pods of four Acacia species (Table 3). The flowers and fruit of some tree species provide nectar for honey bees. Of the 155 grass species recorded at Vaal River and West Wits operations, 36 species have high to very high grazing value, including both indigenous and exotic species. The most important economic pasture grasses and hay are listed in Table 3. Many pasture grass cultivars are commonly used for rehabilitation of TSFs due to there being no commercial suppliers of seed for unpalatable grasses. However, the post-closure land-use needs to be considered. Palatable grazing will attract pastoralists with domestic livestock as well as wild herbivores, which is undesirable on fragile or polluted substrata, both from a health and a rehabilitation perspective.

Table 3 Livestock fodder (F) and bee-keeping plants (B): * = exotic species, and P indicates species short-listed for use in rehabilitation at the study sites

Trees and Shrubs Leaves Fruit or Pods

Nectar, Pollen

Grasses with Grazing Value

Acacia caffra P F Anthephora pubescens

A. karroo; A. tortilis P F B Brachiaria nigropedata

Acacia erioloba, P *A. mearnsii F F

Brachiaria serrata

Boscia albatrunca P F Cenchrus ciliaris

Buddleja saligna P B *Chloris gayana

Buddleja salviifolia P F *Cynodon nlemfuensis

Celtis africana P F Digitaria eriantha

Combretum erythrophyllum P F Eragrostis curvula complex P

Dichrostachys cinera P F *Pennisetum clandestinum

Dombeya rotundifolia P B B *Paspalum dilatatum

Ehretia rigida P F *Paspalum urvillei

*Eucalyptus spp. B Themeda triandra

Gardenia volkensii F

Mundulea sericea P F

Olea europea subsp. africana P F

Pittosporum viridiflorum F

Ruschia harnata F

Searsia (= Rhus) lancea P Searsia (= Rhus) leptodictya P F

Tarchonanthus camphoratus F

Zanthoxylum capense F

Ziziphus mucronata P F

4.1.6. Traditional medicines

It is estimated that 490–851 tonnes of medicinal species are traded annually at markets in Gauteng Province alone (Williams, 2003). The early evolution of this trade is considered to have arisen to meet demand by migrant labour on the developing gold mines in the Johannesburg area (Dauskardt, 1991). Together with anthropogenic pressures such as habitat destruction, the high volumes traded are threatening plant



4.1.5. Fodder and bee-keeping

The leaves of 19 trees and shrubs are considered palatable to livestock and game, as well as the pods of four Acacia species (Table 3). The flowers and fruit of some tree species provide nectar for honey bees. Of the 155 grass species recorded at Vaal River and West Wits operations, 36 species have high to very high grazing value, including both indigenous and exotic species. The most important economic pasture grasses and hay are listed in Table 3. Many pasture grass cultivars are commonly used for rehabilitation of TSFs due to there being no commercial suppliers of seed for unpalatable grasses. However, the post-closure land-use needs to be considered. Palatable grazing will attract pastoralists with domestic livestock as well as wild herbivores, which is undesirable on fragile or polluted substrata, both from a health and a rehabilitation perspective.

Table 3 Livestock fodder (F) and bee-keeping plants (B): * = exotic species, and P indicates species short-listed for use in rehabilitation at the study sites

Trees and Shrubs Leaves Fruit or Pods

Nectar, Pollen

Grasses with Grazing Value

Acacia caffra P F Anthephora pubescens

A. karroo; A. tortilis P F B Brachiaria nigropedata

Acacia erioloba, P *A. mearnsii F F

Brachiaria serrata

Boscia albatrunca P F Cenchrus ciliaris

Buddleja saligna P B *Chloris gayana

Buddleja salviifolia P F *Cynodon nlemfuensis

Celtis africana P F Digitaria eriantha

Combretum erythrophyllum P F Eragrostis curvula complex P

Dichrostachys cinera P F *Pennisetum clandestinum

Dombeya rotundifolia P B B *Paspalum dilatatum

Ehretia rigida P F *Paspalum urvillei

*Eucalyptus spp. B Themeda triandra

Gardenia volkensii F

Mundulea sericea P F

Olea europea subsp. africana P F

Pittosporum viridiflorum F

Ruschia harnata F

Searsia (= Rhus) lancea P Searsia (= Rhus) leptodictya P F

Tarchonanthus camphoratus F

Zanthoxylum capense F

Ziziphus mucronata P F

4.1.6. Traditional medicines

It is estimated that 490–851 tonnes of medicinal species are traded annually at markets in Gauteng Province alone (Williams, 2003). The early evolution of this trade is considered to have arisen to meet demand by migrant labour on the developing gold mines in the Johannesburg area (Dauskardt, 1991). Together with anthropogenic pressures such as habitat destruction, the high volumes traded are threatening plant

populations throughout the sub-continent, with species such as the pepper bark (Warburgia salutaris) and wild ginger (Siphonochilus aethiopicus) facing extinction in the wild in KwaZulu-Natal Province.

Although traditional health practitioners are encouraged during their training and through cultural norms to utilise sustainably harvested plant products, extensive commercialisation of medicinal plants to meet urban demand, poverty and lack of resource tenure has led to unsustainable harvesting practices. Most harvesters are women with limited education and few alternative income earning opportunities, who need to maximise their harvesting returns. There is little incentive for an individual to harvest a plant population sustainably if there is a high probability that it will be destructively harvested by others in the near future.

Of the medicinal species identified on the study sites, 15.5% were from the family Asteraceae (daisy family), 8.9% from Fabaceae (pea family) and 5.4% from Poaceae (grass). The remaining families were each represented by less than 4.5% of the total number of species. Table 3 lists species occurring in the study areas that are in highest demand and/or becoming increasingly difficult to source in markets in Gauteng (Williams, 2003) and the Lowveld (Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces) (Botha et al., 2001).

Table 4 Medicinal plants identified in the study areas that are widely traded in Gauteng and Mpumalanga markets: * = exotic species, and P indicates species short-listed for use in rehabilitation at the study sites

Family Species Part Used

Acanthaceae Crabbea hirsuta Whole plants

Alliaceae Agapanthus campanulatus Roots

Amaryllideaceae Boophane disticha Bulbs

Apiaceae Heteromorpha arborescens var. abyssinica P Leaves

Apocyaceae Acokanthera oppositifolia P Bark, leaves, stems

Apocyaceae Raphionacme spp. Rootbark

Asclepiadaceae Asclepias fruticosa P Leaves, stems

Asparagaceae Asparagus laricinus P Roots

Asparagaceae Asparagus setaceus P Roots, stems

Asteraceae Artemisia afra P Leaves

Asteraceae Callilepis laureola P Roots

Asteraceae Geigeria burkei P Whole plant

Asteraceae Helichrysum argyrosphaerum P Leaves, stems

Asteraceae Helichrysum melanacme P Flowers, leaves

Asteraceae Helichrysum nudifolium P Roots

Asteraceae Osteospernum leptolobium Roots

Asteraceae Senecio consanguineus Whole plant, roots

Asteraceae Senecio coronatus P Unspecified

Asteraceae Senecio laevigatus Roots

Asteraceae Vernonia hirsuta Leaves, stems, bark

Celastraceae Gymnosporia buxifolia (=Maytenus heterophylla) P Roots and thorns

Chenopodiaceae *Chenopodium ambrosioides Leaves, twigs

Combretaceae Combretum erythrophyllum P Roots, bark





Convolvulaceae Convolvulus sagittatus Roots

Cucurbitaceae Cucumis zeyheri Fruit

Cyperaceae Schoenoplectus muricinux P Bulbs

Dispacaceae Scabiosa columbaria P Roots, whole plants

Ebenaceae Diospyros lyciodes P Roots, stems

Ebenaceae Euclea crispa P Leaves

Fabaceae Acacia caffra P Roots, bark

Fabaceae Elephantorrhiza elephantina P Roots

Fabaceae Erythrina zeyheri P Roots, stems

Fabaceae Tephrosia longipes P Roots

Geraniaceae Pelargonium luridum P Leaves, stems, roots

Gunneraceae Gunnera perpensa Roots

Hyacinthaceae Eucomis autumnalis subsp. clavata Bulb shavings or roots

Hyacinthaceae Ledebouria cooperi Bulbs

Hyacinthaceae Ledebouria ovatifolia Bulbs

Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis hemerocallidea Corms

Iridaceae Gladiolus sp. Roots

Lamiaceae Plectranthus madagascariensis P Roots, leaf

Orchidaceae Eulophia sp. Roots

Pittosporaceae Pittosporum viridiflorum P Bark

Poaceae Urochloa panicoides Leaf, stems

Polygalaceae Polygala hottentotta P Whole plant, roots

Portulacaceae Talinum caffrum Roots

Protaceae Protea caffra P Bark

Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mucronata P Bark

Rubiaceae Anthospermum rigidum Roots

Rubiaceae Galium spurium Fruit, bark

Rutacaeae Zanthoxylum capense Bark

Scrophulariaceae Diclis reptans Unspecified

Scrophulariaceae Nemesia fruticans Roots

Solanaceae Solanum incanum Roots

Solanaceae Withania somnifera Roots

Sterculiaceae Dombeya rotundifolia P Bark or wood

Sterculiaceae Waltheria indica Roots

Tiliaceae Corchorus asplenifolius Roots




Convolvulaceae Convolvulus sagittatus Roots

Cucurbitaceae Cucumis zeyheri Fruit

Cyperaceae Schoenoplectus muricinux P Bulbs

Dispacaceae Scabiosa columbaria P Roots, whole plants

Ebenaceae Diospyros lyciodes P Roots, stems

Ebenaceae Euclea crispa P Leaves

Fabaceae Acacia caffra P Roots, bark

Fabaceae Elephantorrhiza elephantina P Roots

Fabaceae Erythrina zeyheri P Roots, stems

Fabaceae Tephrosia longipes P Roots

Geraniaceae Pelargonium luridum P Leaves, stems, roots

Gunneraceae Gunnera perpensa Roots

Hyacinthaceae Eucomis autumnalis subsp. clavata Bulb shavings or roots

Hyacinthaceae Ledebouria cooperi Bulbs

Hyacinthaceae Ledebouria ovatifolia Bulbs

Hypoxidaceae Hypoxis hemerocallidea Corms

Iridaceae Gladiolus sp. Roots

Lamiaceae Plectranthus madagascariensis P Roots, leaf

Orchidaceae Eulophia sp. Roots

Pittosporaceae Pittosporum viridiflorum P Bark

Poaceae Urochloa panicoides Leaf, stems

Polygalaceae Polygala hottentotta P Whole plant, roots

Portulacaceae Talinum caffrum Roots

Protaceae Protea caffra P Bark

Rhamnaceae Ziziphus mucronata P Bark

Rubiaceae Anthospermum rigidum Roots

Rubiaceae Galium spurium Fruit, bark

Rutacaeae Zanthoxylum capense Bark

Scrophulariaceae Diclis reptans Unspecified

Scrophulariaceae Nemesia fruticans Roots

Solanaceae Solanum incanum Roots

Solanaceae Withania somnifera Roots

Sterculiaceae Dombeya rotundifolia P Bark or wood

Sterculiaceae Waltheria indica Roots

Tiliaceae Corchorus asplenifolius Roots

4.1.7 Veterinary and additional uses

The volumes used for ethnoveterinary treatments are usually low, and thus of little concern from a natural resource management perspective. However, each of the ethnoveterinary species identified in the study areas (Table 4) is also used for other purposes, including traditional medicine, fuelwood and food, where the volumes harvested may be high.

Plants occurring in the two study areas have also been recorded for use as beauty and personal hygiene products, dyes, fish poisons, insecticides and pest repellents, and tanning (Table 4). It is unlikely that people living near the mines are using the plants extensively for these purposes as they are more likely to buy commercial products.

Table 5 Species used for veterinary, pesticide, dyes and personal hygiene purposes: * = exotic species, and P indicates species short-listed for use in rehabilitation at the study sites

Species Veterinary Repellent or Poison Tanning, Dye, Personal Hygiene

Trees and Shrubs

Acacia karroo P Bark Bark: tanning leather

Boscia albitrunca P Leaves

Clutia pulchella P Leaves, stems, roots

Diospyros lyciodes P Twigs: toothbrush

Ehretia rigida P Roots

Elephantorrhiza elephantina P Roots

*Eucalyptus spp. Leaves: insect repellent

Gymnosporia buxifolia P Root, bark

Mundulea sericea P Bark and wood: fish poison

Leaves: hair bleach

Protea caffra P Root, bark

Searsia (=Rhus) lancea P Bark: tanning leather

Tarchonanthus camphoratus P Leaves: hair perfume

Withania somnifera Roots

Perennial Forbes

Callilepis laureola Roots

Clematis brachiata P Shoots, leaves

Dicoma anomala Roots, whole plant

Gunnera perpensa Roots

Ipomoea oblongata Whole plant: dye

Pelargonium luridum P Leaves

Senecio oxyriifolius Leaves

Annual and Biannual Herbs





*Bidens pilosa Unspecified

*Chenopodium album Whole plant Insecticide

Diclis reptans Unspecified

*Phytolacca octandra Roots Berries: dye

Grasses

Cymbopogon excavatus P Shoot: rodent deterrent

5 Conclusions Although the ethnobotanic uses and palatability of approximately 340 species were identified through this desktop study, the actual diversity of plants being utilised at the study sites is likely to be lower. People who live in urban settings and earn wages tend to utilise fewer plant species in their daily lives, as it is more convenient to buy analogous products. However, this does not mean that the species that are used are unimportant, or that this sector’s needs should not be incorporated into environmental, social responsibility and mine closure strategic planning. Firstly, approximately 77% of the species that were identified are potentially used as traditional medicine, 19% as food and 16% as animal fodder (i.e. ingested). Secondly, addressing poverty is a socioeconomic and political imperative in South Africa, which directly or indirectly affects all sectors of society, including business. Although progress has been made towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals of the country (South Africa Millennium Development Goals Mid-Term Country Report, 2007), approximately 17 million people still live below the poverty datum line of R$ 3,371 per capita per year (Van der Berg et al., 2005) (US$ 1 ranged from R$ 8.76 in January 2003 to R$ 6.54 in December 2003; mean + SD = 7.6 + 0.65). Thirdly, harvesting impacts of favoured species can be high, particularly if demand increases. Mine liquidations and closures inevitably result in large numbers of employees being retrenched. Although many are migrant workers, large numbers of local residents are employed by the mines. In the absence of alternative income generating opportunities, it is probable that people will turn to natural resources to meet their daily needs, as was recorded on the Copperbelt by Limpitlaw (2003), with severe environmental consequences. Demand for traditional medicine could also rise as peoples’ health and well-being deteriorate through heightened stress and poor nutrition.

Projected socioeconomic trends and local demand thus need to be considered in conjunction with long-term land use objectives, to avoid reducing the effectiveness of phytoremediation initiatives after mine closure if certain species are used extensively. If the harvesting of valued plant products is deemed a possible long-term land use, the regeneration potential of selected species needs to be assessed. Effective local harvesting regimes then need to be developed with local residents and leaders. The available biomass and regeneration potential of plant species needs to be understood in the context of the harsh environmental conditions in which they occur. For example, seed production and viability is frequently lower in plants growing on highly polluted sites, although such plants tend to be resilient once established (Weiersbye and Witkowski, 2007).

The biomass of thatching grass and reed species growing at Vaal River is currently being assessed, and the re-sprouting vigour of woody species after fire or felling is being monitored to develop optimum coppice or harvesting regimes. Many woody species of savannah and grassland regions are adapted to withstand fire and other forms of disturbance by re-sprouting (Kennedy, 1998). The ability of savanna trees to resprout tends to vary with family, species and especially with stem diameter on felling (Mwavu and Witkowski, 2008), with the number of shoots and their composite diameter increasing with increasing plant size (Neke et al., 2006).

A substantial number of plants occurring at Vaal River and West Wits mines have been recorded as being utilised for traditional medicine, food, building materials, fuelwood, weaving, and a range of other uses. Phase 2 of the study will assess how many of these species are currently being used and the contribution of the plants to local livelihoods. The safety to users of plants that are found to be in high demand, and being harvested from contaminated soils or groundwater, will be examined in Phase 3.




*Bidens pilosa Unspecified

*Chenopodium album Whole plant Insecticide

Diclis reptans Unspecified

*Phytolacca octandra Roots Berries: dye

Grasses

Cymbopogon excavatus P Shoot: rodent deterrent

5 Conclusions Although the ethnobotanic uses and palatability of approximately 340 species were identified through this desktop study, the actual diversity of plants being utilised at the study sites is likely to be lower. People who live in urban settings and earn wages tend to utilise fewer plant species in their daily lives, as it is more convenient to buy analogous products. However, this does not mean that the species that are used are unimportant, or that this sector’s needs should not be incorporated into environmental, social responsibility and mine closure strategic planning. Firstly, approximately 77% of the species that were identified are potentially used as traditional medicine, 19% as food and 16% as animal fodder (i.e. ingested). Secondly, addressing poverty is a socioeconomic and political imperative in South Africa, which directly or indirectly affects all sectors of society, including business. Although progress has been made towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals of the country (South Africa Millennium Development Goals Mid-Term Country Report, 2007), approximately 17 million people still live below the poverty datum line of R$ 3,371 per capita per year (Van der Berg et al., 2005) (US$ 1 ranged from R$ 8.76 in January 2003 to R$ 6.54 in December 2003; mean + SD = 7.6 + 0.65). Thirdly, harvesting impacts of favoured species can be high, particularly if demand increases. Mine liquidations and closures inevitably result in large numbers of employees being retrenched. Although many are migrant workers, large numbers of local residents are employed by the mines. In the absence of alternative income generating opportunities, it is probable that people will turn to natural resources to meet their daily needs, as was recorded on the Copperbelt by Limpitlaw (2003), with severe environmental consequences. Demand for traditional medicine could also rise as peoples’ health and well-being deteriorate through heightened stress and poor nutrition.

Projected socioeconomic trends and local demand thus need to be considered in conjunction with long-term land use objectives, to avoid reducing the effectiveness of phytoremediation initiatives after mine closure if certain species are used extensively. If the harvesting of valued plant products is deemed a possible long-term land use, the regeneration potential of selected species needs to be assessed. Effective local harvesting regimes then need to be developed with local residents and leaders. The available biomass and regeneration potential of plant species needs to be understood in the context of the harsh environmental conditions in which they occur. For example, seed production and viability is frequently lower in plants growing on highly polluted sites, although such plants tend to be resilient once established (Weiersbye and Witkowski, 2007).

The biomass of thatching grass and reed species growing at Vaal River is currently being assessed, and the re-sprouting vigour of woody species after fire or felling is being monitored to develop optimum coppice or harvesting regimes. Many woody species of savannah and grassland regions are adapted to withstand fire and other forms of disturbance by re-sprouting (Kennedy, 1998). The ability of savanna trees to resprout tends to vary with family, species and especially with stem diameter on felling (Mwavu and Witkowski, 2008), with the number of shoots and their composite diameter increasing with increasing plant size (Neke et al., 2006).

A substantial number of plants occurring at Vaal River and West Wits mines have been recorded as being utilised for traditional medicine, food, building materials, fuelwood, weaving, and a range of other uses. Phase 2 of the study will assess how many of these species are currently being used and the contribution of the plants to local livelihoods. The safety to users of plants that are found to be in high demand, and being harvested from contaminated soils or groundwater, will be examined in Phase 3.

Acknowledgements This study was conducted through the Ecological Engineering and Phytotechnology Programme at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg and AngloGold Ashanti Limited, South Africa. The Environmental Management and Metallurgy Land Management Departments of AngloGold Ashanti Ltd, the Department of Trade and Industry and the National Research Foundation of South Africa are thanked for their long-term support of the programme. Two anonymous reviewers and David Furniss are thanked for their comments and the map, respectively.

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