Proceedings of the International Conference held at the Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 13–15 May 2010

Edited byKatalin Anna Kóthay

Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2012

Art and SocietyAncient and Modern Contexts of Egyptian Art

Editor: Katalin Anna Kóthay Proof-reading: Adrian HartGraphic design, prepress work and photo editing: Eszter Balder

Editorial Coordination: Timea Türk

Printed by: EPC Nyomda, Budapest

Publisher: Dr. László Baán, General DirectorMuseum of Fine Arts, Budapest, 2012

Cover illustration: Female statue, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest, inv. no. 51.2048

ISBN 978-963-7063-91-6

The publication of this volume was supported by the Hungarian National Culture Fund.

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List of Contributors

Foreword

Discourses about Works of Art in Ancient and Modern TimesMaya Müller

Theban Tomb Graffiti during the New Kingdom. Research on the Reception of Ancient Egyptian Images by Ancient EgyptiansAlexis Den Doncker

Egyptian Pyramids in an East European LandscapeJoachim Śliwa

Interaction of Three-dimensional and Two-dimensional ArtHelmut Satzinger

The ‘Four Schools of Art’ of Senwosret I. Is it Time for a Revision?David Lorand

Handmade Terracotta Figurines with Hands Secured behind the Backs. The Potential Use of an Art Historical Method in the Research of Egyptian Minor ArtsMáté Petrik

Privatplastik im Wandel der Zeiten. Skulpturen als Kunsthistorisches BildmediumEdith Bernhauer

Kunst und Gesellschaft in der Libyerzeit. Beobachtungen an Königsstatuen der Dritten ZwischenzeitHelmut Brandl

Stratégie d’épure et stratégie d’appogiature dans les productions dites « artistiques » à l’usage des dominants. Le papyrus dit « érotique » de Turin et la mise à distance des dominésPascal Vernus

„Eine Frage des Geschmacks“ – Anmerkungen zur Grabdekoration auf dem Teti-Friedhof von SaqqaraGabriele Pieke

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Contents

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Hierarchy of Women within Elite Families. Iconographic Data from the Old KingdomVera Vasiljević

Theban Tomb Painting during the Reign of Amenhotep II (1427–1400 BC). Investigation into an Artistic Creation in its Historical and Sociocultural ContextMaruschka Gathy

Behind the Mirror. Art and Prestige in Kha’s Funerary Equipment Marcella Trapani

‘The Bull Coming out of the Mountain’. The Changing Context and Connotations of an Iconographic MotifÉva Liptay

sS qdwt – The Attestations from the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate PeriodDanijela Stefanović

Tracking Ancient Egyptian Artists, a Problem of Methodology. The Case of the Painters of Private Tombs in the Theban Necropolis during the Eighteenth DynastyDimitri Laboury

Pour une approche matérielle et expérimentale de la peinture thébaineHugues Tavier

Thebanische Totenstelen der 3. Zwischenzeit. Zur ihrer Produktion und VerwendungMarc Loth

The Gamhud ArtisansKatalin Anna Kóthay

The Burial Ensemble of Tasenet from Gamhud and the Ptolemaic Coffin style in Northern Middle EgyptGábor Schreiber

Imitation of Materials in Ancient EgyptManuela Gander

Plates

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The influence of ancient Egyptian art on modern art is a fascinating topic, which has been of particu-lar interest to researchers recently. This applies mainly to the Western European and North American backgrounds, where the term ‘Egyptomania’ (mostly in terms of architecture) has already achieved the level of an important scholarly aspect.1 This topic has also become very attractive to the general public, a clear example of which are a number of exhibitions organised during the 1990s (Paris, Vienna, Ottawa), which attracted major interest and were highly popular.2

Polish territories (not only within the current borders, but in an historical context as well) have been – until now – outside the range of interest of researchers of this topic, although the material from our country is quite rich and fascinating.3 The following paper will undoubtedly create a good opportunity to evoke the ‘Polish’ Egyptianizing buildings, concentrating on the ones that are shaped like a classic Egyptian pyramid. Amongst the almost forgotten monumental Egyptianizing buildings from the Polish territories, which deserve more attention in the European context, are mainly constructions such as an orangery in Końskie near Kielce (Plate 4.1),4 an Egyptian pavilion in the Łazienki Park in Warsaw (Plate 4.2)5 as well as an apartment house in Kraków, once almost over-decorated with Egyptianizing elements (Plate 4.3).6 It was the pyramid-shaped buildings, however, that enjoyed the greatest popularity, mostly in a sepulchral context. As knowledge about the Egyptian civilization gradually increased in modern times, the pyramid (and the obelisk with it) began to play a significant role in art, especially in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when pyramids were even considered as a symbol of a triumph over death. Until now no particular attention was given to such buildings in our country and even in the field of Polish interest in Egyptomania/Egyptophilia they are not known well enough. In fact it would be necessary to undertake a systematic inventory of the buildings of this type and provide them with protection and proper conservatory care. Particular attention should be directed at two buildings characterised as sepulchral pyramids (Plates 4.4, 5.1), both dating to the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Beresteczko, Krynica), that is to the period prior to the French expedition to Egypt in 1798–1801 and the result-ing monumental publication of Description de l’Égypte (1809–1822) or the more easily accessible Voyage dans la Basse el la Haute Égypte (1802) by D. V. Denon. The prototype of those buildings should therefore be identified as the Roman pyramid of Cestius,7 characterised by different propor-tions than classic Egyptian pyramids from the Old Kingdom. However, the fact must be noted that even later, when direct contact with the works of Egyptian architecture was no longer out of the ordinary, modern tomb pyramids were often given overly steep walls, so that their gradient was not canonical. It can be assumed that this is connected with the lack of proper space (the surface of the base of the pyramid could therefore be smaller) and a more dramatic effect caused by a more soar-ing structure, standing out against a myriad of other tomb monuments. On the other hand pyramid shaped buildings that are smaller versions of, for example, the pyramid of Khufu, with a proper scale, are rather rare. This solution basically only applies to initiators – founders with proper knowledge, fascinated by the achievements of ancient Egyptian civilization. Among the forgotten, yet very important works of the seventeenth century Egyptianizing archi-tecture shaped as pyramids is the building linked with Prince Aleksander Proński (Plate 4.4).8 It was

Egyptian Pyramids in an East European Landscape

Joachim Śliwa

36 Joachim Śliwa

built on the outskirts of Beresteczko (Wołyń) upon upper Styr, in the eastern outskirts of the Com-monwealth of Poland (now Ukraine). The lower part of the brick building is a cube measuring approximately 6 × 6 m at its base and approximately 6.5 m in height. A pyramid was raised on this base measuring approximately 15 m in height. The entire construction is therefore approximately 21.5 m high. One of the walls contained a door opening, and no window openings were planned. The entire structure’s state of preservation is far from satisfactory. There is no doubt that the described building had a sepulchral purpose. It was built to hold the earthly remains of Prince Aleksander Proński, which is attested to by an epitaph tablet and research conducted in the burial crypt in the second half of the nineteenth century. Prince Aleksander Proński (c. 1550–1595/1631) was the owner of numerous properties, including Beresteczko. He brought the Polish Brethren to the town (Socinianists also known as Arians), his co-believers. The congregation he started was in turn the beginning of an important Arian centre in Wolhynia. Another building is similar in both shape and proportions to the tomb pyramid of Prince Proński – the sepulchral building of Paweł Orzechowski (c. 1550–1612), built in the beginning of the seventeenth century in Krynica near Krupe in the Chełm Land (Plate 5.1).9 In both cases a rec-tangular base supports a steeply shaped pyramid. Both buildings were set well away from inhabited areas. On a massive cube built of stone and supplemented with brick, plastered and topped with a brick ledge covered with a rather narrow shingled roof, a steep brick pyramid was constructed (most probably also plastered at one point). It is topped by a massive stone pyramidion. The gradient of the walls and the proportions of the pyramid most certainly do not point to its ancient Egyptian lineage, but rather to inspirations taken from the Roman pyramid of Cestius. The total height of the structure is c. 20 m, including the pyramid itself measuring c. 15 m. The construction at the base of the pyramid contained a funerary chamber and in the crypt below the floor the proper burial place was located. Not a single trace has survived from the decoration of the pyramid; the inside is in ruins and almost entirely stripped of plaster. The chapel is covered with a brick barrel-groin vault supported by corner pilasters. The entrance to the chapel located on the southern side determines its frontal wall, and is crowned with a semicircle final while a small round window is set below it (analogous windows were also placed in the other walls of the chapel). The most probable hypothesis links this uncommon building with the activities of Paul Orzechowski (c. 1550–1612), subcamerarius Chelmensis. According to this assumption it would be his burial chapel, therefore an object probably built after his death, i.e. in 1612 or slightly later (very probably in the first half of the seventeenth century). His tomb was once situated in a crypt beneath the chapel floor; a small cemetery of the Polish Brethren, where the brothers and co-believers of sub-camerarius Chelmensis found their resting places was probably located near the building. A comparison of both pyramids (from Beresteczko and Krynica) leads to a quite obvious assump-tion that they may be works by the same designer and architect. Taking historical considerations into account, despite a large distance between both tombs, this seems a rather probable hypothesis. A number of facts speak for it, including a similar time of construction and dissident environments as well as the direct contacts and personal relationships of both founders.10

A different problem is raised by pyramids constructed in the nineteenth century, most com-monly also with a sepulchral purpose. The popularity of those characteristic structures is linked to a fascination with all things Egyptian as a result of the Egyptian expedition of Napoleon Bonaparte (1798–1801), and often with the affiliations of the founders with the Masonic order. During the sec-ond half of the nineteenth century another type of monumental funerary structure was also shaped on the basis of a pyramidal shape, connected with a certain birth and financial status of the founders. Buildings of that type, i.e. representative funerary mausoleums that were not connected with a par-ticular faith (interconfessional), were situated within family properties (most commonly in a meticu-lously planned English park) or on the outskirts of confessional cemeteries. This category includes the buildings discussed below, built in Greater Poland (Łaziska) or in Kuyavia (Aleksandrów), but also in the eastern lands (Berezowa Rudka, Stepań, Rożniatów) and in Silesia (Rożnów, Piotrowice) and in East Prussia (Żabin).

37Joachim Śliwa

A very interesting example is a complex built according to Rittmeister Franciszek Łakiński’s con-cept (1767–1845) in Łaziska near Wągrowiec (Greater Poland).11 Except for the burial pyramid itself, measuring 6 m and built of hewn stone (Plate 5.2), it also contained a small janitor house, a well and a stable. The upkeep of the janitor was to be provided by a special field at his disposal (obviously the similarity of this idea with ancient Egyptian foundations of the funerary cult is entirely coincidental). Franciszek Łakiński was an army man by trade, he had served in the Prussian army since 1790, and later in 1808–1814 he fought in Napoleon’s army. It is possible that at that time he was in contact with veterans of the Egyptian expedition and this is where he found his inspiration for his tomb, where he found his resting place in 1845. There is one more object, almost completely forgotten, in Ilowiec (Greater Poland, near Mosina). It was shaped as a steep pyramid, which initially was probably approximately 4 m high (Plate 5.3). The status of this building is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is directly connected with the pres-ence of Napoleon in Ilowiec and its vicinity, when the inhabitants who wanted to commemorate the Emperor built this monument with distinct references to his Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801. Napoleon visited the region twice: once in 1806 when he was in nearby Konarzewo (here he was a guest of Ksawery Działyński) and again in 1812, before the Moscow campaign (at that time he visited Turew as a guest of Józef Chłapowski, the father of his aide-de-camp Dezydery Chłapowski). Years later the commemorative monument came to be used for a different purpose: with a flat apex and a cross on its top it is still used as a chapel even today. Slightly later (after 1864) a classic funerary pyramid was also built in Aleksandrow Kujawski. The initiator of the idea was Władysław Trojanowski, the then owner of the Trojanowo estate (today it is among others part of the Aleksandrów city park). A concrete pyramid measuring 3 m in height was built on a square-shaped base measuring 4 × 4 m. An entrance to an underground crypt was located to the north. The founder of the building was not buried in the tomb, but rather in nearby Toruń. An entirely unknown and neglected area is made up by the regions located to the east of the current Polish borders, once mostly part of the former Commonwealth of Poland. A diligent in-ventory should be made there of pyramid-shaped buildings of interest to us. Currently some in-teresting objects can be named which are characterised by appropriately monumental proportions, located both in the cemeteries of local communities and built to be impressive mausoleums within family estates. As part of the first group the tomb of Mikołaj Kobyliński is also worthy of note, built in 1844 in the Rożniatów cemetery.12 The Worcell family tomb should also be placed within this category (a family of Arian traditions dating back to the sixteenth century), built at the beginning of the nine-teenth century in a cemetery adjacent to a church in Stepań upon Horyń (Ukraine).13

An extraordinary example of the fascination with Egyptian topics is the meticulously constructed pyramid, completed in 1899 in Berezowa Rudka near Połtawa (Ukraine).14 The idea came from Ignacy Zakrzewski, a Russian diplomat, and for some years a Russian envoy in Egypt. He built a classic Egyp-tian pyramid on his family estate measuring 9 m in height (Plate 6.1 a) that served as a funerary chapel (the burials of his parents were placed in an underground crypt).15 The inside of the pyramid/chapel was covered with frescoes of Christian and ancient Egyptian motifs, while outside, to the left of the entrance, a statue of Isis once stood, which according to local tradition was brought from Egypt especially for that occasion, and originated in antiquity. This monument is shown on a picture dating to the period before 1917 (Plate 6.1 b). In the Połtawa region, in the village of Komendantiwka, there is yet another forgotten pyramid. It dates to a slightly earlier time, since it was built in 1864 by Aleksander Bilewicz after the death of his wife Zofia (he was an officer in the Russian navy and took part in the Crimean War). It is a three-level ‘step pyramid’ measuring 15 m, with a chapel equipped with an altar in the lowest part of the building. The entire structure was crowned by a cross. In the 1860s Bilewicz had stayed in Egypt as member of a Russian military group (his fascination with the form of a pyramid may have derived from there).16

The characteristic type of pyramid-shaped family mausoleums was known in the nineteenth cen-tury – as mentioned above – in Silesia too. A classic object of this type (Plate 6.2) connected with the

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history of the Eben und Brunnen family was built in Rożnów/Ober-Rosen near Kluczbork/Kreuz-burg, in the vicinity of the local parish church, on the outskirts of a cemetery.17 It is a brick structure measuring 9 m in height, with medium sized stone blocks initially included in the brick walls. The top of the pyramid is not sharp, but rather slightly truncated. The front side of the classic pyramid construction is equipped with a rectangular portico leading to an underground crypt, covered with a cornice, which is continued as a brick outcrop running around the remaining pyramid walls. The entry portico is crowned by a symbolic sarcophagus made of a massive limestone block. Two coats-of-arms of the founders have been carved on its front surface, however today they are hardly distinguishable. The relatively spacious crypt is directly accessible by a few steps. The crypt has a bar-rel-groin vault. Light and air access is provided by four round windows (two on each of the opposite sides of the pyramid), located just above the ground level. The windows are protected by semicircular brick outcrops from above. The state of the building’s preservation is quite good; however, it requires protection and con-stant maintenance. As may be deduced from information available in the once accessible parish books, prior to 1932 about thirty members of the family and their relatives made the crypt their final resting place.18

A very interesting and not entirely clarified problem is the authorship of the tomb pyramid in Rożnów. It has already been linked several times with the name of Carl Gotthard Langhans (1732–1808), an outstanding architect who worked in Silesia in 1775–1787. Beginning from 1788 Langhans stayed in Berlin, where he was appointed by Frederick William II to the position of the director of the royal Hofbauamt. Among his prominent buildings the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, built in 1788–1791, is obviously the most famous. Langhans was also the author of several buildings in Potsdam, including the Egyptianizing park structures in the so-called New Garden. A connection between Langhans and the concept of the tomb pyramid in Rożnów, built c. 1780, seems to be attested to by both his long sojourn in the nearby Kluczbork/Kreuzburg in the years 1777–1779, as well as characteristic traits of a mausoleum project published by Langhans in 1784.19 It is also significant that Langhans applied visible Egyptianizing elements in his other projects. The tomb pyramid from Rożnów would be one of the earliest examples of Egyptianizing buildings among the works of Carl Gotthard Langhans and a particularly important example of modern sepulchral art. In addition to the object in Rożnów/Ober-Rosen, there is one more building of this type in Silesia, a particularly interesting one, which has not received appropriate attention so far.20 It is a nineteenth century funerary mausoleum built in Piotrowice/Peterwitz,21 connected with the von Limburg-Styrum family history (Plate 6.3). This well preserved building measuring approximately 9 m has proportions characteristic of Egyptian pyramids. It was built on a brick foundation measuring 4.7 × 4.7 m, constructed of tightly fitting sandstone blocks. The top was undoubtedly crowned by a pyramidion, which unfortunately has not survived (it may have been made of a harder stone). A classicistic portico leads to the pyramid, stylistically foreign in relation to the main pyramid, although such a connection was widely used in the nineteenth century sepulchral architecture. The architect who designed the structure was aware of this fact. In order to avoid obvious dissonances he only slightly marked the details of the portico. The work of both the architect and the stonemasons is of high quality. The inside of the pyramid is empty because it was intended to be a funerary chapel only, crowning an underground burial crypt. Currently the crypt is open, deprived of the burials, with not a trace of any coffins remaining. No epitaph tablet can be found either. In the nineteenth century the Piotrowice (Gross-Peterwitz) estate belonged to the notable von Limburg-Styrum family, with a history dating back to the tenth century. The counts von Limburg used to live to the west of the Rhine (currently the borders of Germany, the Netherlands and Bel-gium), with the Limburg castle set by the river Vesder as the family seat. At the time they were closely related with many family connections to the Carolingian Dynasty and other noble families of the time. The family with numerous side branches produced many a military commander who became famous in the wars with the Turks in the seventeenth century or in the Netherlands war of independ-ence at the beginning of the nineteenth century.22

Joachim Śliwa

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In contrast to such an extensive family history, the fortunes of its Silesian branch are much shorter. The founder of the branch was Frédérik Adrian von Limburg-Styrum (1804–1874), a descendent of the evangelic Geldern line, who came to Berlin as a diplomat, and was a member of the Nether-lands mission at the Prussian court. His fate from then on was tied to that of Prussia. He bought considerable estates in Silesia and soon became known for his good organisation and management skills. It is he who most probably introduced the concept of a family mausoleum in this particular form. The structure was most probably built c. 1865–1870. It was connected with an awareness that a new genealogic line of this ancient family was being created, which had consciously been based in Piotrowice/Peterwitz, although it had other estates at its disposal. It is also possible that he was the first to find his resting place in the new mausoleum (he died in 1874 and his wife in 1878). It can be assumed that the builder of the planned mausoleum was inspired to design it as he did by a century older funerary pyramid from nearby Rożnów/Rosen near Kluczbork in the von Eben und Brunnen family estate, belonging to the same social circle. Other pyramid shaped buildings can be found to the north east of our country (East Prussia). Probably the oldest of those objects, of which only scant information remains, was a pyramid built at the end of the eighteenth century by Count Lehndorff on the Upałty island on Lake Mamry, which was washed away by the waves of the lake back in the nineteenth century.23

A pyramid that survived into modern times and is considered quite sensational is the monumental structure between Żabin and Rapa, set just at the border of the Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian Federation. It is known as the pyramid from Luschnitz (Plate 6.4).24 It was built in 1806–1811 in a large English-style park within the Angerapp estate belonging to the von Farenheid family (ruins of the palace are located on the other side of the state border).25 The pyramid was built as a family mausoleum on the initiative of Friedrich Heinrich Johann von Farenheid (1780–1847), who went on a study tour of Western Europe in 1801–1806; it was probably then that the initiator came across a proper example.26

The pyramid from Luschnitz is in some aspects similar to the oldest structures from Beresteczko and Krynica. Its lower part is a ground level chapel measuring 10.2 × 10.2 m and 2 m in height, con-structed of brick and lined with field stones on the outer side.27 The pyramid proper is made of brick and measures 15 m (therefore the entire construction has a height of 17 m). The top of the pyramid is flat, crowned with a pyramidion with walls at a smaller angle. The outer pyramid walls were once plastered. A sort of brick portico with a semicircular top crowned with a cross leads to the pyramid from the western side. Despite the surrounding marshlands the condition of the building is quite good.28 This also applies to the burials, which is probably connected to the local conditions favouring natural mummification. Unfortunately the inside of the chapel and the burials29 were first plundered during the winter of 1914/1915, and again during the winter of 1945. Conservation authorities only made an effort to secure and renovate this particularly interesting funerary construction with its clearly Egyptianizing features in 1999. A pyramid as a form of tomb mausoleum enjoyed great popularity in the twentieth century as well. Apart from the ordinary ‘cemetery’ pyramid shaped grave monuments there are a few other monumental objects with slightly different features that are worthy of note. The first of these is a mausoleum of the Skrzyński family situated on the outskirts of a vast Eng-lish-style park surrounding the castle in Zagórzany, near Gorlice (Plate 7.1).30 The designer of the pyramid-shaped building with a massive cross set in the façade was the renowned architect, Teodor Talowski, (1857–1910).31 It is assumed that the object was designed around 1900 and built a few years later (1905).32 It is a building constructed of sandstone blocks, with the side of its square base measur-ing c. 13 m and the height of the pyramid measuring c. 10 m. An entrance to the funerary crypt is located in the axis of the façade; it is preceded by a sort of ante-chapel, sunk into the solid part of the building. Six burials were placed in the crypt inside the pyramid.33

The pyramid in Zagórzany, designed by Teodor Talowski, as a work of considerable artistic quali-ties evoked major interest in this region of Lesser Poland. An indication of this interest is the con-struction of a smaller copy of this building a few dozen years later (c. 1920) in the Sanok cemetery, which served as a mausoleum of the bourgeois Szomek family (Plate 7.2).

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The pyramid of the Szomek family is a concrete construction on a square base measuring 4 × 4 m and c. 5 m in height. There is a cross incorporated into the façade (without a Christ figure) though it is not as massive as the one in Zagórzany. An entrance to the crypt is set in a rectangular annex. Eight burials were placed in the pyramid, the last of which dates to 1948.34

In the same cemetery in Sanok, in the same alley, just next to the Szomek family tomb, there is another monumental tomb monument in the form of a pyramid (Plate 7.3). It is the grave of Adam Dembicki von Wrocień (1849–1933), an Austrian field marshal, and a general in the Polish Army from 1919. 35 This structure is a rectangular crypt with a semi-circular vault (where the general’s body was placed) connected with a pyramid-shaped construction on a rectangular base, measuring c. 5 m in height.36

An interesting building is located in Międzybrodzie, on the steep right bank of the San, in a river bend at a distance of c. 3 km to the north of Sanok.37 A traveller journeying on the opposite bank of the San is greeted by a surprising view, which is quite unexpected in our landscape. The pyramid was built on the outskirts of a former Unitarian cemetery and near a small brick Orthodox church (Plate 7.4). The purpose of the pyramid as a tomb of the Kulczycki and Dobrzański family is explained by a clearly visible inscription carved over the entrance to a crypt located inside the building. The pyramid is placed on a massive foundation; the measurements of its base are 4.35–4.40 m (side length), while the height is c. 3 m. It was built of roughly hewn sandstone blocks (linked by cement-lime mortar), now covered with patina. The angle of the walls of the pyramid is approxi-mately 52°. Therefore the entire building is clearly a reference to the pyramid of Khufu, and thus its smaller version at a scale of ≈ 1:50. A meticulously carved pyramidion crowning the tomb is especially noteworthy. A degree of care to preserve the correct proportions of the pyramid and to crown it with a pyramidion clearly indicate that a person familiar with ancient Egyptian art was engaged in the design. Some light may be shed on the circumstances in which this uncommon building came into being by the names of the persons who found their resting place here. They are members of the Kulczycki family: Wlodzimierz with his wife and their only son Jerzy. The passions and research interests of both members of the Kulczycki family undoubtedly lead to the broadly understood Orient, although the choice of this particular tomb form should most probably be linked with an initiative by Jerzy Kulczycki (1898–1974) – an archaeologist. As family tradition notes, ‘Jerzy Kulczycki used to say, that his happiest moments were spent in Gizeh, where he sat alone in the pyramid of Khufu’. Jerzy Kulczycki in the years 1929–1935 was an assistant in the Chair of Ancient History of the John Casimir University in Lviv. At that time he undertook a number of research study tours, which in-cluded travelling to Egypt. A pyramid-shaped form of the family tomb was most probably eagerly approved by his father, Włodzimierz Kulczycki (1862–1936), who dedicated his passion as a collector to the art of the Muslim Orient. He was a renowned specialist in Oriental fabrics and carpets, and an author of a scholarly work on this subject.38 The above described pyramid tomb was most probably built in 1935. The shape of an ancient pyramid arouses great interest in modern Poland as well. It is mostly applied as an attractive form in utilitarian architecture, often built with the notion of beneficial ener-gies that allegedly occur inside. An example of the use of this characteristic form in architecture was also manifested in two office blocks built in Warsaw (Plate 8.1),39 a large complex of holiday flats in Ustroń40 as well as the ‘Piramida’ hotel in Tychy, which offers relaxing therapy in ‘a pyramidion’ and ‘an energy chamber’ (Plate 8.2).41

An open-work pyramid (Plate 8.3) on the private estate of Aleksander Gudzowaty in Mariew42 has an entirely different character, and the same may be said of a pyramid constructed out of bales of straw (Plate 8.4) near Sędziszow Małopolski on the initiative of a Polish-American businessman Marian Kapusta, which is a copy of the pyramid of Khufu on a scale of 1:11.43

Joachim Śliwa

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Other terms also used as equivalents of ‘Egyptomania’ are ‘Egyptian Revival’, ‘Egyptian Influence’, ‘Egyptianism’ or ‘Egyptian or Egyptianizing Style’. An important summary of this topic can be found in the following works: R. G. Carrot, The Egyptian Revival: Its Sources, Monuments and Meaning 1808–1858, Berkley 1978; J. S. Curl, Egyp-tomania. The Egyptian Revival: A Recurring Theme in the History of Taste, Manchester 1994; J. S. Curl, The Egyptian Revival. Ancient Egypt as the Inspiration for Design Motifs in the West, London – New York 2005 (second, revised edition of the previous title). In the work of J.-M. Humbert – C. Price (eds), Imhotep Today: Egyptianizing Architec-ture, London 2003, except for Great Britain, France and Russia, the influences of Egyptian architecture were also described in Brazil, South Africa and Australia. The Czech material was described in the work of Hana Navrátilová, Egyptian Revival in Bohemia 1850–1920. Orientalism and Egyptomania in Czech Lands, Prague 2003.The result of the above mentioned exhibitions are excellent catalogues (among others Ägyptomanie. Ägypten in der europäishen Kunst 1730–1930. Die Sehnsucht Europas nach dem Land der Pharaonen. Zur Begegung von Orient und Okzident am Beispiel des Alten Ägypten, Vienna 1994; see also J.-M. Humbert, L’Égyptomanie dans l’art occidental, Paris 1989), as well as the materials of the conference held in Vienna in 1994: W. Seipel (ed.), Ägyptomanie. Europäishe Ägyptenimagination von der Antike bis heute, Vienna 2000.A pioneer attempt to summarize this topic is a recently published work by L. Zinkow, Imhotep i pawie pióra. Z dziejów inspiracji egipskich w architekturze polskiej [Imhotep and Peacock Feathers. The History of Egyptian Inspiration in Polish Architecture], Kraków 2009.Designed by F. M. Lanci (1799–1875), built in c. 1825–1836. See J. Śliwa, Egyptian Orangery of Anna and Stanisław Małachowski in Końskie, SAAC 13 (2009), 215–233.It served as both a fig greenhouse and a park bridge. Most probably designed by Jakub Kubicki (1758–1833), built in c. 1825–1830. The initial look of the pavilion together with a then existing wooden obelisk with a pseudo-hier-oglyphic inscription was registered c. 1835 on a gouache painting by J. C. Rahn (Kunsthalle Zürich). Kubicki also designed a monumental Egyptianizing castle gate in Tarnopol.The building was constructed on the corner of the Smoleńsk and Retoryka Streets in 1894 according to a de-sign by K. Lachnik. In 1929 it was modernised, i.e. it was deprived of its outer Egyptianizing decorum. See L. Zinkow, „House in Colours of Pyramids …” Egyptian Revival Style in Polish Architecture: „The Egyptian House” in Kraków, SAAC 12 (2008), 127–133.The tomb of Cestius Epulo, a praetor and plebeian tribune, which was built in Rome near Porta Ostiensis in the years 18–12 BC. It was shaped like a steep pyramid built on a travertine base measuring 29.5 × 29.5 m. The pyramid itself was built of bricks covered with marble slabs. It contained a burial chamber measuring 4.10 × 5.95 m and was covered with paintings. The height of the pyramid was 36.4 m. During the third century it was contained within the Aurelian walls. The choice of such a shape for a tomb can most probably be connected with a journey to Egypt that Cestius once undertook. The proportions of this pyramid, quite different from the Egyptian pyramids of the Old Kingdom, had a major influence on the Egyptianizing buildings of modern times. It also needs to be added that another, larger pyramid had been built in Rome near Castel Sant’Angelo, and although it was demolished in 1499, the remains were still visible as late as the sixteenth century.For more on this subject see J. Śliwa, The Pyramids in the 17th Century in Poland: Krynica and Beresteczko, SAAC 10 (2007), 155–163.Śliwa, The Pyramids.They were of the same age (both born c. 1550) and connected with the dissident circles, initially with Calvinism, later with Arianism. They studied abroad (Proński in Paris and Orzechowski in Leipzig). They most definitely met in 1573, when acting as the representatives of dissidents they took part in a mission that joined Henry of Valois as the newly elected king of Poland on his way from Paris to Poland. For more information see J. Śliwa, The Pyramids.Cf. L. Grajkowska, Grobowiec Franciszka Łakińskiego pod Wągrowcem, Kronika Wielkopolski 2005/4, 80–83.Z. Hauser, Podróże po cmentarzach Ukrainy – dawnej Małopolski Wschodniej I. Województwo Stanislawowskie, Warszawa 1988, 117, fig. 160.The Worcell tomb pyramid was built of black stone. Both the cemetery and the church were vandalised by mem-bers of the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists in 1943. The pyramid survived, but is now largely in ruins. See L. Popek, Wołyń. Ocalić od zapomnienia, Lublin 1997, fig. 500; M. Wójcikowska – M. Wójcikowski, Lubelskie. Niezwykłe zakątki, Lublin 2004, 29–30.I am grateful to Leokadia Antsihkina (the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences, Kiev) for directing my atten-tion to the pyramids in Berezowa Rudka and Komendantiwka.

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A local museum now exists on the grounds that were once the palace-park complex of the Zakrzewski family. The museum holds the above described pyramid in its care (see: http://br-museum.at.ua). The pyramid is in a sad condi-tion, deprived of burials since 1917, stripped of the outher stone slabs (an attempt to demolish it a few dozen years ago was unsuccessful). The museum contains a memorial chamber of Taras Shevchenko, who visited the Zakrzewski family a number of times between 1843 and 1846. The museum also documents the activities of D. O. Lutsenko, a folk poet born here. There is now a plan to renew the entire park complex, including the pyramid, in order to create a local tourist attraction similar to Humań or Biała Cerkiew.The above described building was also vandalised in 1917. After this and for a number of years it was used as a rural storehouse for dairy products. See: data on the web page of Berezowa Rudka (http://br-museum.at.ua).A detailed description of the building and an outline of the family history can be found in J. Śliwa, The Tomb Pyramid of the von Eben und Brunnen Family in Rożnów/Rosen near Kluczbork/Kreuzburg, SAAC 12 (2008), 119–126.Unfortunately in 1945, after World War II, the crypt was broken into, the bodies damaged and the remains mixed up. It was only in 2005 that the inside of the crypt was put in order by conservation workers.For more information see J. Śliwa, The Tomb Pyramid, 123–124.J. Śliwa, Zapomniana piramida w Piotrowicach koło Kątow Wrocławskich, Modus 10–11 (2011) 141–146.The pyramid is located on the outskirts of the village (from Piotrowice, at a distance of 5 km to the west of Kąty Wrocławskie), and is visible to the left of the road just behind the wall of the former park.More information on the von Limburg-Styrum family with a basic bibliography is available in J. Śliwa, Zapomniana piramida.See W. Kuczkowski, Szlak Wielkich Jezior Mazurskich, Warszawa 1993, 122.A detailed study was conducted by Beata Piątek, Piramida z Luschnitz czyli egiptomania jako epizod w XIX-wiecznej historii wschodniopruskiej rodziny von Farenheid, Światowit NS 2/43, fasc. A, Warszawa 2000, 166–171, pls 34–41.The East Prussian line of the family originates from one of the members of the Farenheid merchant family, who moved from Rostock to Königsberg.It has been mentioned several times (without proper historic sources) that the pyramid in Luschnitz was designed by an outstanding Danish sculptor, Bertel Thorvaldsen (1768–1884). See M. Wójcikowska – W. Wójcikowski, Lubelskie, 30–31.The purpose of the inside of the chapel was to store coffins for burials. The foundations had been placed on oak logs.Seven burials of the von Farenheid family members and their relations had once been placed in the pyramid. The first one to rest in the above described building was three-year-old Ninette, who died on the 30th of November 1811, daughter of Friedrich Heinrich Johann von Farenheid.The Neo-gothic castle in Zagórzany was designed by F. M. Lanci during the years 1835–1839. He also designed the aforementioned Egyptianizing orangery in Końskie. Zagórzany was the seat of the esteemed Skrzyński family, which produced a number of well-known political and economic figures. See among others P. Wandycz, Aleksander Skrzyński, minister spraw zagranicznych II Rezeczpospolitej, Warszawa 2006.For more on his activity see Z. Beiersdorf, Architekt Teodor M. Talowski. Charakterystyka tworchości, in Sztuka 2. połowy XIX wieku, Warszawa 1973, 199–214; W. Bałus, Historyzm, analogiczność, malowniczość. Rozważania o centralnych kategoriach twórczości Teodora Talowskiego (1857–1910), Folia Historiae Artium 24 (1988), 117–138.The cross motif in Talowski’s works was very popular. As W. Bałus, Grupa ukrzyżowania na fasadzie kościoła św. Elżbiety we Lwowie, Przegląd Wschodni 6 (1999/2000), 316 suggests, building large amounts of free standing crosses and placing crucifixes on church façades is connected with an appeal of the Holy See to commemorate the 1900 Jubilee Year.According to the epitaph tablets placed in the ante-chamber wall, the deceased are: Adam Tomasz Skrzyński (1853–1905), Oktawia Skrzyńska née Tarnowska (1862–1931), Aleksander Józef Skrzyński (1882–1931), Adam Karol Sobański (1875–1936), Maria Sobańska née Skrzyńska (1887–1947) and Aleksander Sobański (1924–1994).Epitaph tablets for two burials dating to 1891 and 1892 are also fixed to the walls of the pyramid.Cf. J. Rydel, W slużbie cesarza i króla. Generałowie i admirałowie narodowości polskiej w siłach zbrojnych Austro-Węgier w latach 1868–1918, Kraków 2001, 190–191. From August 1915 to September 1916 Dembicki was deputy commander of the Budapest garrison, later from January 1, 1919 he was commander of the Salzburg garrison.It is situated in such a way that only the widest part is visible from the cemetery alley.

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Cf. J. Śliwa, Grobowiec rodziny Kulczyckich w Międzybrodziu koło Sanoka, Rocznik Biblioteki Naukowej PAU i PAN w Krakowie 52 (2007), 499–503.More information on the scientific achievements of both Włodzimierz and Jerzy Kulczycki see: J. Śliwa, Grobowiec. Jerzy Kulczycki continued his father’s collection that was started in 1906. On the 100th anniversary of the creation of the Kulczycki Collection a jubilee exhibition of the entire collection was presented at the Wawel royal castle, see Kobierce i tkaniny wschodnie z kolekcji Wlodzimierza i Jerzego Kulczyckich. Katalog wystawy. Lipiec-wrzesień 2006, Kraków 2006.One is the Leasing and Finance Centre on Połczyńska Street, the other one is the Finance Centre on Dźwigowa Street (both built in the 1980s and 1990s). Both are large surface constructions of glass and aluminium, measuring c. 15 m in height.On the south slope of Równica, built in 1967–1971.See: http://www.hotelpiramida.pl.To the west of Warsaw, on the outskirts of the Kampinos Forest. See J. Milikiewicz, Gniazda rodzinne, Warszawa 1998, 12This structure was built in the summer of 2003 near the Kraków-Rzeszów motorway; unfortunately it burned to the ground shortly after, in January 2004. The founder and constructor of this object, who had lived in the USA for a period of time, is an inhabitant of Ropczyce. See W. Ziobro, Cud na ściernisku, Dziennik Polski, no. 25 (18121), 20 January 2004, 30.

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Plate 4

1 Końskie, near Kielce: Egyptian-style orangerydesigned by F. M. Lanci, built in 1825–1826.

3 Cracow: the so-called Egyptian House designed by K. Lachnik, built in 1894.

4 Beresteczko: grave pyramid of Aleksander Proński(first half of the seventeenth century). Height: 21.5 m.

2 Warsaw, Łazienki Park: Egyptian-style pavilion built by Jakub Kubicki, c. 1825–1830.

Joachim Śliwa

Plate 5

2 Łaziska, near Wągrowiec: grave pyramid of Franciszek Łakiński (1767–1845). Height: 6 m.

3 Ilowiec, near Mosina (Greater Poland): memorial pyramid, built in 1806–1812. Bricks, height: c. 3–4 m. Actual state. Photo: J. Śliwa.

1 Krynica, near Krupe: grave pyramid of Paweł Orzechowski (c. 1550–1612). Height: c. 20 m.

Plate 6

Joachim Śliwa

3 Piotrowice/Gross-Peterwitz: grave pyramid of the von Limburg-Styrum family, built about 1865–1870. Height: 9 m.

1 a Berezova Rudka (Ukraine): grave pyramid of the Zakrzewski family, built in 1899. Height: 9 m. Actual state.1 b Berezova Rudka (Ukraine): grave pyramid of the Zakrzewski family. Original view before 1917.

4 Żabin/Luschnitz: grave pyramid of the von Farenheidfamily, designed by Bertel Thorvaldsen (?), built in 1806–1811. Height: 17 m. Photo: B. Piątek.

2 Rożnów/Ober-Rosen: grave pyramid of the von Eben und Brunnen family, designed by Carl Gothard Langhans, built about 1780. Height: 9 m.

ba

3 Sanok: tomb of general Adam Dembicki von Wrocień (1849–1933), built in 1933–1935. Height of the pyramid: c. 5 m.

1 Zagórzany near Gorlice: grave pyramid of the Skrzyński family, designed by Teodor M. Talowski about 1900, built in 1905. Height: c. 10 m.

4 Międzybrodzie, near Sanok: grave pyramid of the Kulczycki family, built about 1935. Height: c. 3 m.

2 Sanok: tomb of the Szomek family, imitating the Skrzyński mausoleum of Zagórzany, built about 1920. Height: c. 5 m.

Plate 7

Joachim Śliwa

3 Mariew, near Warsaw: ‘open-work’ pyramid built about 1990 for Aleksander Gudzowaty.

1 Warsaw, Połczyńska Street: Leasing and Finance Centre, built in 1980–1990. Height c. 15 m. Photo: J. Lipińska.

4 Sędziszów Małopolski: straw pyramid built by Marian Kapusta in 2003. Height: c. 14 m.

2 Tychy: Hotel ‘Pyramid’.

Plate 8

Joachim Śliwa