Casa del Rilievo di Telefo and opus sectile at Herculaneum

«L’ERMA» di BRETSCHNEIDER

Interdisciplinary Studies on Ancient StoneASMOSIA X

Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference of ASMOSIAAssociation for the Study of Marble & Other Stones in Antiquity

Rome, 21-26 May 2012

P. PENSABENE, E. GASPARINI (eds.)

Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI

I VOLUME

1. APPLICATION TO SPECIFIC ARCHAEOLOGICAL QUESTIONS - USE OF MARBLE

Architecture with concave and convex rhythms and its decoration in Hadrian age: the Ma-ritime Theatre and the Southern pavilion of Piazza d’Oro in Hadrian’s Villa, B. Adembri,S. Di Tondo, F. Fantini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Imported marbles found in three Roman cities of the territory of “Cinco Villas”(Zaragoza), north of Hispania Citerior, J. Andreu Pintado, H. Royo Plumed, P. Lapuente, M.Brilli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Pentelic marble in the Severan Complex in Leptis Magna (Tripolitania, Libya),F. Bianchi, M. Bruno, S. Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

The limestone quarries of Wadi Gadatza in the territory of Leptis Magna, M. Bruno,F. Bianchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Provenance and distribution of white marbles in the arches of Titus and Septimius Severusin Rome, M. Bruno, C. Gorgoni, P. Pallante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

The imitation of coloured marbles in a first style wall painting from the Etruscan-Romantown of Populonia (LI – Italy), F. Cavari, F. Droghini, M. Giamello, C. Mascione, A. Scala . 55

Small Euboean quarries. The local community markets, M. Chidiroglou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Lumachella at Cosa: late Republican?, J. Collins-Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Ancientmarbles.org: an open community for sharing knowledge about ancient marblefrom different approaches, S. Costa, F. Marri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

The use of marble in Lusitania between Rome and Islam, M. Cruz Villalón . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

“Marmora Ostiensa”. New results from the Ostia Marina Project, M. David, S. Succi, M. Turci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

A column shaft in ‘verde rana ondato’ from the archaeological excavations in Palazzo Al-temps, M. De Angelis d’Ossat, S. Violante, M. Gomez Serito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

The exploitation of coralline breccia of the Gargano in the Roman and late antique pe-riods, A. De Stefano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Ships lapidariae and the wreck, with marmor numidicum, discovered in Camarina: hypo-thesis of route, G. Di Stefano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

V

INDEX

The use of marble in the roman architecture of Lugdunum (Lyon, France), D. Fellague,H. Savay-Guerraz, F. Masino, G. Sobrà . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Marmora and other stones in the architectural decoration of early imperial Barcino(Barcelona, Spain), A. Garrido, A. Àlvarez, A. Doménech, A. Gutiérrez Garcia-M., I. Rodà,H. Royo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Provenance of the Roman marble sarcophagi of the San Pietro in Bevagna Wreck, M. T. Giannotta, G. Quarta, A. Alessio, A. Pennetta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Thasian Exports Of Prefabricated Statuettes, J. J. Herrmann, Jr., D. Attanasio, A. van denHoek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Multimethod marble identification for figural sculpture in Hippo Regius (Annaba, Algeria),J. J. Herrmann, Jr., R. H. Tykot, A. van den Hoek, P. Blanc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Awaiting identity: Copenhagen’s “diskophoros” and its auxiliary support, M. B. Hollinshead 171

Provenance, distribution and trade of the local building materials in the Sarno river plain(Campania) from the 6th century BC to AD 79, P. Kastenmeier, G. Balassone, M. Boni, G. di Maio, M. Joachimski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

White and coloured marble on Pantelleria, T. Lappi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Local stones and marbles found in the territory of “Alto Aragon” (Hispania), in Romantimes, P. Lapuente, H. Royo, J.A. Cuchi, J. Justes, M. Preite-Martinez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

The Marmor Lesbium reconsidered and other stones of Lesbos, E. Leka, G. Zachos . . . . . 201

The marbles from the Villa of Trajan at Arcinazzo Romano (Roma), Z. Mari . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

The introduction of marble in the cavea of the Theatre of Hierapolis: building process andpatronage, F. Masino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Shipwrecks with sarcophagi in the Eastern Adriatic, I. Mihajlovic, I. Miholjek . . . . . . . . . . 233

The marble decoration of the peristyle building in the SW quarter of Palmyra (Pal.M.A.I.S.Mission), S. Nava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Stone materials in Lusitania reflecting the process of romanization, T. Nogales-Basarrate, P.Lapuente, H. Royo, M. Preite-Martinez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

A uotorum nuncupatio from Colonia Augusta Firma. An analytical approach, S. Ordóñez,R. Taylor, O. Rodríguez, E. Ontiveros, S. García-Dils, J. Beltrán, J. C. Saquete . . . . . . . . . . . 263

The Muses in the Prado Museum and the pentelic marble of the Odeon in Hadrian’s villa:workshops and statuary programmes. Preliminary report, A. Ottati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Local workshops of the Roman imperial age. A contribution to the study of the produc-tion of Campanian Sarcophagi, A. Palmentieri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

Ceraunia and lapis obsianus in Pliny, L. Pedroni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Marbles from the Domus of ‘Bestie ferite’ and from the Domus of ‘Tito Macro’ in Aquileia (UD), Italy, C. Previato, N. Mareso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Production and distribution of Troad granite, both public and private, P. Pensabene,I. Rodà, J. Domingo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

The use of Almadén de la Plata marble in the public programs of Colonia Augusta Firma –Astigi (Écija, Seville, Spain), O. Rodríguez, R. Taylor, J. Beltrán, S. García-Dils, E. On-tiveros, S. Ordóñez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

INDEX

VI

Architectural elements of the Peristyle Building of the SW quarter of Palmyra (PAL.M.A.I.S.(PAL.M.A.I.S. Mission), G. Rossi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Casa del Rilievo di Telefo and opus sectile at Herculaneum, A. Savalli, P. Pesaresi, L. Lazzarini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

The use of marble in Roman Pula, A. Starac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Architectural decoration of the episcopal church of Rhodiapolis in Lycia, A. Tiryaki . . . . . 377

Byzantine carved marble slabs from Çanakkale Archaeology Museum, A. Turker . . . . . . . . 385

First preliminary results on the marmora of the late roman villa of Noheda (Cuenca,Spain), M. A. Valero Tévar, A. Gutiérrez García-M., I. Rodà de Llanza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Parian lychnites and the Badminton Sarcophagus in New York, F. Van Keuren, J. E. Cox,D. Attanasio, W. Prochaska, J. J. Herrmann, Jr., D. H. Abramitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

The use of Estremoz marble in Late Antique Sculpture of Hispania: new data from the pe-trographic and cathodoluminescence analyses, S. Vidal, V. Garcia-Entero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Montegrotto Terme (Padova) – Marble and other stone used in architectonic decoration of the Roman villa, P. Zanovello, C. Destro, M. Bressan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

2. PROVENANCE IDENTIFICATION I: MARBLE

The monument landscape and associated geology at the sanctuary of Zeus on mt.Lykaion, I. Bald Romano, G. H. Davis, D. G. Romano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

Marbles of the Aracena Massif (Ossa-Morena zone, Spain): aspects of their exploitationand use in roman times, J. Beltrán Fortes, M. L. Loza Azuaga, E. Ontiveros Ortega, J. A.Pérez Macías, O. Rodríguez Gutiérrez, R. Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Isotopic analysis of marble from the Stoa of Attalos in the Athenian Agora and the Hel-lenistic quarries of Mount Pentelikon, S. Bernard, S. Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

An update on the use and distribution of white and black Göktepe marbles from the firstcentury AD to Late Antiquity, M. Bruno, D. Attanasio, W. Prochaska, A.B. Yavuz . . . . . . . . 461

The use of coloured marbles in the neapolitan Baroque: the work of Cosimo Fanzago(1591-1678), R. Bugini, L. Cinquegrana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

The imitation of coloured marbles in the Venetian Renaissance painting, R. Bugini, L. Folli 475

Stones and ancient marbles of the ‘Francesco Belli’ Collection: archaeological, art-histori-cal, antiquarian, geological - technical and petrographical aspects, R. Conte, A. D’Elia, E.Delluniversità, G. Fioretti, E. Florio, M. C. Navarra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

Provenance investigation of a marble sculptures from Lyon Museum, M.P. Darblade-Au-doin, D. Tambakopoulos, Y. Maniatis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

The limestone quarries of the Karaburum peninsula (southern Albania), A. De Stefano . . . 513

The main quarries of the central part of Dardania (present Kosova) during the Roman pe-riod: their usage in funerary and cult monuments, E. Dobruna-Salihu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

The use of marble in Hispanic Visigothic architectural decoration, J.A. Domingo Magaña . 527

Preliminary study of Los Bermejales, a new roman quarry discovered in the province ofCádiz, Southwestern Spain, S. Domínguez-Bella, M. Montañés, A. Ocaña, J. M. Carrascal,J. Martínez, A. Durante, J. Rendón Aragón, J. Rios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

INDEX

VII

Marble pavements from the house of Jason Magnus in Cyrene, E. Gasparini, E. Gallocchio 545

The Portoro of Portovenere: notes about a limestone, S. Gazzoli, G. Tedeschi Grisanti . . . . 555

Saw cuts on marble sarcophagi: New York and Ostia, J. J. Herrmann, Jr., M. Bruno, A. vanden Hoek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559

The basalt of the sacred caves at Ajanta (India): characterization and conservation, F. Ma-riottini, M. Mariottini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

Marble and stones used in the central eastern Alpine area and in the northern area of Bena-cus: topographical reconstruction of trade routes and aspects of use in the Roman Era,A. Mosca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

Life of Nora (Province of Cagliari - South Sardinia). Roman quarries and their organizationin the rural landscape, C. Nervi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585

Naxian or parian? Preliminary examination of the Sounion and Dipylon kouroi marble,O. Palagia, Y. Maniatis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593

Analysis of the stony materials in the Arucci city, E. Pascual, J. Bermejo, J. M. Campos . . . . 601

Blocks and quarry marks in the Museum of Aquileia, P. Pensabene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611

Archaeology and archaeometry of the marble sculptures found in the “Villa di Poppea” atOplontis (Torre Annunziata, Naples), P. Pensabene, F. Antonelli, S. Cancelliere, L. Laz-zarini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

“Marmo di Cottanello” (Sabina, Italy): quarry survey and data on its distribution, P. Pensa-bene, E. Gasparini, E. Gallocchio, M. Brilli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

A quantitative and qualitative study on marble revetments of service area in the Villa delCasale at Piazza Armerina, P. Pensabene, L. Gonzalez De Andrés, J. Atienza Fuente . . . . . . 641

Quarry-marks or masonry-marks at Palmyra: some comparisons with the Phoenician-Punic documentation, D. Piacentini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651

Fine-grained dolomitic marble of high sculptural quality used in antiquity, W. Prochaska . . 661

Discriminating criteria of Pyrenean Arties marble (Aran Valley, Catalonia) from Saint-Béatmarbles: evidence of Roman use, H. Royo, P. Lapuente, E. Ros, M. Preite-Martinez,J. A. Cuchí . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

II VOLUME

3. PROVENANCE IDENTIFICATION II: OTHER STONES

The stone architecture of Palmyra (Syria): from the quarry to the building, R. Bugini, L. Folli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683

Quarries in rural landscapes of North Africa, M. De Vos Raaijmakers, R. Attoui . . . . . . . . . 689

Local and imported lithotypes in Roman times in the Southern part of the X Regio Au-gustea Venetia et Histria, L. Lazzarini, M. Van Molle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

Preliminary study of the stone tesserae of Albanian mosaics. Materials identification, E. Omari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

4. ADVANCES IN PROVENANCE TECHNIQUES METHODOLOGIES AND DATABASES

Provenance investigation of some funeral marble sculptures from ancient Vienna (France), V. Gaggadis-Robin, J.-L. Prisset, D. Tambakopoulos, Y. Maniatis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

INDEX

VIII

Isotopic testing of marble for figural sculpture at Guelma, Algeria, J. J. Herrmann, Jr., R.H. Tykot, D. Attanasio, P. Blanc, A. van den Hoek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

5. QUARRIES AND GEOLOGY

Analysis and discrimination of Phrygian and other Pavonazzetto-like marbles, D. Atta-nasio, M. Bruno, W. Prochaska, A. B. Yavuz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753

Roman stone-carvers and re-carving: ingenuity in recycling, S. J. Barker, C. A. Ward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765

Can a fire broaden our understanding of a Roman quarry? The case of el Mèdol (Tarragona, Spain), A. Gutiérrez Garcia-M., S. Huelin, J. López Vilar, I. Rodà De Llanza . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779

The Roman marble quarries of Aliko Bay and of the islets of Rinia and Koulouri (Skyros,Greece), M. Karambinis, Lorenzo Lazzarini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791

The splendor of Andesite. quarrying and constructing in Larisa (Buruncuk) Aeolis, T. Sa-ner, U. Almaç . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805

Carving a corinthian capital. New technical aspects regarding the carving process, N. Toma . 811

New evidence on ancient quarrying activity at the Mani Peninsula, M.P. Tsouli . . . . . . . . . . 823

Ancient lithic naval cargos around Sicily, S. Tusa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

An unusual Roman stone cinerary urn from London, D.F. Williams, R. Hobbs . . . . . . . . . . 843

Presenting and interpreting the processes of stone carving: The Art Of Making In Anti-quity Project, W. Wooton, B. Russell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851

The Roman Mio-Pliocene underground quarries at Ksour Essaf (Tunisia), A. Younès, M.Gaied, W. Gallala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861

6. STONES PROPERTIES, WEATHERING EFFECTS AND RESTORATION

A strigilated sarcophagus in providence: ancient, modern or both?, G. E. Borromeo, M. B. Hollinshead, S.Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871

Art historical and scientific perspectives on the nature of the orange-red patina of theParthenon, O. Palagia, S. Pike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

7. PIGMENTS AND PAINTINGS ON MARBLE

The polychromy of Roman polished marble portraits, A. Skovmøller, R. H. Therkildsen . . 891

Some observations on the use of color on ancient sculpture, contemporary scientific explo-ration, and exhibition displays, J. Pollini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901

The Ulpia Domnina’s sarcophagus: preliminary report about the use of digital 3d model forthe study and reconstruction of the polychromy, E.Siotto, M. Callieri, M. Dellepiane, R.Scopigno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911

8. SPECIAL THEME SESSION: ORDERS, REPERTOIRES AND MEANING OF MARBLE WITHINTHE PUBLIC AND THE DOMESTIC CIRCLE FROM ANTIQUITY TILL POST-ANTIQUE TIME

Marbles from the theatre of Colonia Caesar Augusta (provincia Hispania Citerior),M. Beltrán, M. Cisneros, J. Á. Paz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923

INDEX

IX

Calculating the cost of columns: the case of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, P. Barresi . . . 933

The decorative stoneworks in the east and center of Roman Gaul: recent data of the ar-chaeological operations, V. Brunet-Gaston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941

Colored columns and cult of the emperors in Rome, B. Burrell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947

Roman sculpture in Pannonia between imports and local production, M. Buzov . . . . . . . . . 955

A New Julio-Claudian Statuary cycle from Copia Thurii. Brief remarks on quality andmethods of extraction and processing of marble used for the sculptures, A. D’Alessio . . . . 969

Stone in the decorative programs of Villa A (So-Called Villa Of Poppaea) at Oplontis, J. C. Fant, S. J. Barker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977

Stable isotope analysis of Torano valley, Carrara, marble used in 18th-century frenchsculpture, K. Holbrow, C. Hayward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987

Cassiodorus on marble, Y.A. Marano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997

Colored marbles of Diocletian’s Palace in Split, K. Marasovic, D. Matetic Poljak, Ð. Gobic Bravar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003

Fabri Luxuriae. Production and consumption of coloured stone vases in the Roman Period,S. Perna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

Porphyry bathtubs in the sacred space, O. Senior-Niv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031

Mythological sculptures in late antique domus and villas: some examples from Italy,C. Sfameni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039

Architectural language and diffusion of decorative models: a group of unpublished figuredcapitals from Hierapolis in Phrygia, G. Sobrà . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049

INDEX

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CASA DEL RILIEVO DI TELEFO AND OPUS SECTILE AT HERCULANEUM

A. Savalli*, P. Pesaresi**, L. Lazzarini***

* Herculaneum Conservation Project [email protected]** Herculaneum Conservation Project [email protected]*** LAMA - Sistema dei laboratori Università IUAV di Venezia [email protected] HCP is a Packard Humanities Institute initiative in partnership with the Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di

Napoli e Pompei and the British School at Rome: www.herculaneum.org

AbstractThis paper presents the results of an internship researchproject on sectilia in the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo inHerculaneum and across the archaeological site in gener-al. The main research objective was to identify and clas-sify opus sectile and analyse the state of conservation byidentifying the ancient stones and marbles. Hercula-neum is an ideal place for such a study as it has an im-portant collection of relatively well-preserved ancientmarbles from all over the Mediterranean, dating fromthe first century BC to the first century AD. Special at-tention was paid to the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo and itsso-called Marble Room. This research took place in thecontext of the Herculaneum Conservation Project(HCP), a public-private partnership for the conservationand enhancement of Herculaneum. The study adoptedHCP’s interdisciplinary approach, in particular, by usingits GIS database.

KeywordsHerculaneum, opus sectile, ancient marbles

Introduction

This paper presents a study of Herculaneum’s opussectile which had the dual aim of: i) identifying and clas-sifying the marble crustae as archaeological materialsand ii) informing potential conservation plans for thedecorative marbles. The study was carried out systemat-ically throughout the site, and then a single room - theso-called “Marble Room” in the Casa del Rilievo diTelefo - was selected where the research went into muchgreater detail. This made it possible to locate, quantifyand evaluate the conservation status of opus sectileacross the ancient town, and then to record, documentand analyse the decorative marbles of the Marble Room.This room contains one of the most interesting decora-tive schemes in Herculaneum in terms of the quantityand quality of its marbles, and its conservation history

(the floor has been dismantled and reassembled severaltimes since its excavation in the 20th century). However,it has also come to the forefront of interest again whenin 2008 the remains of the ancient roof and its elaboratewooden ceiling were found on the ancient shoreline be-low: the decorative ceiling presented many geometricalsimilarities to the pattern of the opus sectile on the floor.

The Herculaneum Conservation Project

The study presented here is the result of an intern-ship research project on sectilia in the Casa del Rilievodi Telefo and in Herculaneum more generally (Fig. 1). Itwas carried out in the context of the Herculaneum Con-servation Project (HCP), a public-private partnershipwhich aims to conserve and enhance the archaeologicalsite of Herculaneum1. HCP has worked at the archaeo-logical site since 2001, carrying out an ambitious pro-gramme of conservation, research and enhancement ac-tivities, supporting the local heritage organization (So-printendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Napolie Pompei) to ensure the site’s long-term preservationand sustainability.

Thanks to more than a decade of continuous work,HCP has become a catalyst for research and experimen-tation, focusing these activities where possible in sup-port of the site’s conservation. Numerous lines of re-search have been developed in this context, both on ar-chaeological materials and on decay processes and therelevant intervention techniques.

The study of Herculaneum’s sectilia made use ofHCP’s geographical information system (GIS) that wasdesigned to house data on the archaeological site, link-ing them to precise geographical locations (i.e. the siteplan), and then to compare, combine and query data inorder to inform work on site. The GIS gathers datafrom all HCP studies and other available sources and assuch ensures a more complex and multi-disciplinary in-terpretation of the information in support of planning

for conservation and enhancement projects (THOMP-SON, D’ANDREA 2009).

In the case of the opus sectile, the information gath-ered on execution techniques, the geometry of the panels,the identification of stone types and the state of conserva-tion (to mention only the most important data recordedin the field) were linked to the individual rooms withinthe site, each of which already had its own specific num-ber in the GIS system. This made it possible to combinethe new data on the marbles with information on the ar-chaeology, conservation, and executed or planned workthat had already been documented for that room.

The Casa del Rilievo di Telefo and its MarbleRoom

The eruption of Mt Vesuvius in AD 79 buried an-cient Herculaneum, together with Pompeii, Stabiae and

other towns and villa sites around the volcano. The bur-ial conditions were such that even organic materials sur-vived at Herculaneum and helped preserve buildings onmultiple floors. Although the site had originally beenexplored by tunnel in the eighteenth century and par-tially excavated in the nineteenth century, the ancienttown of Herculaneum as we know it today is largely theresult of an intensive excavation campaign conductedbetween 1927 and 1958 by then Superintendent for theCampania Region, archaeologist Amedeo Maiuri (CA-MARDO, COURT 2013). Maiuri’s archaeological explo-ration was broad in scope and adopted an innovativeapproach combining excavation, restoration and en-hancement, creating a type of “open-air museum” (CA-MARDO 2006).

Along with the Casa della Gemma and the Casa delPrimigenius Granianus, the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo2

stands in the south-east corner of the town, in the urbanblock known as the Insula Orientalis I, where it would


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2. The name derives from a Neo-Attic marble relief depicting the myth of Telephus, discovered in the house and now on displayin the atrium.

Fig. 1. Plan of Herculaneum showing those rooms that contain opus sectile (Planimetries: Brizzi/HCP).

have enjoyed one of Herculaneum’s most beautifulviews over the Bay of Naples (Figs. 2-3). The house cov-ers an area of about 1,800 m2 (part of which is still unex-cavated) and owes its current layout, on three storeys, toan Augustan-period reconstruction of an earlier build-ing from the fourth/third century BC. This was proba-bly carried out by Marcus Nonius Balbus (MAIURI 1958,347), an illustrious member of one of Herculaneum’smost powerful and wealthy families, who chose this astheir sea-front residence. The house is divided into anorth wing with rooms arranged around an atrium, anda south wing, with an irregular layout, that includes anoecus and the Marble Room; there was probably a thirdwing on the east side which remains unexcavated. TheMarble Room is on the second floor of the house, over-looking the ancient shoreline below. Its peculiarity liesnot just in its valuable decorations but also in its loca-tion, at the top of a wing of the main building composedof three above-ground storeys (GUIDOBALDI, CAMARDO,RIZZI 2005). The floor of the room, laid on a timberload-bearing structure and a lime-based screed, has acounterpart on the storey below, where the main oecus(room 46) is also decorated with fine marble crustae, asin other grander houses in the Vesuvian towns(GUIDOBALDI, OLEVANO 1998).

The site diaries record that excavation of the Casadel Rilievo di Telefo began in 1934 and continued until1935 when the residential and panoramic rooms on thesouth side were uncovered. The Marble Room, one ofthe most luxurious in Herculaneum, was found on 23May 1935 with the discovery of the north-west sectorwhich had largely given way and was in danger of col-

A. SAVALLI, P. PESARESI, L. LAZZARINI

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Fig. 2. Plan of the south-east urban block of Herculaneum known as the Insula Orientalis I, it is made up of the Casa del Rilievo diTelefo, the Casa della Gemma and the Casa del Primigenius Granianus (Planimetries: Brizzi/HCP).

Fig. 3. View of the eastern part of Herculaneum with a view tothe ancient shoreline (Photo: Savalli/HCP).


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Fig. 4. Excavation of the Marble Room in 1935, showing that it had partly subsided under the weight of the volcanicmaterial and risked collapsing (Photo: SANP Archive).

Fig. 5. Another detail of the Marble Room in 1935 (photo: SAMP Archive).

lapse, making it necessary to dismantle and replace themarble floor, and the south-east sector, fortunately moreintact (Figs. 4-5).

Excavation in the house resumed in 1940, when theremains of a wooden gallery running around three sidesof the room were uncovered making it necessary to dis-mantle the floor from above in order to empty the roombelow (oecus 46); in the excavation diary we read that:“the marble floor was dismantled for about two-thirds ofits length and the whole of its width” (CAMARDO 2002).This illustrates how the house underwent changes from aseries of major interventions, including two later disman-tling and reassembly operations in 1964 and 1994.

In light of this, any hypotheses on the reconstructionof the original composition of the opus sectile in the Mar-ble Room may have been compromised by the various dis-mantling and reassembly operations. For example, thereare interpretative doubts on the original marble floor thatwas damaged in the AD 62 earthquake and then partiallyor totally reconstructed in late fourth style (Fig. 6).

In December 2008 work began to clean and excavatethe eastern part of the ancient shoreline under the Casadel Rilievo di Telefo . In this area the removal of about150 cm of volcanic material from the AD 79 eruptionbrought to light a massive collapse of beams from theroof of the Marble Room. This proved to be an excep-tional discovery with much of the roof’s frame (beamsbetween 6 and 7 metres long) and secondary timbers ex-cavated. Beneath these, roof tiles mixed with tuff blocksfrom the upper part of the room’s perimeter walls andsome pieces of the room’s ceiling came to light (CAMAR-DO, NOTOMISTA, COURT 2010). It was noted that the ceil-ing consisted of a framework with square or rectangularwooden panels set within them, decorated with elabo-rate geometrical motifs in green, red, white and Egyptianblue, with application of gold leaf in parts (Fig. 7).

Opera sectilia at Herculaneum

Pompeii and Herculaneum are two exemplificativeRoman towns where, as Wallace-Hadrill (1996) has

written, the house became a centre for social communi-cation. Sectilia made from high-quality and valuablecoloured stones and marbles thus acquired the impor-tant function of expressing the owner’s social status andhelped contextualize a building or room in the histori-cal, political and cultural fabric of a city. The presentstudy aims to contribute a quantitative and qualitativeoverview of sectilia used in Herculaneum in order to im-prove understanding of this type of decorative feature;hence a careful identification of stone types was con-ducted using the classification criteria proposed byGuidobaldi (1985).

Initial identification of the ancient stones and mar-bles was carried out on site after preliminary cleaningand washing of the surface to remove loose deposits andallow close observation of the marble types; this proce-dure was used for all sectilia in Herculaneum but wasfar more detailed for the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo.Coloured marbles in a good state of conservation wereeasy to identify, whereas black and white marbles weregenerically described as “black marbles” and “whitemarbles” since these would have required laboratoryanalyses for more precise identification. Visual identifi-cation is never sufficient to determine the specific na-ture of a stone whose characteristics vary not just withinthe same geological class but also within the individualquarry depending on how the stone is cut, the surfacefinish, the extraction method and the tools used.

The study identified about 352 m2 of sectilia in Her-culaneum, found in 45 rooms within 17 private andpublic buildings. More specifically, sectilia were foundin 30 rooms in private buildings: four in the Casa delloScheletro (Insula III); five in the Casa dell’Atrio a Mo-saico, one in the Casa dell’Alcova, ten in the Casa deiCervi (Insula IV); two in the Casa del Mobilio Carboniz-zato, one in the Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite, one in theCasa di Apollo Citaredo, one in the Casa del Bicentena-rio, one in the Casa del Gran Portale (Insula V); one inthe Casa della Gemma, and three in the Casa del Rilievodi Telefo (Insula Orientalis I). Sectilia were also found in15 rooms in public buildings: one in the Sede degli Au-


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Fig. 6. View of the Marble Room with its wooden roof thatwas installed in 2006 (Photo: D’Andrea/HCP).

Fig. 7. Wooden decorative ceiling panel found during cleaningworks on the ancient shoreline (Photo: Sosandra/HCP).

gustali, one in a shrine (Insula VI); eight in the TermeSuburbane, three in the Palestra complex (Insula Orien-talis II) and two in the shrine in the Area Sacra. Theycan be found in more frequently in buildings overlook-ing the sea, such as the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo, theCasa dei Cervi, the Casa dell’Atrio a Mosaico and theTerme Suburbane.

Herculaneum has a vast selection of opus sectile in“non-marble”, “mixed” and “marble” materials3 datingfrom the first century BC to the first century AD.Among the “non-marble” sectilia made up of black andwhite elements (generally Palombino bianco/Lavagna),three examples can be found in the Casa dell’Atrio aMosaico (exedra 9, diaeta 23, 24) and a further three inthe Casa dello Scheletro (room 8, corridor 26, apse ofoecus 10). (Fig. 8) These are followed by “mixed” sectil-ia with five examples found in the Casa dello Scheletro(tablinum 7, oecus 10) with inclusions of Portasanta eGiallo antico; in the Terme Suburbane (tepidarium 9,apodyterium 11) with inclusions of Giallo antico andwhite marbles; and in the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo (tri-clinium 18), more specifically in the area with the che-quer-board motif made of pieces of white marble andslate (Fig. 9).

However, there is no doubt that marble sectilia arethe most common type found in Herculaneum, a reflec-tion of Augustan power in the Roman Empire. Theyconsist of a juxtaposition of crustae4 of ancient stonesand marbles in pre-established sizes and colour schemesfollowing a stylistic and typological order characteristicof the opus sectile technique (GUIDOBALDI 1985) (Fig.10). Work to identify the ancient stones and marbles of

Herculaneum revealed the frequent use of Africano, Gi-allo antico, Pavonazzetto and Portasanta, followed bywhite marbles, Bardiglio and Cipollino verde. Rarer isthe use of Rosso antico, Breccia di Settebasi, Breccia rossaappenninica and alabasters, whilst only a very few piecesof Gabbro eufotide, Semesanto, Breccia di Aleppo and farrarer stones like Fior di pesco, Pietra paesina and Porfidorosso antico were recorded5.

Identification of ancient marbles and stones in theMarble Room

Moving on to the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo, fourrooms can be found with motifs in opus sectile on thefloor: oecus 10, room 12, triclinium 18, also known asthe Marble Room, and oecus 46, for a total area of sectil-ia of about 70 m2. In addition there are opus sectile wallveneers (incrustatio) in oecus 10 (traces) and triclinium18.

Oecus 10 is a rectangular room (c. 7.80 x 4.90 m)opening onto the garden, with a luxurious opus sectiledecoration on the floor and walls of which few traces re-main. The opus sectile, preserved only in two small areasrepresenting a tiny percentage of the room, has squarepanels of medium size measuring 59.2 cm, with simplehomogeneous Q3 motifs presenting a generally correctcolour sequence of Giallo antico - Africano and Portas-anta - Pavonazzetto, carefully and accurately reassem-bled. The incrustatio consists of a few fragments of a so-cle made of Africano (Fig. 11).

During archaeological investigations in 2006 near


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3. In Guidobaldi’s classification, opus sectile floors are subdivided into “non-marble”, “mixed” and “marble”; the term “marble”does not refer to a scientific definition of the stone type but rather to the fact that it can be polished like true marbles. The term “non-marble” is used to describe soft limestones, slates, volcanic stones, brick, obsidian, etc. which do not easily take a good polish.

4. Crustae are the pieces of stone from which opus sectile is made; their thickness varies from 4 mm to 2 cm.5. The most important pieces and other marbles are cited in Borghini 2004, Lazzarini 2004 and Lazzarini 2007.

Fig. 8. Detail of the “non-marble” opus sectile floor (diaeta 24,Casa dell’Atrio a Mosaico) in black and white tiles, usually inPalombino and Lavagna (Photo: SANP/Foglia Archive).

Fig. 9. Detail of a “mixed” opus sectile floor made up of yel-low and black marbles in the tepidarium of the Terme Subur-bane (Photo: SANP/Foglia Archive).

the edge the west escarpment at room 12, partly buriedby the volcanic material, remains of an opus sectile floorwere found. The excavation uncovered the imprints ofmarble tiles that were probably removed during theBourbon explorations but also revealed that the stan-

dard panel was made up of square elements (2 Romanfeet long) with a repeated QOr(t)Q motif in alternatingcolours thanks to the use of two lithotypes: Giallo antico– Africano (Fig. 12). An external staircase leads to thenext floor of the house and the room beneath the Mar-ble Room (oecus 46) is virtually square (c. 4.70 x 4.90 m)and lit by two windows on the south and west sides6.The floor presents a homogeneous compositionalscheme based on the sequence of a square reticularmodule (GUIDOBALDI 1985, 196) made from four typesof marble: Giallo antico, Pavonazzetto, Porfido rosso an-tico e Porfido verde antico, creating a lively multi-coloured effect. Its state of conservation at the time ofwriting is good and suggests that Maiuri’s recomposi-tion work was carried out with great care (Fig. 13).

The room also has a fine incrustatio consisting frombottom to top of a socle in Bardiglio, a moulded cornicein Rosso antico, an inlay with simple rectangular panelsin Breccia di Settebasi separated by vertical bands in Gi-allo antico with side fillets in Rosso antico. The decora-tion is completed by a moulded cornice in white marbleand a band of Giallo antico, for a total height of 90 cm.

A corridor in the south-western corner of the house


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6. In this case, too, during Maiuri’s excavations, the floor was dismantled and reassembled. In the excavation diaries for 1942(January-April), we read: “laying of the marble floor in the room under the main hall of the House of the Orestes Relief”. Il lavorofu completato solo a luglio del 1942. Work was only completed in July 1942.

Fig. 10. Detail of a “marble” opus sectile floor made of varioustypes of marble from the triclinium of the Casa del Rilievo diTelefo (Photo: Savalli/HCP).

Fig. 11. Reconstruction of the floor in oecus 10 of the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo (Image: Savalli/HCP).

leads up to the second floor of the south wing, consist-ing of an exedra (16), a diaeta (17) and finally the triclin-ium (18) known as the Marble Room (Fig. 14), with afloor in opus sectile and a luxurious incrustatio. Theroom is almost rectangular (c. 9.08 x 6.65 m) and has alarge opening on the south wall with views that wouldhave given onto the sea and two smaller windows withvery low marble sills on the west wall. The floor of thisroom can be subdivided into two sectors: A and B.

Sector A (c. 6.81 x 4.16 m) is the southern area fac-ing the sea. The floor has a double frame runningaround three sides (west, south and east) consisting of afirst band of mainly rectangular slabs of varying size anda second band of panels with Q motifs measuring 29.6cm, mostly in Bardiglio and white marbles. The sill ofthe large opening to the south is set off by a first rectan-gular panel in Cipollino verde which, as suggested by thefragment still in situ (c. 235 x 29.6 cm), must have beenmade to measure to fit the opening (290 x 29.6 cm) anda second band consisting of fine juxtaposed rectangularslabs measuring 44.4 x 29.6 cm of Pavonazzetto, Portas-anta, Cipollino verde and Bardiglio, using these valuable(LAZZARINI 2011) and beautiful marbles to emphasisethe sea view.

The central decoration of the floor consists of 12rows of 19 square panels7 measuring 29.6 cm with sim-ple motifs of type Q3, Q2 and Q and two QD motifsmeasuring 59.2 cm with circular inscribed discs where asmall table or other item of furniture probably stood.


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Fig. 12. Excavation in room 12 where traces of a well-pre-served opus sectile floor was found that was made up of GialloAntico and Africano (Image: Camardo/HCP).

Fig. 13. Reconstruction of the floor in oecus 46 of the Casa del Rilievo di Telefo (Image: Savalli/HCP).

The most frequent motif is Q38 with 168 panels, fol-lowed by Q2 with 18 panels and by the simple Q with 2alabaster panels and 5 of Bardiglio and reused whitemarbles, in a highly fragmentary state.

Sector B (c. 6.54 x 4.92 m) includes the northernpart of the room facing the entrance to the triclinium.This is the most irregular and incomplete sector of theroom since it was found largely collapsed during the1935 excavation, without considering the various oper-ations undertaken to dismantle and reassemble theopus sectile, which have severely compromised its au-thenticity.

When attempting to interpret the original composi-tion, different areas can be distinguished:

a central part bounded by an incomplete frame ofrhomboids composed of pieces of Giallo antico andBardiglio with very few white marbles, positioned irreg-ularly but which originally must have presented a pre-cise alternation. The central composition, of which fewpieces survive, presents a mixed pattern in which panelswith Q motifs measuring 29.6 cm in Giallo antico,Africano, Portasanta and Bardiglio are juxtaposed withpanels presenting complex and unusual motifs likethose classified by Guidobaldi (1985, 183) as QOS8Q,QOQ2 and original and unique motifs which could bedescribed as “samplers”, such as the panel with a heart-shaped motif inscribed within a disk, made using onlycoloured marbles like Porfido verde antico (Fig. 15). Thecentral position and complexity of this area suggeststhat this was the most prestigious area of the triclinium,thus inspiring the design of the opus sectile.

a U-shaped area around the central zone presentingsmall panels with Q motifs (14.8 and 20.9 cm) and asmaller number of medium-size panels with Q motifs(29.6 cm) and rhomboid and triangular elements dis-tributed unevenly and without particular care suggest-ing that this area was originally concealed by the triclin-ium couches.

two areas with a chequer-board pattern of Q motifpanels measuring 20.9 cm arranged into a first area of 7rows of 8 panels in slate and white marbles, and a secondarea of 6 rows of 4 panels made of alabaster and whitemarbles. There were also two areas with an irregular pat-tern of panels measuring 14.8 cm with Q motifs: a firstarea of 10 rows of 28 panels of white marbles, Bardiglio,Cipollino verde, Portasanta, Lavagna, Alabastro a pecorel-la, Breccia rossa appeninica, Pietra paesina, Breccia di Set-tebasi and a second area of 10 rows of 7 panels of whitemarbles, Bardiglio, Cipollino verde, Lavagna, Portasanta,in continuity with the former but separated from it by aframe of rhomboids in Giallo antico.

Overall observation of the opus sectile in triclinium

18 reveals a highly fragmentary and incomplete marblefloor of which about 30% survives, but above all a ran-dom arrangement of stone types within the panels,which lack colour coordination. In the U-shaped area(Sector B), hidden under the triclinium couches, thecomposition is disordered with unjustified alignmentsand the inclusion of connecting fragments that can beexplained by the various dismantling and reassemblyoperations carried out over the centuries, with reused“marble” and “non-marble” elements, undertakenwithout particular care or skill.

The incrustatio veneer on the walls presents an archi-tectural subdivision comprising, from bottom to top: asocle in Africano, a cornice in moulded white marble,the alternation of two inlays of varying sizes composedof stone types arranged in accordance with a specificcolour scheme (Giallo antico, Pavonazzetto, Cipollinoverde) alternating with flat engaged spiral columns inCipollino verde, a fillet in Rosso antico, above which areCorinthian capitals and a band of white marble, fol-lowed by a moulded architrave in Portasanta. The in-crustatio is found on the south-east, south-west and to alimited extent on the north-east walls. Its state of con-servation is mediocre, due above all to previous inter-ventions, which have left marks from the bandages anddrops of resin on the stone surface.

Research to identify the ancient stones and marblesin the Marble Room led to the identification of 23 dif-ferent types of stone, with a prevalence of white mar-bles. In sector A we find 21 stone types, includingBardiglio, Giallo antico, Portasanta, Africano with thefrequent presence of Pavonazzetto, Lavagna, Brecciarosso appenninica and Cipollino verde and a smalleramount of alabaster, Rosso antico, Breccia di Settebasi,


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7. The asymmetry of the floors with respect to the QD motifs, suggests that the composition originally comprised 12 rows of 20panels.

8. Motif Q3 was the most common in the Roman world because it was possible to use only two blocks of different marbles,thereby keeping the costs contained, while also creating a striking composition. The large number of crustae of standard size sug-gests that there must have been serialized production.

Fig. 14. Reconstruction of the floor in triclinium 18 of the Casadel Rilievo di Telefo (Image: Savalli/HCP).

Palombino, Alabastro a pecorella, Fior di pesco, blackmarbles and a very few pieces of Breccia corallina, Pietrapaesina, Semesanto and Cipollino rosso; in sector B wefind 16 types of stone, including Bardiglio, Giallo anticoand Lavagna, with alabaster, Cipollino verde, Portasanta,Africano and Pavonazzetto being common and smalleramounts of Rosso antico, Porfido verde antico, Brecciarossa appenninica, Breccia di Settebasi, Palombino andeven Pietra paesina and Gabbro eufotide.

In light of these findings, the Marble Room could beseen as a sampler of ancient stones and marbles from allover the Mediterranean which might suggest, as alreadynoted by Guidobaldi (2005, 189), that the original com-position was essentially inhomogeneous, combining rareand valuable stones such as Pietra paesina and Semesan-to with classic pairings like Bardiglio and Portasanta,Portasanta and Pavonazzetto, Giallo antico and Africano,Bardiglio and Giallo antico, materials probably obtainedfrom recovered crustae. However, it should be stressedthat the composition was seriously compromised by re-peated dismantling and reassembly and so many doubtsand uncertainties persist as to its original appearance.

Conservation of the marbles

The study of the materials and techniques used tomake opus sectile in Herculaneum was undertaken withthe conservation-orientated approach typical of re-search carried out in the context of HCP. This study at-tempted to establish the location, quantity and prove-nance of crustae at the site but also to determine theirstate of conservation, albeit through a purely visualanalysis. Thanks to the use of the GIS, it was possible tocompare the state of conservation of the crustae withother data on the rooms where they were found andpreliminary information on the causes of decay wasgathered. This preventive conservation approach is par-ticularly important for fragile archaeological materialssuch as crustae, which require continuous care that goesbeyond one-off restoration interventions.

To support these conservation objectives, the re-search project adopted a multi-disciplinary approach in-volving various professional figures: archaeologists, con-servator-restorers, a petrographer, an architect and aninformation manager. The team developed a workingmethodology with the following phases:

Data analysis and bibliographical research. Historicaland archaeological research on Herculaneum and theCasa del Rilievo di Telefo by studying existing HCP re-ports and other research.

Study of opus sectile and materials. Descriptions ofconstruction technique and identification of the ancientstones and marbles with the help of appropriate photo-graphic documentation of whole floors and details.Identification, though difficult for some stone types dueto the poor state of conservation of some crustae, wasmade possible by detailed in situ observation. Thismade it possible to deal with issues related to technical

aspects of construction and the size and colour relationsbetween the different crustae in accordance with a stylis-tic and typological order proper to opus sectile.

Recording. Creation of a compact, exhaustive andobjective record that can be easily consulted, illustratingthe general properties of the sectilia and shedding lighton the quality and quantity of opus sectile present atHerculaneum by interpolating all the data collected.Each record contains information on the location, exe-cution technique, geometry, room size, size of existingfragments of sectilia, the stone types used, the state ofconservation and previous interventions, as well as in-formation on the characteristics of the room: whether itis open to the public, if the floor can be walked on,whether it has a roof or if there is rising damp (Fig. 15).

Insertion of results into the GIS database. Data entryinto the GIS of results produced so that they are storedwith all other HCP data and can be managed easily, al-lowing information to be searched and analysed for in-dividual areas of the site.

As noted above, opus sectile is present at Hercula-neum in 46 different rooms, covering 352 m2 about.They are extremely rich in terms of materials and con-servation conditions differ considerably depending onexposure and the properties of individual stone types.Conservation work to make the site safe was carried outwithin HCP’s emergency works campaign, along withinterventions on other decorative features and struc-tures (PESARESI, MARTELLI CASTALDI 2007). Further ef-forts are required to resolve conservation issues andmake these areas accessible to visitors, for example, only13 of the 45 rooms are open to the public; the surfacearea of sectilia that can be walked on is equivalent toabout 47 m2. However, further investment in conserva-tion and access within HCP’s programme is foreseenand it is reassuring that about two thirds of the sectiliaare already protected by shelters.

A more detailed observation of the crustae revealedthat most marble floors were covered with deposits andmicroorganisms; in some cases the floor was uneven: inoecus 10 of the Casa dello Scheletro, in oecus 5 and tri-clinium 12 of the Casa dell’Atrio a Mosaico, in tablinum4 of the Casa di Apollo Citaredo and in the rooms of theTerme Suburbane. This unevenness causes fracturesand thus the detachment and fragmentation of the mar-ble pieces. The poor state of many marble floors, whosecomposition has in many cases been altered significant-ly, clearly indicates the need for conservation work.

Within the Marble Room forms of decay typical ofopus sectile were found, such as surface deposits, colouralterations, fractures and crustae detached from theirbedding, large lacunae, types of differential decay as inthe case of Breccia rossa appenninica, Africano, Gialloantico, and traces of earlier repair work which have en-couraged the progress of decay, worsened by structuralconditions which seem to be due to the numerous dis-mantling and reassembly operations mentioned above.The prevailing type of decay is the fragmentation of thecrustae into tiny fragments detached from their bedding.


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Fig. 15. Detail of a heart-shaped motif within a circle made up of coloured marbles including green porphyry (Photo: Savalli/HCP).

The construction of an experimental woodenpitched roof over the Marble Room in 2006 has provid-ed extremely important protection (PESARESI, RIZZI

2007). At the same time a series of emergency workswere carried out to replace detached fragments andslow the process of decay. Though definitive conserva-tion work on the floor is not yet timetabled, it will be in-

cluded in the programme of preventive maintenancethat will be launched by HCP and the Soprintendenzain 2014, thereby ensuring that conservation conditionsremain stable whilst awaiting ad hoc conservation work.This programme will also cover the intermediate floorplate on which the marble floor rests to ensure its stabil-ity and monitor its state of conservation.


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Fig. 16. An example of the documentation created for Herculaneum’s sectilia (Image: Savalli/HCP).

Another objective for 2014 is to use the results ofthis research project to develop a targeted plan coveringnot just pure conservation but also the possibility of de-finitively dismantling the floor, detaching the concretefrom the floor plate and thereby reducing the stress itcauses9. The panels will then be reassembled on the ba-sis of careful preliminary investigations to which thisstudy will contribute.

Conclusions and research perspectives

The study of opus sectile at Herculaneum has led to agreater understanding of a rich and varied, but sensitiveand fragile type of archaeological heritage to whichHCP has dedicated resources by erecting temporaryshelters and by replacing and repairing existing roofs, soas to remove one of the major causes of decay – expo-sure to atmospheric agents – and carrying out urgent re-adhesion of fragments. This work was guided by a site-wide approach, taking advantage of multidisciplinarysupport of the HCP team and its GIS database.

The sectilia are not yet the object of a specific conser-vation programme, although this is to be hoped for, pre-ceded not only by this in-depth study of the archaeologi-cal materials but also of their context, to mitigate therisks presented by environmental factors. An ad hocdatabase specifically housing the data related to thestudy of the sectilia and to monitoring their conservationconditions is to be hoped for. Such a database would bebased on the Herculaneum experience and would po-tentially be replicable to other sites in the Vesuvian areaand beyond, with a more ambitious aim of creating abroader national network in Italy for sector specialists.The results would allow priorities to be identified for themost urgent work that needs to be carried out and tomonitor the sectilia continuously, potentially providing amethodology and criteria for the long-term conservationand maintenance of Herculaneum’s opus sectile.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the following members ofthe Herculaneum Conservation Project for their supportand contribution to this research: Domenico Camardo,Maria Brigida Casieri, Sarah Court, Ascanio D’Andrea,Monica Martelli Castaldi and Jane Thompson.

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9. The proposed idea of dismantling the floor may seem extreme but the reason for this work is above all to prolong its of life-time by re-establishing the adhesion and cohesion of the crustae and panels, and ensuring that the floor is even.

Casa del Rilievo di Telefo and opus sectile at Herculaneum

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