Anth.106 Ppt. lecture-13: summary of & supplement to Renfrew & Bahn textbook, chp. 10: What did they...

Introduction to Archaeology: Spring 2021

Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10

Lecture 21: What Did They Think?

Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion.Notes and images compiled by Gregory Mumford (© 2021)

Contents:

10. What did they think? Cognitive archaeology, art, and religion.

1. Introduction: 6-7

Theory and method 10

2. Investigating how human-symbolizing faculties evolved 16

a. How human-symbolizing faculties evolved 17

b. Language and self-consciousness 20

c. Design in tool manufacture 24

d. Procurement of materials and planning time 27

e. Organized behaviour: living floor & food sharing hyp. 30

f. Lithic assemblages as functionally/culturally determined33

g. Deliberate burial of human remains 38

h. Representations 45

3. Working with symbols 49

Contents:


4. From written source to cognitive map 59

a. Introduction 60

b. Societies with restricted literacy 63

c. Widespread literacy of classical Greece 67

5. Establishing place: The location of memory 71

6. Measuring the World in past cultures: 82

a. Units of time: 83

b. Units of length 86

c. Units of weight 88

7. Planning: maps for the future 92

8. Symbols of organization and power 101

a. Money: symbols of value+organization in complex soc. 103

b. Identifying symbols of value & power in Prehistory 105

c. Symbols of power in hierarchical societies 109

Contents:


9. Symbols for the other world: archaeology of religion 114

a. Recognition of cult 119

b. Archaeological indicators of ritual 127

c. Identifying the supernatural powers 149

d. The archaeology of death 156

10.Depiction: art and representation. 164

a. The work of the sculptor: Early Upper Paleolithic 166

b. Pictorial relationships 169

c. Decoration 174

d. Art and myth 178

e. Aesthetic questions 183

11.SUMMARY: 186

12. CASE STUDY: Egyptian art 188

Instructor tips for lectures, etc.:

(1). Attend class regularly (& listen) …→ Many clarifications, tips, announcements,

reinforcement & reviews of materials/concepts.

(2). Take notes on lectures, etc. …→ The act of writing down notes, even with

most course materials and instructions online,

serves as an invaluable aid to one focusing on

a class topic and retaining information better.

(3). Complete the required textbook

readings, and/or review the ppt.,

prior to the specific class day …→ This will provide greater clarity and

comprehension of the material, and will enable

asking focused questions where something

may be less clear (in the textbook or lecture).

(4). Ask questions during the class if

you are confused/wish more data→ The class is an ideal place to ask for more

clarity or further information not contained in

the textbook, ppt., and/or lecture (If nobody

asks questions, the lecture proceeds …).

(5). Complete optional materials:→ Additional reinforcement, studying & bonus?

https://howtostudyincollege.com/how-to-get-good-grades/note-taking-strategies/

https://howtostudyincollege.com/how-to-get-good-grades/note-taking-strategies/

Renfrew and Bahn

2019 (8th. Ed.)

Chapter 10:

What did they think?

Cognitive archaeology,

art, and religion.

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(1). Introduction:

Introduction to Archaeology: Renfrew & Bahn 2019 (8th ed.): chp.10

10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion1.1. Introduction:

• NOW we are trying to extract ways

of thought from material culture

assemblages (in addition to the

textual-pictorial record used by

historians & art historians).

• The New Archaeology attempted to

standardize approaches to

reconstructing anc. thought patterns

from artifacts.

• Chp.10 proposes systematic

procedures to analyze past

concepts & ways of thinking: e.g.,

- How people view their universe/world?

- How they planned monuments & cities?

- What people valued the most?

- What are selected as authority symbols?

- How people viewed spirit world?

- How people practiced religion?


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion

1.2. Theory and Method:

• Human use of symbols distinguishes

us from other beings (for most part).

• Symbols = in thoughts & language

E.g., sound & written letters.

• Their selection = often arbitrary

• Most/all symbols = specific to

individual cultures

E.g., Scandinavian rock carving:

Is it a boat? Or a Sledge?/sled?

Normally archaeologists need more

context to interpret ancient symbols.

• How is a given symbol used with

other symbols? → see assemblage!

• Archaeologists also need to interpret

artifact/pictorial meaning

Pictish

symbols:

4th – 9th

centuries

AD

https://www.aberdeenshire.

gov.uk/leisure-sport-and-

culture/archaeology/sites-

to-visit/pictish-symbol-stones/

https://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/leisure-sport-and-culture/archaeology/sites-to-visit/pictish-symbol-stones/






1.2. Theory and Method:

• Human use of symbols distinguishes

us from other beings (for most part).

• Symbols = in thoughts & language

E.g., sound & written letters.

• Their selection = often arbitrary

• Most/all symbols = specific to

individual cultures

E.g., Scandinavian rock carving:

Is it a boat? Or a Sledge?

Normally archaeologists need more

context to interpret ancient symbols.

• How is a given symbol used with

other symbols? → see assemblage!

• Archaeologists also need to interpret

artefact / pictorial meaning

How would ancient people view modern water hazard symbol?

Broader contexts enable decipherment …



• Remind self of multiple possible

meanings! i.e., the complexity of reality

• Be ready to modify/discard views

with new evidence! i.e., be flexible …

Karl Popper:

“World-1” = physical objects

“World-2” = subjective experiences

“World-3” = artifacts = product of

human thoughts & intentions.

Renfrew & Bahn: sugg. Methodological

individualism re: past concepts:

a. Each person has a cognitive map

of the world (past; pres.; future)

b. The same cultural grouping often

share the same overall world view

(mind set)→common cognitive map

Note: Individual variants

Specialist groups in populace

Anc. Egyptian

curling tongs



• Remind self of multiple possible

meanings!

• Be ready to modify/discard views

with new evidence!

Karl Popper:

“World-1” = physical objects

“World-2” = subjective experiences

“World-3” = artifacts = product of

human thoughts & intentions.

Renfrew & Bahn: sugg. Methodological

individualism re: past concepts:

a. Each person has a “cognitive map”

of the world (past; pres.; future)

b. The same cultural grouping often

share the same overall world view

(mind set)→common cognitive map

Note: Individual variants

Specialist groups in populace

Changing views / concepts

Growing up in & interacting with one’s family, community, environment, beliefs,

new ideas/concepts, adjacent communities, external visitors/ideas, travel, etc.

Example:

Individual,

family, and

community

perspectives

& changes

in time and

space …

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:(a). How human-symbolizing

faculties evolved



2.1. Investigating how human-

symbolizing faculties evolved.

• Archaeologists often tend to view

past human species as having

similar behavior & cognitive abilities.

• This may apply to all groups within

Homo sapiens sapiens

• BUT, every group has variation

within it.

• i.e., ALL races/peoples are alike

in ability:

-- Circumstances differ

-- Individuals vary



2.1. Investigating how human-

symbolizing faculties evolved.

• Archaeologists often tend to view

past human species as having

similar behavior & cognitive abilities.

• This may apply to all groups within

Homo sapiens sapiens

• BUT, every group has variation

within it.

• i.e., ALL “races” / peoples are alike

in ability:

-- Circumstances differ

-- Individuals vary

-- Individuals change

i.e., age; experience; etc.

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:(b). Language and

self-consciousness


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.2. Language &

self-consciousness:

• H. sapiens sapiens 100,000–40,000 BP

• Scholars disagree on the advent

of modern human abilities prior to

this period (i.e., world 3)

• Prehistory = categorized by tool culture.

• Popper: views emergence of

language as linked with advent of

products of human mind (world-3)

• Some view language emerging in

2 million BP (Homo habilus)

in conjunction with chopper tools.

• Diff. to det. WHEN language appeared

1. Mimetic stage (H. erectus) = imitation

2. Mythic (early H. sap.) speech & narrative

3. Theoretic (complex) thought & writing

Origins of self-consciousness hard to pinpointhttp://ethnologie.pbworks.com/w/page/19331041/Homo%20sapiens

https://edu.glogster.com/glog/human-evolution/1wun9ktftlm

http://ethnologie.pbworks.com/w/page/19331041/Homo sapiens

https://edu.glogster.com/glog/human-evolution/1wun9ktftlm



self-consciousness:








• Diff. to det. WHEN language appeared




Origins of self-consciousness hard to pinpoint

https://edu.glogster.com/glog/homo-habilis/29e6jid6soq

https://edu.glogster.com/glog/homo-habilis/29e6jid6soq



self-consciousness:

• H. sapiens sapiens 100,000–40,000 BP

• Scholars disagree on the advent

of modern human abilities prior to

this period (i.e., world 3)








• = diff. to det. WHEN language appeared




Origins of self-consciousness hard to pinpoint

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language#/media/File:From_where_to_what.png

Youtube link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-BMQwSS-Iw

Language Areas of the brain. The angular

gyrus is represented in orange, supramarginal

gyrus is represented in yellow, Broca's area is

represented in blue, Wernicke's area is

represented in green and the primary auditory

cortex is represented in pink.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_speech

Hyoid bone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_language#/media/File:From_where_to_what.png

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-BMQwSS-Iw

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_speech

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:(c). Design in

tool manufacture


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.3. Design in tool manufacture:

• Regarding tool use & prod., a pebble

tool (H. habilus) seems less complex

than an Acheulian hand-axe (H. erectus).

• BUT, this = subjective!

• Can we assess, quantitatively, a range

of variation in artifact assemblages?

• Does producer have “cognitive map”

regarding WHAT a tool should look like?

• G. Isaac found a trend to make better

def. tool types → implies individualism

(i.e., producers retain concept of best

tool forms per required task).

• Indicates planning & design →cognitive

abilities in early hominids (vs. chimps).

• Analyses of prod. Sequence to highlight

cognitive proc. behind artifact productionLess complex pebble tool …

Making an Acheulian hand-axe


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.3. Design in tool manufacture:

• Regarding tool use & prod., a pebble

tool (H. habilus) seems less complex

than an Acheulian hand-axe (H. erectus).

• BUT, this = subjective!

• Can we assess, quantitatively, a range

of variation in artifact assemblages?

• Does producer have “cognitive map”

regarding WHAT tool should look like?

• G. Isaac found a trend to make better

def. tool types → implies individualism

(i.e.,producers retain concept of the best

tool forms per required task).

• Indicates planning & design →cognitive

abilities in early hominids (vs. chimps).

• Analyses of prod. sequence to highlight

cognitive proc. behind artifact production

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:(d). Procurement of

materials and planning time



2.4. Procurement of materials

and planning time:

• Can also assess “planning time”

for early hominids: e.g., regarding

“intent” → to completion of a tool.

• E.g., Stone tool requiring:

- Travel / distance to source

- Place of manufacture (if apart)

- implies forward planning & intent

Manuport:

- Transplanting natural/completed

items (e.g., tools; ornaments; etc.)

suggests interest associated with

them → sense of “possession”

http://thetimesweekly.com/news/2015/mar/24/programs-starved-rock-massacre-flint-knapping-wate/

Flint knapping

http://thetimesweekly.com/news/2015/mar/24/programs-starved-rock-massacre-flint-knapping-wate/



2.4. Procurement of materials

and planning time:

• Can also assess “planning time”

for early hominids: e.g., regarding

“intent” → completion of a tool.

• E.g., Stone tool requiring:

- Travel / distance to source

- Place of manufacture (if apart)

- implies forward planning & intent

Manuport:

- Transplanting natural/completed

items (e.g., tools; ornaments; etc.)

suggests interest associated with

them → sense of “possession”

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:(e). Organized behaviour:

living floor & food sharing

hypothesis.



2.4. Organized behavior: the living

floor & food-sharing hypothesis:

• Study formation processes carefully

esp. since Paleolithic = long-time span:

E.g.,Early Hominid site: Olduvai Gorge

2 – 1.5 million years BP yielded

assoc. stone tools & animal bones

→ activity areas?

→ poss. occupation sites, camps

for kin groups (food-sharing?)

• Others (Binford) argue that these sites

= predator kill sites, where humans

extracted marrow using handy stones

→ Detailed analysis needed since

one view suggests limited intelligence

versus other view (social behavior).



2.4. Organized behavior: the living

floor & food-sharing hypothesis:

• Study formation processes carefully

esp. since Paleolithic = long-time span:

E.g.,Early Hominid site: Olduvai Gorge

2 – 1.5 million years BP

assoc. stone tools & animal bones

→ activity areas?

→ poss. occupation sites, camps

for kin groups (food-sharing?)

• Others (Binford) argue that these sites

= predator kill sites, where humans

extracted marrow using handy stones

→ Detailed analysis = needed since

one view suggests limited intelligence

versus other view (social behavior).

Opportunity: Human scavengers

Pre-planning: Human hunters

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:(f). Lithic assemblages

as functionally/culturally

determined.



2.5. Lithic assemblages as functionally

or culturally determined:

• Another question involves the timing of

the emergence of distinct material culture

in adjacent areas.

• E.g., Middle Paleolithic stone tool

assemblage of Neanderthals (Mousterian)

(180,000 – 30,000 BP)

• 1960s Bordes: argued = diff. groups in

SW France i.e, archaeological cultures

(or ethnic groups).

• Binford: countered that this rep. different

tool kits for diff. purposes (factor analysis)

• Mellars: = chronological sequence.

→ The argument = still on-going







in adjacent areas.



(180,000 – 30,000 BP)



(or ethnic groups).





Neanderthal fossils …

Neanderthal Cave site (in France)http://www.documentarytube.com/articles/175-000-years-old-neanderthals-cave-

discovered-in-france

Contemporary

with diff. mat. culture

Site

A

Site

B

http://www.documentarytube.com/articles/175-000-years-old-neanderthals-cave-discovered-in-france

http://www.documentarytube.com/articles/175-000-years-old-neanderthals-cave-discovered-in-france







in adjacent areas.



(180,000 – 30,000 BP)



(or ethnic groups).





Range of Neanderthal tools …

Different functions: E.g., camp sites …







in adjacent areas.



(180,000 – 30,000 BP)



(or ethnic groups).





Upper Paleolithic tool sequence …

Neanderthal tools: cultures vs. site types

or sequence …

Site A Site B Site C

Different periods, cultures, etc. in time

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:(g). Deliberate burial

of human remains.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.6. Deliberate burial of human

Remains:

• Upper Paleolithic period:

- many human burials in graves,

sometimes with ornaments.

• Earlier periods:

• Neanderthal (Mid-Paleolithic)

Shanidar Cave (Iraq) flowers? in cave

• Sima de los Huesos (Pit of Bones)

(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.

Disarticulated human bones (32-50)

40% = 17-21 yrs; some items!

• Neanderthal mask (France)

• Sculpted ochre (77,000 BP)

• Deliberate burials imply respect/care

belief in afterlife?

• Adornment implies possession?

need in death?

Paleolithic burial customs …



Remains:






Shanidar Cave (Iraq): flowers? in cave


(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.








need in death?



Remains:








(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.








need in death?

http://www.revistaadios.es/noticia/1904/un-nuevo-estudio-pone-en-duda-que-la-

acumulacion-de-huesos-de-atapuerca-y-dinaledi-fuera-ritual.html

http://www.revistaadios.es/noticia/1904/un-nuevo-estudio-pone-en-duda-que-la-acumulacion-de-huesos-de-atapuerca-y-dinaledi-fuera-ritual.html

http://www.revistaadios.es/noticia/1904/un-nuevo-estudio-pone-en-duda-que-la-acumulacion-de-huesos-de-atapuerca-y-dinaledi-fuera-ritual.html



Remains:








(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.








need in death?

https://journals.openedition.org/paleo/3013

https://journals.openedition.org/paleo/3013



Remains:








(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.








need in death?

Blombos Cave (S. Africa)



Remains:








(Spain): 350,000-500,000 BP.








need in death?

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-skeletons-of-shanidar-cave-7028477/

Shanidar Cave: burial with flowers

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/the-skeletons-of-shanidar-cave-7028477/

(2). Evolution of

Human symbolizing

faculties:(h). Representations.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.7. Representations:

• Any portrayal of something from life, or

thought, = a symbol.

• Paleolithic art:

• Need to determine the date

• Need to determine the status

• Now the earliest depictions are known

to predate Homo sapiens sapiens.

• Paleolithic Cave art:

• W. Europe 30,000 – 10,000 BP

Mostly animals depicted (bison; horse)

• 1960s Leroi-Gourhan: argued for

for narrative compositions: horses

& bisons usually in featured area

versus others in peripheral areas.

• BUT, = far more complex than this!

https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-02357-8

https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-neanderthals-were-artists-20180222-

htmlstory.html

64,000 BP: La Pasiega in northern Spain

https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-02357-8

https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-neanderthals-were-artists-20180222-htmlstory.html

https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-neanderthals-were-artists-20180222-htmlstory.html


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion2.7. Representations:

• Any portrayal of something from life, or

thought, = a symbol.

• Paleolithic art:

• Need to determine the date

• Need to determine the status

• Now the earliest depictions are known

to predate Homo sapiens sapiens.

• Paleolithic Cave art:

• W. Europe 30,000 – 10,000 BP

Mostly animals depicted (bison; horse)

• 1960s Leroi-Gourhan: argued for

for narrative compositions: horses

& bisons usually in featured area

versus others in peripheral areas.

• BUT, = far more complex than this!

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(3). Working

with SYMBOLS:

1-6 types


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion3. Working with symbols:

• NOW → assess modern humans

using cognitive archaeology:

• Assess HOW symbols were used

• “meaning” = “relationship btw. symbols”

• Today aspire to discover some of

these relationships.

• Symbols occur in 6+ usages:

1. Establishment of place: indicating

one’s land/community with markers

2. Symbols of measurement: units of

time, length, and weight.

3. Symbols used in planning: defining

intentions via models (e.g., city plan)

4. Regulating & organizing relations

between people: E.g., money; status

5. Representing & regulating human rel.

with Otherworld: Supernatural; religion

6. Describing world via depiction:

Representative art (sculpture; painting)

The White House (North Portico)





















Representative art (sculpture; painting)Constantinople city plan

Dyn.19

map of

mining

region

(Egypt)

Designing the royal tomb (Ramesside example).

Ancient Egyptian plan of R. IV’s tomb (on papyrus)






















Ca.3200 BCE

The royal status of

King Narmer, versus

others, portrayed

in different, ranked

heights via “Echelon”

perspective

Royal robes & setting

OLD

KINGDOM:

Dyns. 3-6:2700-2200 BC

“Divine”

KingshipHeight of power






















Pharaoh: guarantor of Maat (“justice”), protecting Egypt

Pharaoh: Crowned by gods; mediator with deities; protector …

Many other and different examples …

O.K. Royal & Private beliefs concerning the afterlife.

Akh: “a blessed spirit” or “a transfigured one”

Righteous persons permitted to be buried

in official cemetery could become an Akh.

Convicted criminals stripped of their

names, denied burial in cemetery, and

prohibited from becoming an Akh.

Ka: “life force”/“spirit double” in all humans.

All Egyptians (commoner to king) had a ka.

gods had multiple kas; statues had a ka.

The ka and body became separated upon

death and needed to be reunited for the

deceased to attain spiritual resurrection.

required sustenance (real; images; words)

Ba: “power”/”forcefulness” of an individual.

GC vs. Only the king and gods had a Ba in the OK.

Allen Jabiru-bird; changing forms; free from body.






















New Kingdom Egypt: Elite marsh scene …

Dyn.19:

Sety I &

N. Sinai

forts …

Karnak

Temple

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(4). FROM TEXTUAL

SOURCES TO

COGNITIVE MAP:

(4). FROM TEXTUAL

SOURCES TO

COGNITIVE MAP:

(a). Introduction.



4. From Written Source to

Cognitive Map:

4.1. Introduction.

• Written symbols have enabled

a. Descriptions of the surrounding

world,

b. Communication (incl. long

distance)

c. Control / administration

d. Preserving records over time

e. Etc.

• The evolution of languages can

often be traced from initial signs

to internal developments:

vocabulary, spelling, grammar

etc.

• E.g., signs becoming more

complex

(4). FROM TEXTUAL

SOURCES TO

COGNITIVE MAP:

(b). Societies with

restricted literacy.



4.2. Societies with

restricted literacy:

• Writing is usually restricted to a

small % of past populations:

E.g., Scribes & elite in

Mesoamerica & Mesopotamia.

• Writing may have limited

applications in some societies:

E.g., Mesoamerican public

monuments: stone lintels, panels,

stairways, and stelae.

• Mayan codices (four survive)

• Mayan elite pottery & jade



4.2.a. Conceptualizing warfare:

• Mayans had 4 main glyphs

denoting warfare:

1. “Capture events”

(POWs → sacrifice)

2. “Destruction events”

(Compiling objectives)

3. “Axe events”

(major battles)

4. “Shell-star”/”star-war events”

(a polity overcoming another; or

a polity breaking free of another)

See further examples in text

(4). FROM TEXTUAL

SOURCES TO

COGNITIVE MAP:

(c). Widespread literacy

of classical Greece.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion4.3. Widespread literacy

of Classical Greece:

• In contrast, cultures like Greece

had widespread literacy,

• Greeks used papyrus for writing

most documents (Pompeii; Fayum)

•Public monuments in stone & metal:

1. Council/assembly decrees

2. Honoring person/people

3. State treaty

4. Monarchical letter to populace

5. Tax list for vassal states

6. Cult lists of property & offerings

7. Divination rules (omens)

8. Major records (building; contracts)

9. Public bulletins (military service)

10.Stones (for boundaries; mortgages)

11.Epitaph (funerary)

12.Curse against defilers (tombs)

→Suggest high % of literacy (audience)



• The % of literacy in Ancient Greece

is better revealed by graffiti:

E.g., voting ostrakon bearing name

• Other uses:

1. Coins (noting city mint/authority)

2. Caption naming person(s) in scene

3. Prize labels (competitions)

4. Dedication labels (offerings)

5. Price labels

6. Signature (artist; craftsperson)

7. Jury list (members)

Hence, cognitive studies on ancient

Greece rely largely on literary records.

However, archaeological techniques

are applied to these & other cultures:

There are biases in the literary record

that can be checked independently.

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(5). ESTABLISHING

PLACE: i.e., …

Context of memory



5.1. Establishing place:

The location of memory.

• Our immediate environment has

past & current symbolic meanings

that shape us, like past societies.

• Individual cognitive map:

= linked to the foundation of place

E.g., one’s home hearth / “domus”

(perm. settlement [with a center])

• Small community’s cognitive map:

E.g., Cemetery for ancestral dead

(in a home; group tomb; shrine; etc.)

• Larger community’s cognitive map:

E.g., Public meeting place

Sacred gathering place

Each social grouping resides within a

landscape with specific meanings/assoc.

for it, shaping individuals & community.E.g., Birmingham, AL: Early days → today …




















for it, shaping individuals & community.

Ceremonial center

of Orkney (above):

Stone ring of

Brodgar (right),

associated with a

smaller community

(gathering place):

Barrows

at Stone-

henge

West Thebes:

Complex

mortuary,

cultic,

& urban

landscape




















for it, shaping individuals & community.



• The individual & community’s associated

landscape forms their life experience

and world view, from hunter-gatherers

to state societies.

• Ancient settlement plans/layout may

incorporate greater underlying meanings

E.g., Reflecting cosmological beliefs &

imposing harmony (Far East; Maya)

• Sacred centers may also shape the focus

of small settlements: e.g., Stonehenge.

• Hence, ancient landscapes are made up

of many symbolic elements evoking

history & memories: e.g., Birmingham

Question(s):

• What parts of Birmingham’s landscape

have symbolic meaning?

• How have they shaped Birmingham?

• How are they continuing to shape/change?

Hunter-gatherer environment …

Chiefdom setting …Early state complex society’s

varying setting …



• The individual & community’s associated



to state societies.






of small settlements: e.g., Stonehenge.




Question(s):







• The individual & community’s assoc.



to state societies.






of small settlements: e.g., Stone Henge.




Question(s):






10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• The study of ancient landscapes

also entails a cognitive aspect for

the ancient population:

• Reflecting a. Social organization

b. shaping force over time

c. Etc.

• Constructed landscapes may include

deserts: i.e., a. Roadways

b. quarries / mines

c. Nazca desert lines

Tropical area: Angkor’s hydraulic-scape

• Structures are sometimes aligned to

astronomical points

E.g., Chaco Canyon house alignment

• Structures may have ceremonial

components:

E.g., Circular rooms / kivas (Chaco)

Q.: How do we approach anc. landscapes?


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• The study of ancient landscapes

also entails a cognitive aspect for

the ancient population:

• Reflecting a. Social organization

b. shaping force over time

c. Etc.

• Constructed landscapes may include

deserts: i.e., a. Roadways

b. quarries / mines

c. Nazca desert lines

d. Etc.

• Structures are sometimes aligned to

astronomical points

E.g., Chaco Canyon house alignment

• Structures may have ceremonial

components:

E.g., Circular rooms / kivas (Chaco)

Q.: How do we approach anc. landscapes?

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(6). MEASURING

THE WORLD …

(in past cultures)

(6). MEASURING

THE WORLD …

(in past cultures)

(a). Units of time.



6.1. Measuring the world:

• Many ancient societies devised

ways to measure their environment

6.2. Units of time.

• Upper Paleolithic populations may

have kept track of time:

E.g., Plaque from Tai (France)

contains a series of notations

E.g., Tossal de la Rocca bone

(Spain) with notation(?) system.

I.e., They naturally had the concept of

aging and overall passage of time

(perhaps reflected in figurines).

• Ideally, an ancient society will yield

calendars with notational systems

linked to astronomical observations:

E.g., Maya calendars



Some structures appear to

have specific astronomical

alignments:

E.g.,British megalithic circles

like Stonehenge

(Analysis by A. Thom)

E.g., Mesoamerican & Andean

structures

(Analysis by A. Aveni)

Maya site of Uaxactun:

a. Mid-summer = North

b. Mid-winter = South

c. 2 equinoxes = Center

(6). MEASURING

THE WORLD …

(in past cultures)

(b). Units of length.



6.3. Units of length.

• One can reconstruct standard

units of length by analyzing

building measurements

= “Broadbent’s creation”

E.g., Ancient Egypt:

Measuring rods found,including

cubit: approx. 54 cm long.

Some building measurements

and ratios used = 2:1

i.e., Enclosure wall twice as

long as the width

i.e., Room twice as long as the

width

i.e., Brick twice as long as the

width

= consistent ratios 2:1

E.g., Royal cubit (versus std. cubit)

(6). MEASURING

THE WORLD …

(in past cultures)

(b). Units of weight.



6.4. Units of weight.

• One may find a series of

standard forms that reveal

successive multiples of the

smallest (std.) unit in the

grouping → system of weights

• Some items have markings

• Coinage is normally

distinguished by weight and

material (gold; silver; etc.)

and indicates different values.

E.g., Mohenjodaro 2500-2000 BC

• Found a series of weights with

the smallest std. unit = 0.836 g.

Other units: 1, 4, 8 → 64,

320 and 1600.

Dyn.30 coin (Egypt): Nectanebo …



6.4. Units of weight.

• One may find a series of

standard forms that reveal

successive multiples of the

smallest (std.) unit in the

grouping → system of weights

• Some items have markings

• Coinage is normally

distinguished by weight and

material (gold; silver; etc.)

and indicates different values.

E.g., Mohenjodaro 2500-2000 BC

• Found a series of weights with

the smallest std. unit = 0.836 g.

Other units: 1, 4, 8 → 64,

320 and 1600.

Petrie weighed many groups of items

in case they revealed weight seq. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/297519119103569563

Weights & scales from Mohenjo Daro

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/297519119103569563



• May extrapolate from this

system of weights:

1. Concept similar to current

ones of weights: e.g. meat values

2. Application of weight system

required multiple units: obtain tally

3. A numeration system existed:

(example = ratio 16:1)

4. Weights had a functional application

i.e., scale pans → for weighing items

5(?). Concept of equivalence:

i.e., x-weight = x-material

(ratio of value)

6(?). Perhaps reflects a constant rate

of exchange between materials.

→ but exchange values do change

over time: economic decline etc.

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(7). ADVANCE /

FUTURE PLANNING

(in past cultures)



7. Planning:

maps for the future.

• Our individual cognitive map

enables us to plan in advance.

• Archaeologists rarely find physical

evidence for ancient planning of

the construction of things, unless

something is sufficiently complex.

• We usually need to extrapolate!

• Neolithic Village of Catal Hoyuk

(ca. 6500 BC; Turkey) may suggest

some pre-planning, but it may have

easily formed naturally (organically)

over time, replicating certain key

features per structure (like a beehive)

• Evidence needed to demonstrate prior

planning: e.g., sculptor’s trial piece

architect’s plan / model

Ancient plan of Nippur, ca. 1500 BC



7. Planning:















• Evidence needed to demonstrate prior





7. Planning:















• Evidence=needed to demonstrate prior



Sculptor’s

Trial piece:

i.e., portable

reference for

replicating

face of king

Akhenaten

King Akhenaten (Dyn.18, Egypt):

Completed relief scenes

https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/3543

Brooklyn Museum: Dyn.19 model of temple gateway

https://discoveringegypt.com/luxor-temple/luxor-temple-pylon-of-ramses-ii/

https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/3543

https://discoveringegypt.com/luxor-temple/luxor-temple-pylon-of-ramses-ii/


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion• Extrapolate key features:

• Pre-planning may also incorporate

astronomical alignment

E.g., Entry passage in Newgrange

tomb = aligned with mid-winter

sunrise (i.e., = a significant time).

• May infer pre-planning in industry:

E.g., Lost wax casting technique

in obtaining a finished product.

• Infer standardized ingredients in

bronze production from metal

compositions: i.e., a constant 10%

tin alongside copper (Europe EB Age)

• Infer town planning from a grid layout

E.g., Ancient Egypt: Tell el-Amarna

E.g., Indus Valley: Mohenjodaro

E.g., Cambodia: Angkor

• Design modifications: E.g.,Step Pyramid

Displays alignment with the solstices

→ = Not “chance” → = pre-planned

also a significant time …

E.g. Winter solstice

ca. Dec. 21







sunrise (i.e., a significant time).













Cire perdue: Lost wax production processhttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fonte_%C3%A0_la_cire_perdue_(Tanjore,_Inde_(13909864069).jpg

Wax

model

→

Bronze

figure

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fonte_%C3%A0_la_cire_perdue_(Tanjore,_Inde_(13909864069).jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fonte_%C3%A0_la_cire_perdue_(Tanjore,_Inde_(13909864069).jpg




















Portable xrf analyzer:

E.g., $18,000https://www.911metallurgist.com/equipment/handheld-xrf-analyzer/

56 Element

Handheld

XRF Analyzer

– 911MPEXRF700Xrf of Qin crossbow

bolts …Head =

20% tin;

Shaft/tang

= ca.3% tin

(> flexible)

https://www.911metallurgist.com/equipment/handheld-xrf-analyzer/




















Roman grid plan of Cosa (N of Rome)




















E.g., Changes in design concepts

over time … as time permits and

aggrandizement is possible …

Khufu’s pyramid at Giza:

• The king’s longevity permitted the

completion of the pyramid’s upper

chambers, thereby probably making

the completion of the lowest chamber

unnecessary –i.e., backup burial chamber

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(8). SYMBOLS OF

ORGANIATION & POWER

(… in past cultures)


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.1. Symbols of organization

and power.

•Authority figures use symbols to aid

in organizing & controlling populations.

• Communicative symbols:

E.g., data, information, archives

• Power symbols:

E.g., colossal statues, structures,

8.2. Money: symbols of value &

organization in complex societies.

• Complex social organizations often

have a relative value system for

establishing exchange & rel. wealth:

e.g., money.

• An artificial medium of exchange:

Often: gold, silver, or bronze (coinage)

• Money = issued by city state or a

broader government (mint).

Dyn.19, Ramesses II’s rock-cut

Statues and shrine in North Sudan:

Abu Simbel, rock-cut royal cult temple

→ A “statement” to conquered local

Nubian peoples: i.e., the power of the

Egyptian king+state → intimidation

minimizing potential rebels, alongside

its function as a royal cult temple …

A clear symbol of the king’s power,

in addition to being a functional structure:

i.e., a royal “resurrection machine”

(8). SYMBOLS OF

ORGANIATION & POWER


(a). Money:

symbols of value and

organization

in complex society.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.1. Symbols of organization

and power.

• Authority figures use symbols to aid in

organizing & controlling populations.

• Communicative symbols:

E.g., data, information, archives

• Power symbols:

E.g., colossal statues, structures,

8.2. Money: symbols of value &

organization in complex societies.

• Complex social organizations often

have a relative value system for

establishing exchange & rel. wealth:

e.g., money.

• An artificial medium of exchange:

Often: gold, silver, or bronze (coinage)

• Money = issued by city state or a

broader government (mint).

(8). SYMBOLS OF

ORGANIATION & POWER


(b). Identifying

symbols of value & power

in Prehistory.



8.3. Identifying symbols of

value & power in Prehistory.

• Non-monetary economies are harder

to assess regarding their specific

scale of material value / status.

• One can extrapolate value in various

ways:

a. Ethnographic accounts:

E.g., 18th cent. AD fur trade in North

America: 1 musket = 6 beaver pelts

b. E.g., Labor value regarding time

required to produce individual items.

E.g., Bead necklace, clothing, etc.

→ Can establish a relative scale of labor

time between contemporary burials

and goods.Exchange value = ?

Means of payment?



8.3. Identifying symbols of

value & power in Prehistory.

• Non-monetary economies are harder

to assess regarding their specific

scale of material value / status.

• One can extrapolate value in various

ways:

a. Ethnographic accounts:

E.g., 18th cent. AD fur trade in North

America: 1 musket = 6 beaver pelts

b. E.g., Labor value regarding time

required to produce individual items.

E.g., Bead necklace, clothing, etc.

→ Can establish a relative scale of labor

time between contemporary burials

and goods.



8.3.a. The gold of Varna.

• Late Neolithic cemetery at Varna

(Bulgaria), 4000 BC.

• Numerous gold items

• High value of gold argued by:

1. Associated with symbolic items:

Non-functional stone axe (friable)

2. Used for ornaments decorating

key body parts: face, penis sheath

3. Simulation: covering entire axe,

suggesting solid gold.

• Need to formulate such ideas to

approach intrinsic value, etc.

• = implicative of relatively

high social status at Varna.NOTE: The distance from source may

reveal another level of value (despite recycling)

(8). SYMBOLS OF

ORGANIATION & POWER


(c). Symbols of power

in hierarchical societies.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion8.4. Symbols of power in

hierarchical societies.

• Hochdorf: 6th cent. BC chieftain’s

grave with much wealth → clue to

high status.

• Glauberg: life-size statue of a chief

found near a wealthy grave:

Decorated with arm rings, neck

torque, sword, and shield

= status symbols, as well as the

statue itself.

State societies & empires:

• More elaborate status symbols in

regalia, structures, etc.

Assyrian palace at Khorsabad (Iraq):

• Symbols to impress and subdue

foreign visitors and vassals → palace:

scenes of torture, execution, battles, …






high status.






statue itself.








Imperial purple






high status.






statue itself.








Assyrian

army in

action …

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(9). SYMBOLS OF

SUPERNATURAL REALM




9. Symbols for the other world:

The archaeology of religion.

• Religion has been defined as

“Action or conduct indicating a

belief, or reverence for, and

desire to please, a divine ruling

power.”

• It incorporates a set of beliefs

relating to supernatural entities

outside our everyday world.

• Such supernatural beings are

human constructs and part of

each culture’s cognitive map

(landscape; world; universe; etc.)

• Religion has a social component,

unifying & maintaining communal

and cultural concepts, rules, &

ideals.









power.”











ideals.

Religious representations often drawing upon earthly imagery









power.”











ideals.

E.g., Global community: Muslims

from all over the world gathering

during annual pilgrimage to Mecca



• Unfortunately, the archaeological

record often does not preserve

such beliefs, at best recording

only aspects of ancient religions.

• In addition, religion often crosses

over inextricably into daily life,

being hard to isolate and analyze.

(9). SYMBOLS OF

SUPERNATURAL REALM


(a). Recognition of cult.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.1. Recognition of cult.

• In studying ancient cults, it is

essential to consider their

supernatural aspects and the

adherents’ acts of worship

regarding the deity/deities.

Cultic features mostly excav.:

1. Focusing of attention:

• Religious rites often entail

intensified activity, which may

require a medium through which

worship is focused: e.g., sacred

place, structure (temple), light,

sounds (music), smells (incense)

etc.



2. Boundary zone between

realms:

• The location of ritual focus

forms the interface between

earthly & spiritual realms.

It may include diverse hazards

and requirements (e.g., ritual

cleansing, dieting, abstinence).

3. Presence of the deity:

• For an effective cult, the deity is

either present, or able to

materialize.

Most cults incorporate an image

or symbol as the focus of their

religion (2-dimensional or 3-

dimensional representations).



2. Boundary zone between

realms:

• The location of ritual focus

forms the interface between

earthly & spiritual realms.

It may include diverse hazards

and requirements (e.g., ritual

cleansing, dieting, abstinence).

3. Presence of the deity:

• For an effective cult, the deity is

either present (always), or able to

materialize (e.g., in a cult statue).

Most cults incorporate an image

or symbol as the focus of their

religion (2-dimensional or 3-

dimensional representations).



4. Participation & offering:

• The worshipper(s) often use words

and gestures of prayer & devotion.

This may include eating & drinking.

It often includes offering materials to

the deity via sacrifice & gifts (votives).

Example:

• ‘Ain Ghazel (Levant),

7th millennium BC:

A plaster figurine was found in a

pit buried below a house.

It may have been an ancestor

figure?

Ancient

Egyptian

gesture

of adulation,

respect,

(worship)

E.g., DYNs.19-20.

Private stelae

Official(s):

Bringing a small bird

Kneeling in adoration

Standing in adoration

(palms held out to a

deity or cartouches)

Offering:

Burning incense on a

pedestal-based bowl

Baskets of bracelets?

Triangular loaf

Bouquet of flowers

Pairs of small vessels

Pour water over items,

onto base of statue,

or into vessel.

Offering stands have

lotus flower or items:

foreleg, ox head,

cucumber, loaves.



4. Participation & offering:

• The worshipper(s) often use words

and gestures of prayer & devotion.

This may include eating & drinking.

It often includes offering materials to

the deity via sacrifice & gifts (votives).

Example:

• ‘Ain Ghazel (Levant),

7th millennium BC:

A plaster figurine was found in a

pit buried below a house.

It may have been an ancestor

figure?

Easter Island: Ancestor Moai statues

(9). SYMBOLS OF

SUPERNATURAL REALM


(b). Archaeological indicators

of ritual.



9.2. Archaeological indicators of ritual.

(A). Focusing of attention:

1. Ritual location may have particular

natural associations:

E.g., cave, grove, spring, mountain

2. Ritual structure:

E.g., Temple, church, shrine.

3. Ritual focal point:

E.g., Altars, benches, hearths.

Ritual furnishings:

E.g., lamps, gongs, bells, vessels,

censers, altar cloths, etc.

4. Repeated symbols (redundancy):

E.g., Sacred area often yields many

repeated symbols (e.g., crosses).

Telford Sacred Grove

Rock-cut shrine to Meretseger of the Peak & Ptah

pyramid-shaped mountain on W. Bank, Thebes

http://www.ancientluxor.com/gods-meretseger.html

http://www.ancientluxor.com/gods-meretseger.html












Ritual furnishings:





repeated symbols (e.g., crosses).LB Age “Fosse Temple” shrine at Lachish:

• Outside the town; a wide range of

votives from Canaan, Egypt, Aegean+












Ritual furnishings:






Possible cultic

structure at

Khirbet al-

Mudayna, in

northern Moab,

dating to 7th

century BCE:

Offering bench

-offerings …












Ritual furnishings:







10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion(B). Boundary between earthly and

Supernatural realms:

5. Ritual involving conspicuous public

display, cost, & hidden mysteries

- May be indicated by architecture

6. Concept of ritual purity:

- Architecture and remains may yield

pools/basins for cleanliness

- Regularly cleaned sacred area

(C). Presence of the deity/deities:

7. Cult image or abstract symbol may

represent the deity/deities:

- Christian Chi-Rho symbol

8. Ritualistic symbols = often linked

iconographically to deity types and

associated myths:

- Animal symbolism real/mythical

- Some specific animals = associated

with a deity.

Egyptian temple (→ darker sanctuary)

Egyptian mortuary temple

















associated myths:



with a deity.

















associated myths:



with a deity.

Apis bull manifestation

of creator god Ptah



9. Ritualistic symbols:

- May also occur in funerary rites

& other rites (e.g., marriage, etc.)

D. Participation and offering:

10. Worship entails:

- prayer, specific rites, gestures of

adoration

- reflected in art & iconography

(decoration/images)

11. Ritual medium for elevating

religious experience:

- dance, music, drugs, pain, etc.

12. Sacrifice:

- Animals & humans

13. Food and drink:

- Offerings: consumed, burnt, and

poured out.

Hindu marriage rites …

Hindu funerary rites …









adoration


(decoration/images)




12. Sacrifice:

- Animals & humans

13. Food and drink:


poured out.

Hindu religious rites …









adoration


(decoration/images)




12. Sacrifice:

- Animals & humans

13. Food and drink:


poured out.

Whirling dirvishes









adoration


(decoration/images)




12. Sacrifice:

- Animals & humans

13. Food and drink:


poured out.



14. Material items (votives):

- offering: breakage, hiding, and

discarding.

15. Material investment:

- Ritual equipment may be costly

- Offerings may be valuable

16. Architectural investment:

- Structure & facilities may be costly.

Archaeological contexts normally only

yield a few of the foregoing criteria:

E.g., Phylakopi shrine on Melos Aegean

- 1400-1120 BCE

- Two rooms with platforms (altars)

- Material culture assemblage: figurines

- Meets criteria 2, 3, 7 & 14

- The shrine matched other shrines on

Crete → religious ritual becomes more

plausible.

San Andras de Teixido, Galicia (Spain)

Sailors offering model ships → safety

Chinese votive sword …





discarding.









- 1400-1120 BCE






plausible.





discarding.









- 1400-1120 BCE






plausible.MK-LP+ Karnak Temple complex





discarding.









- 1400-1120 BCE






plausible.



Religious ritual is best proven via

specific iconography:

- E.g., Pictorial renditions of human,

animal, or mythical/fantastical images

- Identifiable offerings: usually status

items offered to / left for deity/deities.

- Some items = based on foundations:

E.g., Caches of jaguar skeletons,

jade balls, pottery & stone masks

at Great Temple of Aztec

Tenochtitlan.

Exterior natural contexts:

- Iron Age weapons placed in Thames

- 1000 BC metal hoards in Scandinavian

bogs

- Late Maya well (cenote) with numerous

costly votives at Chichen Itza.













Tenochtitlan.




bogs



Offerings in Irish peat bogs













Tenochtitlan.




bogs



https://interactive.archaeology.org/cenotes/cenotes.html

https://interactive.archaeology.org/cenotes/cenotes.html

(9). SYMBOLS OF

SUPERNATURAL REALM


(c). Identifying

the supernatural powers.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.3. Identifying the supernatural powers.

- Need criteria in archaeological record

to recognize & differentiate supernatural

entities found in cults.

a. Developed iconography:

- Pictorial renditions with religious/ritual

meaning.

- Individual deities need specific imagery

E.g., Corn with corn-god

E.g., Sun with solar-god

b. Iconographic studies → specialized

(epigraphers; art historians; etc.):

- Mesoamerica - distinct mythologies

- Mesopotamia “ “

- Classical Greece “ “

Greece: images require knowledge of

literature for interpretation; sometimes

captions = useful, but sufficient knowledge

of myths may also enable identifications.

Re-Horakhty (solar god)Mayan

maize

deity

https://ancientmayalife.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-maize-god-god-e.html

https://ancientmayalife.blogspot.com/2012/10/the-maize-god-god-e.html








meaning.




















meaning.













Myth: Theseus & the Minotaur …


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, ReligionAreas with less abundant surviving

documentation, such as Mesoamerica,

require meticulous analysis of scenes

& recurrent attributes to define individual

deities, etc.:

E.g., M. Coe studied …

a. Classic Maya pottery (painted scenes)

b. Popol Vuh manuscript (19th cent. AD),

which preserves 2000 yr old materials

on the Maya Underworld.

c. God L: 1 of 3 divine rulers of Underworld

Owl-headdress & smokes cigar

d. Hero Twins

- His opponents

- Black spots of death

- Jaguar hide over body & face

e. Maya painted pottery had funerary function

and appears in tombs frequently.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, ReligionAreas with less abundant surviving

documentation, such as Mesoamerica,

require meticulous analysis of scenes

& recurrent attributes to define individual

deities, etc.:

E.g., M. Coe studied …

a. Classic Maya pottery (painted scenes)

b. Popol Vuh manuscript (19th cent. AD),

which preserves 2000 yr old materials

on the Maya Underworld.

c. God L: 1 of 3 divine rulers of Underworld

Owl-headdress & smokes cigar

d. Hero Twins

- His opponents

- Black spots of death

- Jaguar hide over body & face

e. Maya painted pottery had funerary function

and appears in tombs frequently.

Painted

Maya

tomb at

Tikal

(9). SYMBOLS OF

SUPERNATURAL REALM


(d). The archaeology

of death.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion9.4. The archaeology of death.

- Mortuary findings give clues to

a. the structure of ancient societies.

b. differentiated wealth & status

c. Beliefs regarding death & afterlife

- Funerary items often imply an

afterlife belief

- However, the deceased may be

provided intimately personal items

that could otherwise not be recycled

i.e., less use in afterlife than their

association with the deceased.

- Food offerings in burial contexts imply

a belief and use in the afterlife:

- Some elite in Anc. Societies have full

furnishings: Egypt, China, Mesopotamia

- Sacrifice of attendants: Ur royal graves;

13th cent AD Polynesian ruler Roy Mata








afterlife belief












Tutankhamun: Pair of gloves …

Tutankhamun: Pair of shoes …

https://www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2010/04/08/king_tut_wore_orthopedic_shoes.html

Tut’sembroidered

tunic

from

childhood:

https://www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2010/04/08/king_tut_wore_orthopedic_shoes.html








afterlife belief












https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcCoIOvL9Y8

Ancient Chinese Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcCoIOvL9Y8








afterlife belief












Great Death Pit at Ur (Sumer)



- Special artifacts made for the deceased

a. Jade suits for early Chinese princes

b. Gold masks for Mycenaean burials

c. Jade masks for Mesoamerican burials

- Special mortuary rites:

a. Cremation vs. inhumation/burial

b. Collective burial vs. single burials

c. Etc.

→ Each practice implies different things

Mycenae

Jade

masks

China: Jade

burial suits










c. Etc.

→ Each practice implies different things

Mayan Tomb of Pakal (Palenque)










c. Etc.

→Each practice implies different things

i.e., Cremation = destruction of body

implies body preservation is not

essential; suggests a broad range

of other beliefs: maybe spirit of

deceased freed via fire & smoke?

i.e., Mummification = preservation of

body; implies need for body in the

afterlife (perhaps life like on earth)

Roman cinerary urn

COGNITIVE

ARCHAEOLOGY:

(10). DEPICTION:

Art & Representation(… in past cultures)



10. Depiction:

art & representation.

- Physical representations

reflecting aspects of life

enable an interpretation

of a past cognitive map

for individuals and

communities.

E.g., Models and plans

(less frequent)

E.g., Depictions

(more common)

(10). DEPICTION:


(a). The work of the sculptor:

Early Upper Paleolithic.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion10.1. The work of the sculptor.

Early Upper Paleolithic:

- Yields portable art portraying an

aspect of life (figurines, etc.)

- Bas reliefs in stone

- Clay models of animals (statuettes)

- Clay female figurines (baked)

- Mostly found in Euraisa during the

rise of early farming.

- Some suggestions of a Great Earth

Mother/fertility goddess, BUT, Ucko

demonstrated most figurines = not

definable as female (= ambiguous).

- M. Gimbutas claims recurrent deities

- Her theories are still debated

Prehistoric Malta & Cyclades:

- Almost life-size sculpture

Prehistoric Egypt & Sumer:

- Life size → colossal sculpture.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion10.1. The work of the sculptor.

Early Upper Paleolithic:

- Yields portable art portraying an

aspect of life (figurines, etc.)

- Bas reliefs in stone

- Clay models of animals (statuettes)

- Clay female figurines (baked)

- Mostly found in Euraisa during the

rise of early farming.

- Some suggestions of a Great Earth

Mother/fertility goddess, BUT, Ucko

demonstrated most figurines = not

definable as female (= ambiguous).

- M. Gimbutas claims recurrent deities

- Her theories are still debated

Prehistoric Malta & Cyclades:

- Almost life-size sculpture

Prehistoric Egypt & Sumer:

- Life size → colossal sculpture.

Malta Egypt Sumer

(10). DEPICTION:


(b). Pictorial relationships.



10.2. Pictorial relationships.

2-dimensional portrayals allow indications

of relationships between different symbols

One can assess:

- How the original artist conceptualized

space & temporal sequence.

- How the original artist portrayed animals,

humans, and other things.

- Style: i.e., = part of an activity

duplicated/similar activities → style

similar genre of form, representation

- Complex scenes are ideal for analysis:

a. Ship fresco (Akrotiri, Thera) → var. ideas

b. Mesoamerican frescoes

c. Monte Alban figures in Oaxaca:

Splayed limbs, open mouths, closed eyes

= not swimmers/dancers → = corpses!






One can assess:





- Style: i.e., part of an activity














One can assess:





- Style: i.e., part of an activity









Monte Alban, Oaxaca

(10). DEPICTION:


(c). Decoration.



10.3. Decoration.

- Art = not limited to scenes & objects

- Also = decoration of pottery, etc.

Symmetry analysis:

- Patterns can be divided into groups

- 17 symmetry classes → patterns

repeating motifs horizontally.


repeating motifs horiz. & vertically.

- Ethnographic evidence suggests

different cultures prefer designs from

specific symmetry classes (1-2+)

- E.g., Preference for patterns on

different items: baskets & hats.



10.3. Decoration.



Symmetry analysis:











Much symmetry …



10.3. Decoration.



Symmetry analysis:











One cultural preference for representational art vs. abstract art

(10). DEPICTION:


(d). Art and myth.


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion10.4. Art and myth.

- One must abandon an ethnocentric

approach when assessing other

cultures, especially non-western ones.

- Formerly seen as “primitive”/”savage,”

but in reality they have an equally

viable world-view.

- Myth plays a major role in many

early societies:

a. Speculative thoughts/philosophy

b. Narrative of significant past events

that contain sufficient relevance to

present → re-told/re-enacted.

c. Creation myth = common

E.g., Old Testament creation story

E.g., Navajo American Indian

creation story.

Etc.

Art, culture, and meanings differ widely

One’s own cultural & art background dictates preferences

Contrasting styles of art,

architecture, culture and

meaning …


10. What Did They Think? Cognitive Archaeology, Art, Religion10.4. Art and myth.

- One must abandon an ethnocentric

approach when assessing other

cultures, especially non-western ones.

- Formerly seen as “primitive”/”savage,”

but in reality they have an equally

viable world-view.

- Myth plays a major role in many

early societies:

a. Speculative thoughts/philosophy

b. Narrative of significant past events

that contain sufficient relevance to

present → re-told/re-enacted.

c. Creation myth = common

E.g., Old Testament creation story

E.g., Navajo American Indian

creation story.

Etc.



To understand Aztec art, one needs

to know their mythology:

E.g., Quetzalcoatl:

- Plumed serpent

- Father & creator of humanity

- Introduced knowledge

- Symbol = morning & evening stars

To understand Egyptian funerary art,

one needs to know Egyptian views

of the Underworld:

- Myths embody the wisdom of each

culture and are invaluable sources

for understanding them.

(10). DEPICTION:


(e). Aesthetic questions.



10.5. Aesthetic questions.

- Why do we find some early art

attractive, while other early art

is not attractive? –individually,

culturally, etc. …

→ Shared reasons:

- Some imperishable/attractive

materials are attractive to many

peoples: e.g., gold and jade.

- But, regarding the specific

application and designs in such

materials, it is harder to say why

something is attractive to one

person and culture,

versus another person & culture

→ Different values!



10.5. Aesthetic questions.

- Why do we find some early art

attractive, while other early art

is not attractive?

→ Shared reasons:

- Some imperishable/attractive

materials are attractive to many

peoples: e.g., gold and jade.

- But, regarding the specific

application and designs in such

materials, it is harder to say why

something is attractive to one

person and culture,

versus another person & culture

→ Different values!

i.e., ethnocentrism: individual-cultural

SUMMARY:



11. Summary.

• One can extrapolate insights into past

cultures & civilization using the extant

archaeological evidence.

• Procedures have been developed for

assessing & testing cognitive theories

about the past: measuring, planning,

organization, power, cultic activity, art.

• Projects may focus on narrow through

broader issues: e.g., weighing systems

vs. cultic activity in a settlement.

• Need to impose rigorous methods and

cognitive archaeology (that need not

depend on textual-pictorial sources for

its validity).

i.e., The thought processes behind an

artifact can be obtained by inferences

and careful analyses (without texts).

Questions:

• Is it local or foreign pottery?

• Are the motifs individualistic, or

reflecting broader cultural motifs?

• Can a single artist be detected in the

corpus of these pot types?

• What is the vessel’s function?

• What do the motifs signify?

• What is the technological level? Etc.

CASE STUDY:

Extra (optional)

information on

Ancient Egyptian

conventions in art

Layout of wall scene for painting, incised or relief work:• Positioning figures Main figure

against an empty dominates

background. the scene.

• Base / register lines may

represent the ground.

• Series of base lines in

wall scenes, often with a

narrative of events.

→Narrative sequence of

events on some walls:

e.g., ploughing to reaping

• Some registers contain a

single narrative, with no

continuation above/below

→Different themes:

e.g., wrestling; fishing; …

Techniques in Painting,

Relief work, & Statuary:Wall-face:

Plaster uneven surface with mud

and a fine gypsum plaster wash.

Walls & Statuary:

•Preparation of wall-face or block

using guide-lines / squared grids.

- Square = proportional to a fist

- Usually for major figures.

• Initial outline of figure in red

• Correction of master artist in

black

Statuary:

• Cut excess stone away from the

outlined figure (5-6 planes).

Equipment:

• Hammers, copper chisels, drills,

and saws (with sand abrasive)

Old

Kingdom

Middle Kingdom – Late Period

Methods of representation:

i.e., figures, items, etc.

• NOT based on perspective

• Diagrammatic portrayal of figures

• Intent = to provide information.

• Depicted idealized human figures

using strict conventions (main figures)

• Each figure = composition of the

most recognizable parts

E.g., furniture depicted with a

front and side view.

• “False transparency” revealing parts

of an item not normally visible.

E.g., items above table top

E.g., contents of a vessel

E.g., Dog paws behind a man’s feet

Methods of representation:

i.e., figures, items, etc.

• NOT based on perspective

• Diagramatic portrayal of figures

• Intent = to provide information.

• Depicted idealized human figures

using strict conventions (main figures)

• Each figure = composition of the

most recognizable parts

E.g., furniture depicted with a

front and side view.

• “False transparency” revealing parts

of an item not normally visible.

E.g., items above table top

E.g., contents of a vessel

E.g., Dog paws behind a man’s feet

Egyptian representation of the

human form: “twisted profile”

• usually facing to right

• head in profile

• eye & eyebrow in full view

• Shoulder & chest full frontal view

• Male-female nipple pseudo-profile

• waist, legs & feet in profile

• both feet show inner arch & big toe

Note: each part represents the most

recognizable part, and not

how someone would really

be viewed in profile.

Twisted profilein 2-dimensional art

versus sculpture

• Twisted profile

female breast

exposed in profile

in wall scene

versus covered

in statuary

• Some exceptions

to profile views:

e.g., musicians &

dancing girls

-Sometimes have

frontal view of

-breasts

-face

(Dyn.18)

Difficulties? with mirror-image positions:

Balanced composition in symmetrical architectural setting

Scale of figures in scenes / statuary:

“Echelon perspective”Largest figure = most important

• Other figures scaled by rank in

importance to main figure.

E.g., Tomb figure = wall height

Secondary figures in registers

• Tomb owner may be larger than wife

and children

E.g., King shown larger than people,

reflecting an important message

in the scene.

• Reduced scaling for stylistic reasons

and space:

E.g., offering bearers bringing miniature

animals

E.g., offering bearers bringing giant

animal (e.g., massive goose)

Scale and rank:

Pharaoh:

-portrayed larger than

his subjects.

Fan-bearer:

-Fan-bearer portrayed

larger than subjugated

foreigners.

Imagery:

-Foreigners depicted

being trampled by

victorious king.

The Symbolism of location:

Protodynastic: Narmer palette

Horus falcon = symbolizing

King (Narmer), as the living Horus

Son of Osiris, Lord of the Dead.

Anthropomorphized arm holding

Rope to which captive is bound.

Emblematic marsh plant of Lower

Egypt (= Delta / North) and glyph

T3-mhw for Lower Egypt.

Anthropomorphized as a bearded

Captive.

→ essentially the message is clear:

The Horus-King of Egypt has subjugated

the peoples of the Delta/North.

Stereotypes: symbols of foreigners in art.

Libyan Nubian Asiatic Egyptian

The King in different guises:

(a) Falcon before Amun

(b) A Bull trampling an enemy

(c) A falcon smiting a foe

Symbolism of colour:E.g., Black (fertile soil) and

green (vegetation) are

symbolic of regeneration.

Symbolism of colour in gylphs:

Many hieroglyphs represented an

item from life, which was associated

with a colour.

E.g., Green = baskets, vegetation,

E.g., Red = wood, male skin colour

E.g., Yellow = linen, pale animals

E.g., Blue = water, sky, etc.

Placement of colour as background:

E.g., The king’s burial chamber was

called “the house of gold” in the

New Kingdom.

It is often painted with a gold

background.

Symbolism of gestures:

Mourning:

Left hand clasped to head

(throwing dust over hair,

showing extent of grief by

making oneself unkempt)

Forearms crossed before

body

Symbolism

of gestures:

-Smiting

motif very

common

Late Predyn

through to

Roman

period in

Anc. Egypt


Submission


Adulation:

Forearm raised with palm

outward towards the king

(or queen) and/or a deity.

The four pillars of the earth and heavens:

Pt = heavens

Ta = earth

=

W3s-sceptre

Two items really representing 4 pillars,

which are shown in some representations

Four cardinal points of the universe

represent main foreigners outside Egypt (king fires arrows at Sed-festival)

The Significance of numbers: Duality.

A male and female anthropomorphized figure personifying eternity.

neheh Djet

“eternity” “eternity”

Duality and the unification of the

Two Lands (Upper & Lower Egypt):

• Windpipe and lungs symbol for the

verb sm3 “to unite”

• Two figures symbolizing North & South

using a stem from

(a) the emblematic plant of

Lower Egypt (North; Delta)

= papyrus plant

(b) the emblematic plant of

Upper Egypt (South; Nile Valley)

= sedge plant

→ to bind together symbolically the

Two Lands.

The message provided is that the

Two Lands are distinct, but are joined

together as one.

Nature:

• The Ancient Egyptians

(and others) observed

various opposing / dual

aspects in their specific

and overall environment

• They transferred such

concepts into all aspects

of their culture

Red land vs. Black land

(Kemet) (Deshret)

East (life) West (Death)

North (LE) South (UE)

Heavens Earth

Order (maat) Chaos (isfet)

Summer (low Nile) Winter (High Nile)

The significance of numbers:

The number “Four” can often

refer to completeness.

E.g., The ritual of driving four

calves, coloured red,

black, white, & speckled.

-The colours represent

one of each of the colours

found in cattle → concept

of totality.

-New Kingdom temple

scenes.

The significance of numbers:

• The Seven Divine Cows (Book of the Dead)

-Representing the “sustaining powers of the universe”

• Seven also implies plurality, completeness and universality

(see Wilkinson 1994: 146 fig. 100).

Anth.106 Ppt. lecture-13: summary of & supplement to Renfrew & Bahn textbook, chp. 10: What did they...

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