Anth.245 Ppt. lecture-20: Late Bronze Age Mycenaeans, Part 2: The Mycenaeans influence and presence...

ANT.245: Peoples of the World: Mediterranean.

From Prehistory to the Trojan War.

Notes and images complied by Gregory Mumford © 2020 (Fall).

Lect.-16: Late Helladic Mycenaeans:Tomb, Burials, Rites and Religion in general.

LECTURE on other aspects of the Mycenaeans

1. Burial Customs and Religion: Death and the Mycenaeans 5

a. Mycenaean burial studies: Resources and data 6

b. Mycenaean burial types 11

c. Mycenaean tombs in relation to communities 19

d. Mycenaean burial and social structure/organization 26

e. Conspicuous consumption regarding Myc. Burials: Prestige & status 45

f. Mycenaean burial rituals: preparation to post-burial 51

2. Burial Customs and Religion: Mycenaean Religion 66

a. Mycenaean religion: Resources and data 67

b. Mycenaean religion: Extrapolating from the data 77

c. Mycenaean religion: Attitudes and outlook 85

d. Mycenaean religion: Non-uniform regionalism (diversity & change) 95

e. Mycenaean religion: Art and iconography, clues to religious practices 102

f. Mycenaean religion: Continuity from LB Age to classical Greek religion 106

g. Mycenaean religion: Sanctuaries and festivals 118

h. Mycenaean religion: Minoan and other influences 123

i. Mycenaean religion: Textual-pictorial & archaeological evidence

toward a synthesis 127

LECTURE on other aspects of the Mycenaeans

2. Burial Customs and Religion: Mycenaean Religion Continued

j. Mycenaean religion: Utilizing later sources 139

k. Mycenaean religion: Conclusions 141

3. Summary 144

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Late Bronze Age: Late Helladic / Cycladic / Minoan

Late Bronze Age:

Mainland Greece

and the Aegean:Burial Customs and Religion:

Death and the Mycenaeans.W. Cavanagh, 2008. “Burial Customs and Religion: Death and the Mycenaeans”

(chp.13A): 327-341.

Mycenaean burial customs

in Mainland Greece:

Middle Helladic III – Late Helladic III

(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

1.

Mycenaean burial studies:

i.e., resources & data …

Late Bronze Age:

Late Helladic I-III: 1600 – 1200+ BC:

Mycenaean burials:

• Burials still provide the optimum

extant data base for studying

Aegean materials:

a. 1000s of tombs excavated;

b. 10,000s of individuals;

c. Ranging from poor to elite

• In contrast to very few excavated

Aegean settlements &/or their parts,

with a prior emphasis upon palaces

and elite settings.

Aegean Bronze Age tombs

Pylos

Late Bronze Age:


Mycenaean burials:

• Funerary data can also yield data on

a. Social organization;

b. Rank & affluence;

c. Communal significance & setting;

d. Gender & age roles in society;

e. Professional roles;

f. Ancestor/lineage importance;

• Osteological analysis can also yield

more data on such things as:

g. Average age at death within

groups, periods, over time;

h. Health of individuals & groups

in various periods & over time;

i. Illness (disease) …

j. Injuries … (& causes);

k. genetics …

• This latter analysis is less common

in Aegean archaeology… (changing)

“Treasury of Atreus”

(Agamemnon’s tomb)

Mycenae: Grave Circle A

= Late Helladic I

Late Bronze Age:


Mycenaean burials:

• Funerary data can also yield data on

a. Social organization;

b. Rank & affluence;

c. Communal significance & setting;

d. Gender & age roles in society;

e. Professional roles;

f. Ancestor/lineage importance;

• Osteological analysis can also yield

more data on such things as:

g. Average age at death within

groups, periods, over time;

h. Health of individuals & groups

in various periods & over time;

i. Illness (disease) …

j. Injuries … (& causes);

k. genetics …

• This latter analysis is > increasing

in Aegean archaeology…(next slide)

Mycenaean tomb in Voudeni

Schliemann

“mummy”

Shaft Grave V

Selected publications on burials:

A.S. Bouwman et. al., 2009. “Kinship in

Aegean Prehistory? Ancient DNA in

human bones from Mainland Greece

and Crete,” The Annual of the British

School at Athens, vol.104: 293-309

C. Iezzi, 2009. “Regional differences in

the health status of the Mycenaean

women of East Lokris,” Hesperia

Supplements vol.43: 175-92.

L.A. Schepartz et. al., 2009.

“Differential Health among the

Mycenaeans of Messenia: Status, sex,

and dental health at Pylos,” Hesperia

Supplements, vol. 43: 155-74.

L.A. Schepartz et. al., 2017. “Mycenaean

Hierarchy and Gender Roles: Diet and

Health Inequalities in Late Bronze Age

Pylos, Greece,” in H.D. Klaus, A.R.

Harvey, and M.N. Cohen (eds.). Bones

Of Complexity: University Press Scholarship.


in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

2.

Mycenaean burial types:

Late Bronze Age:


Mycenaean tombs & grave types:

• The Mycenaeans commonly used

two tomb types:

a. Tholos tombs

b. Chamber tombs

(1). Tholos Tombs:

• Freq. rock-cut & used continuously;

• Dromos: entry corridor lined by dry-

stone walling;

• Stomion: Doorway with dry-stone

door jambs and doorway area;

• Burial chamber(s) lined by dry-

stone masonry in a round dome;

• Origin: Broad similarities to previous

MM Minoan tholos-tombs (not buried)

• Innovations: Different details,design

& construction: E.g., corbel vaulting

with blocks overlapping in courses.

• Different social status (elite Myc.).

Tholos tombs

Late Bronze Age:



(2). Chamber Tombs:

• Freq. rock-cut & used continuously,

namely communal/family burials;

• Dromos: rock-cut entry corridor

(sealing, opening, & resealing door);

• Stomion: rock-cut doorway &jambs;

• Burial chamber(s): rock-cut;

• Origin: Broad similarities to some

previous Middle Minoan tombs;

• Innovations: Different details,design

& construction;

• Different social status (= lower

ranking elite Mycenaeans).

Late Bronze Age:



(3). Burial mound / tumulus:

• Prior usage for 500 years in Middle

Helladic, mainland Greece;

• Continuing in some parts of Greece

during the Late Helladic.

• Design of burial chambers differ:

a. Simple earth–cut pit & burial;

b. Chamber-built, cist tomb in pit,

which may range from irregular

to oval, to rectilinear in layout;

c. A false entry often lies at one end;

• A mound overlies the initial pit-grave

• Over time, more grave pits are cut

into the mound, or the mound is

removed & replaced to accommodate

additional grave-pits & burials. Middle Helladic

Generic mound burial

Late Bronze Age:



(4). Shaft graves:

• Occurs in Middle Helladic Greece

(Mycenae: MH III Grave Circle B ),

continuing into Late Helladic period.

• Lower shaft:

a. Contains a built cist-chamber, or

a rock-cut chamber, with ledges

supporting roofing timbers or

stone slabs and initial burial.

b. An impermeable layer of clay

usually seals the chamber roof;

• Upper shaft:

c. Often up to 40 feet deep (12 m),

and accommodating multiple

burials interred here over time.

• Top:

d. Some shaft-tops marked by stela.

Mycenae: Grave Circle B

= Middle Helladic III

MH III Mycenaean Shaft Tombs:

Elite examples from Grave Circle B near Mycenae …

Late Bronze Age:



(4). Shaft graves:

• Occurs in Middle Helladic Greece

(Mycenae: MH III Grave Circle B ),

continuing into Late Helladic period.

• Lower shaft:

a. Contains a built cist-chamber,or a

a rock-cut chamber, with ledges

supporting roofing timbers or

stone slabs and initial burial.

b. An impermeable layer of clay

usually seals the chamber roof;

• Upper shaft:

c. Often up to 40 feet deep (12 m),

and accommodating multiple

burials interred here over time.

• Top:

d. Some shaft-tops marked by stela.

Mycenae: Grave Circle B

= Middle Helladic III

MH III Shaft

Tomb stela

Late Bronze Age:



(5). Simple, single burial pit graves:

• Simple, rectilinear, earth-cut

pit-graves for a single body.

• Some pits might contain a cist-tomb,

namely stone slab walls and roof

lining the pit (i.e., more elaborate).

• Other varieties include a pithos

burial, namely a pottery vessel used

as a coffin (also used in Anatolia);

• Pithos burials were common in the

the Middle Helladic period,

but are rare in the Late Helladic.

Mycenaean

pit-graves

& cist tombs

Limenaria Tomb 16 (LM III)


in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

3.

Mycenaean tombs in

relation to communities:

Late Bronze Age:


Mycenaean tombs & community:

• Burials in general reflect communal

and family beliefs and identities;

• Regarding the Mycenaeans, many,

but not all Myc. communities, used

Chamber Tombs & Tholos Tombs:

a. Chamber tombs = rare outside the

Argolid in early Myc. Period/LH I+

b. Chamber tombs reached peak in

popularity in LH III, but = still rare

in Messenia & Thessaly.

c. Tholos tombs = virtually absent

from Boeotia (except “Treasury of

Minyas” at Orchomenos) and in

Corinthia (n = 1).

• i.e., These tombs types rep. general

Myc. preferences, NOT core beliefs.

Chamber tomb

Tholos tomb

Late Bronze Age:



• Factors re: tomb-type selection:

a. Geology:

Mycenaeans usually placed

chamber tombs in areas with soft

sedimentary rocks;

b. Culture versus fashion:

Some people followed earlier

established customs/traditions:

E.g., Eleusis community preferred

old cist tomb types in LH I-III,

maintaining older MH+ tradition

& ignoring new styles at Athens.

E.g., Marathon-Vrana kept trad/local

mound/tumulus tomb types,

in contrast to adjacent (1 km)

new tholos tomb introduction

by rival family: i.e., ignoring

competing upstart fashion pref.

Late Bronze Age:



Chamber Tombs:

• Specific chamber tomb types prob.

appear in MH III / LH I (1700-1600),

alongside transition from tribal soc.

(i.e., ‘Big Men’) to chiefdom societies

and other socio-political changes.

• By LH IIIA (1400 BC), var. smaller

and rural communities, and lower

ranking social groups, adopted

chamber tombs in emulation of the

larger and more affluent polities and

higher ranking social classes.

• i.e., Spread in popularity over time

to lower classes and further afield …

Limenaria LM III

cemetery tomb-10

Late Bronze Age:



Tholos Tombs:

• Massive & elaborate tholos tombs

became the main funerary symbol

for the most powerful & affluent

Mycenaean kingdoms.

• However, lower-ranking and less

affluent chiefs in peripheral and

poorer regions built smaller-scale,

cheaper, imitation tholos-tombs:

E.g., 5-6 m diameter chambers,

such as in the Aegean islands

of Euboea, Kephallenia,

Mykonos, Naxos, Tenos, and

Zakynthos, and in rural parts

of Crete.

→ Elaborate tholoi for powerful rulers;

lesser tholoi for lower ranks+regions

Mycenae:

“Treasury of

Atreus”

Minoan tholos

Late Bronze Age:



Funerary offerings:

• Regionalism & individual to local

mortuary beliefs/customs+fashion

also dictated differential preferences

in burial furnishings:

a. Specific offering container types

varied in popularity;

b. Some groups placed ceramic

figurines in burials (e.g., “phi,

psi & tau” figurines).

c. A few burials used ceramic coffins

(larnakes).

Mycenaean assemblage

Mycenaean figurines

Middle through Late Helladic > communal tombs at Pylos:

Sequence of usage over time for various tomb types at Pylos

Example of tomb longevity/usage

Communal tombs at Pylos with

216+ interments.

Tholos III retained only one burial


in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

4.

Mycenaean burials and

social structure/org. …

Late Bronze Age:


Burials and social structures:

• Linear B tablets reveal several

aspects of Mycenaean social

structures and officials:

a. Wanax = king;

b. The “collectors”;

c. Craftsmen & artisans: e.g.,

bronze smiths; stone masons;

d. Damos / administrative districts:

“Body politic”: paying tax and/or

providing services (var. labour)

e. Probably many slaves: var.labour

• However, the social organization

(reflected in the [biased] admin.-type

Linear B tablets) is far harder to

discern in Myc. mortuary remains.

Late Bronze Age:


Mortuary remains & soc. structures:

(1). Rulers / elite in tholos tombs:

• Tholos tombs can rep. high status:

E.g., Kokla cemetery in Argolid:

One hugh, well-built tholos-tomb

outstrips its neighbouring chamber

tombs in size and quality.

E.g., Analipsis cemetery in Arcadia:

One massive tholos tomb with

adjacent, smaller tholos & cist tombs

• One would normally interpret this as

reflecting 1 ruling family +adjacent

lower ranking families & officials.

• However, it = unknown if each large

tholos tomb dates to advent of cem.:

a. Initial rulers may have other tombs

b. Big tholos may =later ruling family

c. New tholos for elite’s raised status

Generic tholos tomb

Generic tholos tomb

MH III (?)

LH I (?)

LH II (?)

LH III (?)

What does a single,

long-lived, huge,

family tholos tomb

represent within a

community cemetery?

Local rulers? Elite family? Later ruler?

Late Bronze Age:



(2). Other classes in tholos tombs:

• Tholos tombs are definitely NOT

restricted to “royalty” in Myc. Greece

• Several tholos tombs coincide in

time (= contemporary) at a given cemetery:

E.g., Pylos & Routsi in Messenia.

• Funerary offerings from various

adjacent Chamber Tombs can = as

“wealthy” as (“royal”) tholos tombs.

• Tholos tombs vary greatly in their

size & quality from small, moderate

constructions to monumental and

very well-built structures.

• 2nd-tier satellite polities (controlled

by palace-centres) contain some

tholos tombs: e.g., SW Greece.

THOLOS TOMBS IN GENERAL:

Hence, tholos-tombs may generally

reflect tombs for lower to higher-ranking

elite/families with some broader usage

and imitation/emulation …

Also = non-royal, multiple tholos tombs

Late Bronze Age:



(2). General trends in tholos tombs:

• Beyond Mycenae, larger & affluent

tholos-tombs are abandoned by

LH IIIA in the Argolid, coinciding with

Mycenae’s rise to dominance here.

• By LH III.A2, the regional leadership

at Mycenae apparently restricted

tholos tomb construction to the

palace-centre (namely Mycenae).

• In the region of Messenia, Pylos’

palace centre’s growth (in LH IIIA-B)

witnessed a reduction in outlying

tholos tombs.

• However, a few families retained

tholos tombs at 2nd-tier centres, while

a few families introduced new tholoi

at 2nd-tier towns: Nichoria & Malthi.

LH III = 1400-1300 BC

Late Bronze Age:



(2). General trends in tholos tombs:

• Beyond Mycenae, larger & affluent

tholos-tombs are abandoned by

LH IIIA in the Argolid, coinciding with

Mycenae’s rise to dominance here.

• By LH III.A2, the regional leadership

at Mycenae apparently restricted

tholos tomb construction to the

palace-centre (namely Mycenae).

• In the region of Messenia, Pylos’

palace centre’s growth (in LH IIIA-B)

witnessed a reduction in outlying

tholos tombs.

• However, a few families retained

tholos tombs at 2nd-tier centres,while

a few familiesintroduced new tholoi

at 2nd-tier towns: Nichoria & Malthi.

Generic tholos

tomb

Recent discovery of two LB Age royal tholos tombs near Pylos: Excavated by J. Davis & S. Stocker (Univ. of Cincinnati): Dated ca. 1500 BCE; findings

include artefacts of gold, bronze, amber (Baltic), amethyst (Egypt), and carnelian (Near East) …

https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/12/two-bronze-age-royal-tombs-lined-with-gold-discovered-in-greece/


Late Bronze Age:



(3). “Warrior” burials:

• This category of burial appears in

the MB Age, initially at Aegina:

E.g., MB Age Aegina warrior-burial:

• Bronze sword: gold ornamentation;

• Bronze dagger: gold ornamentation;

• Bronze spear: socketing;

• Boar’s tusk helmet;

LB Age, Late Helladic IIB-III:

• Warrior burials in chamber tombs at:

a. Main palace centres:

Athens; Mycenae; Knossos;

b. 2nd-tier centres:

Dendra; Tanagra; Phaistos (Crete)

• Mycenaean warrior burials may rep.

soldiers of var. ranks & soc. classes.

Late Bronze Age:



(3). “Warrior” burials:

• This category of burial appears in the

MB Age, initially at Aegina:

MB Age Aegina warrior-burial:

• Bronze sword: gold ornamentation;

• Bronze dagger: gold ornamentation;

• Bronze spear: socketing;

• Boar’s tusk helmet;

LB Age, Late Helladic IIB-III:

• Warrior burials in chamber tombs at:

a. Main palace centres:

Athens; Mycenae; Knossos;

b. 2nd-tier centres:

Dendra; Tanagra; Phaistos (Crete)

• Mycenaean warrior burials may rep.

soldiers of var. ranks & soc. classes.

Late Bronze Age:



(3).“Warrior” burials’ interpretations:

• Linear B texts reveal palace-centres

gave armour & weaponry to warriors

• Warriors kept armour+weaponry in

funerary assemblage (personal ties):

E.g., Dendra tomb: cuirass armour;

Elsewhere: armour fragments;

• Warrior burials also continued after

collapse of palace-centres, namely

during post-palatial period (LH IIIC);1200 – 1100 BCE

• Funerary assemblage suggests that

weaponry might be symbolic/status,

versus personal “professional tools”:

a. Mycenae shaft graves had more

swords than bodies; = status!

b. Argos child burial had a sword→

inherited status/intended future

Dendra Tomb no. 14:

“The Cuirass Tomb”

i.e., = the heavy body armour …

Late Bronze Age:



(4). Role(s) of Chamber Tombs:

• Chamber Tombs ranged broadly

from small tombs with few/poor items

to huge, well-made, affluent tombs;

• Main palace-centres had multiple

cemeteries & numerous tombs:

E.g., Mycenae: 27 cemeteries

250+ chamber tombs

E.g., Thebes: many cemeteries;

many chamber tombs

• Secondary towns yield a few 100

chamber tombs:

E.g., Tanagra; Perati;

• Small hamlets might yield around

six chamber tombs:

E.g., Melathri (in Laconia).

Late Bronze Age:



(4). Social classes & Chamber Tombs1:

• Such chamber tombs often held

commoners, including men, women,

and children, in sufficient numbers

to reflect long-term family tombs.

• Of note: The lower ratio of females

and infants to males and adults

suggests some infant & female

burials took place elsewhere:

i.e., Probably high infant mortality;

• Mortuary data reveals that many

deceased infants were not placed

in family Chamber Tombs:

i.e., dealing with infant burials

differently and elsewhere …

Mycenae: infant burial (age: 1-2)

Generic, smaller Chamber Tomb

Late Bronze Age:



(4). Chamber Tomb burial variance:

In contrast to many infant burials,

some children received special

burial treatment and offerings:

i.e., Individual preference: child

burials reflected parent’s status, etc.

a. Some tombs = limited to children;

b. Some child burials in niches (off

the main chamber);

• The infant burial variance suggests

that Myc. had different burial rites

for children & diff. perception of them

• Low ratio of female burials may

reflect other customs:

a. Burial restricted to social class(?),

refugees, age group, etc.Mycenae:

Grave Circle B

Late Bronze Age:



(4). Implications of family ch-tombs:

• For families (a) to invest in & build a

group chamber tomb, & (b) to use it

continuously over 100s of years,

implies socio-economic stability

in Late Helladic Greece.

• One can extract some data about

LH IIIA-C settlements from assoc.,

adjacent Chamber Tombs:

• The main, large cemeteries display

subdivisions spanning poorer burials

to more affluent burials in ch-tombs;

• This likely reflects the sub-divisions

in Mycenaean social organization:

i.e., multiple classes/categories

structured by socio-economic

status and other means, Mycenaean society

LH IIIA-B = 1400-1200 BC

LH IIIC = 1200-1100 BCE

Late Bronze Age:



(5). Single graves/burials:

• Mycenaean cemeteries contain

many single interments, but these

reflect a minority of LH burials.

• In MB (MH) Age to early Myc. (LH I-II)

periods, single graves contain

children and adults.

• Their funerary assemblages are

similar to those in Chamber Tombs.

• Their significance may vary between

different communities/regions.

• The most basic & poorest pit-graves

may reflect slave burials (e.g.,

Tiryns), OR the poorest members

of Mycenaean society.

http://www.mycenae-excavations.org/gis.html

http://www.mycenae-excavations.org/gis.html

A.S. Bouwman et. al., 2009. “Kinship in Aegean

Prehistory? Ancient DNA in human bones from

Mainland Greece and Crete,” The Annual of

the British School at Athens, vol. 104: 293-309.

Grave Circle B at Mycenae: kinship

Middle Helladic III: 1700-1600 BC

DNA assessment from Grave Circle B:

• 21 adults ID: 16 male and 5 female:

• Sequence of 4 burials in grave, with

an initial male? (→ disarticulated),

next T55 (male), and a few months?

later: T58 (female)+T51 (companion)

• T55 & T58 may share a maternal

relationship. T58 = >prob. female,

while T55 is a male.

• T55 & T58 = similar age (36y & 33y),

not son & mother, but probably a

brother & sister, or possibly cousins

(i.e., with mothers who = sisters).

• No maternal relations between T59

(male) and T55+T58; = not a brother

of T55+T58, and not a son of T58.

• Facial similarities suggest T59(m) is

related to T51, with 3 gen. separation

from rel. poorer to rel. wealthy burials

• A62 in mid-20s at death; poor DNA.

Burials at Pylos from MH III to LH IIIC:

A good corpus of the mortuary population for

adolescents through adults (but few children).

Elite burials from Grave Circle & Tholos III

displayed better preservation, & fairly good

dental and skeletal health (at PYLOS)

Adult females reveal much poorer health

than males (especially from chamber tombs)

including infection, tooth loss, etc.: This may

be affected by differential diet (men vs women)

Comparative analysis:

Apparently great differences occur in the

health of Mycenaeans in the Peloponnese

and the population in Attica. In other words,

there = significant regionalism in the health

of the Late Helladic, Myc. populations …

See L.A. Schepartz et. al., 2009. “Differential

Health among the Mycenaeans of Messenia:

Status, sex, and dental health at Pylos,”

Hesperia Supplements, vol 43: 155-74.

1700 – 1100 BCE

Burials at Pylos from MH III to LH IIIC:

L.A. Schepartz et. al., 2017. “Mycenaean

Hierarchy and Gender Roles: Diet and

Health Inequalities in Late Bronze Age

Pylos, Greece,” in H.D. Klaus, A.R.

Harvey, and M.N. Cohen (eds.). Bones

Of Complexity: Bioarchaeological

Case Studies of Social Organization

and Skeletal Biology: University Press

Scholarship (2017 print; 2018 online).Abstract:“Mycenaean society of the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1675–1050 B.C.) Aegean world is well known as a hierarchical culture from its archaeology, mortuary patterns, and dietary structure. In particular, Mycenaean culture featured complex heterarchies interms of class, sex, and gender. Skeletal remains from the majorsite of Pylos reveal some of the biocultural interplays within lifeand society. This study illustrates the benefits of integrating written records with multiple lines of paleopathological and isotopic data. Shepartz et al. identify mortuary treatments that serve as indicators of social differentiation in terms of at least two clear-cut macro-class distinctions. The analysis shows that the lower social strata possessed significantly poorer quality diets and that poor oral health was especially common among women. Those of high status evidently enjoyed greater access to protein as constructions of gender may have cross-cut vertical status differentiation.”

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322007964_Mycenaean_Hierarchy_and_

Gender_Roles_Diet_and_Health_Inequalities_in_Late_Bronze_Age_Pylos_Greece

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322007964_Mycenaean_Hierarchy_and_Gender_Roles_Diet_and_Health_Inequalities_in_Late_Bronze_Age_Pylos_Greece

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322007964_Mycenaean_Hierarchy_and_Gender_Roles_Diet_and_Health_Inequalities_in_Late_Bronze_Age_Pylos_Greece

E. Lokris differential health for females:

Burials from LH IIIB-C (1325-1100 BC)

from rock-cut chamber tombs, probably

utilized by sub-elite (i.e., middle class).

MNI = 186: 62 males; 61 females, 20?

and 43 sub-adults.

Coastal = 113 MNI burial sample:

Age of death =43 yr. women; 32 yr. men

Inland = 73 MNI burial sample:

Age of death =31 yr. women; 41 yr. men

General findings:

• Coastal populations = gen. healthier;

• Inland =rougher; diff. social situation?

• Coastal women may have had diff.,

agricultural occupations,etc., versus:

inland women with rougher lifestyles,

tending gardens? & processing food.

See C. Iezzi, 2009.“Regional differences

in the health status of the Mycenaean

women of East Lokris,” Hesperia Supp-

lements vol.43: 175-92.

Inland: Age at death

Coastal: Age at death


in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

5.

Conspicuous consumption

regarding Mycenaean burials

i.e., prestige & status

Late Bronze Age:


Conspicuous consumption (burials):

• Some Myc. Burials have produced

vast quantities of valuables:

E.g., Gold, silver, copper, amber,

ivory, …

• The most affluent burials contain

much redundancy:

i.e., Multiple examples of var. items

beyond an individual’s needs:

E.g., Multiple seals: Vapheio Tholos

E.g., Many weapons: Myc. Shaft

Graves IV-V

• The highest levels of craftsmanship

i.e., Very finely crafted items;

• Such affluent assemblages occur

particularly in early Myc. Period

(MH III-LH I) and at many locations.

i.e., 1700 – 1500 BCE

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/LX/NAMAMycenaeanBronze01.html&ei=xS9qVNuaKYmkNvKRgrAB&bvm=bv.79142246,d.eXY&psig=AFQjCNHJUirV7aAu_tUV4ri17VpzFlCVbA&ust=1416331428649318

Late Bronze Age:



• This aforementioned high level of

conspicuous consumption took

much wealth from the terrestrial

sphere to otherworld (out-of-usage).

• Such burial wealth represented:

a. The high status & prestige of a

deceased ruler, family members,

and other elite;

b.Competitive chiefdoms, kingdoms,

and other elite Mycenaeans:

i.e., Public display of a polity’s

stability, power, wealth, etc.

c. Piety by family to the deceased,

and ancestors/relatives in general

i.e., sufficient things for afterlife;

http://www.margaretgeorge.com/wp-content/uploads/Mycenaean-gold.jpg

Late Bronze Age:



Other public displays of status:

• Later LH II.B – III.B palatial centres

display elaborate architecture:

• LH IIB-IIIB elite tholos tombs used

monumental architecture & quality:

E.g., Treasury of Atreus (Mycenae);

E.g., Tomb of Clytemnestra (Myc.);

E.g., Treasury of Minyas;

• Tombs such as “Treasury of Atreus”

required …:

a. Buying many houses for removal

and locating tomb near Mycenae;

b. Cutting 1000s of tons of soil+rock;

c. Quarrying & bringing in fine stone;

d. Much time, labor & skill in making

ashlar masonry tholos tomb;

• = Similar to building a major temple!

1450-1200 BC

Recent discovery of two LB Age royal tholos tomb near Pylos: Excavated by J. Davis & S. Stocker (Univ. of Cincinnati): Dated ca. 1500 BCE; findings

include artefacts of gold, bronze, amber (Baltic), amethyst (Egypt), and carnelian (Near East) …



Late Bronze Age:



Other public displays of status:

• In contrast Chamber Tombs required

much less time, skill & effort to make

• However, some Chamber Tombs did

include Tholos Tomb-like features:

a. Pellana Chamber Tomb: Laconia

• Some Chamber Tombs were large

and had fine, painted decoration:

b. Megalo Kastri in Thebes;

• Some Chamber Tombs had a rock-

cut, gabled roof interior:

c. Dendra tombs.

• Hence, while Chamber Tombs were

not usually as fine or labor-intensive

as monumental Tholos Tombs, they

could still be large, fine burial places.


in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

6.

Mycenaean burial rituals

i.e., preparation to post-burial

Late Bronze Age:


Mycenaean elite funerals, rites, etc.:

• Mycenaean funerary rituals:

Funerary rites are generally less

well-known, but include:

1. Preparation of the body/corpse:

a. Washing / purification (water);

b. Applying scented oils/perfume;

(oil jars also placed in burial);

c. Female mourning leaders (kin?)

dressed the body (their hair is cut

short and faces = ravaged [i.e.,grief]).

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=http://www.sourcememory.net/art/greece/mycenae3.html&ei=EjVqVKagBsGhNrHVg7gH&psig=AFQjCNG_CuLOF2RwQcJKuLS09zx8bWzp7A&ust=1416332943636566

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/art_by_ash/480966167/&ei=nDdqVKOlHYumNpmmgKAF&psig=AFQjCNEmBJnNZiElgr0on6X1_avjtaOWwg&ust=1416333429883967

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=https://cypriotartleeds.wordpress.com/tag/mycenaean-stirrup-jar/&ei=JDhqVPuFBoinNvqYgLAF&psig=AFQjCNGwdeOEu99lOHM4O8K-W1V4UPUR8Q&ust=1416333714803859

Late Bronze Age:



2. Funerary procession to tomb:

a. Prothesis: Females led mourning

rites in the presence of the

deceased who lay on a bier;

b. Myc. women fully dressed: i.e.,with

bodice (vs. Minoan exposure);

c. Two mourning groups in black &

red;

d. Female mourning leaders (kin?)

led a processional dance;

e. The funerary dance had two

groups (i.e.,antiphonal): separate

male group & a female group of

mourners, each wearing fine

clothing.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CAcQjRw&url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/art_by_ash/480966167/&ei=nDdqVKOlHYumNpmmgKAF&psig=AFQjCNEmBJnNZiElgr0on6X1_avjtaOWwg&ust=1416333429883967

Late Bronze Age:



2. Funerary procession to tomb:

• Ekphora (bier-procession to tomb):

a. Public processions were important

in Mycenaean society, especially

funerary processions (emphasized

in frescoes, paintings on jars, and

architectural layout);

b. The procession of the funerary

bier to the tomb/grave provided a

public display of the individual &

family’s status, power, wealth, etc. Later scene of funeral procession

Late Bronze Age:



3. Funerary feast (in/near tomb):

a.The “wake” was attended by family,

community, & external guests:

i.e., Showing off the ruling family’s

affluence & the status of the

deceased (= maintaining family’s

appearance/prestige).

b. Presumably, many of the funerary

furnishings would be displayed

prominently at the wake (see

below for types).

Late Bronze Age:



4. Initial funerary rites at tomb:

A few tombs had horse sacrifices

& burials nearby (e.g., Marathon

Tholos), presumably from the bier’s

draught animals.

Other animal sacrifices are known:

Cattle, horses, dogs, other animals.

Unsealing the door, installing the

body & tomb furnishings, conducting

rites and re-sealing door.

The design of Chamber Tombs &

Tholos Tombs contain three

components that reflect common

mortuary features:

i.e., Passage, door, burial chamber …

Late Bronze Age:




a.Open entryway: Land of living

i.e., open to sky;

b.Door/portal: Interface between

earthly+other realm

c.Burial chamber: Land of deceased

i.e., closed to sky/

dark.

• Some tomb door jambs & lintels

display intricate ornamentation, that,

alongside pottery finds, assert that

such portals represent significant

points in funerary rites: i.e., passage

from land of living to land of dead.

Late Bronze Age:




• The application of burnt offerings

may be reflected by the remnants

of small fires in several tombs:

• In general, such offerings suggest a

range of rites, from …

a. Offerings to the deceased (i.e.,

sustenance),

b. funerary banquets (sharing meal

with deceased by family+friends),

and

c. possibly “ancestor worship” (e.g.,

veneration; requesting aid; etc.)

Late Bronze Age:




• Bodies were usually placed on the

floor within the burial chamber:

a. Some burial chambers have a

bench/bed for successive burials;

b. Other burial chambers have a pit

to hold each new body (removing

the previous interment earlier).

• The body is apparently clothed using

a cloth/shroud covered with glass

paste jewelry, clay buttons, lead wire

(i.e., evidence from larnakes, etc.).

• Some bodies had death masks

glued onto the shroud, with gold cut-

outs:

E.g., Mycenae Shaft Graves yielded

infants with gold foil wrappings.

Late Bronze Age:



5. Various burial furnishings:

a. Personal-type specific possessions:

Artisan’s utensils;

Warrior’s equipment;

Cymbal for dancer(s);

Ivory box for priestess;

b. Other items for adornment:

Garments;

Jewelry;

Unguents (e.g., oil jars; containers);

c. Provisions, containers, table ware:

Containers for various beverages

and food (e.g., wine storage jars);

• Note: Funerary goods differ a bit

from region to region, with varying

emphasis in certain categories.

Late Bronze Age:



6. Post-funeral rites:

• The emerging pattern that many

sealed & intact tombs often yield

= disarticulated skeletons placed

outside the initial reception pit,

bench, or floor suggests the Myc.

application of what termed variously:

a. A “second funeral”;

b. A “secondary burial”;

c. A “rite of aggregation”

• In essence, such practices often

accompany societies that believe in

a transitional stage between death

and joining one’s ancestors.

Late Bronze Age:




• Hence, an initial burial & subsequent

dispersal of bones & offerings may

reflect a Myc. belief in a transitional

stage for the spirit between the land

of the living & the land of the dead.

• Secondary burials entail:

a. Re-opening the tomb;

b. Collecting much of the bones &

adjacent offerings for temporary

placement outside the tomb;

c. Returning disarticulated bones &

items to the tomb with new rites:

E.g., Intense fires;

E.g., Family & communal feasting;

E.g., Full transfer of spirit to the land

of the dead.

Late Bronze Age:




• Such secondary burials explain the

popularity of Chamber Tombs and

Tholos Tombs to Mycenaeans,

i.e., a convenient communal tomb.

• Such tombs enabled easy reburial

of the initial burial;

• Such tombs also emphasized the

family/communal aspect for each

burial in relation to both living and

dead family members:

i.e., the past, present, and future

roles of one’s family and its ties to

a particular region: E.g., the greater

community: Mycenae & hinterland.

Late Bronze Age:



7. Ancestor & hero worship:

• Some LB Age communal tombs

have yielded features catering to

“ancestor worship,” such as the

Mycenae Grave Circle A shaft graves

• This burial place for venerated

ancestors contained an altar +other

cultic fittings suggesting many post-

funeral cultic rituals: Over generations

• The expansion of Mycenae’s citadel

walling system to enclose & feature

Grave Circle A prominently within it,

and to locate it along the route from

the entryway to palace complex,

emphasizes the high importance

ascribed to the LH I ancestors of

the LH II-III rulers of Mycenae.

Late Bronze Age:



7. Ancestor & hero worship: cont. …

• The additional inclusion of the

“Cult Centre” within Mycenae’s

expanded citadel wall might also

imply a connection with

Mycenae’s “ancestor cult.”

• The Pylos tablets also refer to

“thrice heroes,” augmenting the

argument that the Mycenaeans had

both:

a. An “ancestor cult”

and

b. A “hero cult”

• In other words, the Mycenaeans

perceived a very close link between

the lands of the living and dead,

especially within a family lineage.

Late Bronze Age: Late Helladic / Cycladic / Minoan

Late Bronze Age:

Mainland Greece

and the Aegean:Burial Customs and Religion:

Mycenaean Religion.T. G. Palaima, 2008. “Burial Customs and Religion: Mycenaean Religion”

(chp.13B): 342-361.

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:

Late Helladic I - III

(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

1.

Mycenaean religion:

Resources and data …

Late Bronze Age:

Late Helladic I-III: 1600–1200+ BC:

Mycenaean religion:

• It = very difficult to determine past

(Mycenaean) religion without

explicit inscriptional evidence:

i.e., Religion deals with ideas, beliefs

rituals, and other less tangible things

• Myc. archaeological record mostly

yields architecture, art, iconography,

artifacts, and very limited texts from

which one can extract some data on

Mycenaean religion.

Mycenae: “Cult Centre”

Late Bronze Age:


Mycenaean written sources on religion:

• The archaeological record has

yielded some evidence for Myc.

religion via structures, features, art

(iconography), artifacts, and textual

sources (i.e., Linear B).

• However, the Mycenaean Linear B

tablets were mainly administrative

documents from palace-centres with

very limited and/or indirect data on

Mycenaean religion:

• Linear B tablets have …

NO myths,

NO hymns,

NO prayers,

NO religious rites,

NO religious laws,

NO regulations regarding shrines,

NO dedicatory texts,

Mycenae Cult Centre figurines

Mycenae Cult Centre fresco: Grain deity?

Mycenae:

The “Cult

Centre”

(= near

Grave

Circle A)

Late Bronze Age:



• The archaeological record has

yielded some evidence for Myc.

religion via structures, features, art

(iconography), artifacts, and textual

sources (i.e., Linear B).

• However, the Mycenaean Linear B

tablets were mainly administrative

documents from palace-centres with

very limited and/or indirect data on

Mycenaean religion:

• Linear B tablets have …

NO myths,

NO hymns,

NO prayers,

NO religious rites,

NO religious laws,

NO regulations regarding shrines,

NO dedicatory texts,

Classical Greek: Odysseus & the sirens

Classical Greek: Theseus & minotaur.

Linear B

tablets:

No myths

etc.

Late Bronze Age:



• Reconstructions of Myc. religious

practices & beliefs can draw upon

different sources with caution:

a. Preceding Minoan religion

concerning later Myc. Beliefs …

b. Preceding components from

mainland Greece (*Aegean in

general) to assess roots,

and clearer evidence …

c. Contemporary influences from

E. Mediterranean & Near East

(e.g., borrowings; similarities)

d. Observables, differences, and

similarities between Myc. and

subsequent Greek religion.

Late Bronze Age:



• Reconstructions of Myc. Religious















LB / New

Kingdom

offering

Scene …

LB Age Canaan

E.g., Aegean-type temples elsewhere

and/or better preserved evidence

(i.e., parallels; similar systems)

Late Bronze Age:



• Reconstructions of Myc. Religious















i.e., using clearer, later data to

clarify earlier obscure data …

Classical Greek sacrifice

Mycenaean sacrifice

Classical pantheon with

various deities present in Myc. pantheon

Late Bronze Age:



• Each tablet cache from various Myc.

palaces seem to reflect only a 5-7

month period prior to destruction.

• Thus, one cannot assess long term

practices/change in palace centres,

and only a limited period in all texts.

• Pylos Tablet Tn316: might record

abnormal rituals, possibly human

sacrifice?, that may reflect a time of

dire circumstances versus normal

times during Myc. Period.

(Human sacrifice = in doubt).

• Linear B tablets represent a narrow

record-type, with abbreviations, thus

making word interpretation tricky(!):

• E.g., after much study, we now know

“ship bronze” = “temple bronze”(!)

Late Bronze Age:



• Each tablet cache from various Myc.

palaces seem to reflect only a 5-7

month period prior to destruction.

• Thus, one cannot assess long term

practices/change in palace centres,

and only a limited period in all texts.

• Pylos Tablet Tn316: Might record

abnormal rituals (possibly human

sacrifice?) that may reflect a time of

dire circumstances versus normal

times during the Myc. Period.

(Human sacrifice = in doubt).

• Linear B tablets represent a narrow

record-type, with abbreviations, thus

making word interpretation tricky(!):

• E.g., after much study, we now know

“ship bronze” = “temple bronze”(!) Greek sacrifice of Polyxena (Trojan War)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyxena

Late Bronze Age:



• With such very limited contexts

(as is offered by Linear B tablets),

it is very difficult to discern between

a. Private persons;

b. Administrative officials;

c. Religious functionaries.

• It = also often tricky to distinguish

between …

a. The dispersal of items as direct

offerings to deities in shrines,

i.e., An explicit religious act.

versus

b. The supply of commodities to

the priesthood,

i.e., A secondary, religious “piety”

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

2.

Mycenaean religion:

Extrapolating from the data …

Late Bronze Age:


Religion & its detection:

• Religion is defined as “a system of

thought founded upon belief in an

unseen and non-material world

interacting with the visible world

around us.”

• The Mycenaeans, like later Greeks,

seem to have broadly similar and

unifying aspects in their religious

beliefs & customs: i.e., sharing

common ideas across time & space

• Their religious concepts = flexible:

a.Non-canonical: not standardized

b.Non-dogmatic: no central authority

c.Changeable: varied in time/space

i.e., Looser, variable, shifting, …

(probably variant & changing

beliefs like elsewhere: E. Med.)

Late Bronze Age:



• Religion is defined as “a system of

thought founded upon belief in an

unseen and non-material world

interacting with the visible world

around us.”

• The Mycenaeans, like later Greeks,

seem to have broadly similar and

unifying aspects in their religious

beliefs & customs: i.e., sharing

common ideas across time & space

• Their religious concepts = flexible:

a.Non-canonical: not standardized

b.Non-dogmatic: no central authority

c.Changeable: varied in time/space

→ i.e., Looser, variable, shifting, …

(probably variant & changing

beliefs like elsewhere: E. Med.) Mycenaean Cult Centre: deities

Mycenaean female figurines

Late Bronze Age:



• The mercurial & volatile nature of

life in the LB Age Aegean likely

aided a greater Mycenaean focus on

religion & rituals to resolve difficult

problems & relative stress:

• E.g., Myc. terracotta psi- & phi-type

figurines occur in all contexts:

a. Temple: as votive offerings,

b. Graves: as aids? Kin/ancestors?

Household spirits? Community or

broader deities?

c. Domestic contexts: as protective

entities (apotropaic)? Guardian

spirits? Ancestor spirits? Other?

• Similar beings appearing in all

aspects of life and death.

Mycenaean warriors fight “barbarians”

Mycenaean infantry marching …Mycenaean chariot …

Late Bronze Age:



• The mercurial & volatile nature of life







a. Temples: as votive offerings,



broader deities?




• Similar beings/entities appearing in

all aspects of life and death.

phi psi

Cult Centre

Mycenae

Late Bronze Age:



• The mercurial & volatile nature of life







a. Temple: as votive offerings,



broader deities?




• Similar beings/entities appearing in

all aspects of life and death.

Late Bronze Age:



• Linear B tablet caches provide

some data on Mycenaean religion.

• These tablets occur at only a few

Myc. palace centres at …

a. Knossos (Crete),

b. Chania (n = 1),

c. Mycenae,

d. Thebes,

e. Pylos.

• Their coverage is limited to the

latter part of the Late Bronze Age,

• They lack data on myths, rituals &

related aspects,

• Hence, they cannot provide any

real adequate coverage of “Myc.”

religion (incl. for LB Age & Aegean)

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

3.

Mycenaean religion:

Attitudes and outlook …

Late Bronze Age:


Mycenaean religious attitudes:

• By the 8th Century BC, later Greek

religion reveals:

a. The pervasive nature of religious

beliefs & superstitions in society;

b. Such beliefs & superstitions had

much control over how leaders,

communities, & people in general

interacted with each other, with

priesthoods, and with deities.

(naturally fluctuating per individual)

• The Mycenaeans probably had

similar relations with their priests,

deities, & the supernatural in general

• One would expect their beliefs &

cognitive outlook to govern both

daily lives & reactions to specific

circumstances –varying per person.

Pervasive

superstitions

E.g.,

Protection

against

Evil Eye

Ancient to modern superstitions

Anc. Rome: fortune telling

Late Bronze Age:



• By the 8th Century BC, later Greek

religion reveals:

a. The pervasive nature of religious

beliefs & superstitions in society;

b. Such beliefs & superstitions had

much control over how leaders,

communities, & people in general

interacted with each another,

priesthoods, and deities.

(naturally fluctuating per individual)

• The Mycenaeans probably had

similar relations with their priests,

deities, & the supernatural in general

• One would expect their beliefs &

cognitive outlook to govern both

daily lives & reactions to specific

circumstances –varying per person.

Superstitions governing leaders’ actions

Late Bronze Age:



• The Mycenaean world was also a

product of its immediate environment

E.g., Fairly limited agricultural and

other resources (*exceptions);

E.g., Isolated valleys creating distinct

regionalism (more local focus:

i.e., “us” versus “them”);

E.g., Disparate areas with varying

affluence (i.e., lesser affluence

through greater affluence);

• Such factors fostered …

a. Alliances (need to share/aid);

b. Competition (rivals for resources);

c. Conflict (many other factors);

• The supernatural was sought as

another aid in bettering one’s lot …

Late Bronze Age:



• Myc. Palace-centres, their hinterland

administration, & population in gen.,

attempted to maximize the production

of surplus materials & desirable items

• Such basic commodities & luxuries

formed marketable trade products,

• Their trade externally obtained …

a. Strategic materials: copper + tin

for bronze tools, weapons, etc.

b. Luxury raw materials: amber,

lapis lazuli, gold, silver, glass,+

for making new trade items

and desirable exotica …

• Local control & re-dispersal of such

wealth created firmer ties & stability

within each palace polity …E.g., Olive oil surplus → trade item

Late Bronze Age:



• Myc. Palace-centres, their hinterland

administration, & population in gen.,

attempted to maximize the production

of surplus materials & desirable items

• Such basic commodities & luxuries

formed marketable trade products,

• Their trade obtained foreign / ext.

a. Strategic materials: copper + tin

for bronze tools, weapons, etc.

b. Luxury raw materials: amber,

lapis lazuli, gold, silver, glass,+

for making new trade items

and desirable exotica …

• Local control & re-dispersal of such

wealth created firmer ties & stability

within each palace polity …

Copper (ingot) + tin (ingot)

Late Bronze Age:



• Alongside controlling many key

workshops/industries and trade,

Myc. palace-centres also seemed

to have maintained cult centres &

strong ties between rulers & deities.

• Hence, by forging strong bonds

between the secular+supernatural

powers (i.e., “church” & “state”),

each Myc. palace-centre could

better unify & control their

individual populations.

• Ea. Myc. king (wanax) prob. became

a mediator between their people

and the deities, and a guarantor of

their people’s and polity’s welfare:

if they didn’t prosper → they perish!

Mycenae citadel housed Cult Centre

Mycenae’s rulers & deities = inter-linked

PALACE

Late Bronze Age:



• Alongside controlling many key

workshops/industries and trade,

Myc. palace-centres also seemed

to have maintained cult centres &

strong ties between rulers & deities.

• Hence, by forging strong bonds

between the secular & supernatural

powers (i.e., “church” and “state”),

each Myc. palace-centre could

better unify & control their individual

populations.

• Ea. Myc. king (wanax) prob. became

a mediator between their people

and the deities, and a guarantor of

their people’s and polity’s welfare:

If they didn’t prosper → they perish!

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mycenae-Plan-of-the-Citadel-House-Area-at-the-end-of-lH-iii-B2-late_fig4_259409149

Mycenae cult centre:• Located in the expanded

citadel, near Circle A.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mycenae-Plan-of-the-Citadel-House-Area-at-the-end-of-lH-iii-B2-late_fig4_259409149

Mycenae: cult centre

https://www.odysseyadventures.ca/articles/mycenae/article_mycenae04-

cultcentre.html

https://www.odysseyadventures.ca/articles/mycenae/article_mycenae04-cultcentre.html

https://www.odysseyadventures.ca/articles/mycenae/article_mycenae04-cultcentre.html

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

4.

Mycenaean religion:

Non-uniform regionalism

i.e., diversity and change …

Late Bronze Age:


Diversity in Mycenaean religion:

• The Aegean’s regional & ethnic

diversity probably created some

variant Myc. “religions” throughout

the Aegean mainland & islands

(evident in later, classical Greece).

• Mycenaean religion would have

contained a blend of more recent

Indo-European influences overlaid

on earlier non-Indo-European beliefs

• Presumably Myc. trade and contact

with Crete (Minoans), Anatolia, the

Near East, & Egypt, would have

introduced other influences/beliefs.

• In addition, further religious variance

in beliefs & customs would occur in

different regions, social groupings,

and between state & common cults.

Late Bronze Age:



• The Aegean’s regional & ethnic

diversity probably created some

variant Myc. “religions” throughout

the Aegean mainland & islands

(evident in later, classical Greece).

• The Mycenaean religion would have

contained a blend of more recent

Indo-European influences overlaid

on earlier non-Indo-European beliefs

• Presumably Myc. trade & contact

with Crete (Minoans), Anatolia, the

Near East, & Egypt, would have

introduced other influences/beliefs.

• In addition, further religious variance

in beliefs & customs would occur in

different regions, social groupings,

and between state & common cults. Egyptian Taurt + Minoan genius → Myc.

Mycenaean contacts with East Med.

Cult of Asherah / Astarte → ???

Late Bronze Age:



• Of note, many earlier aspects of

Minoan religion either do not appear

in the Myc. period, or virtually vanish

by Myc. palatial phase: LH IIB–IIIB.

• Specific Minoan architectural items

containing religious traits = absent

from Mycenaean structures: i.e.,

NO “lustral basins”

NO pillar crypts

NO polythera (pier-+-partition doors)

NO incurved (concave-sided) altars

• Other Minoan features do occur in

Myc. structures at a minimal level:

a. 3D bull-horns of consecration;

b. Miniature double (headed) axes;

c. Lifesize, bronze, double-axes;

d. Minoan stone “chalice”

Pier-

And-

Door

partition

Minoan altars: incurving … usually.

Late Bronze Age:



• Of note, many earlier aspects of

Minoan religion either do not appear

in the Myc. period, or virtually vanish

by Myc. palatial phase: LH IIB–IIIB.

• Specific Minoan architectural items

containing religious traits = absent

from Mycenaean structures: i.e.,

NO “lustral basins”

NO pillar crypts

NO polythera (pier-+-partition doors)

NO incurved (concave-sided) altars

• Other Minoan features do occur in

Myc. structures at a minimal level:

a. 3D bull-horns of consecration;

b. Miniature double (headed) axes;

c. Life-size, bronze, double-axes;

d. Minoan stone “chalice”

Minoan “horns of consecration”

LM III.A2 (= Myc. Period)

1375 – 1300 BCE

Mycenae:

“Nestor’s cup”

Late Bronze Age:



• The Mycenaean period Aegean

has produced very few cult centres

and shrines to-date.

• There are references to hinterland

sanctuaries throughout Mycenaean

palace-centre hinterlands (in Linear

B tablets).

• However, the typical Minoan peak

sanctuaries/shrines remain unknown

in Mycenaean Greece.

• In contrast, Mycenaean Greece also

displays more distinct sanctuaries

associated with palace-centres

and their citadels:

E.g., Cult Centre at Mycenae placed

within citadel walling system.

Mycenae: Cult Centre

Late Bronze Age:



• The Mycenaean period Aegean

has produced very few cult centres

and shrines to-date.

• There are references to hinterland

sanctuaries throughout Mycenaean

palace-centre hinterlands (in Linear

B tablets).

• However, the typical Minoan peak

sanctuaries/shrines remain unknown

in Mycenaean Greece.

• In contrast, Mycenaean Greece also

displays more distinct sanctuaries

associated with palace-centres

and their citadels:

E.g., Cult Centre at Mycenae placed

within citadel walling system.

Minoan Peak Sanctuaries


Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

5.

Mycenaean religion:

Art and iconography providing

clues to religious practices …

Late Bronze Age:


Iconographic evidence for religion:

• Myc. Frescoes, seals, & sealings

are the main source for portraying

& reconstructing ritual customs:

a. Processions;

b. Liquid offerings/libations;

c. Animal/other sacrifice;

d. Ritual feasts/banquets;

e. Musical events/rites.

• LH IIB-IIIB Myc.seals display Minoan

-type religious genres, BUT it is

uncertain to what extent any Minoan

beliefs transfer into Myc. religion.

• Such Myc. borrowings tend to be

limited to spec.regions (Messenia)

that had close ties with Crete, or rep.

a Myc. re-configuring of Minoan art

in other, more distant regions.

Myc./Minoan-type war scene

Mycenaean seal --griffinsMycenaean seal –ca. 1400 BC

Minoan genii (genius)

Late Bronze Age:



• Unlike Minoan scenes, Myc. Seals

almost totally lack depictions of

‘deities appearing before humans,’

(versus Minoan influences found in

textual & linguistic data in Linear B).

• E.g., Greek word for deity (“theos”)

came from isolated, Indo-European

root that implied the materialization

of a divine force/being.

• Minoan influences may also have

become diminished over time in

Myc. Culture, especially with the

rise of Myc. palace-centres and

rise of more dominant Myc.

material culture and other aspects …

1500 BC Minoan/Myc.-goddess-type seal

Indo-European influences in Greece

Late Bronze Age:



• Seals appear to be restricted to

elite adoption and usage in the

early Myc., pre-palatial period.

• By LH IIIA-B, even the relative

increase in indigenous production

&/or usage of seals remained fairly

limited to the sub-elite and elite

in both palatial centres & more

isolated areas.

• Over time, the Minoan aspects

became less apparent in these seals,

while Myc. iconography became

widerspread within the seal motifs.

Late Helladic III.A seal impression

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

6.

Mycenaean religion:

Continuity from LB Age

to classical Greek religion

Late Bronze Age:


Myc. terms continuing in Greek religion:

The following Mycenaean terms …

• Theos (“deity”)

• Hieros (“holy man”)

(hiereus)

• Nawos (“temple; dwelling place

of the deity”)

• Temenos (“Space cut out” of

communal land).

→ each appear in later Greek religion.

• Mycenaean core beliefs also seem

to advocate providing offerings to

deities in order to obtain benefits

• Such beliefs are widespread in the

Late Bronze Age E. Mediterranean,

and in later classical Greece …


Mycenae: “Cult Centre” deities

Acropolishttp://ancientathens3d.com/mykinaiki/

http://ancientathens3d.com/mykinaiki/

Late Bronze Age:


Myc. terms continuing in Greek religion:

The following Mycenaean terms …

• Theos (“deity”)

• Hieros (“holy man”)

(hiereus)

• Nawos (“temple; dwelling place

of the deity”)

• Temenos (“Space cut out” of

communal land).

→ each appear in later Greek religion.

• Mycenaean core beliefs also seem

to advocate providing offerings to

deities in order to obtain benefits

• Such beliefs are widespread in the

Late Bronze Age E. Mediterranean,

and in later classical Greece …


Fosse

Temple

Canaan

LB Age

Late Bronze Age:


Continuity from Myc. to Greek religion:

• Linear B tablets record the dispersal

of various things to shrines & deities

a. Mainly olive oil & honey;

b. Also: cereal grains, spices, figs,

and cloth/textiles.

• It is uncertain HOW such items =

provided to individual shrines,

i.e., whether politically or privately.

• However, associated month-names

from religious votive lists suggest a

monthly, or less frequent, dispersal.

Late Bronze Age:



• Linear B tablets reveal var. major

Greek deities had LB Age shrines:

a. Poseidon;

b. Zeus;

c. Diwa (female deity assoc. with

Indo-European “shining” sky);

• Greek deities appear assoc. with

shrines dedicated to other deities:

d. Hera (offerings at Zeus’ shrine at

Chania (W. Crete).

e. Dionysus (Zeus’ shrine at Pylos).

• Other Greek deities noted at […]:

f. Hermes;

g. Artemis;

h. Zeus of Mount Dikte

• Uncertain if specific shrine = known

& omitted, or if offering = indirect

via officials who placed it in shrine.Zeus

God of sea, earthquakes, & horses

Zeus = father of humanity & deities

Late Bronze Age:





a. Poseidon;

b. Zeus;






Chania [W. Crete]).


• Other Greek deities noted at […]:

f. Hermes;

g. Artemis;

h. Zeus of Mount Dikte


& omitted, or if offering = indirect

via officials who placed it in shrine.

Hera: = wife & sister of Zeus, and is

a deity of marriage, women, children

Deity of grape harvest, wine, fertility, etc.

Late Bronze Age:





a. Poseidon;

b. Zeus;






Chania (W. Crete).


• Other Greek deities noted […]:

f. Hermes (messenger; deity of herds);

g. Artemis (huntress; wild animals);

h. Zeus of Mount Dikte (on Crete)


& omitted, or if it = indirect offering

(via officials who placed it in shrine).Also a protector of women in childbirth

A huntress & assoc. with wild animals

Late Bronze Age:



• Other minor Greek deities are noted

at Mycenaean palace-centres:

a. Shrine of Daedalus at Knossos;

b. Shrine of Iphemedeia at Pylos;

c. Shrine of <*Pretwa> at Pylos;

• Deity Dionysus = long-believed to be

a later, post-LB Age arrival in Greece

BUT = now known earlier (in Myc.!).

• Honey dedicated to Dionysus in a

shrine of Zeus at Chania (W. Crete);

• Fire altar of Dionysus noted in a

district supervized by a lawagetas

(i.e., 2nd level, high official at Pylos);

• In contrast, major deities (e.g., Zeus;

Potnia; Poseidon; Hera; Hermes) =

at main shrine at Sphagianes, which

had direct links to Pylos & its king. Architect of labyrinth, etc.

Late Bronze Age:



• Other minor Greek deities are noted

at Mycenaean palace-centres:

a. Shrine of Daedalus at Knossos;

b. Shrine of Iphemedeia at Pylos;

c. Shrine of <*Pretwa> at Pylos;

• Deity Dionysus = long-believed to be

a later, post-LB Age arrival in Greece

BUT = now known earlier (in Myc.!).

• Honey dedicated to Dionysus in a

shrine of Zeus at Chania (W. Crete);

• “Fire altar” of Dionysus noted in a

district supervised by a lawagetas

(i.e., 2nd level, high official at Pylos);

• In contrast, major deities (e.g., Zeus;

Potnia; Poseidon; Hera; Hermes) =

at main shrine at Sphagianes, which

had direct links to Pylos & its king. Dionysus: grapes, wine & fertility

Late Bronze Age:



• HOWEVER, the Linear B tablets do

omit reference to one major Greek

deity: Demeter.

• Demeter may appear indirectly as

“Potnia of grains” (who apparently

fulfilled Demeter’s role in LB Age).

E.g., Mycenae citadel House Tablet

notes “Potnia of grains”

E.g., Mycenae’s Cult Centre depicts

“Demeter”? in Rm of the Frescoes

• In contrast, no real evidence exists

for an early LB Age triad at Thebes:

a. Demeter (Ma Ga: “Mother Earth);

b. Zeus (x of the fall harvest”);

c. Persephone (Kore: “maiden”);

• INSTEAD, = daily grain dispersal to

50+ persons.

Demeter: = a goddess of grain

and the harvest.

- May be Potnia in LB.

Late Bronze Age:



• HOWEVER, the Linear B tablets do

omit reference to one major Greek

deity: Demeter.

• Demeter may appear indirectly as

“Potnia of grains” (who apparently

fulfilled Demeter’s role in LB Age).

E.g., Mycenae citadel House Tablet

notes “Potnia of grains”

E.g., Mycenae’s Cult Centre depicts

Demeter in Room of the Frescoes

• In contrast, no real evidence exists

for an early LB Age triad at Thebes:

a. Demeter (Ma Ga: “Mother Earth);

b. Zeus (x of the fall harvest”);

c. Persephone (Kore: “maiden”);

• INSTEAD = daily grain dispersal to

50+ persons.

Demeter: = a goddess of grain

and the harvest.

- May be Potnia in LB.

Late Bronze Age:



• Regarding the relatively few

references to Myc. religion in

Linear B texts, these include: …

a. Month-names;

b. Offering terms;

c. Donations;

d. Purification;

e. Ritual payment;

f. Deities names;

g. Shrines;

h. Cult buildings.

EXAMPLES OF LATER month-names

May: ME-OE Maius,

Latin Maius mensis (month),

from the Greek Maia,

= goddess of spring (growth).

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

7.

Mycenaean religion:

Sanctuaries & festivals …

Late Bronze Age:


Myc. festivals & sanctuaries:

• A few Linear B tablets list

Mycenaean festivals:

a. “The bringing forth of the throne(s)”

b. “The strewing of the bed”;

c. “The girding of the bearers;”

d. “The carrying of the gods”; →

• The latter name is suggestive &

may possibly indicate a procession?

between the Citadel & Cult Centre

at Mycenae.


Late Bronze Age:



• Linear B tablets from the palace-

centre at Pylos name/cite outlying

shrines (nawoi) in all 16 admin.

districts of Messenia:

Nawoi = “dwelling places” of deities

• Religious officials in these shrines

hold several titles:

a. Dumartes = “masters”

b. Pro-dumartes = “vice-masters” /

“deputy masters”

c. Klawiphoroi: = “key bearers”

Mycenae: Cult Shrine

Late Bronze Age:



• The Myc. district officials, namely

the mayor/governor (koreter) and

his deputy (pro-koreter), apparently

worked with these religious officials:

… in recycling Myc. sacred items and

applying them to other/secular use

E.g., Votives, utensils, etc., from the

temple.

• A widespread dispersal & higher

quantity of Myc. sanctuaries = noted

in some districts: E.g. Sphagianes.

• E.g., One site (sa-ra-pe-da) received

provisions for a ritual banquet

dedicated to Poseidon.

• It is unknown if Pylos palace-centre

sent items in a ritual procession,

or by unobtrusive (secular) means?

Recycling copper

Late Bronze Age:



• The Myc. District officials, namely

the mayor/governor (koreter) and

his deputy (pro-koreter), apparently

worked with these religious officials:

… in recycling Myc. sacred items and

applying them to other/secular use

E.g., Votives, utensils, etc. from the

temple.

• A widespread dispersal & higher

quantity of Myc. sanctuaries = noted

in some districts: E.g. Sphagianes.

• E.g.,One site (sa-ra-pe-da) received

provisions for a ritual banquet

dedicated to Poseidon.

• It is unknown if Pylos palace-centre

sent items (a) in a ritual procession?,

or (b) by unobtrusive/secular means?

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

8.

Mycenaean religion:

Minoan & other influences …

Late Bronze Age:


Minoan & other regional components

in Mycenaean religion:

• Some minor Mycenaean deities have

Minoan-type names (e.g., Minoan

goddess Diktunna) in Myc. cults at

Knossos & Pylos.

a. Pi-pi-tu-na (at Knossos);

b. A-ma-tu-na (at Pylos);

• A Greek Olympian deity appears

initially as …

c. Artimis → later Artemis.

Deity of hunting, wild animals, wilderness,

the moon, chastity, protector of girls ,

aided women in childbirth, etc.

Late Bronze Age:




• Potnia “She who has power”popular

early deity dominating Myc. religion:

• Potnia holds many epithets/aspects:

a.Assoc. with Horses;

Grain;

daburinth / labyrinth;

site of Sphagianes;

site of Assuwa (Asia)

in western Anatolia.

• The later Greek goddess, Athena,

has origins in this Myc. Deity from:

a. Knossos: “Potnia of Athana”

Pre-Greek toponym

b. (Athens): Potnia = important deity

assoc. with LB Athens.

• Iliad: Potnia → “goddess of warrior

nearness”; called “Athenian Potnia.”


Late Bronze Age:




• Popular, early deity dominating Myc.

religion: Potnia “She who has power”

• Potnia holds many epithets/aspects:

a.Assoc. with Horses;

Grain;

daburinth / labyrinth;

site of Sphagianes;

site of Assuwa (Asia)

in western Anatolia.

• The later Greek goddess, Athena,

has origins in this Myc. deity from:

a. Knossos: “Potnia of Athana”

Pre-Greek toponym

b. (Athens): Potnia = important deity

assoc. with LB Athens.

• Iliad: Potnia → “goddess of warrior

nearness”; called “Athenian Potnia.”

Athena: goddess of war, wisdom

and arts/crafts …

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

9.

Mycenaean religion:Textual-pictorial & archaeological

evidence toward a synthesis …

Late Bronze Age:


Archaeological & textual record for

Mycenaean religion:

• The textual-pictorial +archaeological

records especially reveal Myc. rituals

via processional offerings+banquets

• Myc. royal rituals occur in the

central megaron (in palace-centres).

• The large, central hearth & fire in

central megaron = major communal

focal point in Myc.-Greek society.

• A goddess, Hestia, is a deity assoc.

specifically with the hearth during

Classical period in Greece (probably

also in Mycenaean period, which is

inextricably bound with a central

hearth focus in palace-centres).

Late Bronze Age:



Mycenaean religion:

• The textual-pictorial +archaeological

records especially reveal Myc. rituals

via processional offerings+banquets

• Myc. royal rituals occur in the

central megaron (in palace-centres).

• The large, central hearth & fire in

central megaron = major communal

focal point in Myc.-Greek society.

• A goddess, Hestia, is a deity assoc.

specifically with the hearth during

Classical period in Greece (probably

also in Mycenaean period, which is

inextricably bound with a central

hearth focus in palace-centres).

Hestia

Pylos megaron central hearth

Late Bronze Age:



Mycenaean religion:

• Central, focal room (Rm.6) in the

main, central megaron at Pylos has

traces of a throne & libation rituals.

• Associated frescoes in this room

display pairs of seated persons at a

banquet & a “Bardic performance”;

• Antechamber’s frescoes (Rm.5)

illustrate a communal gathering with

delivery of provisions for a banquet,

including a sacrificial bull (next slide)

• Tablets & sealings attest to:

a. Bringing of such animals (bulls)

for sacrifice & banquets.

b. Gathering of king, military leaders

(lawagetas), collectors (damos) &

outsiders (res. aliens/auxiliaries?)

https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/resources-landing/details?source=dc&id=Agora:PublicationPage:Hesperia-73.2-46

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Nestor's-Megaron%3A-

Contextualizing-a-Mycenaean-at-Egan/

a6413dba50be107452fd3617d6c7bc1fb5d49fb7

SEE E. Egan (2015), Nestor’s Megaron: Contextualizing a Mycenaean

Institution at Pylos. Fig.5.17: Revised reconstruction of the procession

scene on the NW wall of the Pylos Vestibule. L. R. McCallum. Thaler

2012a, p. 193, fig. 3, after McCallum 1987, pp. 196-197, figs. VIIIb-c.

Earlier reconstruction

Pylos: Megaron vestibule, reconstruction of the

bull procession on the NW wall …

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Nestor's-Megaron%3A-Contextualizing-a-Mycenaean-at-Egan/

a6413dba50be107452fd3617d6c7bc1fb5d49fb7

https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/resources-landing/details?source=dc&id=Agora:PublicationPage:Hesperia-73.2-46

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Nestor's-Megaron%3A-Contextualizing-a-Mycenaean-at-Egan/a6413dba50be107452fd3617d6c7bc1fb5d49fb7





Pylos: Megaron vestibule

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Nestor's-Megaron%3A-Contextualizing-a-Mycenaean-at-Egan/a6413dba50be107452fd3617d6c7bc1fb5d49fb7/figure/40

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Nestor's-Megaron%3A-Contextualizing-a-Mycenaean-at-Egan/a6413dba50be107452fd3617d6c7bc1fb5d49fb7/figure/40

Late Bronze Age:



Mycenaean religion:

• Central, focal room (Rm.6) in the

main, central megaron at Pylos has

traces of a throne & libation rituals.

• The associated frescoes in this room

display pairs of seated persons at a

banquet & a “Bardic performance”;

• The Antechamber’s frescoes (Rm.5)

illustrate a communal gathering with

delivery of provisions for a banquet,

including a sacrificial bull.

• Tablets & sealings attest to:

a. Bringing of such animals (bulls)

for sacrifice & banquets.

b. Gathering of king, military leaders

(lawagetas), collectors (damos) &

outsiders (res. aliens/auxiliaries?)

Gathering in central megaron

Late Bronze Age:Late Helladic I-III: 1600–1200+ BC:


Mycenaean religion:

• Bull sacrifices = a major motif/ritual

in Myc. seal motifs & in Greek relig.

• Linear B tablets note axes used to

stun bulls & knives to slit throats

in ritual sacrifices.

• Pylos tablet notes an official called

“Overseer of paraphernalia” who

supervises provisioning major

sacrifices & banquets.

• Faunal remains from palace-centres

have yielded remnants of enough

animal parts to feed 1000+ persons.

• Bones burnt after meat-removal +.,

implying ritual sacrifice (+ feasting).

• Most bones = male oxen & 1+ deer

(parallels frescoes of sacrifice+feast)

Mycenae:

c. 1550-1500

BCE

- Double axe

- HatchetMycenaean knives: butchery etc.



Mycenaean religion:

• Bull sacrifices = a major motif/ritual

in Myc. seal motifs & in Greek relig.

• Linear B tablets note axes used to

stun bulls & knives to slit throats

in ritual sacrifices.

• Pylos tablet notes an official called

“Overseer of paraphernalia” who

supervises provisioning major

sacrifices & banquets.

• Faunal remains from palace-centres

have yielded remnants of enough

animal parts to feed 1000+ persons.

• Bones burnt after meat-removal +.,

implying ritual sacrifice (+ feasting).

• Most bones = male oxen & 1+ deer

(parallels frescoes of sacrifice+feast)

Ritual sacrifice(?)

Post-consumption

burning of bones



Mycenaean religion:

• In contrast,Linear B tablets list more

animal-types: oxen, sheep, goats,

and pigs. (from regular banquets?).

• Pylos Archives Complex Room 7:

a. Contained cache of animal bones

& a stemmed drinking goblet.

i.e., Palace officials may have over-

seen the fulfillment of special feasting

(or received a portion prior to the

palace’s destruction).

• The palace pantries held large

quantities of pottery tableware (near

both palace entryways & courtyards):

E.g., Kylikes & several bowl-types

• The quantities also match 1000+

guests implied by faunal remains &

tablet records.



Mycenaean religion:

• In contrast, Linear B tablets list more

animal-types: oxen, sheep, goats,

and pigs. (from regular banquets?).

• Pylos Archives Complex Room 7:

a. Contained a cache of animals and

a stemmed drinking goblet.

i.e., Palace officials may have over-

seen the fulfillment of special feasting

(or received a portion prior to the

palace’s destruction).

• The palace pantries held large

quantities of pottery tableware (near

both palace entryways & courtyards):

E.g., Kylikes & several bowl-types

• The quantities also match 1000+

guests implied by faunal remains &

tablet records. = huge banquets(!)

Pylos tableware from pantries:

Kylix, drinking bowl, and other forms

Pylos: wine drinking cups/bowls



Mycenaean religion:

• Pylos Tablet Tn316:

Records (Mycenaean) gold kylikes

& (Minoan) chalices = dispatched

to various deities:

a. Potnia (later: = Athena);

b. Zeus;

c. Hera;

d. Hermes;

e. and other minor deities.

Mycenae: “Nestor’s cup”

(Minoan & Myc)

-type chalices

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

10.

Mycenaean religion:

Utilizing later sources …

(Homer and other texts)


Homer again (& Mycenaean religion):

• Homer’s Odyssey, Book III, relates

a massive, communal, sacrifice of

many bulls at Nestor’s palace.

• In the tale, nine groups of men are

sacrificing nine bulls before King

Nestor.

• These details ring true, since:

a. Myc. Pylos is known to have had

9 districts in the Hither Province.

b. This narrative scene also runs

“true” to Mycenaean times.

Mycenaean religion

in Mainland Greece:


(ca. 1600 – 1200 BCE)

11.

Mycenaean religion:

Conclusions …


Conclusions:

• Unfortunately, we know “relatively

little” about Myc. religion.

• Mycenaean tablets lack records of

myths, rites, sacred laws,supplicants.

• Archaeology has uncovered almost

no evidence for shrines/sanctuaries

outside palace-centres.

• Pictorial sources focus mainly upon

major rites (e.g., sacrifices; bards;

processions) and virtually neglect

other themes.

• Myc. omit scenes of deities on seals

(unlike Minoans).

• Linear B tablets list some deities,

some shrine locations, few priestly

titles, some terms (ritual tools; bldg.),

rare details (dedicants; votives; etc.).


Conclusions:

• Unfortunately, we know relatively

little about Myc. religion.

• Mycenaean tablets lack records of

myths, rites, sacred laws, dedicants.

• Archaeology has uncovered almost

no evidence for shrines/sanctuaries

outside palace-centres.

• Pictorial sources focus mainly upon

major rites (e.g., sacrifices; bards;

processions) and virtually neglect

other themes.

• Myc. seals omit scenes of deities

(unlike Minoan imagery).

• Linear B tablets list some deities,

some shrine locations, a few priestly

titles, some terms (ritual tools; bldg.),

rare details (dedicatees; votives; +)

Late Bronze Age: Late Helladic / Cycladic / Minoan ...

Late Bronze Age Aegean

(LH I-III: 1600 – 1200+ BC)

SUMMARY:

“Mycenaean” tombs, graves, burials in LH I-III (c.1600–1200 BC)

Mycenaean tombs, graves, burials & rites, Late Helladic I-III 1600–1200 BC:

• Mycenaean tombs, graves & burial assemblages still represent the largest

database for studying the Mycenaeans.

• Mortuary contexts still enable much data to be extracted on the Mycenaeans,

including social organization, rank, community roles, gender roles, age roles,

career status, lineage significance, etc.

• The osteological record and analysis can reveal past health, illness, injuries,

diverse data from genetics, and other information.

Mycenaean tomb & grave types:

• Mycenaean tholos & chamber tombs represent the two main tomb types.

• Mycenaean tholos tombs have some similarities to Middle Minoan tholoi,

but they are designed & built differently and are buried (versus free-standing

Middle Minoan tholoi); Myc. Tholoi catered to more affluent social classes.

• Myc. Rock-cut chamber tombs also display some similarities to MM ones,

but often cater to lower ranking Mycenaean elite (as well as commoners).

• Some Middle Helladic tomb types continued into Late Helladic period,

including mound/tumulus tombs, deep shaft graves, & single burial pit graves

(the latter of which are relatively rare in LH; still a minority burial type).

“Mycenaean” tombs, graves, burials in LH I-III (c.1600–1200 BC)Mycenaean tombs, graves, burials & rites, Late Helladic I-III 1600–1200 BC:

• All of the aforementioned burial types occur during the Late Helladic period,

and reflect regional preferences, geological/topographical dictates (ch-tombs),

some fashion preferences, sometimes individual choice and/or avoidance

owing to preferring either traditional forms or adopting new forms/styles.

• Large, elaborate, well-made tholos tombs tend to become status symbols for

the ruling elite (with smaller tholoi for lesser elite), while chamber tombs tend

to reflect lower ranking elite with smaller chamber tombs housing commoners

• Funerary assemblages also vary regionally regarding specific choice of items,

quantities, and the presence/absence of certain things, but still with broad

similarities across the Aegean: i.e., “Mycenaean”-type assemblages.

• Mycenaean tomb and burial assemblages only broadly reflect the finer levels

of Mycenaean social organization identified from Linear B tablets.

• Myc. Burials include a definite ruling class/top elite, “warrior burials”, and a

lower ratio of females & infants to males (maybe buried elsewhere?), while

some tombs do yield wealthy child burials, child burials, and child niches.

• Amongst the wealthy burials there is often great redundancy in wealth, with

some burials having many swords & seals per individual: namely visible

conspicuous consumption (reflecting a competitive & public display of status).

“Mycenaean” tombs, graves, burials in LH I-III (c.1600–1200 BC)Mycenaean tombs, graves, burials & rites, Late Helladic I-III 1600–1200 BC:

• Diverse sources yield evidence for the following funerary rituals & beliefs:

(a). Washing, oiling, and clothing of the body after death;

(b). A funeral procession & dance led by female mourners;

(c). A public display of status & wealth during funeral procession & feast;

(d). A feast in, or near, the tomb (family & guests);

(e). Sometimes a horse sacrifice & burial near the tomb; other tombs display

sacrifices & burials of animals (e.g., cattle; dogs; etc.).

(f). Unsealing the tomb (interface between earthly realm & realm of dead);

(g). Placing body on funerary bed/platform, or in some installation (pit?);

(h). Providing burnt offerings for the spirit, ancestors, etc.;

(i). Deposting burial furnishings (death mask; clothing; furniture; provisions);

(j). Sealing the tomb and other rites;

(k). A second funeral for the initial, earlier burial (evidence from sealed tombs)

i.e., cult of ancestor / hero worship.

(l). Some installations for worshipping ancestors, including the incorporation

of Grave Circle A inside the citadel at Mycenae, with a formal enclosure,

prominent entry and access beside main gate, stelae above the various

shaft graves, and installations for maintaining a regular ancestor cult).

(m). Later remembrance of heroes via legends (e.g., Homer’s Iliad).

“Mycenaean” religion in LH I-III & other periods (c.1600–1200 BC)

Introduction to Mycenaean religion in Late Helladic I-III 1600–1200 BC:

• Myc. religion is difficult to reconstruct with relatively few texts dealing with

religion and few excavated shrines from Mycenaean times:

NO myths, hymns, prayers, rites, laws, dedicatory texts, etc.

• The sources on Myc. religion include a few shrines, depictions, & votives,

tombs, scenes, and burial assemblages, other religious iconography (e.g.,

frescoes; wall paintings; other art), artifacts (e.g., figurines), references in

Linear B tablets (mainly economic texts), earlier Minoan religion (i.e., roots),

contemporary East Mediterranean religions (similar structures & influences),

and late classical Greek religion (which had foundations in Myc. religion).

Regarding Myc. religion, LB Age Linear B tablets reveal:

• Myc. religion appears to be looser, variable, and shifting, occurring across

a diverse, fairly segregated region with adjacent to more isolated communities

that are separated by hills, mountains, often impassable forests, and sea.

• A Myc. allusion to potential, albeit abnormal, human sacrifice (which is not

unknown actually via later references to human sacrifice by Mycenaeans:

e.g., tale of Agamemnon sacrificing his daughter to enable launch of his fleet).

• In essence, we have little hard data on Myc. Religious daily beliefs & customs


Mycenaean religion in general in Late Helladic I-III 1600–1200 BC:

• Reminder: Many Myc. states were usually located in resource poor regions:

• Myc. religion did provide the commoners through elite with an outlet for the

stresses and real problems initiated by frequent warfare, political troubles,

natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes; drought; famine; illness), other issues …

• Votive offerings appear in all contexts, ranging from housing (i.e., daily life),

to burials (i.e., afterlife), and shrines (i.e., the interface between daily life and

the supernatural), thereby suggesting religion pervaded all aspects of Myc. Life

• Beliefs and superstitions also presumably governed all spheres of life,

including mundane through important decisions affecting commoners through

elite, from individuals to communities, relations between communities and

and polities, and present-day to future ramifications in the Myc. world.

• Mycenaean city-state rulers and religion were interconnected, with Myc.

states maximizing their mostly agrarian output to generate a marketable

surplus in order to obtain strategic materials (e.g., copper + tin / bronze) and

luxuries/exotica (e.g., amber; lapis lazuli; gold; silver; glass), which enabled

state workshops to produce other marketable items (jewelry; tools; weapons),

and in-turn produce and obtain further desired items …


Mycenaean city-state religion & roots in Late Helladic I-III 1600–1200 BC:

• Myc. Cult centres were often placed within citadel areas linked directly with

the palace in role, status, and close proximity: Myc. City-state rulers often

acted as mediators between populace & deities, and a guarantor of the

city-state’s well-being (in bad times, such rulers might be easier to blame!).

• Myc. Religion is also diverse owing to its quite varied roots & geography:

(a). Earlier Mesolithic inhabitants & beliefs preceding Neolithic migrants;

(b). Neolithic migrants and their proto-European & Near Eastern beliefs;

(c). Minoan beliefs & culture appears to have exerted some influence;

(d). East Mediterranean trading partners presumably introduced other

religious and related influences: Egypt, Levant, Anatolia, elsewhere.

(e). Differing contact across regionally diverse Greece also played a role

in the emergence of Myc. religion in different areas of mainland Greece.

Mycenaean religion includes:

- Some Minoan influences: Bull motifs; horns of Consecration; double axe;

chalice; “Minoan Genius” (previously influenced by Egyptian Taurt).

- East Mediterranean trade & influence affected Myc. Greece;

- Both “Myc.” overlay and composite traits in emerging mainland religion:

Minoan-Mycenaean beliefs; foreign influences; residual, earlier traits (Astarte)


Mycenaean shrines in Late Helladic I-III 1600–1200 BC:

• Linear B tablets refer to shrines in the hinterland of Pylos, in district towns

throughout the Messenia plain: i.e., 16+ districts = 16+ shrines.

• Each district shrine had a limited hierarchy: a master, deputy master, + priest

with unclear duties, but interacting with city state palace & their rep. officials.

Mycenaean religion discontinuity & continuity:

• NO known peak shrines (unlike Minoan religion in outlying hinterland);

• Mycenaeans don’t depict deities much at all (unlike earlier Minoans);

• Various Linear B religious terms exist with later continuity in Greek religion:

E.g., theos (“deity”), nawos (“temple”), etc. (appears in classical Greece).

• Myc. Core beliefs include a felt need to provide offerings in exchange for

receiving benefits from supernatural beings (like East Med. religions):

Providing temples: olive oil, honey, cereal grains, spices, figs, cloth/textile …

Linear B tablets record:

• Early appearance of Greek deities: Zeus, Poseidon, Diwa, Hera, Dionysus,

Hermes, Artemis, Daedalus, Iphemedeia, & Pretwa, while Potnia of the grain

may be an early form of Demeter (or Athena?).

• Some Minoan-type deities’ names: Diktunna; Pipituna; Amatuna.

• Some Myc. festivals: e.g., “Carrying of the gods” (palace-shrine procession?)


Mycenaean palace rituals in Late Helladic II-III 1600–1200 BC:

• Linear B tablets and palace frescoes reveal ritual bull sacrifices & banquets

situated in the central palace megaron;

• The huge, central hearth in this megaron forms a major focal point at such

banquets and other times, perhaps anticipating the later known deity:

Hestia of the hearth (who is also linked to the important role of hearths).

• Frescoes, and later tales, reveal the importance of bardic performances in

the megaron’s central hall.

• Tablets and some frescoes reveal the delivery of supplies for such major

banquets.

• Major banquet events featured the king (wanax), high officials, warriors,

collectors, and outsiders (e.g., resident aliens; others).

• Bones from sacrificed animals, associated table ware quantities, and

references in Linear B tablets, suggest 1000+ guests at major, ritual feasts:

Sacrificial animals: Bulls, deer, sheep, goats, pigs. …

Mesopotamian Neolithic (for export to Mesopotamian course files)

Anth.245 Ppt. lecture-20: Late Bronze Age Mycenaeans, Part 2: The Mycenaeans influence and presence...

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