Anth.309: Ppt. lecture-22: First Intermediate Period, from Dynasty 7/8 to early Dynasty 11...

ANT 309:

Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids

(Predyn.–Second Intermediate Period: 5,000-1550 BC)

Lecture 22:Dyns.7-11: First Intermediate Period.

© Notes & images compiled by Gregory Mumford 2016

Selected questions regarding the First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11):

• What do we know of the disintegration of Egypt’s late Old Kingdom (Dyns.7-8)

and the rise of smaller rival kingdoms? i.e., Thebans versus Hierakleopolitans.

• Is there any validity to later Dyn. 12 literary accounts regarding the preceding

FIP being a time of political and social turmoil, drought & famine & incursions?

• What do we know about the FIP from contemporary textual-pictorial accounts?

• What does the archaeological evidence tell us about this period?

• Is there agreement between textual-pictorial sources & archaeological data?

• How does the archaeological data modify our views about the FIP?

• How does the FIP represent a major time of transition for Egypt, regarding:

- Kingship and centralized power?

- Social organization?

- Dispersal of wealth amongst different social classes?

- Religious beliefs?

• Do the apparent modifications in the Ancient Egyptians’ outlook change

later in the Middle Kingdom? (king’s loss of prestige; powerful governors; etc.)

• Pay attention to the apparent changes that emerge during the FIP to Middle

Kingdom periods: political, religious, social, art, architecture. Material wealth, +

THE F.I.P. “DARK AGE”:

Collapse of the Old Kingdom

(Dyns.6-8: 2,200 - 2,150 BCE)

The First Intermediate Period

(Dyns.9-11: 2,150 - 2,040 BCE)

The Rise of the Middle Kingdom

(Dyns.11+: 2,040 BCE+)

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First Intermediate Period

Late Dyn.6: 2278-2181 BC MEMPHIS5. Pepy II 6. Nemty-emsaf II 7.Qn. Nitocris/other?

DYN.”7”: (Manetho)“70 kings for 70 days” (NOT in Abydos or Turin King Lists)

DYN.8 (2181-2161) nominal rule at MEMPHIS1. Netrikare 12.Pepyseneb (Neferkare VI)

2. Merikare 13.Anu (Neferkamin II)

3. Neferkare (II) 14.Ibi (Qakare)

4. Nebi (Neferkare III) 15.Neferkauhor

5. Schemai (Djedkare II) 16.Neferirkare (II)

6. Chendu (Neferkare IV) *.Wadjkare

7. Merenhor *.Shechemkare

8. Neferkamin *.Imhotep

9. Nikare *.Iru

10.Tereru (Neferkare V) *.Iytenu

11.Neferkahor

DYNs.9-10 (Herakleopolis): 2161-2040 BC3. Neferkare (VII)

4. Cheti

6. Cheti son of Neferkare Early Dyn.11 THEBES

*. Cheti (Meribre) 1. Montuhotep I

*. Cheti (Nebkaure) 2. Intef I

*. Cheti (Wahkare) 3. Intef II

*. Merihathor(?) 4. Intef III

*.Merikare 5. Montuhotep II (Nebhepetre)

LATE DYN.11 (RE-UNITED): 2040-1991 BC THEBES

5. Montuhotep II (Nebhepetre) *. Intef (Qakare)

6. Montuhotep III (Sankhkare) *. Ibi-cheur-re

7. Montuhotep IV (Nebtawyre) *. Segerseni

DYNASTY 12: 1991-1782 BC ITJ-TOWY / LISHT

1. Amenemhet I 4. Senwosret II 7. Amenemhet IV

2. Senwosret I 5. Senwosret III 8. Qn.Sobekneferu

3. Amenemhet II 6. Amenemhet III

“Collapse” of the Old Kingdom:

ca. 2200 BCE

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

(Dyns. “7” – Early 11: 2200-2040 BC)

Pharaoh:

From “god-king” to “mortal”

in transition toward a new society

Rise of the individual & individualism

Late Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period:

Dyns.6-8 to 9-11, ca.2300 – 2040 BC.

Dynasties 1-8 (ED; OK; early FIP):

• Capital essentially at Memphis

• Fairly continuous line of rulers

Dynasties 9-11 (core FIP):

• 2150?-2040 BC

• Major break with prior Dynasties

acknowledged in Turin King List

Abydos King List

• Multiple provincial polities

E.g., Ankhtifi of Mo‘alla & Edfu

E.g., Thebes

• Major kingdom: Hierakleopolis

+Thebes (later)


(ca. 2,200/2,150 – 2,040 BCE):

Historical Overview

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9. Nikare *.Iru


11.Neferkahor


4. Cheti
















(ca. 2,200/2,150 – 2,040 BCE):

Historical Overview

Provinces vs. Court

In Dyns. 7-8.

First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11): Decentralization

Early FIP: Dyns.7-8 (2200?-2150 BC).

Provinces vs. royal court:

• Monumental pyramid building ends

• A few minor, small pyramids

E.g., Dyn.8 Pyramid Texts (Ibi)

30 x 30 m small pyramid at Saqqara

• Large-scale building projects cease

• Large statuary virtually/totally absent

• Smaller statuettes are found

- mostly in wood

- some in stone

30 x 30 m

Dyn.6-10 Royal Pyramids

Dyn.6 King Pepy II Saqqara

Dyn.8 King Aba / Ibi Saqqara

Dyn.10 King Khui Dara (ME)

Ibi/Aba


Early FIP: Dyns.7-8

(2200?-2150 BC).

Provinces vs. royal court

(continued):

• Some ties with Memphis:

- King sending craftsmen

to provinces

- Marriage alliances with

powerful provincial rulers.

• Provincial governors have

provincial courts (retainers)

• Social elite in provinces

(not at court like in OK)

• Officials hold hereditary

posts in administration.


Early FIP: Dyns. 7-8 (2200?-2040 BC).

Provinces (continued):

• Prov. elite competing with royal court

• Decorated prov. tombs emerge

• Prosperous provincial centres

• Ea. prov. accesses its own resources

(reduced redistribution from Memphis)

• Prov. centres & regionalism in arts

- ideas spreading to provinces.

- provincial craftsmen emerging.

• Poorer people = better off / wealthier

• More individualism & diversity


(ca. 2,200/2,150 – 2,040 BCE):

Historical Overview

Transition from

Dyn.8 to early Dyn.9

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4. Cheti















First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11): Transition period

Early FIP (Dyns. 7-8) late FIP (Dyns.9-11).

Transition in provincial government:

• Tension between royal court

and provincial courts.

• Provincial courts increasingly

independent.

• Provincial nobility play major role

in socio-economic & political change.

• Some traditional prov. ruling families

kept links with Memphite royal court.

• Many new provincial ruling families

and lineages appearing in FIP.

E.g., Nomarch (governor) Ankhtifi

First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11): Militaristic period.

Early FIP Dyns. 7-8 late FIP Dyns.9-11.

Militaristic period (civil war):

• Local recruiting of troops to form

personal provincial armies.

• Formerly the king dictated the

mustering of a national army from

all provinces.

• Nomarch Ankhtifi omits mention of

the king (either nominal or de facto).

• Prov. rulers acting on their own

behalf & on authority of local deities.

• Nomarchs,as overseers of cults, now

function directly as patrons of cults:

national “king” inactive in local cults



Transition in provincial government:

Dyn.8/9 Nomarch: Ankhtifi (Mo‘alla):

• = a new provincial ruler & lineage

• He expands control over Edfu

• Governor of 2nd & 3rd Nome (S.Egypt)

“Great Overlord of the Nomes of Edfu

and Hierakonpolis”

“Overseer of priests”

• i.e., He controls secular and religious

offices like his contemporaries.

• Legitimizing personal & local power:

- Boasts of feeding the hungry

- Caring for the weak

- Sheltering the homeless

- Protecting the oppressed, etc.



Militaristic period (civil war):

Dyn.8/9 Nomarch: Ankhtifi (Mo‘alla):

• Allusion to an alliance or extension of

control over First Upper Egyptian nome

at Elephantine:

“I am the van of men, the rear of men.

one who finds counsel where needed.

A leader of the land, collected in thought,

on the day the three nomes were joined.

I am the champion who has no peer,

who spoke out when the nobles were

silent, on the day fear was cast and

Upper Egypt was silent.”

Dyn.8/9 Mo’alla (Southern Egypt):

Tomb of nomarch Ankhtifi:

= displays very unconventional art (vs. OK)

Dyn.8/9 Mo’alla:

Tomb of nomarch Ankhtifi.

• Unconventional art

• Strange colouring for animals, etc. & garish

Dyn.8 Mo’alla:

Tomb of the

Nomarch

Ankhtifi.


(ca. 2,200/2,150 – 2,040 BCE):

Historical Overview

Rise of the

Hierakleopolitans &

later Theban kingdoms

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NORTH KINGDOM, Late FIP Dyn.10 King Khui’s tomb at Dara (Middle Egypt)

DARA

Some small prov. tombsHerakleopolitans

Intef: tomb at el-Tarif (W. Thebes)

Southern Theban kingdom (late FIP):

• (Intef) expanding upon the earlier,

expansionist trends of Ankktifi;

• Establishing a Theban kingdom

in southern Egypt

• Opposing Hierakleopolitan Kngdm

in northern Egypt.

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwieqfygzcjLAhWHKx4KHXcPBjoQjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.disclose.tv%2Fforum%2Fancient-egypt-contemporary-and-alternative-history-t39634.html&psig=AFQjCNF0i1Ksjp55N1SSLw7JVlQNmK7TsQ&ust=1458334425194417

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwieqfygzcjLAhWHKx4KHXcPBjoQjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.disclose.tv%2Fforum%2Fancient-egypt-contemporary-and-alternative-history-t39634.html&psig=AFQjCNF0i1Ksjp55N1SSLw7JVlQNmK7TsQ&ust=1458334425194417

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiI9_nTzcjLAhVIXR4KHYObC7oQjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fegyptmyluxor.weebly.com%2Fintef-antef-tomb-tt386---asasif.html&bvm=bv.117218890,d.dmo&psig=AFQjCNETSMcjgOtx1pngyWTdutpAil2Xjg&ust=1458334536501986

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiI9_nTzcjLAhVIXR4KHYObC7oQjRwIBw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fegyptmyluxor.weebly.com%2Fintef-antef-tomb-tt386---asasif.html&bvm=bv.117218890,d.dmo&psig=AFQjCNETSMcjgOtx1pngyWTdutpAil2Xjg&ust=1458334536501986

FIP, Dyn.8/9: Nomarch INTEF:-Earliest known nomarch of Thebes,

= called Intef

-He combined the title of nomarch

("great overlord of the Theban

nome") with the position of

"Overseer of priests“

-He controlled a province that had been

of little importance during the Old Kingdom.

-His titulary included

a. "great overlord of Upper Egypt“

b. "King's confidant at the narrow gateway

of the South“

(the cemetery of Dendera in nome 6

yielded a stela of this Intef).

-Hence, it is possible that Thebes dominated

southern Egypt even in the early

Heracleopolitan (Hierakleopolitan) period.

Nomarch

Ankhtifi

Nomarch

Intef

FIP, Dyn.11: Montuhotep (I)("The ancestor/original"):

-Son of Theban nomarch Intef

-Later acknowledged as Horus Tepya (1st one)

(ancestor of line of Dyn.11 Theban kings)

-His younger son, Intef II, erected a statue

of Montuhotep I in shrine at Elephantine

(placing his father's name in a cartouche).

-Later Karnak Temple King List also places

Montuhotep I's name in a cartouche, giving

him the honour of a full king of Egypt.

-It is likely that Montuhotep I either rejected

the postulated Heracleopolitan suzerainty

over southern Egypt, or simply began building

the Dynasty 11 kingdom at Thebes.

Elephantine

?

FIP, Dyn.11: KING INTEF I (= Inyotef I):

-Eldest son succeeding Montuhotep I.

- Holds Horus-name Sehertowy

(“Pacifier of the Two Lands”)

- Adopts royal title “Son of Re”

- Virtually no details known about his reign.

Domestic affairs:

-He and his father ruled as "Head of the South"

(i.e., southern Egypt as far as Elephantine).

-Note: a private tomb mentions a king Intef,

whom Vandier equates with Intef I:

-This Intef is described as …

a. dealing successfully with a famine,

b. carrying out services for gods Montu, Amun,

Re and Hathor,

c. capturing the Two lands, and

d. punishing his enemies.

FIP, Dyn11: KING INTEF IEl-Tarif: new tomb type: saff (“row”)-tomb:

a. Courtyard 300 x 54 m

b. 3 sides: small tomb chapels of officials.

c. rock-cut portico with 12 doorways leading

through 2 rows of columns to a central chapel.

d. Central chapel flanked by tomb chapels of wives?

e. Chapel wall surfaces flaked-off (decorated?)

f. Chapel with shaft leading to burial chamber.

g. Dyn.20 account notes small mud brick “pyramid”

(stela with image of king standing before pyramid)

h. 1860 excavations of Mariette yielded part of stela

in front of an offering chapel 265 yards east of

the royal courtyard and associated tomb.

Intef IWives? of

Intef I

FIP, Dyn.11: KING INTEF II-Younger son of Montuhotep I

-Brother of Intef I

-Horus Wahankh ("enduring of life")

-He assumes the title nesw-bity:

“King of UE and LE” & “Son of Re”

-He omits the five royal names.

-Reigns about 51 years

Domestic affairs:

-Expands and consolidates Theban kingdom

south to Elephantine (name on boulder).

-Fights the Heracleopolitans

-Captures nome of This (Abydos), expanding

Theban kingdom north to Aphroditopolis (This)

-Possible counter-attack from Heracleopolis

(e.g., tomb of Ity-yeb).

-Thebans retain control of Thinite nome (Abydos)

-By end of Intef II's reign, he had assumed

peaceful and commercial relations with the

Heracleopolitan kingdom.

Theban

Kingdom

(Intef II)

FIP, Dyn.11: KING INTEF II.-He donated items to the Temple of Montu(?)

and to the temples of other deities.

-He built temples, stairways, gates, and

established offering foundations to temples

throughout the Theban kingdom.

-The earliest ruler attested at Karnak Temple

(a column bears the name of Wahankh Intef II).

-He placed a statue of himself and his father

Montuhotep I in the temple of Hekayib (deified

governor) at Elephantine.

-Commissioned construction of chapels for deities

Satet and Khnum in shrine at Elephantine,

embellishing chapels with doorjamb inscriptions.

Royal Burial:

-Continued saff/row tomb at El-Tarif (W. Bank)

FIP, Dyn.11: KING INTEF III.- Elderly when he ascends the throne

- Turin Canon: 8 year reign.

- Horus-name: Nakht-neb-tep-nefer.

Domestic affairs:

-Formerly obscure Theban god Amun begins to appear:

e.g., Stela of official Amenemhet ("Amun is foremost").

-Maintains control of Abydos.

E.g., Prince Ideni of Abydos relates that King Intef III

approved his actions managing a famine and crisis.

-Restores temple of Hekayib (Elephantine).

-Adds sandstone doorway to Satis Temple.

Burial place: Unfinished tomb (S. of Intef I-II)

Dyn.12 re-build of

Dyn.11 shrine

Late First Intermediate Period (early Dynasty 11)

Southern Egypt: Temple of Satet at Elephantine

FIP, Dyn.11: MONTUHOTEP II:Phase-1: first 14 years.

- Ascended throne with

Horus-name Sankh-ib-towy

“Making-the-Heart-of-the-Two-Lands-to-live”

- Year 14 of Montuhotep II:

- Supporters of Heracleopolitan kingdom

attempt to return This (Abydos) to the

northern kingdom,

-This sets off a new war between

Thebes and Heracleopolis.

-Montuhotep II fought Heracleopolis

until he defeated and took Heracleopolis

ca. 2,040 B.C., re-uniting Egypt under

one ruler again.

-It may have taken longer to secure the

delta, but later king lists call Montuhotep

the founder of the Middle Kingdom.

Ca. 2,040 BC reunification of Egypt


(ca. 2,200/2,150 – 2,040 BCE):

Diverse aspects

characterizing this era:

First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11):

Famine & providing relief

Stela of Butler Merer of Edfu (FIP)

“I buried the dead and nourished the living,

wherever I went in this drought which occurred”

Stela of Treasurer Iti of Imyotru (near Gebelein) (FIP)

“I nourished Imyotru in years of misery”

“I gave Upper Egyptian barley to Iunu, to Hefat,

after Imyotru had been supplied”

Stela of Steward Seneni of Coptus (FIP):

“I measured out Upper Egyptian barley as sustenance

for this whole town … in the painful years of distress”

Prophecy of Neferti (MK on FIP): Propagandistic text

“Dry is the river of Egypt; one crosses the water on foot”

Admonitions of Ipuwer (MK on FIP): Propagandistic text

“The storehouse is bare, its keeper is stretched on the ground”

First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11):

Political instability

Prophecy of Neferti: (Dyn.12 about FIP): Prop. text

“The land is shrunk, its rulers are many”

Admonitions of Ipuwer (Dyn.12 about FIP) Prop. text

“Towns are ravaged, Egypt became wasteland.

Instruction to King Merikare: (Dyn.10 in FIP)

“Strengthen your borders, your frontier patrols:

“Guard your borders, secure your forts”

“A shameful deed occurred in my time.

The nome of This (Abydos) was ravaged;

though it happened through my doing,

I learnt it after it was done,

Egypt fought in the graveyard,

destroying tombs in vengeful destruction …”

First Intermediate Period: Brigandry.

Admonitions of Ipuwer (Dyn 12 on FIP): Propagandistic text

“One sits in the bushes till the night traveller comes,

in order to plunder his load”

“The king has been robbed by beggars;

… what the pyramid hid is empty”

“Lo, magic spells are divulged, spells are made worthless

through being repeated by people”

First Intermediate Period: Social reversals.

Prophecy of Neferti (MK on FIP): Propagandistic text

“Men will live in the graveyard, the beggar will gain riches,

The great [will rob] to live”

Admonitions of Ipuwer (MK on FIP): Propagandistic text

“Those who were entombed are cast on high ground”

“The serf becomes an owner of estates”

“He who could not make a coffin owns a tomb”

First Intermediate Period: Social reversals.

Admonitions of Ipuwer (MK on FIP): Pr. text

• “Verily, paupers have become men of affluence,

and he who could not provide sandals for himself

is now the possessor of wealth”

• “Verily, the son of one whose name is known,

lacks recognition, and the child of his wife becomes

the son of his maidservant.”

• “Verily, gold, lapis lazuli, silver, turquoise, carnelian,

amethysts, emeralds(?), and all precious stones adorn

the necks of maidservants, Noble looking ladies are

throughout the land, …”

• “Verily, [life] is abhorrent to the hearts of the noble

woman, for their bodies are wretched because of

their ragged clothes …”

• “Verily, citizens are consigned to work the millstones

and those who were once clothed with fine linen are

unjustly beaten. Those who once did not see the

daylight can now go out with no restraint.”

First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11): Socio-economic changes

Early FIP: Dyns.7-8 (2200?-2150 BC).

Socio-economic changes:

• Archaeological record reveals

national socio-economic changes

• Many more cemeteries & tombs

- Population growth in Nile Valley

- More intense and efficient

exploitation of agriculture(?)

• Commoners (non-elite):

a. Tombs & graves larger

b. More grave goods & better quality

E.g., Stone cosmetic vessels,

jewellery (gold & jewels)

• Provincial capitals vs. towns:

larger & better elite & non-elite tombs

Nomarchs’ tombs

Retainers’

graves

First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11): Trade disrupted

Disruption to international trade

in late Dyn.6-FIP: ca. 2200-2000 BC

Admonitions of Ipuwer (MK on FIP):

“None indeed sail north to Byblos today”

What then are we to do for cedar trees

for our mummies? For the priests are

entombed in the wood of such trees,

and the nobles even as far as Keftiu

(Crete) are embalmed with the oil

thereof. But these things arrive (here)

no longer.”

= Cessation of maritime trade with

Syria!

No fine cedar for coffins, etc.


Ca.2,200/2,150 – 2040 BCE.

The “democratization”

of religion throughout Egypt.

The Osiris Cult:A shared destiny from commoner to king

Late Dyn.5 – 8 and First Intermediate Period:-The rise of Osiris (an underworld deity & “lord of the dead”)

changes in Old Kingdom religion & mortuary architecture.

Late Dyn.5:

• Osiris in royal Pyramid Texts (Unas)

a. Decorating pyramid burial chambers

b. Prayers, liturgies & spells protecting king

and ensuring resurrection in King’s tombs

• Osiris cited in some private false door

stelae (offering formulae)

Dyns.6-8:

• Osiris becoming a major deity in Egyptian

pantheon (especially deity of afterlife).

• Pyramid Texts appear in Queen’s tombs

in reign of Pepy I and later.

Dyns.9-11 (F.I.P.):

• Private persons adopting Pyramid Texts &

related spells in coffin interiors and

sometimes on walls of burial chambers.

OSIRIS

FIP – MK religion:• “Democratization” of religion and

funerary beliefs and practices.

• New focus on the Osiris cult

• Now aimed at individuals attaining

an afterlife independent from king.

(i.e., elite, middle class, & poor).

• People no longer relied on the king’s

beneficences for the afterlife

(i.e., the tomb & its furnishings)

• Everyone could now “shape” their afterlife

OSIRIS:

• Originally a vegetation deity

• Linked with annual cycle of planting

(insemination), growth (gestation),

harvest dry season (birth death)

• Associated with fertility & giving life

• Became deceased king of Underworld

(i.e., “Field of Reeds”)

FIP – MK religion:

OSIRIS (continued):

• Usually depicted as a bandaged

mummiform figure with royal

insignia: crook, flail, divine beard

• Becomes a divine judge

• Symbol of victory of good (maat)

over evil (isfet).

• He had emerged reborn successfully

after death belief that he therefore

help others be reborn successfully.

• Osiris became accessible to everyone

after the Old Kingdom collapsed.

• Only real requirement to enter the

Field of Reeds = moral fitness.


OSIRIS (continued):

• Usually depicted as a bandaged

mummiform figure with royal

insignia: crook, flail, divine beard

• Becomes a divine judge

• Symbol of victory of good over

evil.

• He had emerged reborn successfully

after death belief that he therefore

help others be reborn successfully.

• Osiris became accessible to everyone

after the Old Kingdom collapsed.

• Only real requirement to enter the

Field of Reeds = moral fitness.

Concept of judgement hall emerges

i.e., live righteously to enter afterlife


Field of Reeds (Underworld):

• Below the Western Horizon

• On a cluster of islands

• Resembled Egypt in life, but

lacked any hostile elements

(disease; inimical beings)

• Fertile land

• Warm climate

• Dead received plots to cultivate

• Middle to Upper Classes aimed

for a better style of living, like

in their lifetimes:

i.e., furnishing tombs with items

desired for afterlife

• BUT, still needed to house and

provision ka-spirit in the tomb.

• Funerary equipment for both the

tomb & afterlife.

New Kingdom

example

MK: Beni Hasan rock-cut tombs


Three concepts of eternity:

1. Kings (royalty):

• Later building pyramids again

in Dynasties 12-17

• Return to the concept of joining

deities in the heavens.

2. Middle-Upper classes:

• Adopting Old Kingdom royal

funerary beliefs

• Building better tombs and

furnishings

3. Poorer classes:

• Aspired simply to cultivate land

plots in the Field of Reeds for

eternity (base expectation).

Umm el-Gaab

Royal ka-chapels and

Khentyamentiu Temple

Abydos: Temple of Khentyamentiu & Osiris and pilgrimages.

Dyn. 1 tomb of King Djer (Umm el-Gaab, Abydos)

Late FIP-Middle Kingdom = equated with tomb of Osiris, Lord of the Dead

Funerary enclosures

ABYDOS (Cult Centre of Osiris in Middle Egypt):

Middle Kingdom and later pottery offerings along processional route.

(Amelineau estimated about 8 million pots: mostly offering bowls/cups)

4000 pots per year over 2000 years

Rise of the cult of Osiris (at Abydos)

Sacred pilgrimage to Abydos (in life / afterlife)

“Democratization” of religion

(i.e., royal Pyramid Texts private coffins)

Dyn.11 Tomb of Meketre (Thebes)

Middle Kingdom: Pilgrimage to Abydos in the afterlife.

• Many of the builders of chapels at Abydos, actually resided, died, and were buried

elsewhere in Egypt.

• Cenotaph shrines of diverse social strata allowed deceased to partake in Osiris cult

festivities for perpetuity.


(ca. 2,200/2,150 – 2,040 BCE):

Mortuary practices:

FIP trends in burials:• Elite FIP burials similar to late OK and early MK ones.

Regional variations:• Politically subdivided land Material cultural differences throughout Egypt:

• Distinct burial customs within different regions:

1. Arts & crafts: E.g., regional pottery types

2. Coffin types/styles E.g., Akhmim (exterior offering list by Wadjet eyes)

E.g., Gebelein (unique form of hieroglyphs)

E.g., Asyut (late FIP doubling of exterior texts)

E.g., Saqqara (maintaining OK traditions)

3. Object placement E.g., Sedment (wooden models beside body)

E.g., Qau-Mostagedda (similar, but less common)

4. Stelae E.g., Naga ed-Deir (many tombs with a stela)

E.g., Thebes-Gebelein (UE style of stelae)

5. Stone slab dec. E.g., Denderah (large mastabas with stone slabs)

6. Coffin-like burial E.g., Harageh (2 tomb chambers like coffins -spells)

7. Weaponry E.g., Late FIP bows & arrows in various cemeteries

First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11): Material culture.

Early FIP: Dyns.7-8 (2200-2150).

Material culture assemblage:

Regionalism/diversity/prosperity:

• FIP population deviate from

traditional forms.

• innovations in arts & crafts:

Major changes in FIP artifact

types, forms, styles, and quality.

• Regional diversity: e.g., pottery

Trend: ovoid to bag-shaped pots

• Commoners’ burials begin

using special funerary items:

e.g., models & funerary figurines

mummy mask (cartonnage)

slab stelae

Late FIP Dyn.10: King Khui’s tomb at Dara (Middle Egypt): Elite example

DARA

Some small prov. tombs

Early Dynasty 11

(Late First Intermediate Period)

Saff (“row”) tomb of Intef I-III

at Thebes (generic example).

Example of Theban royalty:

- Tombs of elite courtiers and

family members were placed

beside/in the king’s tomb

complex.

Intef II

First Intermediate Period and later

Elite tombs (provincial governors)

FIP (Dyns.7-11): Qau-Mostagedda:

5,000 burials late OK, FIP, early MK.

- Unusually wealthy for FIP (much gold)

Necklaces & armlets with amulets:

- small gold birds

- carnelian legs & hands

- button seals (usually with females)

- Scarab seals (worn by men)

religious & status symbol

- Male items: tools & weapons generally

- Female items: jewellery

cosmetic items (mirrors

in box by coffin foot)

grinding stones (food

preparation at home)

- Pottery & calcite vessels = common

most functional food containers

but with minimal traces of food


(Dyns.7-11): Painting.Early FIP: Dyns.7-8 (2200?-2150)

Tomb painting & motifs:

• New regional styles of

painting.

• Some different conventions

from Old Kingdom.

E.g., Different colour schemes

Irregular proportions

• Some new images of daily life:

e.g., spinning & weaving.

• Some modifications to

traditional motifs / scenes.

• Range in quality from “poor” to

very good (more lively).

F.I.P.: Tomb of Ity at Gebelein

Thebes: Tomb of Djar

F.I.P.: Tomb of Ity at Gebelein

FIP: Tomb of Ity at Gebelein: cattle colouring more formalized

not natural-looking

Dyn.11: Theban Tomb of Djar:

Note elongation of figures; human body more angular (diff. from OK)

Cattle legs =

confused in

overlapping

FIP trends in burials:

• Theban art style emerging: making do with local artists.

- High raised relief

- Deep sunk relief

- Incised details

- Narrow shouldered figures (in general)

- Small of back is placed higher (than in Old Kingdom)

- Limbs tend to be more rounded

- Bodies display less-little musculature

- Eyes are large (+ cosmetic line) (= continues Dyn. 6 style).

- Nose tends to be broad

- Lips are often thicker and protruding

- Ears are more pronounced

- Male breast = more angular in profile (in relief)

- Female breast = also more angular in profile (in relief)

- Offerings (on offering tables) tend to be drawn in isolation

(i.e., not overlapping).

Dyn.11: Limestone offering table of

God’s Seal-bearer Neferpert

Main items: False door & offering slab

Funerary offering to Osiris & Anubis

Ox leg, cucumber, duck, loaves, 2 jars,

ox-head and water offering basin.

MK “Soul House” = offering tray with food items in courtyard (libation tray)

Various probable/possible functions:

• Ensuring a perpetual, suitable home for deceased & family: i.e., house model.

• Ensuring appropriate supply of sustenance: i.e., model food, etc., in courtyard

• Activation of sympathetic magic via actual libation offering over the offering tray.

Main tomb focus: Tomb owner, banquet scene, name & titles

Main tomb focus: Tomb owners, banquet scene, names & titles

F.I.P. Provincial Art varies widely from poor to high quality.

Main tomb focus: Tomb owners, banquet scene, names & titles

Dyn.9-10/11: Stela of a Nubian mercenary from Gebelein

F.I.P.: Stela of Wadj-sety and wife (Naga ed-Deir).

First Intermediate Period (Dyns.7-11): Religion.

Early FIP: Dyns.7-8 (2200-2150 BC).

Egyptian religion: major turning point!

COFFIN TEXTS emerge as private

corpus of funerary religious texts.

• Initially for provincial elite in FIP

• widespread in Middle Kingdom

• Magical & liturgical spells on wooden

coffins.

• Draw upon some spells from late OK

royal Pyramid Texts.

• Mostly introducing new concepts.

• Resurrecting family in afterlife,

including relatives, servants & friends.

Late OK-FIP trend: tombs = multiple

burials (ranked: family head = focus).

FIP-MK Coffin Texts:• Enables non-royal persons to

attain an afterlife for eternity

without depending on the king.

• Private coffins inscribed and

decorated (plain ornate)

• Adopt various spells formerly

restricted to royal Pyramid Texts

• CT Initially written on papyrus

(some surviving)

• Most survive from coffins CT

• Protecting deceased travelling to

the Underworld

• Non-royal persons could now

aspire to independent immortality

in Underworld & sky (equal to gods)

• Some copied PT; some new spells

• Some spells from unknown PT and

multiple pyramids (i.e., from papyri)

COFFIN TEXTS: First Intermediate Period to Middle Kingdom:

• Coffin Texts evolve directly from Pyramid Texts

a. Some CT spells taken directly from PT

b. Usurping royal spells to defeat death & afterlife dangers

c. Most spells are new, representing non-royal derivations (e.g., Apophis).

• Non-royal elite inscribing coffins with spells

a. Protecting deceased against perils in the netherworld

b. Enabling an afterlife emulating divine king’s afterlife.

c. Entering the cyclical solar course (sunrise sunset sunrise)

• Non-royal (elite) persons could now

a. Ascend to heavens to join deities (transformation spells; scarab beetle)

b. Become, e.g., fire, air, grain, a child, a crocodile, etc.

c. (Every) deceased person now identified with OSIRIS.

• Coffin Texts reveal other matters:

a. Worry about starving and thirsting in afterlife

b. Desire to be (re)-united with family members in afterlife

• Coffin Texts’ content as a corpus:

a. Less focused than the Pyramid Texts in overall theme

b. Diverse focus and viewpoints

c. Relying on magic; lacking humility; expressing grandiose aspirations

d. Osiris: Deceased Osiris, his helper, or his devoted son (Horus)

e. New concept of a judgement of the Deceased

COFFIN TEXTS: Book of the Two Ways (2 versions = earliest cosmography)

• Found on coffins of nomarchs & high officials in Hare nome (Middle Egypt)

• Related knowledge for dead to navigate successfully through Netherworld

• Texts directed to Dead, with guide map, assisting in orientation & travel.

(1) Begins at sunrise (eastern horizon) journeying through day

(2) Dangers: Circle of fire (“fiery court”) surrounding sun

Threatening guardians at gates

Obstacles such as walls of darkness & flame, Apophis

Labyrinth/maze of paths

(3) Objectives: Region of Rosetau at the boundary of the sky (holding Osiris)

(i.e., whoever gazes upon the deceased Osiris cannot die)

Field of Offerings/Reeds (paradise of plenty)

Plurality of skies

Middle Kingdom coffin: -Guide to Netherworld at base of coffin (2 Ways)

(early MK late MK decline) -Coffin Texts along lower part of coffin sides

-Frieze of objects along upper part of coffin sides

FIP-Middle Kingdom:

NEW Cartonnage mummy mask

placed on bodies

- Some evidence for late Dyn.6?

DYN.11

Face

mask

EXAMPLE ONLY (= Not Montuhotep II)

Dyns.11-12:

Deir el-Bahari Mortuary temple and tomb of King Montuhotep II

New canopic jar style has human heads

1. Qebehsenuef = (Falcon) = intestines *Eating guts

2. Duamutef = (Jackal) = stomach *Greedy jackal

3. Hapi = (Baboon) = lungs *bellowing baboon

4. Amset (Imsety) = (early MK = Liver *imbibe alcohol

goddess)

“The Four sons of Horus”

First Intermediate Period:

Ka /spirit statuette for tomb:Limestone statue of the Steward Mery (57 cm high)

• Facial features characteristic of F.I.P. Thebes

1. Full lips

2. Large eyes

3. Cosmetic line of eye broadens at end

4. Flat eyebrows

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

Life-size stone ka-statues

are very rare

Small stone/other ka-statuettes

are a bit more common

First Intermediate Period: Assiut.

Wooden statuette of Wepwawet-em-hat

• Large wooden ka-statuette of official

Characteristics of FIP sculpture:

• Staring eyes

• Sharply edged planes of face

• Very long fingers

Magical(?):

- Wooden statuette of the tomb-owner,

to house ka-spirit, often having an

identifying name & titles on the base

of each statuette (carved/painted).

- i.e., a cheaper, smaller variant of the

larger, life-size ka-statuettes found in

wealthy/elite Old Kingdom serdab

chambers. Ensuring spirit’s survival.

Dyn.11

Tomb of Merer

At Asyut

Precursor of shabtis

with coffin text

spells on the kilts

Magical(?):

- Wooden statuettes

of the tomb-owner,

to house ka-spirit,

with the identifying

name & titles on

the base of the

statuettes.

- Key Coffin Text

spells placed on

the kilt enable the

deceased’s rebirth

& survival in the

afterlife.

Late Old Kingdom – First Intermediate Period: Dyns.6-8 & 9-11.• Many amulet types appear at this time

• Amulets subsequently become a crucial component in later (elite) burials

• Amulets frequently of metal (esp. gold), faience or carnelian

• Note: amulets first appear in provincial cemetery (accidental preservation?)

Numerous examples from many tombs in Qau-Mostagedda region.

Amulets:

• Known in life & death.

• Usually protective devices.

• Other functions: rebirth, healing,

preservation, etc.

Dyn.11: Tomb of Wah (Thebes).

Jewelry:

• Known in

life & death.

• Status indicators

and other symbolism …

Button seal evolves into scarab-beetle style seal

FIP seals: identity, status, & amuletic functions.

MK “Soul House” = offering tray with food items in courtyard (libation tray)

Various probable/possible functions:

• Ensuring a perpetual, suitable home for deceased & family: i.e., house model.

• Ensuring appropriate supply of sustenance: i.e., model food, etc., in courtyard

• Activation of sympathetic magic via actual libation offering over the offering tray.

Dyn.11 Tomb of Meketre (Thebes):

- Model estate with garden

- Emphasizing desired elements for “Afterlife”

Deir el-Bersha: FIP-Dyn.12 tomb of Henu. Model of brick makers.Magical(?): Ensuring brick production for house & other construction in Afterlife.

Dyn.11: Tomb of Meketre (Thebes)

Papyrus fishing boats

FISHING: Nile River fish

Magical(?):

• Ensuring fishing & supply of fish

for ka-spirit during the “Afterlife.”

Magical(?):

i.e., ensuring ploughing, planting, & growth of grain

Redistribution of grain tax

to prov. & state granaries:

Surplus pays for

various state projects.

Dyn.11

Tomb of Meketre (Thebes)

Granary being filled

MAGICAL(?):

(a). Theoretically …

ensuring perpetual

storage & supply of grain

to make flour & hence bread

for food to sustain ka-spirit

OTHER(?):

Commemorating various

facets of tomb-owner’s life:

i.e., controlling a large estate

in which such installations

and activities existed.

GRAIN = major

medium of

pay/exchange:

Long-term

storage, or

conversion to

food & drink.

Dyn.11: Tomb

of Meketre

(Thebes)

beer & bread

bearer bringing

Pots & fowl

MAGICAL(?):

(a). Ensuring a

perpetual usage

of grain to make

flour, bread, and

beer to sustain

the ka-spirit

Royal Biennial cattle count

taxation wealth to state

Dyn.11:

Tomb of Meketre (Thebes)

Tally of cattle (“cattle count”)

Magical?: Enabling perpetual supply of cattle

& offspring for tomb owner’s ka-spirit to ensure

a supply of beef & cattle by-products in death.


Dyn.11: Asyut tomb 7 pit 1

F.I.P.: servant figurine.

- Wooden model of servant

(i.e., Dyn.1 retainer burials)

- Male cook fans fire to cook

a duck –servants for afterlife?

MAGICAL(?):

(a). Ensuring perpetual access

to a cook to prepare sufficient

food to sustain the ka-spirit of

The tomb owner and his family.

OTHER(?):

Simply a model commemorating

the tomb-owner’s status and

experiences in life as a wealthy

estate owner controlling a large

complex of retainers, lands, and

Industries and resources.

BOTH(?):

Magical & commemorative item

made specifically for the tomb.

Tax on finished products:

e.g., linen textiles/garments

Dyn.11:

- Tomb of Meketre (Thebes)

- Weaving workshop.

Magical(?):

• Ensuring ka-spirit a perpetual supply of

textiles & clothing in the Afterlife.

Dyn.11: Tomb of Meketre (Thebes) Woodworking shop

Magical(?):

• Ensuring production of furniture & other necessities in Afterlife.


Egyptian troops

Magical(?):

• Ensuring adequate protection for deceased in Afterlife

• Providing ka-spirit statuettes for retainers’ afterlife.

Dyn.11: model of

Nubian archers.

Magical(?): Providing ka-spirit statuettes for Nubian archers’ afterlife & services.

Funerary “dolls” called

Paddle dolls

• “Concubines of the Dead”

• “Fertility figurines”

• “Dancers”

• other suggestions …

See E.F. Morris, 2011 JARCE v.47.

MAGICAL(?)/OTHER(?):

(a). Many items appear to be made

specifically for the tomb, or are used

in both life and burial/afterlife.

Functions(?):

- Specific tomb/death/afterlife assoc.

- Emphasis upon pubic triangle: i.e.,

procreation fertility offspring.

- Facial features not required: i.e.,

Minimized specific identity versus

maximized reproductive symbolism

SUMMARY:

Aspects characterizing First Intermediate Period: Dyns.7-11.

POLITICAL OVERVIEW:

(a). Early FIP (2278-2161 / 2200-2100 BC):

• Dyn. “7” remains elusive: i.e., Manetho’s “70 kings for 70 days” may = turmoil.

Not attested in the Turin and Abydos King Lists

• Dyn. 8 16+ known rulers, one of whom has a small pyramid (King Ibi/Aba)

The royal court appears quite impoverished vs. prov.

It continues lineage of the House of Teti (Memphis).

• Bolstering power: king forges marriage ties with various powerful provincial

officials;

• Decentralization: Provincial officials have their own provincial courts;

Ea. province exploits its own resources (diverse power)

Social elite living in provinces: i.e., prosperous prov.

Officials holding hereditary posts in administration;

Decorated elite tombs emerging on provinces (wealth)

Regional craftsmen & art (versus OK Memphite art)

More regionalism, diversity & individualism in art, etc.

• A major break: Occurs at the end of Dyn. 8, separating the early FIP

from the late FIP: i.e., end of nominal king of Egypt.


POLITICAL OVERVIEW:

(b). Dyn. 8/9 transitional FIP (ca. 2161+/- or ca. 2100+/- BC):

• Egypt fractures into ‘provinces’ that quickly fight & become larger polities

• Rising tensions between the royal court at Memphis and provincial governors

• Provincial courts become increasingly independent (omit ref. to king, etc.)

• New emerging provincial ruling families (e.g., Ankhtifi) replacing earlier ones

• Provincial armies forming (formerly the O.K. ruler formed national armies)

• Provincial governors increasingly omitting mention of the king of Egypt;

• Provincial rulers increasingly noting acting on their own behalf: building; cults; +

• Provincial governors become the patron of local cults (formerly = the king);

• Provincial governors expanding control over neighbouring nomes (provinces):

E.g., Ankhtifi of Nome-3 (at Mo‘alla) seizes Nomes-2 & -1 (Aswan) in S. Egypt.

• Provincial governors adopting modified titles to reflect new status.

• Provincial governors legitimizing their position, power, expansion in texts

• Note: Not yet claiming “kingship,” but maintain independence from other gov.


POLITICAL OVERVIEW:

(c). Late FIP (2161-2040 BC / 2100-2040 BC):

• Egypt is fractured into ‘provinces’ that quickly fight & become larger polities

E.g., Ankhtifi of Mo’alla may date to late Dyn.8, or early Dyn.9: controls 3 nomes

• Dyns. 9-10: Northern Nile Valley, Hierakleopolitan kingdom emerges first;

8+ kings, many called Kheti; E.g., Instruction of King Merikare.

• Dyn. early 11: Southern Nile Valley, Theban kingdom emerges later: more data.

E.g., Kings Montuhotep (I), Intef I, Intef II, Intef III, Montuhotep II.

• Warfare: Thebans & Hierakleopolitans fight often; also have peace & trade

Ca. 2040 BC Theban, Montuhotep II, defeats northern kingdom.

Tombs with weaponry: bows, arrows, daggers, axes, shields, etc.

Tombs portraying var. officials role in battle, siege warfare, etc.;

Tomb with cache of bodies of slain soldiers (Montuhotep II?);

Textual evidence for Nubian mercenaries serving in S. Egypt;

Models of Egyptian troops & Nubian archers;

Royal mortuary temple scene of warfare, siege, dying soldiers, +


POLITICAL OVERVIEW:

(c). Rise of Dyn.11 Theban kingdom in late FIP (2161/2100 - 2040 BC):

• Theban rulers in early Dyn. 11: Montuhotep I, Intef I-III & Montuhotep II.

• Increasingly adopting the traditional (Old Kingdom) components of kingship:

(a). Some elite/royal regalia: i.e., sceptres, garments, headgear, etc.

(b). Horus name: i.e., serekh/palace façade name.

(c). Nsw-bity title and cartouche: i.e., King of Upper and Lower Egypt.

(d). Son of Re title & cartouche

• Building & embellishing shrines: i.e., Elephantine; Karnak Temple; etc.

• Initiating a new type of royal tomb: Saff-tomb (“row”).

(a). A large walled and rock-cut E-W courtyard, approx. 54 m x 300 m

(b). A frontal, eastern chapel which may have had a mud brick pyramid & stela

(c). A rock-cut, columned portico at the western end

(d). Central, western rock cut chapel, shaft, and burial chamber for king

(e). Adjacent rock-cut chapels & burial chambers for queens & princesses

(f). Adjacent rock-cut chapels & burial chambers for high officials

• Mixed periods of peace and warfare with northern Hierakleopolitan kingdom.

• Combined secular & religious offices: i.e., king and overseer of priesthoods.•


GENERAL OVERVIEW:

Diverse aspects characterizing the F.I.P. (ca. 2,278 / 2,200 – 2,040 BC):

• The FIP is known from varying textual-pictorial records, including contemporary

texts (i.e., biographical stelae) & Middle Kingdom texts (e.g., Ipuwer; Neferty),

and the archaeological record (e.g., settlements, temples, and cemeteries).

• Drought & famine: FIP stelae mention this; MK texts hearken back to this;

Some archaeological evidence for decline in rain etc.

• Political instability: FIP reference to frontier problems & civil war (Merikare);

MK texts hearken back to Asiatic incursions & civil war;

• Brigandry/robbery: MK references to robbing pyramids & robbery in general

MK texts note Pyramid Texts being used by commoners;

• Social reversals: MK texts note nobility being impoverished, poor rich;

Archaeological record shows greater wealth amongst

lower-middle classes & higher quality items too.

• Population: Archaeology reveals growth in Nile Valley populations

and some reduction in delta settlements (move to cities);

• International trade: Texts & archaeology shows greatly reduced foreign trade


OSIRIS CULT OVERVIEW:

The rise of Osiris Cult & its significance (ca. 2161/2100 - 2040 BC):

• Osiris: Becomes increasingly important in late Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts;

He plays increasing role in late OK elite mortuary texts FIP & MK.

• Osiris: Late FIP Osiris appears in private Coffin Texts (derived from Pyr. Texts);

Late FIP+ general population adopting Osiris in their mortuary cults,

Now gaining an Afterlife independent from king: ALL become an Osiris.

• Osiris: Initially vegetation deity; becomes deity of Underworld (Field of Reeds);

In Osiris myth he becomes a deity associated with resurrection/rebirth,

enabling his followers/adherents to be reborn in the Afterlife (= popular!).

• Osiris: Appears in Afterlife judgment Hall in which a successful verdict relies

upon moral fitness in life: i.e., righteous life; good deeds; accountability.

• Osiris: Ruler of the Field of Reeds: warm, fertile islands with plots for all persons

BUT, the ka-spirit is still maintained on earth via mortuary cult.

• Other: Many elite aspire to former Old Kingdom royal funerary beliefs: heavens;

Poor persons, & others, mostly aspire to dwell in Underworld (F. of Reeds)

• Abydos cult of Osiris focuses around Dyn.1 tomb of Djer assoc. with Osiris:

Real & symbolic pilgrimages: texts, depictions, models, Abydos cenotaphs


TOMBS AND BURIAL PRACTICES OVERVIEW:

Tombs, fittings, and mortuary practices (ca. 2161/2100 - 2040 BC):

• FIP tombs & mortuary and other artifacts display distinct regional variation in

coffins, decoration, writing, fitting styles, arts and crafts, etc. throughout Egypt:

E.g., A distinct Theban style emerges (in art techniques used & forms portrayed)

• Northern royal tombs include a Dyn.8 pyramid (Ibi) & a Dyn.10 pyramid? (Khui);

Southern royal tombs include early Dyn.11 rock-cut “saff” (row) tombs (Thebes);

• Elite tombs include decorated rock-cut tombs and mastaba tombs, which retain

wooden coffins, ka statuettes, false door stelae, offering tables, & other fittings:

E.g., Tomb paintings/art vary in quality, displaying more individualism in themes,

decorative techniques, etc., ranging from poor to excellent relief & painting

• Poor graves yield more items & relatively greater wealth than before (in OK):

More Nile Valley graves in FIP, greater wealth in populace, rise in middle class.

• Innovations appearing in late Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period:

(a). Coffin Texts: OK Pyramid Texts & new spells used by commoners; Osiris.

(b). Cartonnage mummy mask now placed over head and upper torso (FIP);

(c). 4 canopic jars receive human-headed lids (formerly plain circular lids);

(d). Soul Houses combining a model house & offering tray with modeled food.

(e). Paddle dolls: function unknown –Fertility? Concubine? Ka-spirit? Other?


COFFIN TEXTS’ OVERVIEW:

Democratization of religion/mortuary beliefs (ca. 2161/2100 - 2040 BC):

COFFIN TEXTS:

• Former late Old Kingdom royal Pyramid Texts used in non-royal coffins, etc.

• Introduction of many new spells in private coffins, etc. (regional diversity).

• Non-royal persons can have an Afterlife separate from the king: Field of Reeds.

• An emphasis is placed on reuniting family members in the Afterlife.

• Spells against various things reveal fears about starving, thirst, etc. in Afterlife.

• The FIP+ Coffin Text spells ensure rebirth, bypass hazards, provide protection &

sustenance, equate everyone with Osiris, guides to various Afterlife destinations

• Base of coffin often portrays a guide map to the Underworld: bypassing hazards

• Spells placed on lower coffin sides; frieze of items along top, incl. name & titles.

• Multiple Afterlife destinations:

(a). Field of Reeds/Offerings: Underworld governed by Osiris (judgment hall)

(b). Rosetau: Boundary of the sky, where Osiris dwells (ensuring eternal life)

(c). Circumpolar Stars: destination previously restricted to the king (& later qn).

Anth.309: Ppt. lecture-22: First Intermediate Period, from Dynasty 7/8 to early Dynasty 11...

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Transcript of Anth.309: Ppt. lecture-22: First Intermediate Period, from Dynasty 7/8 to early Dynasty 11...