Andalusia When It Was...

By Maryam Noor Beig

Al-Andalus, which means, "to become green at the end of the summer" is referred to the territory occupied by the Muslim empire in Southern Spain, which refer tothe cities of Almeria, Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville,Cordoba, Jaen and Granada. 1 This civilization spannedthe eighth to the fifteenth century. In 711, Arabs crossed the Straight of Gibraltar (derived from 'GabalAl-Tariq': 'Mountain of Tariq') and established control over much of the Iberian Peninsula. 2 Of the Arab conquest, Muslims called the area of the Iberian Peninsula they occupied, "Al-Andalus." This land called Al-Andalus, hence often called "Andalusia" had at one point included Portugal, Southern France, and the Balearic Islands. Within 3 years, in 714, Muslims had occupied almost all the peninsula. Muslims crossedto Sicily and established control there for 130 years,until Muslim rule fell in 1091 to the Normans. Muslimsalso established rule in parts of France, but they were soon defeated by Charles Martel in 756, in which remains today one of the greatest victories for Christian Europe for bringing a halt to Islam's expansion. The Muslims who arrived and settled in Andalus were called "Moors," ('dark') a corrupt and negative term referring to the people who came from Morocco. They themselves, however, did not use the term to refer to themselves.

Muslims took control under the leadership of Tariq ibnZiyad and his army of 12,000 troops. King Roderic, thelast Visigoth ruler had reportedly "kidnapped" and raped the Governor of Ceuta, Count Julian's daughter who was sent to be educated. Julian vowed to Roderic, "the next time I return to Spain, I promise to bring

you some hawks the like of which your Majesty has never seen!" Julian, a Christian, appealed to Musa ibnNusayr, the Umayyad Governor of N. Africa for assistance in avenging Roderic for his crime, and hence take him out of rule. Musa did not commit to a full-scale invasion, but called upon his lieutenant totake charge. Because of the weakened Visigoth kingdom due to internal conflicts, and the Muslims' organization, the Muslim army easily defeated Roderic's army of over 90,000 men almost without resistance. 3

As an important reminder, during Islamic rule in Muslim history, we recall that upon hearing the news that a Muslim woman had been dishonored, Khilafah (Caliph) Jafer Al-Mansoor, despite risk of inciting war, ordered his entire army to burn the city in protest because the Roman Emperor failed to punish theoffenders.

Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Straight of 'Gibraltar' atfirst with the sole intention of avenging king Rodericfor the crime he committed. However, because of the weakness of the kingdom due to civil war, Tariq opted to continue his occupation of Roderic's entire empire.Another theory for the occupation by the Arab Muslims of Spain is that because of their persecution, the Jews called upon their contacts in North Africa, who in turn encouraged the able Arabs to capture Spain. This allowed the Almoravids and the Almohads to establish themselves in Spain. 4 Nevertheless, withouta doubt, the Jews supported and welcomed Muslims in Spain because they were great beneficiaries under Muslim rule. 5

Muslims entered Spain not as aggressors or oppressors,but as liberators. In this multicultural society, many

Jews and Christians held government positions. Moreover, the Golden Age of Jewish history is in fact known as the period of Muslim rule in Spain. Islam allowed the Jews to flourish in Spain, with the example of the renowned philosopher Moses Maimonides, (Musa ibn Maymun) who wrote Guide to the Perplexed."Judaism probably welcomed the conquest of Spain by the Muslims in 711. With the Muslim conquest began a Golden Age of freedom and tolerance for Jews. They freely entered the fields of government, science,medicine, and literature." 6 Spain was home to by far the largest and most brilliant Jewish community in Europe; elsewhere, the Jews were hounded and persecuted. Although non-Muslims paid more in taxes than the Muslims, it was by far less than any previousgovernment had imposed upon them, especially Roderic's. In addition, it obviously wasn't much of a burden, however, since non-Muslims freely opted and longed to live under Muslim rule.

"Throughout the period of Islamic rule, Al-Andalus wasa remarkable example and outstanding model of tolerance." 7 We fail to remember that the tolerance the Muslims, in accordance to their faith, displayed towards the Jews and Christians enabled them all to live together in relative peace and harmony, an indication of the Greatness of Islam, without question. No where else has there been so long and so close of a relationship between the 3 Great faiths. All Jews and Christians were allowed to maintain theirbeliefs and live their lives as they desired as long as they respected their Muslim rulers. "Some Mozarabs took issue with the tolerance Muslim authorities displayed toward them and the Jews, a tolerance based on two Qur'anic verses: "No compulsion is there in religion" (2:256) and "If thy Lord had willed, whoever is in the earth would have believed, all of them, all together. Wouldst thou then

constrain the people until they are believers?" (10:99)..." 8 As a result of the compassion Islam displayed towards the non-Muslims inhabitants, many of them embraced Islam. Many accepted Islam simply because Islam provided a superior, healthier way of life at a time when the social system was in rapid decay. 9 Unfortunately, religious tolerance was never a virtue in Christian Europe, as in the example of Charlemagne. 10 And so, the peace exhibited under Muslim rule did not continueafter the last of the Muslim rulers was defeated in 1492.

In chapter 109 of the Qur'an, the Holy Book revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) through the Angel Gabriel, Allah advises mankind:

"Say to the disbelievers:I do not worship that which you worship.Nor do you worship that which I worship.And Nor will I worship that which you have worshiped.Neither will you worship that which I worship.To you belongs your religion, and to me mine."

"In a time of tranquility and justice, the Christians have never been compelled to renounce the Gospel and to embrace the Qur'an." 11 As a result of the tolerance displayed by Islam, the incredibly rich language of the Muslims became the official language of literature and scholarship in Spain for all by the year 1000. Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike devotedtheir time in studying Arabic. Christians essentially spoke Arabic, which was "often better than their Latin." 12 They absorbed the Arabic culture so much sothat they began to be called, "mozarabs" a corruption of "must'arib" meaning the "Arabized ones." Furthermore, the Christian Priest Alvaro complained inthe 9th century that Christians preferred to read

Arabic writings and studied Muslim theologians and philosophers rather than their own. He exclaimed, "Oh,the pain and the sorrow! The Christians have even forgotten their own language, and in every thousand you will not find one who can write a letter in respectable Latin to a friend, while as soon as they have to write Arabic, there is no difficulty in finding a whole multitude who can express themselves with the greatest elegance in this language..." 13

The Muslims played a principal role in the history of Spain. Their presence illuminated the Iberian Peninsula while the rest of Europe was engulfed in darkness. And so, Andalusia produced a great civilization far ahead and advanced than the rest of Europe. Under their rule, Muslims made Spain a center for learning and knowledge. The Muslims were taught reading, writing, math, Arabic, Qur'an, and Hadith (Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad PBUH), and became leaders in math, science, medicine, astronomy, navigation, etc. Al-Andalus became renowned for its prosperity as people who quested for knowledge journeyed from afar to learn in its universities underthe feet of the Muslims. As a result, Andalus gave rise to a great many intellectual giants. Muslim Spainproduced philosophers, physicians, scientists, judges,artists, and the like. Ibn Rushd, (Averroes) Ibn Sina,(Avicenna) Ibn Zuhr, (Avenzoar), Al-Kwarizmi, (Algorizm) and Al-Razi, (Razes) to name a few, were all Muslims educated in Andalus. 14 Martin Luther, thefounder of Protestantism, was also educated in Andalusia. It is from the Andalusian philosophers, IbnRushd, and Ibn Sina that great renowned Christian men like St. Thomas Aquinas borrowed their philosophies. Both St. Thomas Aquinas and Dante called Ibn Rushd or "Averroes" the "The Commentator" and incorporated the views of Muslims. Through the works of Aristotle, Ibn

Rushd reconciled reason with religion. However, Aquinas attempted to refute Ibn Rushd's ideas because they placed a great deal of emphasis on human reason over faith, which were a "threat" to Christian beliefs. 15 Interestingly enough, Thomas Aquinas described Arabs as "brutal men dwelling in the desert." Dante himself was familiar with Muslim figures. It is reported by countless historians, including William Phipps, in his book, Muhammad and Jesus: A Comparison of the Prophets and their Teachings, that the theme of Divine Comedy was inspired by the mi'raj or ascension of the Prophet (PBUH) into heaven from upon the rock which today sits below the dome of Masjid Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem. 16 Roger Bacon, another individual who refrained from describing Arabsand Muslims in kind words, consulted Ibn Sina's (Avicenna) work. Ibn Sina's work, Al-Qanun, (Canon) the widely studied medical work was used in European Universities for over 300 years, and formed half the medical curriculum. 17In any case, the list of contributions from the Andalusian Muslims is endless.

The Islamic civilization had reached its peak in the 10th century, and by 1100, the number of Muslims rose to 5.6 million. 18 There existed in Cordoba alone, 200,000 houses, 600 mosques, 900 public baths, 10,000 lamps, 50 hospitals, lighted and paved streets. Muslims introduced public baths because of their need to to wash in preparation for prayer 5x a day. Libraries and research institutions grew rapidly in Muslim Spain, while the rest of Europe remained illiterate.

In Muslim Spain, knowledge from Greece and Rome was preserved. Arab scholars produced encyclopedias on medicine and astronomy in 11th century, also includingastrology, psychology, zoology, biology, botany,

chemistry, physics, mathematics, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, etc., which Christian scholars acquired and translated. Toledo thrived essentially because of its Muslim rule, and became the "cradle of learning," and the chief point of interaction between the Muslims, Christians and Jews. Western scholars traveled to Spain and Sicily to learn Arabic and to make transcripts of texts in Latin. Muslims produced cotton, paper, salt, silk, satin, pepper, stamps, clocks, soaps, rulers, maps, globes, furs, velvets, described over 200 surgical instruments, and named over 200 stars with Arabic names. Hence, it was this Islamic civilization in Spain that was the main threshold behind the European Renaissance. During the time the Muslims set foot in Spain in 711 until 1084 (a year before Toledo was taken) Muslim Spain had become an area unique to the entire world.

The Muslim artisans applied their remarkable skills toarchitecture in making mosques (masajid) and palaces. The Muslims mastered technique and design. The Alhambra Palace, and The Great Mosque of Cordoba, are just two of the famous magnificent architectural masterpieces of the Muslims which can still be seen today. Of the Alhambra, it is called, "a utopia, the brightest memory of a lost golden age of pleasure, poetry, tolerance, art, and learning." 19 One Muslim poet wrote:

"A sun dwells in this place and even its shadow is blessed.In this palace a multitude of pleasures capture the eye and suspend the intellect. Here a crystal world teaches marvels. Everywhere Beauty is carved, opulence is manifest."

The Islamic architecture in Spain is elaborate and decorative with intricate designs. Stone, and stucco, plaster for coating exterior walls, were widely favored. Later, brick replaced stone. 20 The "Mezquita" or The Great Mosque of Cordoba and the Alhambra of Granada are two Islamic monuments that utilize this design. There are, however, not many examples of Islamic architecture remaining today in Spain because many were destroyed or converted from mosques to churches when Muslims were later exterminated (officially) in the year 1492 and beyond.The Alhambra is the only palace left nearly intact andpreserved of all the Muslim masterpieces in Spain. 21

Narrated by Ibn Abbas (RA), the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said:"Whoever creates a living image in this world (i.e, human, animal) will be charged with putting a soul in it which he will never be able to do."

Muslim artists were prohibited from making images of living things so that they could concentrate on the oneness of God. Paintings of inanimate objects, trees and flowers were permitted. Islamic ideology teaches that the making of images can lead to idolatry. It canalso lead to praising of one's own work, which does away with humility and humbleness, important virtues stressed in Islam. Inevitably, it leads to one's neglect of the remembrance of Allah, and one's neglectof the fact that it wasAllah who gave the artist the talent from birth. It is also rivaling with Allah Himself who is the sole creator of the Universe and its inhabitants. Though many of Muslims therefore abstained from painting figures of people and animals,Islamic art was far from lacking beauty. Muslim scribes in Spain developed calligraphy into art form. Islamic art is known for its repetitious patterns, a constant reminder of the uniqueness of

God. 22Calligraphical, floral, arabesque, and geometric designs flourished in the Muslim world.

"The city of Granada finds her equal not in Cairo, norDamascus, nor Iraq. She is the Bride Unveiled While the others are just the dowry."

The "Alhambra" meaning the "Red Fort" or "Red Palace" is located in the city of Granada ('Gharnatah'). It iscalled the "Red Fort" because of the red of the surrounding landscape. Alhambra comes from the Arabic word, "Al-Hamra" meaning "the red." The construction was begun in the Nasrid period, and completed in the fourteenth century. Muhammad al-Ghalib built the foundations of the Alhambra while further constructionwas made by his son, Muhammad II. Inside and around the Alhambra are inscriptions of Arabic writing like "Kingdom is for Allah" and "Wa La Ghalib illa Allah," which means, "There is no Conqueror (Victor) except Allah." king Abu Abdullah (Boabdil) was called by his people as, "Al-Ghalib" (The Conqueror). Yet, when recognizing his imminent defeat, he exclaimed otherwise proclaiming that none other than God was theGreatest. Hence, "There is no Conqueror except God," became the motto of his descendents. 23 Among other verses and poetry inscribed on the Alhambra walls are poems by Ibn Zamrak who was also the chief minister to King Muhammad V, and Ibn Al-Khatib who wasalso a historian, and a physician.

The splendor of the Alhambra and its gardens have inspired many musicians, artists, and authors. Among them was renowned author, Washington Irving, who took up residence in the Alhambra and wroteTales of the Alhambra. The artist M.C. Escher's interest began whenin 1936 he visited the Alhambra and was fascinated with its tile patterns, and spent days sketching them.

The inspiration here lay the foundation for his work -for which he is most famous for. He based his work on these intricate Arabic designs, and repetitive floral and mathematical patterns.

The Golden Age of Islam began under 'Abdur-Rahman, thefirst Umayyad ruler, called the "Falcon of Andalus." He united the various tribes and groups of peoples in Andalusia when he became ameer (caliph) of Cordoba in 756. 24 Soon after he was proclaimed ameer, he laid plans to begin the construction of the Great Mosque ofCordoba. It was at one time the second largest mosque in the Muslim world. Al-Hakam, 'Abdur-Rahman's son, was responsible for extending the Great Mosque in 961-966. 25 The mihrab of the Mosque of Cordoba, a niche in the wall indicating the direction of the Kaaba, wasreportedly decorated with 320 bags of mosaic cubes; a mixture of Byzantine art along with corinthean and ionic pillars. 26 On the greatness of the Great Mosque, "One can understand perfectly the exaltation of the poet who praises its greatness: 'The gold shines in your domes like the lightening which flashesamong the clouds.'" 27 Muslim Cordoba was described asthe "jewel of the tenth century." It was compared withConstantinople and Baghdad.28 Cordoba, Seville, and Madinat al-Zahra in the 10th century were one of the greatest centers of art and culture. 29 In fact, Madinat al-Zahra, the caliphate residence, was regarded as one of the "wonders of the age" until it was destroyed in the 11th century.

Muslim Spain saw many dynasties that ruled her. The 11th century marked the decline of the Umayyad empire,which had ruled for some 300 years, with the rise of small parties in 1010. In 1056 rose the Almoravides. As the Almoravides began to disintegrate, the Almohades emerged by 1130 -- whose decline in 1269

paved way for Christian forces to begin gaining control of much of the peninsula. Toledo and Cordoba were already in Christian control. In 1492, with the fall of the last Nasrid ruler in Granada, Andalus was finally taken by the Christian troops under Ferdinand and Isabella.

In 1469, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon had married to unite their kingdoms in order to occupySpain. Cordoba was taken by Castile in 1236, and Seville in 1248. Only Granada remained as the last Muslim stronghold until. Section by section, Ferdinandand Isabella finally took Spain in 1492.

"...Where are the great kings who built cities and castles and fortified them with towering walls? What happened to the lionhearted valorous ones who made their enemy suffer humiliation in the battlefields? Time waned under their feet and they ended inside darkgraves. Think of it and take heed." (Abu Bakr (R.A.) in the Beauty of the Righteous and the Ranks of the Elite)

Muhammad XII, known as Abu Abdullah ('Father of Abdullah') and hence as "Boabdil" was the last king ofGranada who reigned during the Nasrid period. Abu Abdullah signed the treaty in November 1491 for the surrender of Granada in January of 1492. 30 He was exiled while his people were left to be persecuted. Toher distraught and weeping son, Aishah, said unforgiving, "You weep like a woman for a city you could not defend like a man!"

The surrender of Granada, however, did not quite mark the end of Islam in Spain. Islam had remained strong in Spain for eight centuries. However, as the militarypower in the Christian North began to strengthen, Al-

Andalus gradually began to shrink. A few centuries later, the Muslims and Islam disappeared from Spain entirely.

Isabella, in her fierce quest to eradicate Islam from Spain, issued forth decrees of mass conversions in her 'Holy War' ** against the Muslims. Muslim prayers were forbidden and mosques in their original splendor were destroyed and converted into churches. 31 Muslimswere converted to Christianity, who were usually insincere Christians fearing for their lives, but remained Muslim by heart. They too, called "Moriscos" were soon to be expelled, in 1605, because they weren't accepted as real Christians, and certainly weren't allowed to live as Muslims and embrace Islam openly. 32

1492, is better known as the year Columbus "discovered" America. In fact, current research suggests that IT discovered him, and that he actually never set foot on the mainland. 33 Furthermore, we learn that among other words of Arabic origin is the name of the capital city of Florida, Tallahassee. Amongother names are "zenith," (cenit) "nadir," (nadir) "lemon," (limun) "sugar," (sukkar) "orange," (naranj) "banana," (banana) "alcohol," (al-kohl) "algebra," (al-jabr) "atlas," (atlas) "safari," (safr) and even "Hawaii" comes from the Arabic word, "Hawaa." As a matter of fact, almost all of the Native tribes' vocabulary included the word "Allah." Traces of the Arab culture brought here to the Native Americans can still be seen today, in this letter from a Native American Muslim. The languages of Spanish, Italian, English, Urdu, and Hindi all have traces of Arabic influence. Wherever the Muslims went, they brought their culture and language. Within a century of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)'s death, Islam spread across

as far West as Spain and Portugal, and as far East as China.

Columbus reportedly observed that the dress code for the Native American women were modest long dresses, and of the dress code included the covering of the face (like the women of Andalusia). The Native peopleshad a great civilization prior to Columbus' arrival. During their expansion west, Muslims were already thinking about voyaging to America in 956 because it was well-known to them that America existed and they had the technology to cross the Atlantic. Some historians, in fact, suggest that Spain's Muslims arrived in America 500 years prior to Columbus. (956 would then seem accurate) America was the "New World" only to the Europeans. 34 If it weren't for the maps of Andalusian Muslim, Al-Idrisi (Dreses) Columbus wouldn't have been able to set sail, period. In October of 1492, Columbus claimed he saw a mosque and discovered "bearded men (like the men of Andalusia) who knelt for prayer 5 times a day." In addition, at least 30% of men brought into America with Columbus were Muslim. 35 Historians Sylvianne Diouf and Allan Austin shed light on the topic of Muslims in the Americas. 36

In 1492, we also learn of the mass exodus from Spain, due to the inquisition ordered by Queen Isabella. ManyMuslims and Jews left Andalusia because their rights were taken from them. However, they were very fortunate if they were able to escape with their livesfrom their own land. Muslims were ordered to convert or be killed. Many stayed behind and secretly remainedMuslim, while others who resisted were burned at the stake. An estimated 3 million were expelled from Spain, along with all of Spain's skilled workers and

masterminds. Undoubtedly, Spain soon found herself victim to her own cruelty... 37

"The land deprived of skillful irrigation of the Moorsgrew impoverished and neglected, the richest and most fertile valleys languished and were deserted, and mostof the populous cities which had filled every districtin Andalusia, fell into ruinous decay; and beggars, friars, and bandits took the place of scholars, merchants and knights. So low fell Spain when she had driven away the Moors. Such is the melancholy contrast offered by her history." 38

Until the inquisition, Muslims were free to practice their religion freely. However, during the inquisitionled by Isabella, the rights of Muslims and Jews were taken away. The final expulsion occurred in early 17thcentury when all the remaining 'Moriscos,' those who were forcibly baptized, were forced from Spain in 1605. 39 The inquisition was finally completed, and naturally, Spain fell into depression and was reduced to nothingness.

"The Arabs suddenly appeared in Spain like a star which crosses through the air with its light, spreads its flames on the Horizon and then vanishes rapidly into naught." 40

Later kings failed to implement the teachings of Islam. Internal divisions and personal conflicts amongst the corrupt Muslim leaders led to the end of Islamic rule at the hands of the crusading Christians.As time went on, the inhabitants of Andalus in their enjoyment of their prosperity and wealth became even more materialistic. The first Muslims, however, affirmed the declaration of faith, "There is no God except Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah,"

prayed five times a day, fasted in the month of Ramadan, gave 2.5% of their savings to charity, and performed the pilgrimage to Mecca if they had the means. Muslims prevailed in Al-Andalus because they had forgotten their Arabness or "Arabism." They were aware that they were Muslims only, and not divided by race, or nationality. Islam gave the Arabs an identity. An example of the Arabs before the advent ofIslam: "When news is brought to him of the birth of a female child, hisface darkens and he is filled with inner grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people because of the bad news he has received. Shall he retain it or bury it in the dust? What an evil choice they decide on!" (Qur'an, 16:58-59) Islam emerged and elevated the status of women, and strongly condemned this practice."And when the baby girl that was buried alive is asked for what crime was she killed!?...then every soul will know what he has done!" (81:8-9;14)

What were the Arabs before Islam? Sayyid Qutb (outstanding Muslim scholar, born in 1906 executed by the Egyptian government in 1966 because of his passionfor Islam) in his commentary of Surah al-Feel (Chapter105) of the Holy Qur'an states, "The only ideology theArabs advanced for mankind was the Islamic faith whichraised them to the position of human leadership. If they forsake it they will no longer have any function or role to play in human history...It is Allah who provides guidance for us lest we go astray."

"This day I have perfected your religion for you and have completed My favor upon you and have chosen for you Islam as your religion..."(Qur'an, 5:3). By analyzing the tragedy of Islam in Andalus, we find that the Muslims of Spain disregarded the fact that Allah indeed blessedthem withIslam, and therefore went astray. They were so successful that as a result, Muslims believe that theytreasured the wealth they accumulated so much so that

they became arrogant and deviated from the practice ofAl-Islam; disregarding the commandments of Allah, and the Sunnah (imitating his actions, and way of life) ofthe Prophet (PBUH). They failed to remember their prosperity and wealth came from Allah and Him alone. Therefore, Allah took away the abundance ofwealth, power, supremacy, and favors that He bestowed upon them so that they would remember. Allah says in the Qur'an, "Remember Me, and I will remember you. Give thanks toMe and never deny Me" (2:152). When the Muslims in Spain neglected Allah, He therefore neglected them. Allah asks mankind repeatedly in chapter 55, Surah Rahman, of the Qur'an, "Which of the favors of your Lord will you deny?" --All praise and glory is due to Allah, and Him alone!

Historian L.P. Harvey stated that we must not dwell onthe failure of the Muslims in Spain, and instead admire the stubbornness put forth by the Muslims in defense of their land.

The legacy of al-Andalus serves as a lesson for Muslims. The persecution of Muslims in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries was a great trial of their faith, as is the entire life of a Muslim; this was a great challenge from Allah. Many died fighting for Islam aware of the rewards for such a death. 41

For those Muslims who were driven out of Andalus or were slain for their unwavering faith, Allah reassuresmankind, "...I will forgive all the shortcomings and remove the evil deeds of those who were expelled from their homes or were persecuted for My sake and who fought for My cause and were slain. I shall admit them into Gardens underneath which rivers flow. This is their reward from Allah, and with Allah alone is the richest reward!" (Qur'an, 3:195) Allah humma Ameen!

"Spain and the West stand forever in their debt." 42 The Muslims were instrumental in making Spain a "Paradise on Earth," and issuing forth the Renaissance. I've observed that professors of philosophy, theology and history will agree with you concerning the greatness of Muslim Spain, yet they only speak of it once you've initiated the conversation! Muslim Spain is hardly spoken of, while the works of Muslims in Al-Andalus until this day remain unknown and underappreciated. "The intellectualcommunity which the northern scholars found in Spain was so far superior to what they had at home that it left a lasting jealousy of Arab culture, which was to color Western opinions for centuries." 43

The 1.2 billion plus Muslims of the world today have the same potential as of the Muslims of the past. One of our great many challenges today is to recreate the dynamic legacy which existed in Al-Andalus. In the example of the main character, 'Isabella,' (a REAL Queen!) in Dehlvi's book, the Andalusian Muslimah (female Muslim) who lived and died for Islam, we must remind the world that Al-Andalus was a supreme exampleof tolerance and justice because of the religion of Spain's people, not the fact that they were Arab or Spanish by race. By its outstanding example, Muslim Spain proves to the world that as a melting pot of religious faiths and races, we can, in reality, live and prosper with one another.

Science:The Islamic Legacy

Science in Al-Andalus

Written by Paul LundePhotographed by Michael Grimsdale

Additional illustrations courtesy of Bodleian LibraryAdditional photographs by Tor Eigeland

The medieval Christians of Spain had legend that Roderick, the last King of the Visigoths, was responsible for unleashing the Arab invasion of the Iberian Peninsula because, in defiance of his plightedword, he unlocked the gates of an enchanted palace he had sworn not to tamper with.

As far as the West was concerned, the Arab invasion did unlock an enchanted palace. Following thecollapse of the Roman Empire, Vandals, Huns and Visigoths had pillaged and burned their way through the Iberian Peninsula, establishing ephemeral kingdomswhich lasted only as long as loot poured in, and were then destroyed in their turn. Then, without warning, in the year 711, came the Arabs - to settle, fall in love with the land and create the first civilization Europe had known since the Roman legions had given up the unequal fight against the barbarian hordes.

Spain first prospered under the rule of the Umayyads, who established a dynasty there after they had lost the caliphate in the east to the Abbasids. At first, the culture of the Umayyad court at Cordoba was whollyderivative. Fashions, both in literature and dress, were imitative of those current in the Abbasids' newlyfounded capital of Baghdad. Scholars from the more sophisticated lands to the east were always assured ofa warm reception at the court of Cordoba, where their colleagues would listen avidly for news of what was being discussed in the capital, what people were wearing, what songs were being sung, and - above all -what books were being read.

For Islamic culture was pre-eminently a culture of thebook. The introduction of paper from China in 751 gavean impetus to learning and an excitement for ideas which the world had never before known. Books became more available than they had been even in Rome, and incomparably cheaper than they were in the Latin West,where they continued to be written on expensive parchment. In the 12th century, a man sold 120 acres of land in order to buy a single Book of Hours. In theninth century, the library of the monastery of St. Gall was the largest in Europe. It boasted 36 volumes.At the same time, that of Cordoba contained 500,000. The cultural lag between East and West in the Middle Ages can be attributed partly to the fact that the Arabs had paper, while the Latin West did not.

It took much more than paper to create an intellectualand scientific culture like that of Islamic Spain, of course. Islam, with its tolerance and encouragement ofboth secular and religious learning, created the necessary climate for the exchange of ideas. The courtof Cordoba, like that of Baghdad, was open to Muslims,Jews and Christians alike, and one prominent bishop complained that young Christian men were devoting themselves to the study of Arabic, rather than to Latin - a reflection of the fact that Arabic, in a surprisingly short time, had become the international language of science, as English has today.

Islamic culture in Spain began to flourish in earnest during the reign of Abd, al-Rahman II of Cordoba - as Arabic spread increasingly among his non-Muslim subjects, especially in the cities, and led to a greatflowering of intellectual activity of all kinds.

In a courtly society, the tastes and predilections of the ruler set the tone for society at large, and Abd

al-Rahman II, passionately interested in both the religious and the secular sciences, was determined to show the world that his court was in no way inferior to the court of the Caliphs at Baghdad. To this end, therefore, he actively recruited scholars by offering handsome inducements to overcome their initial reluctance to live in what many from the lands in the East considered the provinces. As a result, many scholars, poets, philosophers, historians and musicians migrated to al-Andalus, and established the basis of the intellectual tradition and educational system which made Spain so outstanding for the next 400 years.

Another result was that an infrastructure of libraries- both public and private - mosques, hospitals, and research institutions rapidly grew up and famous scholars in the East, hearing of these amenities, flocked to the West. They in turn attracted students of their own; in the Islamic world it was not at all unusual for a student to travel thousands of miles to study at the feet of a famous professor.

One of the earliest of these scholars was 'Abbas ibn Firnas, who died in the year A. D. 888 and who, had helived in the Florence of the Medici, would have been a"Renaissance Man." He came to Cordoba to teach music, then a branch of mathematical theory, but - not a man to limit himself to a single field of study - soon became interested in the mechanics of flight. He constructed a pair of wings, made out of feathers in awooden frame, and attempted to fly - anticipating Leonardo da Vinci by some 600 years.

Luckily, 'Abbas survived, and, undiscouraged, turned his mind to the construction of a planetarium in whichthe planets actually revolved - it would be extremely

interesting to know the details of the gearing mechanism. It also simulated such celestial phenomena as thunder and lightning and was, of course, a wild success. Next Abbas turned to the mathematical problems involved in the regularity of the facets of certain crystals and evolved a formula for manufacturing artificial crystals.

It must be remembered that a knowledge of the achievements of men like Abbas has come to us purely by chance. It has been estimated that today there are 250,000 Arabic manuscripts in Western and Eastern libraries, including private collections. Yet in the 10th century, private libraries existed which contained as many as 500,000 books. Literally millionsof books must have perished, and with them the achievements of a great many scholars and scientists, whose books, had they survived, might have changed thecourse of history. As it is, even now, only a tiny proportion of existing Arabic scientific texts have been studied, and it will take years to form a more exact idea of the contributions of Muslim scientists to the history of ideas.

One of the fields most assiduously cultivated in Spainwas natural science. Although Andalusian scholars did not make contributions as fundamental as those made bytheir colleagues in the East, those that they did makehad more effect on the later development of science and technology, for it was through Spain and the scholars of al-Andalus that these ideas reached the West.

No school of translators comparable to the House of Wisdom of al-Ma'mun existed in Spain, and Andalusian scholars seem not to have interested themselves in the

natural sciences until the translations of the House of Wisdom reached them.

Interest in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine was always lively, because of their obvious utility - mathematics for commercial purposes, computation of the rather complicated Islamic laws of inheritance, and as a basis for measuring distances. Astronomy was useful for determining the times of prayer and adjusting the calendar, and the study of medicine needed no apology. The introduction of the new Aristotelian ideas, however, even in Arab dress, aroused a certain amount of suspicion in the conservative West, and it was some time before public opinion would accept that Aristotelian logic did not conflict with the Revelation.

Part of the suspicion with which certain of the ideas emanating from the scholars of the Abbasid court were viewed was due to an inadequate distinction between sciences and pseudo-sciences. This was a distinction which the Muslims made at a much earlier date than Western scholars, who, even during the Renaissance, tended to confound astronomy with astrology, chemistrywith alchemy. Ibn Hazm, a leading Andalusian scholar of the 11th century and staunchly conservative, was very outspoken on this point. People who advocated theefficacy of talismans, magic, alchemy, and astrology he calls shameless liars. This rational approach did much to make Islam preeminent in the natural sciences.

The study of mathematics and astronomy went hand in hand. Al-Khwarizmi's famous book entitled The Calculation of Integration and Equation reached al-Andalus at an early date, and became the foundation of much later speculation. In it, Al-Khwarizmi dealt with equations,algebraic multiplication and division, measurement of

surfaces, and other questions. Al-Khwarizmi was the first to introduce the use of what he called "Indian" and what we call "Arabic" numerals. The exact method of the transmission of these numerals - and the place-value idea which they embodied - is not known, but thesymbols used to represent the numbers had slightly different forms in Eastern and Western Islam, and the forms of our numerals are derived from those used in al-Andalus. The work of al-Khwarizmi, which now only survives in a 12th century Latin translation made in Spain, together with a translation of Euclid's Elements, became the two foundations of subsequent mathematical developments in al-Andalus.

The first original mathematician and astronomer of al-Andalus was the 10th century's Maslama al-Majriti. He had been preceded by competent scientists - men like Ibn Abi 'Ubaida of Valencia, who in the ninth century was a leading astronomer-and theemigré  from Baghdad, Ibn Taimiyyah, who was both a well-known physician andan astronomer, but al-Majriti was in a class by himself. He wrote a number of works on mathematics andastronomy, studied and elaborated the Arabic translation of Ptolemy's Almagest and enlarged and corrected the astronomical tables of al-Khwarizmi himself. He compiled conversion tables, in which the dates of the Persian calendar were related to Hijra dates, so that for the first time the events of Persia's past could be dated with precision.

Al-Zarqali, known to the Latin West as Arzachel, was another leading mathematician and astronomer who flourished in Cordoba in the 11th century. He combinedtheoretical knowledge with technical skill, and excelled at the construction of precision instruments for astronomical use. He built a waterclock capable ofdetermining the hours of the day and night and

indicating the days of the lunar month. He contributedto the compilation of the famous Toledan Tables, a highlyaccurate compilation of astronomical data. His Book of Tables, written in the form of an almanac (almanac is an Arabic word meaning climate, originally indicating the stations of the moon) contains tables which allow one to find on what day the Coptic, Roman, lunar and Persian months begin; others give the position of the various planets at any given time; and still others allow prediction of solar and lunar eclipses. He also compiled valuable tables of latitude and longitude; many of his works were translated, both into Spanish and into Latin.

Still another luminary was al-Bitruji (the Latin scholars of the middle ages called him Alpetragius), who developed a new theory of stellar movement and wrote the Book of Form in which it is detailed.

The influence of these astronomical works was immense.Today, for example, the very appelations of the constellations still bear the names given them by Muslim astronomers - Acrab (from 'aarab, "scorpion"), Altair (from al-ta'ir, "the flyer"), Deneb (horn dhanb, "tail"), Pherkard (from farqad, "calf") - and words such as zenith nadir and azimuth, all still in use today, recall the works of the Muslim scholars of al-Andalus.

But the Muslim science par excellence was the study of medicine. Interest in medicine goes back to the very earliest times. The Prophet himself stated that there was a remedy for every illness, and was aware that some diseases were contagious.

The great contribution of the Arabs was to put the study of medicine on a scientific footing, and

eliminate superstition and harmful folk-practices. Medicine was considered a highly technical calling, and one which required long study and training. Elaborate codes were formulated to regulate the professional conduct of doctors. It was not enough to have a mastery of one's subject in order to practice medicine. Certain moral qualities were mandatory. Ibn Hazm said that a doctor should be kind, understanding,friendly, good, able to endure insults and adverse criticism; he must keep his hair short, and his fingernails as well; he must wear clean, white clothes, and behave with dignity.

Before doctors could practice, they had to pass an examination, and if they passed they had to take the Hippocratic oath, which, if neglected, could lead to dismissal.

Hospitals were similarly organized. The large one built in Cordoba was provided with running water and baths, had different sections for the treatment of various diseases, each section of which was headed by a specialist. Hospitals were required to be open 24 hours a day to handle emergency cases, and could not turn any patient away.

Muslim physicians made many important additions to thebody of medical knowledge which they inherited from the Greeks. Ibn al-Nafis, for example, discovered the lesser circulation of the blood hundreds of years before Harvey and ideas of quarantine sprang from an empirical notion of contagion.

Another example is Ibn Juljul who was born in Cordoba in 943, became a leading physician by the age of 24 (he began his studies of medicine at the age of 14) and compiled a commentary on the De Materia Medica of

Dioscorides, and a special treatise on drugs found in al-Andalus. In his Categories of Physicians, composed at therequest of one of the Umayyad princes, he also presents a history of the medical profession from the time of Aesculapius to his own day.

During the 10th century, al-Andalus produced a large number of excellent physicians. Several went to Baghdad, where they studied Greek medical works under the famous translators Thabit Ibn Qurra and Thabit ibnSinan. On their return, they were lodged in the government complex at Madinat al-Zahra. One of these men, Ahmad ibn Harran, was placed in charge of a dispensary which provided free medical care and food to poor patients.

Ibn Shuhaid, also known as a popular doctor, wrote a fundamental work on the use of drugs. He - like many of his contemporaries - recommended drugs only if the patient did not respond to diet, and said that if theymust be used, simple drugs should be employed in all cases but the most serious.

Al-Zahrawi, who died in 1013, was the most famous surgeon of the Middle Ages. He was court physician of al-Hakam II, and his great work, the Tasrif, was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona and became a leading medical text in European universities in thelater middle ages. The section on surgery contains a number of illustrations of surgical instruments of elegant, functional design and great precision. It describes lithotrites, amputations, ophthalmic and dental surgery, the treatment of wounds and fractures.

Ibn Zuhr, known as Avenzoar who died in 1162, was bornin Seville and earned a great reputation throughout North Africa and Spain. He described abscesses and

mediastinal tumors for the first time, and made original experiments in therapeutics. One of his works, theTaysir, was translated into Latin in 1280 and became a standard work.

An outgrowth of the interest in medicine was the studyof botany. The most famous Andalusian botanist was IbnBaitar, who wrote a famous book called Collection of Simple Drugs and Food. It is an alphabetically arranged compendium of medicinal plants of all sorts, most of which were native to Spain and North Africa, which he spent a lifetime gathering. Where possible, he gives the Berber, Arabic, and sometimes Romance names of theplant, so that for linguists his work is of special interest. In each article, he gives information about the preparation of the drug and its administration, purpose and dosage.

The last of the great Andalusian physicians was Ibn al-Khatib, who was also a noted historian, poet, and statesman. Among his other works, he wrote an important work on the theory of contagion: "The fact of infection becomes clear to the investigator who notices how he who establishes contact with the afflicted gets the disease, whereas he who is not in contact remains safe, and how transmitting is effectedthrough garments, vessels, and earrings."

Ibn al-Khatib was the last representative of the Andalusian medical tradition. Soon after his death, the energies of the Muslims of al-Andalus were wholly absorbed in the long costly struggle against the Christian reconquista.

Another field that interested the scholars of al-Andalus was the study of geography and many of the finest Muslim works in this field were produced there.

Economic and political considerations played some partin the development of the study of geography, but it was above all their all-consuming curiosity about the world and its inhabitants that motivated the scholars who devoted themselves to the description of the earthand its inhabitants. The first steps had been taken inthe east, when "Books of Routes," as they were called,were compiled for the use of the postmasters of the early 'Abbasid Caliphs. Soon, reports on faraway lands, their commercial products and major physical features were compiled for the information of the Caliph and his ministers. Advances in astronomy and mathematics made the plotting of this information on maps feasible, and soon cartography had become an important discipline in its own right.

Al-Khwarizmi, who did so much to advance the science of mathematics, was also one of the earliest scientific descriptive geographers. Basing his work oninformation made available through the Arabic translation of Ptolemy, al-Khwarizmi wrote a book called The Form of the Earth, which included maps of the heavens and of the earth. In al-Andalus, this work wascarried forward by Ibn Muhammad al-Razi - Rhazes - whodied in 936, and who wrote a basic geography of al-Andalus for administrative purposes. Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Warraq, a contemporary of al-Razi, wrote a similar work describing the topography of North Africa. The wide-ranging commercial relations of al-Andalus allowed the collection, from returning merchants, of a great deal of detailed information about regions as far north as the Baltic. Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub, for example, who travelled widely in Europe and the Balkans in the late ninth century - he must have been a brave man indeed - left itineraries of histravels.

Two men who wrote in the 11th century collected much of the information assembled by their predecessors, and put it into convenient form. One of them, al-Bakri, is particularly interesting. Born in Saltes in 1014, al-Bakri was the son of the governor of the province of Huelva and Saltes. Al-Bakri himself was animportant minister at the court in Seville, and undertook several diplomatic missions. An accomplishedscholar, as well as liérateur, he wrote works on history,botany and geography as well as poetry and literary essays. One of his two important geographical works isdevoted to the geography of the Arabian Peninsula withparticular attention to the elucidation of its place names. It is arranged alphabetically, and lists the names of villages, towns, wadis, and monuments which he culled from the hadith and histories. His other major work has not survived in its entirety, but it was an encyclopedic treatment of the entire world.

Al-Bakriarranged his material by country - preceding each entry by a short historical introduction - and describes the people, customs, climate, geographical features and the major cities with anecdotes about them. He says of the inhabitants of Galicia, for example: "they are treacherous, dirty, and bathe once or twice a year, even then with cold water; they neverwash their clothes until they are worn out because they claim that the dirt accumulated as the result of their sweat softens their body."

Perhaps the most famous geographer of the time was al-Idrisi, "the Strabo of the Arabs." Born in 1100 and educated in Cordoba, al-Idrisi travelled widely, visiting Spain, North Africa, and Anatolia, until he eventually settled in Sicily, where he was employed bythe Norman King, Roger II, to write a systematic

geography of the world, which is still extant, and is usually known as The Book of Roger.

In it, al-Idrisi describes the world systematically, following the Greek division of it into seven "climes", each divided into 10 sections. Each of the climes is mapped - and the maps are highly accurate for the time in which they were compiled. He gives thedistances between major cities, describes the customs,people, products, and climate of the entire known world. He even records the voyage of a Moroccan navigator who was blown off course in the Atlantic, sailed for 30 days, and returned to tell of a fertile land inhabited by naked savages. America?

The information contained in The Book of Roger was engraved on a silver planisphere, which was one of thewonders of the age.

Al-Andalus also produced the authors of two of the most interesting travel books ever written. Both existin good English translation. The first is by Ibn Jubair, secretary to the Governor of Granada who, in 1183, made the Hajj, and wrote a book about his journey, called simply Travels. The book is in the form of a diary, and gives a detailed account of the eastern Mediterranean world at the height of the Crusades. It is written in clear elegant style, and isfilled with the perceptive intelligent comments of a tolerant - and often witty - man.

The most famous of all the Andalusian travellers was Ibn Battuta - the greatest tourist of his age - and perhaps of any. He went to North Africa, Syria, Makkah, Medina and Iraq. He went to Yemen, sailed downthe Nile, the Red Sea, Asia Minor, and the Black Sea. He went to the Crimea and to Constantinople. He went

to Afghanistan, India and China. He died in Granada atthe age of 73.

It is impossible to do justice to all the scholars of al-Andalus who devoted themselves to the study of history and linguistic sciences. Both were the prime "social sciences" cultivated by the Arabs, and both were brought to a high level of art in al-Andalus. Forexample, Ibn al-Khatib, whose theory of contagious diseases we have touched on already, was the author ofthe finest history of Granada that has come down to us.

Ibn al-Khatib was born in 1313, near Granada, and followed the traditional educational curriculum of histime - he studied grammar, poetry, natural sciences, and Islamic law, as well, of course, as the Koran. Hisfather, an important official, was killed by the Christians in 1340. The ruler of Granada invited his son to occupy the post of secretary in the Department of Correspondence. He soon became the confidant of theruler, and gained a position of great power.

Despite his busy political career, Ibn al-Khatib foundtime to write more than 50 books on travel, medicines,poetry, music, history, politics and theology.

The achievements of Ibn al-Khatib were rivalled only by those of his near contemporary, Ibn Khaldun, the first historian to seek to develop and explicate the general laws which govern the rise and decline of civilizations. His huge, seven volume history is entitled The Book of Examples and Collections from Early and Later Information Concerning the Days of Arabs, Non-Arabs and Berbers. Thefirst volume, entitled Introduction gives a profound anddetailed analysis of Islamic Society and indeed, of human society in general, for he constantly refers to

other cultures for comparative purposes. He gives a sophisticated analysis of how human society evolved from nomadism to urban centers, and how and why these urban centers decay, and finally succumb to less developed invaders. Many of the profoundly disturbing questions raised by Ibn Khaldun have still not received the attention they should from all thinking men. Certainly, anyone interested in the problems of the rise and fall of civilizations, the decay of cities, the complex relationship between technologically advanced societies and traditional ones should read Ibn Khaldun's Introduction to History .

Another great area of Andalusian intellectual activitywas philosophy but it is impossible to do more than glance at this difficult and specialized study. From the ninth century, Andalusian scholars, like those in Baghdad, had to deal with the theological problems posed by the introduction of Greek philosophy into a context of Islam. How could reason be reconciled with Revelation? This was the central question.

Ibn Hazm was one of the first to deal with this problem. He supported certain Aristotelian concepts with enthusiasm and rejected others. For example he wrote a large and detailed commentary on Aristotle's Posterior Analects, that abstruse work on logic. Interestingly, Ibn Hazm appears to have had no troublerelating logic to Islam - in fact, he gives illustrative examples of how it can be used in solvinglegal problems drawn from the Shari'ah. Nothing illustrates the ability of Islam to assimilate foreignideas and acclimatize them better than Ibn Hazm's words in the introduction to his work: "Let it be known that he who reads this book of ours will find that the usefulness of this kind of work is not limited to one single discipline but includes the

Koran, hadith, and legal decisions concerning what is permissible and what is not, and what is obligatory and what is lawful."

Ibn Hazm considered logic a useful tool, and philosophy to be in harmony, or at least not in conflict,-with Revelation. He has been described as "one of the giants of the intellectual history of Islam," but it is difficult to form a considered judgment of a man who wrote more than 400 books, most of which have perished or still remain in manuscript.

Ibn Bajjah, whom western scholastic theologians calledAvempace, was another great Andalusian philosopher. But it was Averroes - Ibn Rushd - who earned the greatest reputation. He was an ardent Aristotelian, and his works had a lasting effect, in their Latin translation, on the development of European philosophy.

Islamic technological innovations also played their part in the legacy of al-Andalus to medieval Europe. Paper has been mentioned, but there were others of great importance - the windmill, new techniques of working metal, making ceramics, building, weaving and agriculture. The people of al-Andalus had a passion for gardens, combining their love of beauty with theirinterest in medicinal plants. Two important treatises on agriculture - one of which was partially translatedinto Romance in the Middle Ages, were written in al-Andalus. Ibn al-Awwam, the author of one of these treatises, lists 584 species of plants and gives precise instructions regarding their cultivation and use. He writes, for example, of how to graft trees, make hybrids, stop blights and insect pests and how tomake floral essences and perfumes.

This area of technological achievement has not yet been examined in detail, but it had as profound an influence on medieval European material culture as theMuslim commentators on Aristotle had on medieval European intellectuals. For these were the arts of civilization, the arts that make life a pleasure rather than a burden, and without which philosophical speculation is an arid exercise.