An Appraisal of Climate Change Risks and Institutional Adaptation Strategies in Kano State

An Appraisal of Climate Change Risks and Institutional Adaptation

Strategies in Kano State

By

Aliyu Salisu Barau Department of Geography

Federal College of Education, Kano

[email protected]

Abstract

Climate change and variability constitute multiple threats to Kano state. The key risks

hover on the agricultural systems; the riverine and dam neighbouring communities; the

health sector; transportation and aviation sector; and urban habitats among others. The

aim of this paper is to identify the key vulnerabilities and the existing coping strategies

defined or used by various relevant institutions. Through literature review,

meteorological data trends on climate change in Kano State was established in this

research. A purposive sampling was used to select five organizations namely, Bayero

University’s Geography Department, Kano State Ministry of Environment, State

Emergency Relief and Rehabilitation Agency (SERERA), Hadejia Jama’are River Basin

Development Authority, and Nigerian Meteorological Agency (Nimet, Kano office). The

fieldwork involved interviews with officials of the selected institutions. Based on that

parametric scores were awarded to climate change management activities identified for

each institution. The results indicate that only two institutions in Kano State are working

towards adapting to climate change risks. It is recommended that a partnership in the sprit

of the MDG no.8 be pursued in order to enhance the adaptive capacity of Kano State

against the effects of climate change. Keywords: climate change, risks, institutions,

adaptation, Kano.

mailto:[email protected]

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ANG National Conference, Calabar 2008 2

Introduction The Sahelian region of northern Nigeria within which Kano State largely lies, is most susceptible

to climate change and its effects because it is already characterized by high population growth

(about 3.1%) and rapid urbanization [about 7%] (IOM, 2008). It is rather unfortunate that

Nigeria being a non-member of least developed countries (LDCs) is not expected by the

international community to present its National Adaptation Programme of Action

(NAPA) which is concerned with short term measures to respond to climate change

(Niasse, 2007). Indeed, Nigeria is need of NAPA and National Communications on

Climate Change which takes care of medium and long term measures. Both programmes

are endorsed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

However, Nigeria does not lack programmes and institutions dealing with climate

change. There is Climate Change Unit in the Department of Environmental Assessment

of the Federal Ministry of Environment as well as Inter-Ministerial Committee on

Climate Change and a National Coordinating Committee on Climate Change (Okali

2004).

In spite of the vantage position of climate change in the international politics and media

the political will to counter climate change in Nigeria is only coming up now that a draft

bill for the establishment of National Climate Change Commission is being considered at

the Nigerian Senate (Daily Trust, May 16th

2008). Kano State is bound to be adversely

affected by a number of calamities to be induced by climatic variability and change. Like

many parts of Africa, the large share of its economy depends on climate sensitive sectors

like rain-fed agriculture. However, the risks of climate change are visible even in cities

where flooding displaces people and cause damages to structures and public utilities. In a

similar fashion, Reid and Simms (2007) disclose that the negative effects of climate

change on developing countries have direct bearing on fresh water, farming and

healthcare among others.

According to Osman-Elasha (2007) one of the constraints to understanding the current

and future climate variability is lack of sufficiently dependable observational climate data

in Africa. Other problems that lead to low adaptive capacity in Africa include its low

level expertise in the climate science. This could lead us to agree with Adesina et al

(undated) who observe that the exact nature and direction of the climate change in

Nigeria is still largely speculative. But still we have to accept the fact that climate

change impacts in this part of the world are real especially if one considers the fact that

majority of the people of Kano are farmers and herdsmen that are located across the rural

areas. The recurrent occurrences of droughts and floods have always left rural and urban

dwellers victimized with one form of vulnerability and suffering or the other. Raworth

(2007) maintains that for centuries rural communities coped well with variations in the

climate but moves further to draw our attention to the fact that the predicted stresses of

human induced climate change impacts lie outside the realm of human experience. From

this assertion, we can understand that certain responses ought to be evolved to adapt to

the climate change realities, devise mitigation strategies or we let ourselves to be doomed

by such risks. Schemmel and Scholze (2007) suggest that the effects of the physical

damages resulting from climate change may be common to places but lack of knowledge,

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funds and facilities to prepare for storms, floods and the like may be the determining

factors to the extent of vulnerability. Often times professionals are accused for planning

physical projects like dams in third world countries based on the wrong assumption that

climate is static (McCully and Thakkar, 2007). In the spirit of the MDG No.8 which calls

for collaboration between various development stakeholders there is need for partnership

to improve adaptation capacities and strategies of both urban and rural areas.

This brings us the two important concepts in the science of climate change namely,

vulnerability and adaptation. Vulnerability is defined as the degree to which a system is

susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate

variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of

climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity

(Kelman, 2007). On the other hand, Ayeni et al (undated) quotes IPCC (1995) which

defines adaptation as “adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or

expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial

opportunities.” Adaptability defines the extent to which adjustments are possible in a

system, in response to an actual or projected change. According to Food and Agricultural

Organization (FAO, 2007) climate change adaptation requires the use of good

agricultural, forestry and fisheries practices to meet changing and more difficult

environmental conditions and the introduction of improved risk management measures.

But this explanation on adaptation does not cover effects on urbanisation.

The aim of this paper is to identify the key threats accruable from climate change and

variability in Kano State; identify the key vulnerable occupations and livelihoods; assess

the present adaptation and mitigation strategies, and to also appraise the public and

institutional level of preparedness to climate change and suggest modalities for climate

friendly development strategies.

Kano State and Climatic Change Vulnerabilities

Kano State is the economic power house of the northern Nigeria, its economy is mainly

agro based. Shea (2003) states that even before the colonial period Kano had a complex

agricultural system which produced foodstuff, raw materials and supplies for domestic

and international market. This view of massive agricultural productivity which was

supported by good climate is said to have aided production of such crops like ground nut

and cotton by Kano for the international market is substantiated by Mortimore and

Adams (1999). Buba (2000) maintains that the region has a sustained occurrence of

cycles of droughts which accelerate desertification. In general, rainfall variability in the

area has been normal from 1931-1960 and from 1961-1990 the rainfall received by the

region is marked by abnormality. Olofin (1993) confirms that the amount of the rainfall

receive in Kano has reduced as no year has 1000 mm mark of rainfall since 1952, the said

amount of 1000 mm was almost registered every ten years before 1952. Buba (2000)

points that as the wet season in this region lasts from April to October when 97% of the

total annual rainfall is received, of which still 80% is received within three months - July

to September. According to Olofin (1989) the major droughts that ravaged Kano region

are those that occurred between 1913-1915; 1940/41; 1948/49; 1972/73; while others of

low intensity were witnessed in 1963, 1967/68; 1983/84; and 1987/88.

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From the above, it is understandable that drought is the most critical aspect of climate

change that ravages the Sudano-Sahelian region especially through the way it induces

desertification. A study conducted by Woodhill Engineering Limited (2007) reports that

desertification became more pronounced in Nigeria and other parts of West Africa in the

1920s especially in the Sudan and Sahel savanna zones. Nigeria is estimated to be losing

about 350,000 hectares of its productive land to desertification annually. The most

affected states include: Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, Zamfara, Yobe, Borno, Bauchi,

Gombe, and Kebbi. Productive lands used for cultivation of food and cash crops,

livestock production and fishing have progressively reduced. The most recent publication

of the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (Nimet, 2008) shows that in the year 2007 the

series of climatic change problems have affected many sectors of the economy like

transportation, aviation and agricultural production; the climatic variability has also

resulted in flooding, and more prevalence of some health problems like cracked lips, dry

skins, bronchial problems and outbreak of some infantile diseases like meningitis.

In Kano city the process of rapid urbanisation and the general effects of transport and

industrialisation have caused the climate of urban Kano to change. Barau (1999) records

that as at 1993 the maximum temperature of urban Kano was 1.3oC higher than that of

Minjibir, a town located some 40 kilometers away. Relative humidity also varied in

favour of Minjibir. In a similar fashion, Idris (2005) corroborates that the phenomenon of

‘heat island’ is reality in Kano owing to temperature variability between the core city and

its immediate outskirts. Records show that due to intensification of urbanisation from the

1990s to date, meteorological readings indicate that the temperature differences between

the old city and Mariri a suburb of Kano range between 2- 4oC. Such differences in the

temperature levels is attributed to increased land desiccation, removal of tree cover and

increase in the number of vehicles that roam the city. Oftentimes, the effects of the

climate change related risks could be more disastrous. Looking at the devastating effects

of Bagauda dam failure of 1988 in Kano State, Olofin (2000) reiterates that human

induced flooding is more disastrous and unpredictable than natural ones.

As outlined above, the occurrence of droughts is a recurrent event in this region, thus,

Mortimore (1989) identifies the ways farmers in this region adapt to drought, hunger and

poverty. The strategies to mitigate drought include crop mixture, re-plantings and manure

inputs; in dealing with poverty, people concentrate on wage labour (kodago in Hausa),

sell of items of personal property, liquidating assets, mobilising social networks and

through gifts, Zakkat and Sadaqa (recommended Islamic alms-giving). For hunger

management people concentrate on eating leafy foods. Dabi and Nyong (2005) give a

long list of adaptation strategies that could be used by farmers and herdsmen in Kano

state and other parts of northern Nigeria. The said adaptation strategies include use of the

under listed methods:

Drought resistant varieties

Labour migration

Selling assets

Herd sedentarisation

Farm location

Herd/farm sizes

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Water exploitation methods

Water storage methods

Food storage

Culling animals

Crop diversification

Livestock diversification

Early mature crop varieties

High yield varieties/Low input varieties

Irrigated crops

Replanting

Herd movement/Herd supplementation

The authors conclude by recommending governmental assistance to rural populace,

integration of community adaptation strategies into policy and through use of appropriate

technology. The stated adaptation strategies markedly differ from those identified for

western Nigeria by Ayeni et al (undated). And that means that each geographical entity

would require different coping strategies. Climate change risks for this region could be

disastrous this is so if one considers the types of risks that Osman-Elasha (2007) suggests

could befall places like Kano which include reduction in soil fertility, decreased livestock

productivity, increased incidence of pest attacks and manifestation of vectors and vectors

borne diseases that would affect manpower.

From the above citations it is clear that changes in the climatic variables have an all

encompassing negative impacts on Kano state. The impacts cover physical environment,

the economic spheres, welfare and security of the population, healthcare etc.

Research Methods:

Sampling

A purposive sampling was used in selecting institutions that are responsible for

responding to the management of the natural resources, disaster management, climate

change data and research administration. And based on their expected duties and

responsibilities, the following five institutions were selected for assessment of their level

of preparedness to respond to the challenges posed by climate change as witnessed or

expected to affect Kano State. The sampled organizations are:

Kano State Ministry of Environment

Hadejia Jama’are River Basin Development Authority (HJRBDA)

State Emergency Relief and Rehabilitation Agency (SERERA)

Nigerian Meteorological Agency (Nimet) Kano Office

Geography Department, Bayero University Kano

Sources of Data

Primary data was procured from official records of some relevant government

agencies.

Interview was conducted with some officials of the sampled institutions who

responded to questions on the roles of their institutions on the impending issue of

climate change.

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Another set of interview was conducted for stakeholders specifically urban and

rural based farmers.

Information was also drawn on the various aspects of climate change as it affects

Kano State from various literature collections.

Statistical Technique

A parametric method of awarding scores for each activity based on the findings from the

fieldwork was used in assessing the performances of the various institutions sampled for

the research. The parameters used for the assessment are: programme of action, facilities,

manpower/capacity, information/Data management, and achievements recorded by each

organisation. The scores for each activity range from 0-5.

Results and Discussions

Table 1: Risks, Damages and Adaptation Strategies in Kano State

S/N Types of Risks Possible Damages Main Current Adaptation

Strategies

1 Droughts Food insecurity, increased poverty,

malnutrition

Generation and gender

sensitive out-migration,

irrigation, wage labour

2 Flooding Loss of farmlands, deaths, population

displacements, outbreak of epidemics, loss

of infrastructure etc

Relief assistance from

government(s)

3 Storms Destruction of private and public properties Relief assistance from

government(s)

4 Poor visibility Delay and cancellation of land

transportation and aviation schedules

Rescheduling of bookings

5 Urban microclimate Increased municipal warming Use of cooling means at

homes and other dwelling

places, sleeping outside

rooms at slums and other

urban poor locations.

6 Dust bowls /Harmattan

Dust

Bronchial diseases and sanitary problem Clothing, medications

7 Increasing Temperature Increased evaporation of surface water;

increased water

consumption; increased infantile diseases

Use of cooling means at

homes and other dwelling

places, sleeping outside

rooms at villages and urban

poor locations.

8 Extreme Cold Weather More incidences of fire outbreaks Assistance from government,

use of imported second hand

clothes

9 Environmental Ignorance Poor adaptation skills, attitude and

knowledge of the problem

Mainly traditional methods

Sources: Mortimore (1989); fieldwork (2008)

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Table 1 above summarises the key climate change vulnerabilities and the local adaptation

strategies that are currently in use in Kano State. It appears that the problems are greater

than the existing coping strategies. Tables 2 - 4 show the extent of damages that befell

Kano State in a typical extraordinary wet year (1988) which came with torrential rains.

On the other hand, tables 5-9 reveal some of the damages that accrued from the intense

rainfall that fell even within both wet and dry years. It appears that damages to the lives

and property of the rural and urban poor is now a recurrent phenomenon in Kano State.

From observations of the tables below, every year is a disaster year since 1988 because

lives, property and infrastructure are lost in the awkward distribution of the rain. From

look at the tables below, the vulnerable populations include all the 44 local government

areas of Kano State. In other words, the rains may be distributed within the wetter months

(July-August) or came torrentially within the lesser wet months (May-June). In general,

the vulnerable rural livelihoods include: arable farming, irrigation, nomadism, poultry

keeping, fishing and education. In urban areas the vulnerable population are mostly the

poor with no spacious houses, poor housing facilities, poor water sources like the local

wells that could be exhausted in the dry season; or have poor accessibility to healthcare.

Table 2: 1988 Flood Disaster Estimated Agricultural Produce Lost in Tonnes

S/N LGA Sorghum Millet G/Nut Cowpea Rice Maize NHA*

1 Dawakin Kudu 405.4 89.6 44.3 21.8 50.7 149.0 775

2 Tudun Wada 349.1 92.2 22.3 146.5 467.7 729.0 2613

3 Rano 1184.7 460.0 120.9 130.7 821.6 1146.4 3019

4 Gwarzo 1158.6 254.9 13.2 12.1 731.2 590.0 16688

5 Dambatta 2407.0 572.0 109.0 160.0 779.0 57.0 2941

6 Dawakin Tofa 1201.0 999.0 147.0 265.0 165.0 125.0 3494

7 Bichi 1022.0 757.0 259.0 146.0 159.0 32.0 1705

8 Gezawa 1099.0 393.0 201.0 118.0 224.0 56.0 1169

9 Wudil 1387.4 597.2 1051.9 370.2 267.7 126.9 3865

10 Minjibir 245.0 254.0 150.0 184.0 130.0 109.0 657

11 Gaya 2858.4 676.2 674.5 519.4 659.6 204.5 3345 NHA: Number of Households Affected; Source: White paper on the Report of Joint Committee on

Flood Disaster, December 1988.

Table 3: Estimated Livestock Lost in 1988 Flood Disaster S/N LGA Sheep Goats Cattle Donkeys Horses Poultry

1 Dawakin Kudu 74 1330 4 1 0 18

2 Tudun Wada 241 482 47 10 0 732

3 Rano 79 110 7 0 0 438

4 Gwarzo 8 0 0 0 0 0

5 Dambatta 805 1106 171 0 1 1077

6 Dawakin Tofa 114 245 7 2 0 416

7 Bichi 133 174 3 4 0 162

8 Gezawa 189 186 6 2 0 244

9 Wudil 562 1148 131 7 1 3698

10 Minjibir 107 232 8 5 0 211

11 Gaya 897 1351 71 22 3 2424

Source: White paper on the Report of Joint Committee on Flood Disaster, December 1988.

Table 4: Other Damages and Estimated Cost for 1988 Flood Disaster

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1 Fish and fingerlings N 42, 306, 000. 00

2 Private structures Data not available

3 Roads, culverts & drainages to rehabilitate N 3, 290, 000.00

4 Educational facilities N 2, 995, 812.39

Source: White paper on the Report of Joint Committee on Flood Disaster, December 1988

Table 5: 2003 Flood/Storm in Kano State

S/N LGA No. of

Affected

Persons

No. of

Displaced

Persons

No. of

Deceased

No. of

Injured

Persons

1 Kura 451 Nil 2 Nil

2 Rogo 74 “ Nil Nil

3 Dala 18 “ “ “

4 Municipal 118 3 4

5 Fagge 305 Nil Nil Nil

6 Tarauni 218 “ “ “

7 Kumbotso 290

8 Gwale 113

9 Warawa 98

10 Wudil 82 Source: SERERA Record 2003

Table 6: 2004 Flood/Storms in Kano State

S/N LGA No. of

Affected

Persons

No. of

Displaced

Persons

No. of

Deceased

No. of

Injured

Persons

1 Kura 81

2 Wudil 68

3 Garko 89

4 Municipal 2,128

5 Fagge 242

6 Gwale 2933

7 Kumbotso 5,321

8 Rimin Gado 36

9 Shanono 38

10 Gezawa 42

11 Sumaila 63

12 Dala 397

13 Tarauni 3027

14 Bichi 18

15 Makoda 15 Source: SERERA Record 2004


S/N LGA No. of No. of No. of No. of

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Affected

Persons

Displaced

Persons

Deceased Injured

Persons

1 Nassarawa 55

2 Dambatta 214

3 Bebeji 16

4 Gabasawa 13

5 Ajingi 27

6 Gaya 40

7 Warawa 23

8 Gwarzo 59

9 Kabo 43

10 Kiru 18

11 Madobi 34

12 Doguwa 98

13 Bunkure 22

14 Shanono 44

15 Municipal 35

16 Dala 29

17 Fagge 51 Source: SERERA Record 2005


S/N LGA No. of

Affected

Persons

No. of

Displaced

Persons

No. of

Deceased

No. of

Injured

Persons

1 Dala 151

2 Tarauni 32

3 Gaya 228

4 Wudil 152

5 Takai 162

6 Sumaila 135

7 Kura 316

8 Bunkure 76 Source: SERERA Record 2006


S/N LGA No. of

Affected

Persons

No. of

Displaced

Persons

No. of

Deceased

No. of

Injured

Persons

1 Municipal 381 5 3

2 Dala 177 9

3 Nassarawa 398

4 Gwale 187 4

5 Tarauni 90

6 Fagge 102

7 Dambatta 107

8 Makoda 97

9 Wudil 66

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10 Gaya 73

11 Gwarzo 860

12 Rimin Gado 125

13 Tofa 69

14 Albasu 1070

Source: SERERA Record 2007

Table 10: Criteria for Assessing Institutions Related to Climate Change in Kano

State

S/N Activity Score Limit

1 Programmes of Action 0-5

2 Facilities 0-5

3 Manpower/Capacity 0-5

4 Information/Data management 0-5

5 Collaboration with others 0-5

6 Achievements 0-5

Fieldwork 2008

Table 11: Parametric Scores for Institution’s Role on Climate Change in Kano S/N Institutions Program

of

Action

Manpower/

Capacity

Information/

Data

Management

Collaboration Facilities Achievement

s

total

1 Min. of

Environment

0 1 2 1 2 0 6

2 HJRBDA 0 1 2 2 2 0 7

3 SERERA 0 1 2 4 2 2 11

4 NIMET 2 2 3 2 3 3 15

5 Geog. BUK 2 2 3 4 2 4 19

Source: Fieldwork 2008

Table 10 above indicates the parametric scores which vary from 0-5; each institution is

awarded scores based on observed performance during the fieldwork. But from table 11

above, it appears that only two institutions namely Bayero University Kano and Nimet

have some programmes of action on the climate change. However both Nimet and

Geography Department need more facilities to keep them on the track of data

management. In the case of Geography Department of the Bayero University, Kano only

three courses that relate to the general and regional aspects of climatology are taught at

the undergraduate level (Geo3210-Climatology and Geo4321-Tropical Climatology and

4322 Agricultural Meteorology). Though the Department runs several postgraduate

programmes (M.Sc. Land Resources [Development and Administration], Masters in

Environmental Management, Postgraduate Diploma in Environmental Management etc)

none of the programmes gets a course on climatology let alone climate change. Yet, the

inevitability of climate has clearly manifested in that about ten postgraduate students are

currently writing their thesis on climate related issues. However, only one student is

researching on climate change at the Ph.D level. The Department is collaborating with

some national and international organizations to undertake some projects on climate

change. Such programmes include the dryland studies jointly carried out by the

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Department and its counterpart at the Cambridge University and Carbon Finance Project

carried out in collaboration with the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Environment.

On the other hand, Nimet is a statutory body vested with responsibility of data collection

and administration in every part of the Nigerian territory. At Kano, the Nimet office has

one synoptic station located at Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport and more than

10 rainfall stations. Nimet has recorded some success in the capacity building and

acquisition of some facilities like the Automatic Weather Station. However, the agency is

constrained by lack of enough funds to engage the voluntary observers to cover its many

rainfall stations, a process that is now ceased. But, data collection is still good in spite of

lack of enough manpower and facilities. SERERA is also rated high because of its ability

to respond to short time disasters like flooding. But, it is most unfortunate to note that

Kano State Ministry of Environment, and Hadejia Jama’are River Basin Development

Authority lack any clearly defined programme of action to check the risks and

vulnerabilities of the climate change in Kano State. See figure 1 below.

Source: Fieldwork 2008

Conclusions and Implications

At present Kano State is threatened by the climate change crises which are not restricted

to the direct effects on the farming communities of the state but to the greater segment of

the Nigerian economy. This is more so because Kano remains an international grains and

livestock market. The commodity market of the Nigerian Stock Exchange is based in

Kano. Several communities especially those along the river banks across the state are

prone to flooding which might lead to deaths, loss of properties, population

displacements and outbreak of diseases. The vulnerability of Kano State spans recurrent

occurrence of droughts, increased pre-rain dust bowls and poor visibility caused by

harmattan, and frustrating urban microclimate. However, the adaptation strategies

currently used in the state are grossly inadequate for the rising challenges of climate

change. Therefore, it is important to recognize that as climate change is witnessed more

people would become susceptible to disasters and increased level of poverty in Kano

State. Urban Kano is squarely facing serious urban planning problems which would be

compounded by other climate change induced problems. By and large, at present Kano

Figure1: Institutional Performance on Climate Change

Management in Kano State

0 5 10 15 20

Min. of Environment

HJRBDA

SERERA

NIMET

Geog. BUK

Insti

tuti

on

s

Parametric Scores

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State as the most populous state in Nigeria has low adaptive capacity for the impending

risks of climate change and variability.

The majority of institutions that are supposed to tackle the challenges posed by climate

change in Kano State do not have reliable programmes put in place to manage the

expected incidences and impacts of the climate change. Of the five sampled organizations

for the research none of them could fashion an effective coping strategy for the state.

Still, Bayero University, Kano’s Geography, Nimet and SERERA are in better position.

While the State Ministry of Environment and HJRBDA are at the bottom of the

performance line. The Kano State owned institutions that take care of agriculture,

disaster, health, transport and others should come up with coordinated programme of

action to cater for the expectations of the climate change effects on the state. The poor are

the most vulnerable due to their lower spending power and level of education. Therefore,

the State Government should seek for the means of mitigation of their sufferings through

the most appropriate and sustainable adaptation strategies which should mainly focus on

the use of local resources to in achieving diversification of the people’s means of

livelihoods.

As with most issues, sustainable adaptation is hardly achievable without improved

capacity building. Kano State can learn lessons for adaptation strategies especially from

within the ranks of developing economies. Such collaborations underlie the spirit of the

need for developing partnership with global institutions as stated under the goal No.8 of

the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

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Figure 2: Map of Nigeria with Kano State highlighted

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