An Appraisal of Climate Change Risks and Institutional Adaptation
Strategies in Kano State
By
Aliyu Salisu Barau Department of Geography
Federal College of Education, Kano
Abstract
Climate change and variability constitute multiple threats to Kano state. The key risks
hover on the agricultural systems; the riverine and dam neighbouring communities; the
health sector; transportation and aviation sector; and urban habitats among others. The
aim of this paper is to identify the key vulnerabilities and the existing coping strategies
defined or used by various relevant institutions. Through literature review,
meteorological data trends on climate change in Kano State was established in this
research. A purposive sampling was used to select five organizations namely, Bayero
University’s Geography Department, Kano State Ministry of Environment, State
Emergency Relief and Rehabilitation Agency (SERERA), Hadejia Jama’are River Basin
Development Authority, and Nigerian Meteorological Agency (Nimet, Kano office). The
fieldwork involved interviews with officials of the selected institutions. Based on that
parametric scores were awarded to climate change management activities identified for
each institution. The results indicate that only two institutions in Kano State are working
towards adapting to climate change risks. It is recommended that a partnership in the sprit
of the MDG no.8 be pursued in order to enhance the adaptive capacity of Kano State
against the effects of climate change. Keywords: climate change, risks, institutions,
adaptation, Kano.
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Introduction The Sahelian region of northern Nigeria within which Kano State largely lies, is most susceptible
to climate change and its effects because it is already characterized by high population growth
(about 3.1%) and rapid urbanization [about 7%] (IOM, 2008). It is rather unfortunate that
Nigeria being a non-member of least developed countries (LDCs) is not expected by the
international community to present its National Adaptation Programme of Action
(NAPA) which is concerned with short term measures to respond to climate change
(Niasse, 2007). Indeed, Nigeria is need of NAPA and National Communications on
Climate Change which takes care of medium and long term measures. Both programmes
are endorsed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
However, Nigeria does not lack programmes and institutions dealing with climate
change. There is Climate Change Unit in the Department of Environmental Assessment
of the Federal Ministry of Environment as well as Inter-Ministerial Committee on
Climate Change and a National Coordinating Committee on Climate Change (Okali
2004).
In spite of the vantage position of climate change in the international politics and media
the political will to counter climate change in Nigeria is only coming up now that a draft
bill for the establishment of National Climate Change Commission is being considered at
the Nigerian Senate (Daily Trust, May 16th
2008). Kano State is bound to be adversely
affected by a number of calamities to be induced by climatic variability and change. Like
many parts of Africa, the large share of its economy depends on climate sensitive sectors
like rain-fed agriculture. However, the risks of climate change are visible even in cities
where flooding displaces people and cause damages to structures and public utilities. In a
similar fashion, Reid and Simms (2007) disclose that the negative effects of climate
change on developing countries have direct bearing on fresh water, farming and
healthcare among others.
According to Osman-Elasha (2007) one of the constraints to understanding the current
and future climate variability is lack of sufficiently dependable observational climate data
in Africa. Other problems that lead to low adaptive capacity in Africa include its low
level expertise in the climate science. This could lead us to agree with Adesina et al
(undated) who observe that the exact nature and direction of the climate change in
Nigeria is still largely speculative. But still we have to accept the fact that climate
change impacts in this part of the world are real especially if one considers the fact that
majority of the people of Kano are farmers and herdsmen that are located across the rural
areas. The recurrent occurrences of droughts and floods have always left rural and urban
dwellers victimized with one form of vulnerability and suffering or the other. Raworth
(2007) maintains that for centuries rural communities coped well with variations in the
climate but moves further to draw our attention to the fact that the predicted stresses of
human induced climate change impacts lie outside the realm of human experience. From
this assertion, we can understand that certain responses ought to be evolved to adapt to
the climate change realities, devise mitigation strategies or we let ourselves to be doomed
by such risks. Schemmel and Scholze (2007) suggest that the effects of the physical
damages resulting from climate change may be common to places but lack of knowledge,
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funds and facilities to prepare for storms, floods and the like may be the determining
factors to the extent of vulnerability. Often times professionals are accused for planning
physical projects like dams in third world countries based on the wrong assumption that
climate is static (McCully and Thakkar, 2007). In the spirit of the MDG No.8 which calls
for collaboration between various development stakeholders there is need for partnership
to improve adaptation capacities and strategies of both urban and rural areas.
This brings us the two important concepts in the science of climate change namely,
vulnerability and adaptation. Vulnerability is defined as the degree to which a system is
susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate
variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of
climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity
(Kelman, 2007). On the other hand, Ayeni et al (undated) quotes IPCC (1995) which
defines adaptation as “adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or
expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial
opportunities.” Adaptability defines the extent to which adjustments are possible in a
system, in response to an actual or projected change. According to Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO, 2007) climate change adaptation requires the use of good
agricultural, forestry and fisheries practices to meet changing and more difficult
environmental conditions and the introduction of improved risk management measures.
But this explanation on adaptation does not cover effects on urbanisation.
The aim of this paper is to identify the key threats accruable from climate change and
variability in Kano State; identify the key vulnerable occupations and livelihoods; assess
the present adaptation and mitigation strategies, and to also appraise the public and
institutional level of preparedness to climate change and suggest modalities for climate
friendly development strategies.
Kano State and Climatic Change Vulnerabilities
Kano State is the economic power house of the northern Nigeria, its economy is mainly
agro based. Shea (2003) states that even before the colonial period Kano had a complex
agricultural system which produced foodstuff, raw materials and supplies for domestic
and international market. This view of massive agricultural productivity which was
supported by good climate is said to have aided production of such crops like ground nut
and cotton by Kano for the international market is substantiated by Mortimore and
Adams (1999). Buba (2000) maintains that the region has a sustained occurrence of
cycles of droughts which accelerate desertification. In general, rainfall variability in the
area has been normal from 1931-1960 and from 1961-1990 the rainfall received by the
region is marked by abnormality. Olofin (1993) confirms that the amount of the rainfall
receive in Kano has reduced as no year has 1000 mm mark of rainfall since 1952, the said
amount of 1000 mm was almost registered every ten years before 1952. Buba (2000)
points that as the wet season in this region lasts from April to October when 97% of the
total annual rainfall is received, of which still 80% is received within three months - July
to September. According to Olofin (1989) the major droughts that ravaged Kano region
are those that occurred between 1913-1915; 1940/41; 1948/49; 1972/73; while others of
low intensity were witnessed in 1963, 1967/68; 1983/84; and 1987/88.
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From the above, it is understandable that drought is the most critical aspect of climate
change that ravages the Sudano-Sahelian region especially through the way it induces
desertification. A study conducted by Woodhill Engineering Limited (2007) reports that
desertification became more pronounced in Nigeria and other parts of West Africa in the
1920s especially in the Sudan and Sahel savanna zones. Nigeria is estimated to be losing
about 350,000 hectares of its productive land to desertification annually. The most
affected states include: Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, Zamfara, Yobe, Borno, Bauchi,
Gombe, and Kebbi. Productive lands used for cultivation of food and cash crops,
livestock production and fishing have progressively reduced. The most recent publication
of the Nigerian Meteorological Agency (Nimet, 2008) shows that in the year 2007 the
series of climatic change problems have affected many sectors of the economy like
transportation, aviation and agricultural production; the climatic variability has also
resulted in flooding, and more prevalence of some health problems like cracked lips, dry
skins, bronchial problems and outbreak of some infantile diseases like meningitis.
In Kano city the process of rapid urbanisation and the general effects of transport and
industrialisation have caused the climate of urban Kano to change. Barau (1999) records
that as at 1993 the maximum temperature of urban Kano was 1.3oC higher than that of
Minjibir, a town located some 40 kilometers away. Relative humidity also varied in
favour of Minjibir. In a similar fashion, Idris (2005) corroborates that the phenomenon of
‘heat island’ is reality in Kano owing to temperature variability between the core city and
its immediate outskirts. Records show that due to intensification of urbanisation from the
1990s to date, meteorological readings indicate that the temperature differences between
the old city and Mariri a suburb of Kano range between 2- 4oC. Such differences in the
temperature levels is attributed to increased land desiccation, removal of tree cover and
increase in the number of vehicles that roam the city. Oftentimes, the effects of the
climate change related risks could be more disastrous. Looking at the devastating effects
of Bagauda dam failure of 1988 in Kano State, Olofin (2000) reiterates that human
induced flooding is more disastrous and unpredictable than natural ones.
As outlined above, the occurrence of droughts is a recurrent event in this region, thus,
Mortimore (1989) identifies the ways farmers in this region adapt to drought, hunger and
poverty. The strategies to mitigate drought include crop mixture, re-plantings and manure
inputs; in dealing with poverty, people concentrate on wage labour (kodago in Hausa),
sell of items of personal property, liquidating assets, mobilising social networks and
through gifts, Zakkat and Sadaqa (recommended Islamic alms-giving). For hunger
management people concentrate on eating leafy foods. Dabi and Nyong (2005) give a
long list of adaptation strategies that could be used by farmers and herdsmen in Kano
state and other parts of northern Nigeria. The said adaptation strategies include use of the
under listed methods:
Drought resistant varieties
Labour migration
Selling assets
Herd sedentarisation
Farm location
Herd/farm sizes
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Water exploitation methods
Water storage methods
Food storage
Culling animals
Crop diversification
Livestock diversification
Early mature crop varieties
High yield varieties/Low input varieties
Irrigated crops
Replanting
Herd movement/Herd supplementation
The authors conclude by recommending governmental assistance to rural populace,
integration of community adaptation strategies into policy and through use of appropriate
technology. The stated adaptation strategies markedly differ from those identified for
western Nigeria by Ayeni et al (undated). And that means that each geographical entity
would require different coping strategies. Climate change risks for this region could be
disastrous this is so if one considers the types of risks that Osman-Elasha (2007) suggests
could befall places like Kano which include reduction in soil fertility, decreased livestock
productivity, increased incidence of pest attacks and manifestation of vectors and vectors
borne diseases that would affect manpower.
From the above citations it is clear that changes in the climatic variables have an all
encompassing negative impacts on Kano state. The impacts cover physical environment,
the economic spheres, welfare and security of the population, healthcare etc.
Research Methods:
Sampling
A purposive sampling was used in selecting institutions that are responsible for
responding to the management of the natural resources, disaster management, climate
change data and research administration. And based on their expected duties and
responsibilities, the following five institutions were selected for assessment of their level
of preparedness to respond to the challenges posed by climate change as witnessed or
expected to affect Kano State. The sampled organizations are:
Kano State Ministry of Environment
Hadejia Jama’are River Basin Development Authority (HJRBDA)
State Emergency Relief and Rehabilitation Agency (SERERA)
Nigerian Meteorological Agency (Nimet) Kano Office
Geography Department, Bayero University Kano
Sources of Data
Primary data was procured from official records of some relevant government
agencies.
Interview was conducted with some officials of the sampled institutions who
responded to questions on the roles of their institutions on the impending issue of
climate change.
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Another set of interview was conducted for stakeholders specifically urban and
rural based farmers.
Information was also drawn on the various aspects of climate change as it affects
Kano State from various literature collections.
Statistical Technique
A parametric method of awarding scores for each activity based on the findings from the
fieldwork was used in assessing the performances of the various institutions sampled for
the research. The parameters used for the assessment are: programme of action, facilities,
manpower/capacity, information/Data management, and achievements recorded by each
organisation. The scores for each activity range from 0-5.
Results and Discussions
Table 1: Risks, Damages and Adaptation Strategies in Kano State
S/N Types of Risks Possible Damages Main Current Adaptation
Strategies
1 Droughts Food insecurity, increased poverty,
malnutrition
Generation and gender
sensitive out-migration,
irrigation, wage labour
2 Flooding Loss of farmlands, deaths, population
displacements, outbreak of epidemics, loss
of infrastructure etc
Relief assistance from
government(s)
3 Storms Destruction of private and public properties Relief assistance from
government(s)
4 Poor visibility Delay and cancellation of land
transportation and aviation schedules
Rescheduling of bookings
5 Urban microclimate Increased municipal warming Use of cooling means at
homes and other dwelling
places, sleeping outside
rooms at slums and other
urban poor locations.
6 Dust bowls /Harmattan
Dust
Bronchial diseases and sanitary problem Clothing, medications
7 Increasing Temperature Increased evaporation of surface water;
increased water
consumption; increased infantile diseases
Use of cooling means at
homes and other dwelling
places, sleeping outside
rooms at villages and urban
poor locations.
8 Extreme Cold Weather More incidences of fire outbreaks Assistance from government,
use of imported second hand
clothes
9 Environmental Ignorance Poor adaptation skills, attitude and
knowledge of the problem
Mainly traditional methods
Sources: Mortimore (1989); fieldwork (2008)
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Table 1 above summarises the key climate change vulnerabilities and the local adaptation
strategies that are currently in use in Kano State. It appears that the problems are greater
than the existing coping strategies. Tables 2 - 4 show the extent of damages that befell
Kano State in a typical extraordinary wet year (1988) which came with torrential rains.
On the other hand, tables 5-9 reveal some of the damages that accrued from the intense
rainfall that fell even within both wet and dry years. It appears that damages to the lives
and property of the rural and urban poor is now a recurrent phenomenon in Kano State.
From observations of the tables below, every year is a disaster year since 1988 because
lives, property and infrastructure are lost in the awkward distribution of the rain. From
look at the tables below, the vulnerable populations include all the 44 local government
areas of Kano State. In other words, the rains may be distributed within the wetter months
(July-August) or came torrentially within the lesser wet months (May-June). In general,
the vulnerable rural livelihoods include: arable farming, irrigation, nomadism, poultry
keeping, fishing and education. In urban areas the vulnerable population are mostly the
poor with no spacious houses, poor housing facilities, poor water sources like the local
wells that could be exhausted in the dry season; or have poor accessibility to healthcare.
Table 2: 1988 Flood Disaster Estimated Agricultural Produce Lost in Tonnes
S/N LGA Sorghum Millet G/Nut Cowpea Rice Maize NHA*
1 Dawakin Kudu 405.4 89.6 44.3 21.8 50.7 149.0 775
2 Tudun Wada 349.1 92.2 22.3 146.5 467.7 729.0 2613
3 Rano 1184.7 460.0 120.9 130.7 821.6 1146.4 3019
4 Gwarzo 1158.6 254.9 13.2 12.1 731.2 590.0 16688
5 Dambatta 2407.0 572.0 109.0 160.0 779.0 57.0 2941
6 Dawakin Tofa 1201.0 999.0 147.0 265.0 165.0 125.0 3494
7 Bichi 1022.0 757.0 259.0 146.0 159.0 32.0 1705
8 Gezawa 1099.0 393.0 201.0 118.0 224.0 56.0 1169
9 Wudil 1387.4 597.2 1051.9 370.2 267.7 126.9 3865
10 Minjibir 245.0 254.0 150.0 184.0 130.0 109.0 657
11 Gaya 2858.4 676.2 674.5 519.4 659.6 204.5 3345 NHA: Number of Households Affected; Source: White paper on the Report of Joint Committee on
Flood Disaster, December 1988.
Table 3: Estimated Livestock Lost in 1988 Flood Disaster S/N LGA Sheep Goats Cattle Donkeys Horses Poultry
1 Dawakin Kudu 74 1330 4 1 0 18
2 Tudun Wada 241 482 47 10 0 732
3 Rano 79 110 7 0 0 438
4 Gwarzo 8 0 0 0 0 0
5 Dambatta 805 1106 171 0 1 1077
6 Dawakin Tofa 114 245 7 2 0 416
7 Bichi 133 174 3 4 0 162
8 Gezawa 189 186 6 2 0 244
9 Wudil 562 1148 131 7 1 3698
10 Minjibir 107 232 8 5 0 211
11 Gaya 897 1351 71 22 3 2424
Source: White paper on the Report of Joint Committee on Flood Disaster, December 1988.
Table 4: Other Damages and Estimated Cost for 1988 Flood Disaster
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1 Fish and fingerlings N 42, 306, 000. 00
2 Private structures Data not available
3 Roads, culverts & drainages to rehabilitate N 3, 290, 000.00
4 Educational facilities N 2, 995, 812.39
Source: White paper on the Report of Joint Committee on Flood Disaster, December 1988
Table 5: 2003 Flood/Storm in Kano State
S/N LGA No. of
Affected
Persons
No. of
Displaced
Persons
No. of
Deceased
No. of
Injured
Persons
1 Kura 451 Nil 2 Nil
2 Rogo 74 “ Nil Nil
3 Dala 18 “ “ “
4 Municipal 118 3 4
5 Fagge 305 Nil Nil Nil
6 Tarauni 218 “ “ “
7 Kumbotso 290
8 Gwale 113
9 Warawa 98
10 Wudil 82 Source: SERERA Record 2003
Table 6: 2004 Flood/Storms in Kano State
S/N LGA No. of
Affected
Persons
No. of
Displaced
Persons
No. of
Deceased
No. of
Injured
Persons
1 Kura 81
2 Wudil 68
3 Garko 89
4 Municipal 2,128
5 Fagge 242
6 Gwale 2933
7 Kumbotso 5,321
8 Rimin Gado 36
9 Shanono 38
10 Gezawa 42
11 Sumaila 63
12 Dala 397
13 Tarauni 3027
14 Bichi 18
15 Makoda 15 Source: SERERA Record 2004
Table 7: 2005 Flood/Storm in Kano State
S/N LGA No. of No. of No. of No. of
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Affected
Persons
Displaced
Persons
Deceased Injured
Persons
1 Nassarawa 55
2 Dambatta 214
3 Bebeji 16
4 Gabasawa 13
5 Ajingi 27
6 Gaya 40
7 Warawa 23
8 Gwarzo 59
9 Kabo 43
10 Kiru 18
11 Madobi 34
12 Doguwa 98
13 Bunkure 22
14 Shanono 44
15 Municipal 35
16 Dala 29
17 Fagge 51 Source: SERERA Record 2005
Table 8: 2006 Flood/Storm in Kano State
S/N LGA No. of
Affected
Persons
No. of
Displaced
Persons
No. of
Deceased
No. of
Injured
Persons
1 Dala 151
2 Tarauni 32
3 Gaya 228
4 Wudil 152
5 Takai 162
6 Sumaila 135
7 Kura 316
8 Bunkure 76 Source: SERERA Record 2006
Table 9: 2007 Flood/Storm in Kano State
S/N LGA No. of
Affected
Persons
No. of
Displaced
Persons
No. of
Deceased
No. of
Injured
Persons
1 Municipal 381 5 3
2 Dala 177 9
3 Nassarawa 398
4 Gwale 187 4
5 Tarauni 90
6 Fagge 102
7 Dambatta 107
8 Makoda 97
9 Wudil 66
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10 Gaya 73
11 Gwarzo 860
12 Rimin Gado 125
13 Tofa 69
14 Albasu 1070
Source: SERERA Record 2007
Table 10: Criteria for Assessing Institutions Related to Climate Change in Kano
State
S/N Activity Score Limit
1 Programmes of Action 0-5
2 Facilities 0-5
3 Manpower/Capacity 0-5
4 Information/Data management 0-5
5 Collaboration with others 0-5
6 Achievements 0-5
Fieldwork 2008
Table 11: Parametric Scores for Institution’s Role on Climate Change in Kano S/N Institutions Program
of
Action
Manpower/
Capacity
Information/
Data
Management
Collaboration Facilities Achievement
s
total
1 Min. of
Environment
0 1 2 1 2 0 6
2 HJRBDA 0 1 2 2 2 0 7
3 SERERA 0 1 2 4 2 2 11
4 NIMET 2 2 3 2 3 3 15
5 Geog. BUK 2 2 3 4 2 4 19
Source: Fieldwork 2008
Table 10 above indicates the parametric scores which vary from 0-5; each institution is
awarded scores based on observed performance during the fieldwork. But from table 11
above, it appears that only two institutions namely Bayero University Kano and Nimet
have some programmes of action on the climate change. However both Nimet and
Geography Department need more facilities to keep them on the track of data
management. In the case of Geography Department of the Bayero University, Kano only
three courses that relate to the general and regional aspects of climatology are taught at
the undergraduate level (Geo3210-Climatology and Geo4321-Tropical Climatology and
4322 Agricultural Meteorology). Though the Department runs several postgraduate
programmes (M.Sc. Land Resources [Development and Administration], Masters in
Environmental Management, Postgraduate Diploma in Environmental Management etc)
none of the programmes gets a course on climatology let alone climate change. Yet, the
inevitability of climate has clearly manifested in that about ten postgraduate students are
currently writing their thesis on climate related issues. However, only one student is
researching on climate change at the Ph.D level. The Department is collaborating with
some national and international organizations to undertake some projects on climate
change. Such programmes include the dryland studies jointly carried out by the
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Department and its counterpart at the Cambridge University and Carbon Finance Project
carried out in collaboration with the Nigerian Federal Ministry of Environment.
On the other hand, Nimet is a statutory body vested with responsibility of data collection
and administration in every part of the Nigerian territory. At Kano, the Nimet office has
one synoptic station located at Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport and more than
10 rainfall stations. Nimet has recorded some success in the capacity building and
acquisition of some facilities like the Automatic Weather Station. However, the agency is
constrained by lack of enough funds to engage the voluntary observers to cover its many
rainfall stations, a process that is now ceased. But, data collection is still good in spite of
lack of enough manpower and facilities. SERERA is also rated high because of its ability
to respond to short time disasters like flooding. But, it is most unfortunate to note that
Kano State Ministry of Environment, and Hadejia Jama’are River Basin Development
Authority lack any clearly defined programme of action to check the risks and
vulnerabilities of the climate change in Kano State. See figure 1 below.
Source: Fieldwork 2008
Conclusions and Implications
At present Kano State is threatened by the climate change crises which are not restricted
to the direct effects on the farming communities of the state but to the greater segment of
the Nigerian economy. This is more so because Kano remains an international grains and
livestock market. The commodity market of the Nigerian Stock Exchange is based in
Kano. Several communities especially those along the river banks across the state are
prone to flooding which might lead to deaths, loss of properties, population
displacements and outbreak of diseases. The vulnerability of Kano State spans recurrent
occurrence of droughts, increased pre-rain dust bowls and poor visibility caused by
harmattan, and frustrating urban microclimate. However, the adaptation strategies
currently used in the state are grossly inadequate for the rising challenges of climate
change. Therefore, it is important to recognize that as climate change is witnessed more
people would become susceptible to disasters and increased level of poverty in Kano
State. Urban Kano is squarely facing serious urban planning problems which would be
compounded by other climate change induced problems. By and large, at present Kano
Figure1: Institutional Performance on Climate Change
Management in Kano State
0 5 10 15 20
Min. of Environment
HJRBDA
SERERA
NIMET
Geog. BUK
Insti
tuti
on
s
Parametric Scores
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State as the most populous state in Nigeria has low adaptive capacity for the impending
risks of climate change and variability.
The majority of institutions that are supposed to tackle the challenges posed by climate
change in Kano State do not have reliable programmes put in place to manage the
expected incidences and impacts of the climate change. Of the five sampled organizations
for the research none of them could fashion an effective coping strategy for the state.
Still, Bayero University, Kano’s Geography, Nimet and SERERA are in better position.
While the State Ministry of Environment and HJRBDA are at the bottom of the
performance line. The Kano State owned institutions that take care of agriculture,
disaster, health, transport and others should come up with coordinated programme of
action to cater for the expectations of the climate change effects on the state. The poor are
the most vulnerable due to their lower spending power and level of education. Therefore,
the State Government should seek for the means of mitigation of their sufferings through
the most appropriate and sustainable adaptation strategies which should mainly focus on
the use of local resources to in achieving diversification of the people’s means of
livelihoods.
As with most issues, sustainable adaptation is hardly achievable without improved
capacity building. Kano State can learn lessons for adaptation strategies especially from
within the ranks of developing economies. Such collaborations underlie the spirit of the
need for developing partnership with global institutions as stated under the goal No.8 of
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
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