A mid- to late Holocene sequence from Weld Range, Mid West, Western Australia, in local, regional...

NUMBER 79 | DECEMBER 2014

Australian Archaeology, the official publication of the Australian Archaeological Association Inc., is a refereed journal published since 1974. It accepts original articles in all fields of archaeology and other subjects relevant to archaeological research and practice in Australia and nearby areas. Contributions are accepted in eight sections: Articles (5000–8000 words), Short Reports (1000–3000), Obituaries (500–2000), Thesis Abstracts (200–500), Book Reviews (500–2000), Forum (5000), Comment (1000) and Backfill (which includes letters, conference details, announcements and other material of interest to members). Australian Archaeology is published twice a year, in June and December. Notes to Contributors are available at: <www.australianarchaeologicalassociation.com.au>.

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© Australian Archaeological Association Inc., 2014

ISSN 0312-2417

Editors

Heather Burke Flinders UniversityLynley Wallis Wallis Heritage Consulting

Editorial Advisory Board

Brit Asmussen Queensland MuseumVal Attenbrow Australian MuseumHuw Barton Leicester UniversityNoelene Cole James Cook UniversityPenny Crook La Trobe UniversityInes Domingo Sanz University of BarcelonaJudith Field University of New South WalesJoe Flatman University College LondonRichard Fullagar University of WollongongTracy Ireland University of CanberraJudith Littleton University of AucklandMarlize Lombard University of JohannesburgAlex Mackay University of Wollongong Scott L’Oste-Brown Central Queensland Cultural Heritage ManagementJo McDonald The University of Western AustraliaPatrick Moss The University of QueenslandTim Murray La Trobe UniversityJim O’Connell University of UtahSven Ouzman The University of Western AustraliaFiona Petchey University of WaikatoAmy Roberts Flinders UniversityKatherine Szabo University of WollongongNancy Tayles University of OtagoRobin Torrence Australian MuseumPeter Veth The University of Western AustraliaAlan Watchman Flinders UniversityDavid Whitley ASM Affiliates Inc.Nathan Woolford Nathan Woolford Consultants

Short Report Editor

Sean Winter The University of Western Australia

Book Review Editors

Alice Gorman Flinders UniversityClaire St George Ochre Imprints

Thesis Abstract Editor

Tiina Manne The University of Queensland

Editorial Assistant

Susan Arthure Flinders University

Commissioned Bloggers

Jacqueline Matthews The University of Western AustraliaCarly Monks The University of Western AustraliaMichelle Langley The Australian National UniversityJordan Ralph Wallis Heritage Consulting

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December 2014, Volume 79

Editorial | Heather Burke and Lynley A. Wallis iii

Articles

Chronological trends in late Holocene shell mound construction across northern Australia: Insights from Albatross Bay, Cape York Peninsula | Michael Morrison 1

Earthenware of Anuru Bay: A reassessment of potsherds from a Macassan trepang processing site, Arnhem Land, Australia, and implications for Macassan trade and the trepang industry | Daryl Wesley, Tristen Jones, Sue O’Connor, Jack Fenner and William R. Dickinson 14

Transforming the inedible to the edible: An analysis of the nutritional returns from Aboriginal nut processing in Queensland’s Wet Tropics | Anna Tuechler, Åsa Ferrier and Richard Cosgrove 26

The central lowlands of the Hunter Valley, NSW: Why so few early sites have been found in this archaeologically-rich landscape | Philip Hughes, Nigel Spooner and Daniele Questiaux 34

A Kaurna burial, Salisbury, South Australia: Further evidence for complex late Holocene Aboriginal social systems in the Adelaide region | Timothy D. Owen and F. Donald Pate 45

The making of a radical archaeologist: The early years of Vere Gordon Childe | Robin Derricourt 54

Monitoring change at Aboriginal rock art sites | Natalie Franklin 65

Putting WA archaeology on the map: The inestimable contribution of Charlie Dortch

Guest edited by Sandra Bowdler, Jane Balme and Joe Dortch 77

Charlie Dortch: History and archaeology across three continents | Joe Dortch, Jane Balme and Sandra Bowdler, with Peter Randolph 78

Charlie Dortch | Wayne Webb 81

And a suggestion from one of our readers: A personal note | Sandra Bowdler 81

Charles E. Dortch Publication List 83

Both half right: Updating the evidence for dating first human arrivals in Sahul | Jim Allen and James F. O’Connell 86

Aboriginal landscape burning and its impact on the summer monsoon of northern Australia | Karl-Heinz Wyrwoll and Michael Notaro 109

What to make of the ‘Murchison Cement’? A re-examination of a megafaunal fossil site in the Mid West, Western Australia | Ashleigh Murszewski, Ingrid Ward and Matthias Leopold 116

Geographical variation in Australian backed artefacts: Trialling a new index of symmetry | Peter Hiscock 124

A Norfolk Island basalt adze from coastal New South Wales | Peter White, Christian Reepmeyer and Geoffrey Clark 131

Observations on edge-ground stone hatchets with hafting modifications in Western Australia | Kim Akerman 137

Backed points in the Kimberley: Revisiting the north-south division for backed artefact production in Australia | Tim Maloney and Sue O’Connor 146

Maritime deserts of the Australian northwest | Peter Veth, Kane Ditchfield and Fiona Hook 156

Table of Contents

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December 2014, Volume 79

A tale of three caves: New dates for Pleistocene occupation in the inland Pilbara | Kate Morse, Richard Cameron and Wendy Reynen 167

Devils Lair: Occupation intensity and land-use | Jane Balme 179

Intergenerational archaeology: Exploring niche construction in southwest Australian zooarchaeology | Joe Dortch, Carly Monks, Wayne Webb and Jane Balme 187

Malimup: A Tasmanian Aboriginal Hoabinhian site in the southwest of Western Australia? | Sandra Bowdler 194

A mid- to late Holocene sequence from Weld Range, Mid West, Western Australia, in local, regional and inter-regional context | Vicky Winton, Viviene Brown, Jamie Twaddle, Ingrid Ward and Nicholas Taylor 203

Referees 216

Thesis Abstracts - Available online

The Occupation of Bakers Flat: A Study of Irishness and Power in Nineteenth Century South Australia | Susan Arthure

Vanished Value | William Doring

Health, Diet and Migration Prior to the Establishment of the Pre-Angkorian Civilisation of Southeast Asia | Jennifer Newton

World War II Conflict Aviation Archaeology: Managing World War II Aviation Sites in Australia and the Marshall Islands | Fiona Shanahan

The Evidence of the Dutch Occupation of the Western Australian Coast Following the Vergulde Draeck (1656) Shipwreck | Robert (Bob) Sheppard

Gimme Shelter: Archaeology and the Social History of Structural Defence in Adelaide, 1941–1943 | Martin Wimmer

Book Reviews - Available online

Love’s Obsession: The Lives and Archaeology of Jim and Eve Stewart, by Judy Powell | Andrew Sneddon

Excavations, Surveys and Heritage Management in Victoria Volume 1, edited by Ilya Berelov, Mark Eccleston and David Frankel | Pamela Ricardi

Backfill - Available online

Obituary: Stephen Mark Free (23 March 1966–9 May 2014)

Obituary: Herman Mandui (1969–2014)

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PUTTING WA ARCHAEOLOGY ON THE MAP:THE INESTIMABLE CONTRIBUTION OF CHARLIE DORTCH

THEMED SECTIONGUEST EDITORS: SANDRA BOWDLER, JANE BALME AND JOE DORTCH

Image: Charlie Dortch at Devils Lair, southwest Australia.

December 2014, Volume 79:203–215

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A mid- to late Holocene sequence from Weld Range, Mid West Western Australia, in local, regional and inter-regional contextVicky Winton1, Viviene Brown1, Jamie Twaddle1, Ingrid Ward1 and Nicholas Taylor2

1. Archaeology, School of Social Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009, Australia <[email protected]> <[email protected]> <[email protected]> <[email protected]>

2. CNRS, UMR 7055, Préhistoire et Technologie, MAE, Université Paris Ouest-Nanterre La Défense, 21 allée de l’Université, 92023 Nanterre Cedex, France <[email protected]>

Abstract

The late Holocene Aboriginal archaeology of the inland Mid West region of Western Australia remains poorly synthesised. In this paper a mid- to late Holocene sequence excavated at rockshelter Weld-RS-0731 is considered in the local context of surface archaeology and other excavated sites. The site’s lithic assemblage is distinct in terms of artefact size, technological types and lithologies, pointing to repeated patterns of site function and specialist task activities. At the inter-regional scale, a paucity of data means that models of late Holocene cultural and linguistic shifts have inadequately considered the role of the inland Mid West, despite the occurrence of some highly significant sites, such as Walganha, and Wilgie Mia and Little Wilgie ochre mines. A fragment of ochre excavated at Weld-RS-0731 and geochemically provenanced to Little Wilgie dates to approximately 2500 cal. BP, providing the earliest absolute age estimate for use of that mine. The possible role of the inland Mid West in late Holocene inter-regional relations and the resultant cultural and linguistic shifts is discussed.

Introduction

During his time at the Western Australian (WA) Museum, Charles Dortch collaborated with François Bordes and others on ground-breaking fieldwork in the Mid West of the state (Bordes et al. 1983). Over 30 years later, there has been little change in understandings of the Aboriginal past in the Mid West. The apparent association between stone artefacts and extinct megafauna in Pleistocene-aged deposits of the Murchison and Greenough Rivers remains under investigation (Murszewski et al. 2014) and Bordes et al.’s (1983) work at Billibilong Spring and Walganha still provides the basic framework for the Holocene (cf. Baynes 1984; Bindon 1986; Crawford 1980; Davies 1961; Davies et al. 1977). Mid West Holocene site and artefact frequencies increase over time and, after ca 4000 cal. BP1, bear witness to the emergence of microlithic technologies. New research in the region is hampered by a reliance on this unrefined

1 All cited radiocarbon age estimates are calibrated using OxCal 4.2 (Bronk Ramsey 2009) and the SHCal13 calibration curve (Hogg et al. 2013), with date ranges given at the 95.4% probability level.

record and scant comparative data. Consequently, an understanding of the role of the Mid West in inter-regional cultural and linguistic shifts (McConvell 1996; Veth 2000) is poorly developed. In this paper we help rectify the situation by using lithic artefact data to investigate late Holocene patterning in part of the Weld Range (50 km north of Walganha), contextualising the results of a rockshelter excavation with regional comparisons and developing arguments around the possible role of Mid West peoples in late Holocene inter-regional cultural and linguistic change.

The Weld Range Project

The main research focus of the Weld Range Project (WRP) is to refine archaeological and cultural understandings of the Weld Range, a 60 km long southwest-northeast oriented arc of rocky, banded iron formation (BIF) hills located 50 km north-northwest of Cue (Figure 1). As one of the Mid West’s greenstone belts, described as ‘islands in the otherwise flat outback landscape’ (Conservation Council of WA 2007), the Weld Range ties together a local landscape of water-holding claypans, seasonal creeks and wash areas, sand and

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A mid- to late Holocene sequence from Weld Range, Mid West Western Australia

gravel flats, laterite breakaways and granite domes. This is a landscape rich in cultural heritage, most notably the uniquely important and nationally heritage listed Wilgie Mia and Little Wilgie Aboriginal ochre mines. The Weld Range was known to have been an important ceremonial centre in the past, with several law grounds recorded in the vicinity (O’Neill and Jordan 2007).

Wajarri traditional owners and archaeologists have undertaken systematic pedestrian survey in and around the Weld Range, resulting in the description of a rich and varied surface archaeological record that is minimally disturbed (Winton et al. 2010). A wide range of site types has been identified, but artefact concentrations and quarries of the various available siliceous volcanic and metamorphic rocks (Elias 1982) are the most common. Work undertaken on the WRP to date indicates an intensive past use of the landscape’s different habitats, with a particularly strong signature in, and of, riparian environments (Byrne et al. 2013:104–105).

Weld-RS-0731

The research potential of Weld-RS-0731 (Department of Aboriginal Affairs Site 28793) was recognised during CHM fieldwork. It is a moderately-sized (38 m2) northwest facing rockshelter situated within a highly visible rock face on the northern flank of the Weld Range (Figure 2). Twenty-four pigment motifs have been recorded on the walls of the site, including 18 hand stencils which appear to include those of men, women and children. The site was selected for excavation because of its potential archaeological deposit, as a locale associated with the chaînes opératoires of ochre use (a major theme in the archaeology of the Weld Range) and because it is at risk of disturbance through mining. Three AMS age determinations from charcoal from the site have already been published, along with an anthracological

analysis (Byrne et al. 2013). An age estimate of 5645–5470 cal. BP (WK 32139) from the lowest level at Weld-RS-0731 now provides the earliest evidence for Aboriginal occupation of Weld Range. A fragment of ochre was included within a trace element characterisation and provenance study undertaken by Scadding and Watling (2012). The fragment, dated to ca 2500 cal. BP, was found to match the trace element chemistry of Little Wilgie (5.5 km east-southeast of Weld-RS-0731) from where it is assumed to have been procured.

Building on the approach applied by Byrne et al. (2013), Weld-RS-0731 is understood as a node from which to explore past Aboriginal activity. Importantly, in contrast with the quartz-dominated assemblages recorded at Walganha and Billibilong Spring (Bordes et al. 1983; Webb and Gunn 1999), the Weld Range assemblages contain a diverse range of raw materials, of which quartz is a ubiquitous, but often minor, component. A landscape-focused lithic assemblage analysis that exploits the rare opportunity provided by extensive comparative surface survey data and the results of a low power magnification lithic use-wear study are integrated into a discussion of inter-regional scale late Holocene interactions. Supplementary online material for this paper includes a description of the Weld-RS-0731 excavation and sediment analysis.

Methods

For the lithic analysis it was assumed that the surface assemblages are the same age as the mid- to late Holocene Weld-RS-0731 assemblage. This was justified on the basis that artefact frequencies have been observed to increase during the late Holocene (Bordes et al. 1983; Webb 2000:96), such that mid- to late Holocene artefacts probably dominate the surface record. Geomorphological parameters also support this proposition because older land surfaces have been increasingly subjected to erosion over time, producing a bias toward late Holocene assemblages (Holdaway and Fanning 2014; Holdaway et al. 2010). The only radiometric dates for open sites regionally also date to this period (Bindon 1986; Bordes et al. 1983).

A 5 km radius around Weld-RS-0731 was chosen as the study area, as this provided a substantial sample of artefact records (n=4645) and reasonable areal coverage (12,557,077 square metres total), encompassing a variety of land forms and site types. Additionally, this scale of analysis allowed comparison with sites that had local access to a similar suite of stone raw materials. Data were collected over several fieldtrips between 2007–2011, during which teams of 2–4 archaeologists and 6–8 Wajarri traditional owners walked across the landscape at 20–30 m spacings. Artefact concentrations were typically identified where densities of lithics exceeded five within a 5 x 5 m area. Quarries were identified where outcropping stone had been reduced, usually resulting in dense artefact concentrations. Only sites recorded in detail are included in this analysis (i.e. WA ‘Site Identification’ level recording as opposed to ‘Site Avoidance’ recording). These sites were typically recorded using a systematic grid of 5 x 5 m sample squares spaced at 20 m intervals, with purposive sampling of any archaeological features outside this grid. Artefacts not associated with sites were recorded individually as isolated finds. Although other attributes were recorded, the data used in the following analysis comprise GPS location (either for an individual

Figure 1 The Weld Range and sites mentioned in the text.

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Vicky Winton, Viviene Brown, Jamie Twaddle, Ingrid Ward and Nicholas Taylor

artefact or the NW corner of a sample square), artefact type, raw material and maximum dimension2.

To test the data for attribute patterns associated with site function or off-site activities, the artefacts were grouped into assemblages from quarries (‘Q-Sites’, n=6), artefact concentrations lacking obvious quarries (‘A-Sites’, n=11) and 999 isolated artefacts. Possible scenarios for the function of Weld-RS-0731 are derived from analysis of the local A-Site, Q-Site and isolated artefact assemblages. Questions of mobility are also addressed in terms of whether Weld-RS-0731 is a habitation site where tools have been made, used and discarded as a result of a range of domestic activities (e.g. ‘residential base’), or a place occupied for very short periods and/or for specific purposes (e.g. as a ‘location’ or ‘field camp’, after Binford [1980]).

To assess the relationship between the distribution of natural resources and particular archaeological signatures the project area is broken down into environmental zones, defined by vegetation communities (Ecologia 2010:41–52; Markey and Dillon 2008). On a geological time scale, climatic change in the Holocene is ‘very minor’ (McKenzie et al. 2004: 59), such that we should not expect marked changes in the distribution or make up of vegetation communities. If the assumption is accepted that the surface assemblages are predominately mid- to late Holocene in age, then they coincide with the onset of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) pattern (Veth et al. 2011:10) and the current arid,

2 Length measurements given in this paper are always the maximum dimension.

though oscillating, climatological regime. General vegetation stability is supported by the results of wood charcoal analysis at Weld-RS-0731 (Byrne et al. 2013).

To ensure dataset comparability, lithic artefacts from Weld-RS-0731 were recorded using a method similar to that applied to the recording of surface assemblages. Minimum number of flake (MNF) values were calculated following Holdaway and Stern (2004), and Shott (2000), whilst core counts included both complete and fragmentary cores. Edge modifications consistent with retouch and/or use-wear were recorded on the basis of a macroscopic assessment.

Excavation

Given the likely deposition of artefacts at the entrance and/or outside Weld-RS-0731, the talus slope was surveyed and eight 5 x 5 m sample squares were placed across it on a rough 10 m grid to test artefact types and density. Inside the shelter, a 1 x 1 m test-pit was excavated at the lowest point of the floor, positioned to exploit the best potential for sub-surface cultural material. Where no stratigraphic boundaries were found or suspected, excavation proceeded in arbitrary 3 cm excavaton units (‘XU’) to a depth of 28 cm below surface (bs) (XUs 1–10)3. Below XU 10 the test-pit was restricted to the northeast quadrant (XUs 11–15) to enable investigation of the more charcoal-rich portion of sediment.

3 Note that XU 3 was a small sub-unit excavated separately in the SW corner of the square at the same depth as XU 4 because it seemed to be less charcoal-rich but does not warrant further discussion below.

Figure 2 Views of excavation at Weld-RS-0731.

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Samples of charcoal were collected in situ from XUs 6, 13 and 15, and submitted to Waikato for AMS analysis.

All excavated material was sieved on site through nested 6 and 3 mm mesh and sorted into the categories shown in Table 1. Since a variety of substances (e.g. clay, manganese, goethite, hematite) can be used as pigment, the category ‘potential pigment’ (PP) incorporates white, red and yellow rock fragments, all of which are both markedly brighter in colour than other clasts, and have soft, matte surfaces with rounded edges.

Use-Wear Analysis

A functional analysis of selected Weld-RS-0731 artefacts (n=189, 34%) was undertaken by Twaddle (2012). All artefacts associated with charcoal features in XUs 6 and 9, and all lithics >20 mm were analysed. This sampling strategy resulted from the preconception that larger, non-diagnostic flakes might be more likely to preserve interpretable use-wear traces by virtue of their greater edge length and possible preferential selection in the past due to their easier manual manipulation for task activities. The validity of this assumption is reassessed below. Initial techno-typological analysis of all excavated stone artefacts (n=559) noted the dominance of coarse-grained lithologies that are known to be resistant to the formation and observation of microwear traces (surface polishes and striae) that underpin high magnification analyses (e.g. Keeley 1980; Kononenko 2011; Vaughan 1985). While the potential for high magnification functional analysis incorporating residue analysis (e.g. Langejans 2012; Lombard 2008) may be explored in future research, the initial use-wear analysis reported here focused on the observation of edge damage (microscarring and edge rounding) at low magnification (10–100x). An experimental reference collection, knapped from raw materials sourced for their geological similarity to the Weld-RS-0731 assemblage, was generated to facilitate interpretation of damage traces on the archaeological specimens (Table 2). Both experimental and archaeological artefacts were analysed using a Leica M205C zoom stereomicroscope capable of a 10–160x magnification range and Leica DFC490 camera.

Results

Weld-RS-0731 is located in vegetation communities 1 and 2, described as Acacia aneura woodland over mixed shrubs (Figure 3). Amongst the local surface assemblages, 90% of the total of 1074 lithic artefacts at Q-Sites were also recorded within vegetation communities 1 and 2, plus one scarred tree, and there is a strong pattern of quarrying having occurred in the rocky hills, valleys and ridges of the Range which comprise the habitat for vegetation communities 1 and 2. It could be predicted that Weld-RS-0731, located in the same environmental context and in proximity to the same resources as the Q-Sites, would share similar assemblage characteristics in terms of stone artefact sizes, types and raw materials.

Contrasting markedly with the environmental context of Q-Sites, A-Sites have a strong tendency to correlate with low-lying areas close to watercourses; 93% of the total of 2572 lithic artefacts recorded at these localities are found in the riparian vegetation communities 3a, 3b and 5c (Figure 3). These sites are assumed to be the remains of old camping grounds in easily accessible country, with good access to water and relatively high biotic diversity. If Weld-RS-0731 was

used as a habitation site, it could be predicted that its lithic assemblage would resemble those recorded at the A-Sites.

Isolated artefacts provide an important insight into off-site behaviours and the archaeological signature of the highest mobility occupation events. If Weld-RS-0731 was repeatedly used for short-term occupation by people passing by, the lithic assemblage would reflect the characteristics of local isolated artefacts.

Artefact Size

The Weld-RS-0731 assemblage is dominated by small artefacts, and few large artefacts were deposited on the talus slope in front of the site (Figure 4). Sampling bias (i.e. sieving and lab recording versus survey) and post-depositional processes complicate the comparison between Weld-RS-0731 and surface assemblages. For instance, an analysis of surface artefact concentrations in western New South Wales indicated the preferential downslope movement of artefacts >20 mm as a result of high energy water movement during flooding events (Holdaway et al. 1998:8–9). However, even when flakes >20 mm in size are excluded from analysis, the mean for Weld-RS-0731 is still less than the other assemblages (28 mm compared with 31 mm for A-Sites, 46 mm for Q-Sites and 41 mm for isolated artefacts). Across all raw material types, 57% of flakes and broken flakes at Q-Sites are between 15–44 mm maximum, compared with 77% at A-Sites and 58% of isolated artefacts (Figure 5). Isolated artefacts have a wide range of flake sizes, like those recorded at Q-Sites, which concurs with their interpretation as items carried for use and as items that have been opportunistically manufactured from disparate quarries (e.g. occasional cobbles). At Weld-RS-0731 only 21% of the flakes and broken flakes fall between 15–44 mm, and 78% are smaller. The rockshelter assemblage reflects relatively low discard rates for flakes >20 mm and high discard rates for flakes <10 mm (‘microflakes’), contrasting with Q-Sites, A-Sites and isolated finds.

Raw Material Types

Lithic raw material sources are abundant in the local area. The nearest known quarry to Weld-RS-0731 is 1.4 km to the northeast and comprises a worked seam of chalcedony. There are four chalcedony and ten BIF quarries within a 5 km radius of the rockshelter. Cobbles of BIF, chalcedony and quartz occur frequently on the slopes near the rockshelter and may have provided a supplementary, if less predictable, raw material source. Quarries of banded quartzite, quartz, silcrete and dolerite are known at distances of >4 km across steep terrain.

Whilst BIF dominates the Q-Sites, chalcedony dominates the A-Sites (Figure 6). The BIF flakes discarded at Q-Sites are significantly larger (mean=51 mm, standard deviation=29) than at A-Sites (mean=29, standard deviation=18) (Mann-Whitney U Test, U=153600, Q-Site n=754, A-Site n=943, Q-Site median=34, A-Site median=32, p=<.05). This may result from the transport of suitable cores, tested at quarry locations, which were then increasingly reduced to produce smaller flakes at A-Sites, or the selection of flakes of a preferred size at source (i.e. the size found discarded at A-Sites ca 29 mm). There is little difference in the size of chalcedony flakes between Q-Sites and A-Sites (means of 39 and 38 mm, respectively), showing that different raw materials follow different reduction patterns.

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Figure 3 Vegetation communities and surface artefact assemblages within 5 km of Weld-RS-0731.

Figure 4 Site plan showing artefacts recorded on the surface outside the shelter.

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Isolated artefacts have similar proportions of BIF to A-Sites, only moderate representation of chalcedony, high frequencies of other fine-grained materials, and the highest frequencies of dolerite and quartz. This diversity of lithologies may indicate a preference for fine-grained, possibly more predictable, raw materials, as well as harder types (dolerite and quartz) to carry whilst hunting and foraging, and/or the opportunistic sourcing of these rock types from gravels. The Weld-RS-0731 assemblage has the highest representation of fine-grained materials. The ‘Other-fine grained’ raw materials group in Figure 6 comprises (in descending order of frequency amongst the Weld-RS-0731 assemblage) chalcedony, mudstone, silcrete, siliceous sediment and fine-grained volcanic. The relatively high proportion of fine-grained raw materials at Weld-RS-0731 is found amongst artefacts of comparable size to those recorded on the surface locally (i.e. artefacts >9 mm) and the pattern is not a size-determined skew of the data. Of all the assemblages analysed, that from Weld-RS-0731 shows the highest preference for fine-grained rock types, most (but not all) of which have known sources within 5 km of the site. The locally available, medium-grained, BIF and jasperlite are also well represented.

Artefact Types

Artefact types are found in similar proportions at both A-Sites and Q-Sites (Figure 7). Cores were not heavily reduced as a rule and were commonly discarded across the landscape, as indicated by their high proportions amongst the isolated artefacts (Figure 7 and Table 1). Including the artefacts recorded on the Weld-RS-0731 talus slope, both cores and unmodified complete flakes were more rarely discarded at the rockshelter than elsewhere and there is a much higher proportion of broken flakes. The few cores at Weld-RS-0731 are made of mudstone, BIF, jasperlite and chalcedony.

Macroscopically visible edge modifications, consistent with retouch and/or utilisation damage (‘R/U’), were noted on <5% of the A-Site, Q-Site and isolated artefact assemblages. Q-Sites have equally high or even higher proportions of retouched flakes compared with A-Sites, likely because some quarries were also habitation sites, and perhaps also reflecting the effects of retooling at Q-Sites and the resultant discard of exhausted retouched artefacts (Table 1). At Weld-RS-0731 the proportion of R/U ranges between 8%

Figure 7 Percentages of artefact types in Weld Range assemblages.

Figure 5 Percentage values of flakes and broken flake frequencies in size classes.

Figure 6 Percentages of raw material types in Weld Range assemblages (does not include artefacts of ‘indeterminate’ raw material type at Weld-RS-0731).

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overall and 13% for artefacts >9 mm, though the results of subsequent microscopic use-wear analysis identified much lower proportions as having indisputable signs of use (see below). The consensus of field recording and specialist functional analysis is that R/U is rare amongst the Weld Range assemblages. The higher rates of R/U at Weld-RS-0731, combined with high proportions of broken flakes and microflakes and low representation of cores, indicates that core shaping and flake production were not the focus of stone working at the rockshelter. Rather, the later stages of tool reduction are more strongly represented in the Weld-RS-0731 assemblage. However, the low proportions of flakes in a moderate size range (i.e. the 15–44 mm size class so well represented at surface sites locally) may indicate that these tools were often taken away from the site after use, and hence that occupation events were short in duration.

Formal artefacts are rare in all the Weld assemblages. Less than six per cent of flakes and transversely broken flakes at Weld-RS-0731 are morphologically blades and, of these, only one (ID90) provides strong evidence of deliberate blade production, with two parallel arrises on the dorsal surface (Figure 9). ID90 is made of a locally rare, brown silcrete, but was found during section cleaning and thus cannot be attributed to an XU. One crescent-shaped, bidirectionally backed microlith of quartz was recovered from XU 11 (ID72) and is therefore presumed to date from 4155–3920 cal. BP (Figure 8 and 9). Other artefacts whose morphology approximates that of retouched backed microliths and which could, therefore, have been used in a similar way without further shaping, were identified in XUs 10, 11, 13 and 14 (Figure 8). A very weathered BIF geometric microlith was recovered during section cleaning and could

Raw Material Type Site Type Unmodified MNF:Core Retouched MNF:Unmodified MNF

BIF and Jasperlite

Quarry 6.85 0.04

Artefact concentration 14.66 0.03

Isolated artefact 1.06 0.24

Weld-RS-0731 (>9 mm) 28.75 0.03

Quartz

Quarry 5.75 0.13



Weld-RS-0731 (>9 mm) 4.00 0.50

Fine-Grained Other

Quarry 4.82 0.06



Weld-RS-0731 (>9 mm) 8.33 0.02

Coarse-Grained Other

Quarry 1.21



Weld-RS-0731 (>9 mm)

Table 1 Flake:core and retouched:non-retouched flake ratios for Weld Range assemblages. Note: ‘indeterminate’ raw material category excluded; five artefacts recorded on the slope outside the rockshelter are included in the Weld-RS-0731 data.

Number of Tools Worked

Raw Materials Contact MaterialRelative

HardnessUse Motions

12Dolerite, silcrete, jasperlite

Eucalyptus sp. (mature wood)

HardCutting x 1, sawing x 1, scraping x 3, shaving x 1, chopping x 1, boring x 1, carving x 1, graving x 2

4 Dolerite, jasperlite, BIFMinritchie (Acacia grasbyi)

Hard Sawing x 1, scraping x 3

10Dolerite, silcrete, jasperlite, quartzite, BIF

Mulga (A. aneura) HardCutting x 1, scraping x 2, sawing x 2, boring x 3, carving x 1, graving x 1

8Dolerite, silcrete, jasperlite quartzite, BIF

Fresh bone Hard Cutting x 2, sawing x 3, shaving x 1, boring x 2

8 DoleriteEucalyptus sp. (young wood)

MediumCutting x 1, sawing x 1, scraping x 1, whittling x 2, shaving x 1, chopping x 1, boring x 1

5Dolerite, silcrete, quartzite

Banksia menziesii MediumCutting x 1, chopping x 1, boring x 1,carving x 1, graving x 1

5Dolerite, silcrete, jasperlite

Fresh meat Soft Cutting x 3, sawing x 2

2 Dolerite Fresh potato Soft Cutting x 1, sawing x 1

Table 2 Experimental collection (n=53).

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not be attributed to an XU. A single example of a chert tula adze slug was recovered from XU 7 (ID27; Figure 9) and was included in the functional analysis. Although artefact frequencies increase in XUs 1–7 (representing approximately the last 1100 years; see supplementary online material), R/U frequency decreases from 9% to 7%.

Use-Wear Analysis

Experimentation revealed that polishes and linear striations—even on artefacts used on hard materials (e.g. sawing bone) for relatively long durations (>20 minutes)—were not identifiable at magnification <100x (Table 4). However, the principles underpinning the patterning of low power use-wear damage (Odell 1981; Odell and Odell-Vereecken 1980; Tringham et. al 1974) held true;

experimental pieces developed interpretable patterns of edge microfracturing corresponding to a range of independent variables (e.g. edge angle, edge shape, edge curvature etc.), use-motion and relative hardness of the contact material at magnifications <100x. Some subtle differences were noted in the development of microfractures on edges used to work materials of soft and medium hardness: compared with highly isotropic materials such as chert and flint, BIF, dolerite, jasperlite, quartzite and silcrete were found to be more resistant to the development of microfracturing identifiable at magnifications <100x (Twaddle 2012:94; see also Derndarsky and Ocklind 2001; Kamminga 1982).

Of the total 189 Weld-RS-0731 artefacts assessed for functional traces, 81% had suffered significant post-depositional surface alterations (Levi-Sala 1986; Moss 1983) that were immediately visible as surface sheen (ca 10 µm depth), as well as adhering mineral concretions (Figure 10). This presented obstacles to the identification of use-wear traces. Mineral concretions could not be removed despite repeated attempts at cleaning using non-destructive chemical procedures (Twaddle 2012). As with experimental specimens, neither polishes nor striations were observed on the surfaces of any archaeological artefacts. However, it must be stressed that the analyst (JT) did not focus on magnifications >100x at which these two trace types are more

Figure 10 Mineral concretion covering ventral surface of artefact from Weld-RS-0731.

Figure 8 East Section of Weld-RR-0731 excavation.

Figure 9 Examples of artefacts considered in relation to the use of formal tools at Weld-RS-0731.

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readily observed, and their presence may be revealed on some pieces by future analysis integrating high power microscopy. In total, just three artefacts preserved use-wear traces at 10–100x magnification, each of which are now described.

Chert Adze Slug (ID27)

Measuring 28 mm, this piece is in a good state of preservation. No evidence for use-wear was identified on the distal edge margin, which was likely the working edge, but a separate feature may have been generated during use on the proximal portion of the ventral surface. This area measures 100 mm diameter and has an irregular, broken texture associated with an unidentified red residue. It is unclear what process or processes this damage reflects, as the modified surface does not conform to documented hafting traces (Rots 2003) and further investigation is required.

Crystal Quartz Complete Flake (ID247)

This is an obtuse plano-convex distal edge margin of a small crystal quartz complete flake (8 mm), with minimal post-depositional surface modification. This records a pattern of recurrent unifacial damage initiated from the ventral surface that consists of five 1000 µm invasive, contiguous and partially superposed elongate scars with wide initiations and feather terminations (Figure 11). These are overlain by small hertzian step terminating scars that slightly undercut the edge margin. Present nowhere else on the piece, this is a distinct and recurrent damage pattern. Unfortunately there is no direct experimental analogue to assist in the identification of the contact material or motion that produced these use-wear traces. However, subsequent comparison between the microfracturing on this flake and that observed on experimental cryptocrystalline flint specimens is suggestive of use in a transverse scraping motion undertaken on a relatively soft material which could range from skin/hide or flesh to a soft woody substance. The very small size of the artefact would certainly make hand-held use difficult, and it is possible that the piece was hafted for use, but no convincing evidence for this (Rots 2003) could be identified.

Distal Broken Flake (ID21)

This is a jasperlite distal broken flake (27 mm) with direct retouch along the distal edge and mesio-distal portions of both lateral edges. The sharpness of edges and arêtes

(10–20 µm width) show that the artefact has been minimally affected by post-depositional wear, and indicates that patterned microfractures superposing the retouched edge result from use (Figure 11).

The dorsal face of the retouched edge features contiguous 2000 µm long microscars that are superimposed in series, step terminate and are too numerous to count. Consistently orientated perpendicular to the edge margin, scar initiations are overlain by abrupt step terminating scars. Damage has undercut the edge margin, while the ventral aspect features isolated abrupt step terminating scars, also perpendicular to the edge. This pattern is consistent with a use involving a transverse motion, probably either low angled scraping or shaving of a medium–hard contact material.

Discussion

Landscape Analysis

Three basic models for the potential form and content of the Weld-RS-0731 assemblage were derived from analysis of nearby surface sites. The Weld-RS-0731 assemblage is unlike any of the local analogues in terms of artefact raw materials, technological types or sizes. There is a much higher proportion of fine-grained materials at Weld-RS-0731, although sources for most of these are known to exist within 5 km of the site. A bladelet of brown silcrete (ID90) from an unknown source is the exception, and, as the only clear example of specialist blade manufacture in the assemblage, demonstrates differential treatment of a rare and exotic raw material. So, whilst Weld-RS-0731 conforms to the general pattern for preferred use of locally available raw materials, the assemblage clearly shows that fine-grained rock types were specifically selected for use at the site.

The artefact types at Weld-RS-0731 include higher proportions of flakes, particularly microflakes (<10 mm), broken flakes and very low numbers of cores, compared to other Weld Range assemblages. The size of discarded flakes at A-Sites gives a fair representation of the preferred flake sizes, i.e. between 15–44 mm. The low proportion of flakes between 15–44 mm at Weld-RS-0731, combined with the difference in proportions of artefact types between Weld-RS-0731 and those seen at all other surface assemblages within 5 km, provides only limited evidence of the daily subsistence tasks represented at all other sites locally.

Figure 11 Left = Crystal quartz flake (ID247), dorsal left lateral and distal edge showing use-wear scars; Right = Jasperlite distal broken flake (ID21), dorsal distal margin.

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These characteristics argue against the use of Weld-RS-0731 as a residential base—there are simply too few of the elements seen amongst the general surface assemblages to support an interpretation of it as a place where a wide variety of general, domestic tasks were undertaken over a period of many days or weeks. Neither does Binford’s (1980) description of a forager ‘location’—a briefly occupied, resource extraction site at which few cultural remains were discarded—fit the Weld-RS-0731 evidence. Rather, the occupants made fires and produced rock art, suggesting that at least part of the significance of Weld-RS-0731 must have derived from the properties of the place itself (as a comfortable place to sit, seek refuge or communicate symbolically through art) and not the importance of available subsistence resources. Moreover, the preference for fine-grained raw materials at Weld-RS-0731 indicates forward planning of the type used by collectors occupying field camps (i.e. short-term bases occupied by small numbers of skilled and knowledgeable individuals for the exploitation of particular resources). However, Binford (1980) described field camps in purely subsistence terms, which may not be appropriate to all episodes of use at Weld-RS-0731.

Whilst consideration of Binford’s (1980) model of site type, mobility and residential organisation indicates that the occupation of Weld-RS-0731 was more at the strategic end of the spectrum, it fails to factor-in possible non-subsistence reasons for site use. Nicholson and Cane (1991) assessed the archaeological signatures of historically occupied rockshelters in the Western Desert. Through ethnographic consultation they found that rockshelters had either been used as habitation sites or for sacred activities. Material culture at habitation sites included flaked stone artefacts which had been used for a variety of domestic tasks, small proportions of grinding material, hammerstones and ochre (Nicholson and Cane 1991:304). At sites associated with sacred activities there were very few flaked stone artefacts or grinding stones, some hammerstones and numerous manuports, but ochre was common, and rock art was also present (Nicholson and Cane 1991:305). With regard to the evidence for use of Weld-RS-0731 as a habitation site, flaked stone artefacts are common, albeit in a size range that Nicholson and Cane may not have easily detected in their surface survey. The adze (ID27) and use-wear on artefacts ID247 and ID21 may provide evidence for woodworking, which Nicholson and Cane (1991) linked with habitation, though no grinding material was identified. However, the rock art could indicate ritual use of the site. Manuports were not recorded, though these might be difficult to identify given the scree of boulders in the rockshelter. In fact, Weld-RS-0731 has a mix of Nicholson and Cane’s (1991) habitation and ceremonial assemblage characteristics. This could suggest differences between the Western Desert and Weld Range in terms of the material culture associated with habitation or ceremonial sites. Alternatively, the use of Weld-RS-0731 may have varied, such that ritual use and habitation occurred at different times. The hand stencils of men, women and children—often groups segregated from each other during ritual activity—may also show that the site was used by different groups for varying purposes over time.

Regional Comparisons

Comparison with other mid- to late Holocene lithic assemblages excavated in the inland Mid West region is complicated by the fact that quartz is overwhelmingly

dominant at these sites (Bordes et al. 1983; Webb and Gunn 1999:19). For example, Weld assemblages are likely to have higher R/U proportions, because R/U is easier to recognise on non-quartz artefacts, plus quartz holds its edge and may require less resharpening than other raw materials. Nevertheless, of the assemblages recorded by Webb (Webb and Gunn 1999:23), Weld-RS-0731 is most similar to Walganha in having a relatively high proportion of R/U (3.7% of the analysed Walganha assemblage compared with an average of 1% at the six other sites recorded by Webb and 8% at Weld-RS-0731) and high frequencies of flakes <10 mm (37.2% at Walganha, an average of 12.8% at Webb’s other sites and 46% at Weld-RS-0731).

Walganha is the most complex rock art site in the Mid West and one of the richest assemblages of painted rock art recorded this far south in Australia (Gunn et al. 1997:61). It has been described as an important ritual and ceremonial site where male initiates would be taught the meaning of motifs, whilst women and children were segregated in a camp at the rockhole nearby (Brown 1980 as cited in Gunn et al. 1997:62–63). At Walganha, as at Weld-RS-0731, a high frequency of microflakes is found in association with rock art. Use-wear analysis at Weld-RS-0731 shows that, in addition to the use of moderately-sized stone artefacts, microflakes were likely used as tools in their own right. Although we are loathe to argue a ceremonial association without strong justification, the particular contexts of Walganha and Weld Range (both known to have been important ceremonial centres) suggest the possibility that microflakes were used in very specific, possibly ritual, activities. We suggest two possible uses. First, precision carving such as might be used to decorate wooden ceremonial paraphernalia. Bates (n.d.:19) wrote that the ‘finest’ carved implements hailed from this district. The use-wear interpretation of flake ID247 at Weld-RS-0731 lends some support to the use of tools on soft or medium-soft materials, which may have included fresh, relatively soft wood or skin. A second possible use of microflakes is in the production of body scarification. Fine-grained rock types were the preferred tools for this task and fire/charcoal may have been used during the process:

They make them with a stone knife, made out of a special type of rock like jasper. This rock is like stainless steel, very sharp so you can’t feel it cutting. After the cut is made, they put a little burnt wood on the cut … Yidumduma Bill Harney, Wardaman Aboriginal Corporation, Northern Territory (Australian Museum 2010).

However, the skin scarring tools described by Bates (n.d.:7) were not microflakes: ‘The stone is about an inch in width [25.4 mm] and very unevenly chipped or flaked. With the thin edge they make wounds of a certain length (from two to six inches) and about half an inch deep’. Further investigation (high power magnification use-wear, residue analysis, experimentation, ethnographic research and more excavation) is required to explore the modes of production and uses of microflakes from Weld-RS-0731 and this will either strengthen or weaken the argument suggested here that particularly high proportions of microflakes are associated with rock art sites and ritual use.

Inter-Regional Context

At both Walganha and Weld-RS-0731, artefact frequency increased substantially at around 4000 cal. BP and a number of sites in the region were occupied for the first time over the course of the following millennium (Bordes et al. 1983;

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Webb 1996, 2000; Webb and Gunn 1999:16), echoing the pattern observed elsewhere in the arid zone (Veth 2000). Webb (2000) argued that the inland Mid West had a high variety of plant resources and supported unusually high population densities during the late Holocene compared with surrounding regions. Whilst more recent research may show that adjoining regions had equivalently high populations (Morse 2009; Smith 2013; Veth 2000), it is fair to say that the role of inland Mid West peoples in the inter-regional cultural and linguistic shifts of the late Holocene is poorly understood. Today, Wajarri people speak of close cultural connections with the people of the deserts to the east—connections that can be traced ethnographically through mythology, initiation rites and language (Colin Hamlett 2010 pers. comm.; O’Neill and Jordan 2007). In this part of the discussion we situate the archaeological evidence for late Holocene occupation of the inland Mid West in its inter-regional context and suggest that the modern affiliation between Wajarri and Western Desert peoples may have roots in the early to mid-Holocene.

The mid-Holocene period experienced the onset of ENSO conditions (increased aridity and climatic instability). Concurrently (and amongst other trends in rock art and seed-grinding technology), there was an inter-regional shift towards the adoption of microlithic technology (Hiscock 1994), the diversification of the Pama-Nyungan language group into the Kartu and Wati sub-groups and the diffusion of the western section system of kin structure (McConvell 1996; Veth 2000). Microliths appeared in the sequence at Billibilong Spring, Walganha and Weld-RS-0731 at around 4000 cal. BP. Dates for their earliest appearance in WA range from 4100–3200 bp, with the older dates on the western margins of the Western Desert and in the Mid West (Smith 2013:187). The overall percentage of microliths and adzes in the Weld Range data is very low (<0.1%), whilst at Weld-RS-0731 it is 0.7%, and 1.2% at Walganha (Webb and Gunn 1999:23–24), though at the latter adzes and scrapers are counted together, likely inflating the count relative to the Weld assemblages. The low frequency of microliths and adzes at Mid West sites from 4000 cal. BP onwards provides unconvincing evidence of a shift at the subsistence base level. Indeed, microliths are found in similarly low proportions across central and southwest Australia (Smith 2013:187). Whilst the rarity of retouched microlithic technology in the Mid West indicates that microliths were not strictly required for subsistence purposes, their occurrence inter-regionally indicates transmission of the form across tribal boundaries. The early dates for microlith technology in the Mid West region may further suggest a focus of population interaction and innovation here ca 4000 years ago. It is worth noting that the high frequency of unretouched microflakes at Weld-RS-0731 and Walganha, low frequency of R/U (proportionally lower in the last 1100 cal. BP at Weld-RS-0731) and formal microlith types, and the evidence for use-wear on Artefact ID247 is suggestive of the importance of informal, unretouched microflakes as tools in their own right. Our original supposition that it would be best to focus the attention of the use-wear analysis on artefacts >20 mm must be re-evaluated in the light of this research: microflakes may be important in understanding mid- to late Holocene stone tool technology in arid zone Australia.

The intensification of site use apparent at Weld-RS-0731 and other sites in the Mid West from 4000 cal. BP is also observed inter-regionally. This can be correlated both with the on-

set of ENSO conditions and an archaeological phase which included the occupation of all desert ecosystems, origins of shared information networks and the establishment of wide exchange systems (Veth 2000:18). It is likely that drought stress induced by ENSO drove desert dwelling groups, in particular, to intensify their relationships with their western neighbours. Justified on the grounds of maintaining the well-being of shared cultural landscapes and knowledge, Western Desert peoples may have been able to extract resources from their neighbours during droughts. They may even have sought refuge in areas adjacent to the desert for short periods of time. Such a process would lead to significant inter-group exchange and would generate late Holocene archaeological signatures (Veth 2000). Whilst relationships between Western Desert and Pilbara groups have been identified archaeologically, and in the dispersal of the Wati language sub-group from a southern Pilbara origin (Veth 2000), Mid West interactions with the Western Desert are under-explored and require further investigation.

Archaeological hints of the interaction between Western Desert and Mid West peoples include Western Desert affiliations being recognised amongst the rock art motifs at Walganha (Gunn et al. 1997:65) and the likely role that Wilgie Mia played in mediating relationships. Ochre was certainly a crucial part of the long distance exchange relationships that sustained people in the arid zone (Smith 2013:276–282) and the use of Little Wilgie ochre mine from at least 2500 cal. BP may have been associated with this trade.

Conclusion

This paper contributes a mid- to late Holocene case study from Weld Range, providing new comparative data and a discussion staged at local, regional and inter-regional scales. We conclude that Weld-RS-0731 was not used as a residential camp or forager location, though it bears some resemblance to a field camp (sensu Binford 1980). The unusually high proportion of fine-grained materials from a diversity of sources suggests a task specific, logistical use of the site and there is little evidence for long-term occupation. However, comparison of the Weld-RS-0731 assemblage against Nicholson and Cane’s (1991) analysis suggests that the site may have been used for both ceremonial and short-term habitation purposes.

Unlike lithic assemblages from other sites in the region, a high proportion of artefacts from both Weld-RS-0731 and Walganha comprise microflakes. Although much more research is required, we tentatively suggest that microflakes may have been used in particular ways during the occupation of rock art sites—perhaps in precision wood carving or body scarification. Use-wear on a crystal quartz flake from Weld-RS-0731 provides broad support for the notion that very small, unretouched flakes were used as tools in their own right, perhaps in the ways we suggest above.

The diachronic pattern of occupation at Weld-RS-0731 broadly concurs with other regional data exhibiting increased artefact frequencies from ca 4400 cal. BP and the highest discard rates in the last 1100 cal. BP. Following the lead of our Wajarri colleagues, who attest to strong affiliations with Western Desert culture, we suggest that this is an important avenue for future research. Hints of the relationship are found in the rock art of Walganha and the inter-regional expression of microlithic technology. Inter-

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regional relationships are also likely to have incorporated the exchange of ochre from Wilgie Mia and Little Wilgie, with the latter in use since at least ca 2500 cal. BP.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to members of the Wajarri Yamatji Traditional Owner group of the Weld Range for their practical help in the design and execution of this research and for allowing access to the sites and cultural material. We also acknowledge Sinosteel Midwest Corporation Ltd for permission to access tenements and approval to publish. Many thanks to volunteers Jane Fyfe, Anna Raudino, Annieka Skinner, Cheryl Welcke and Daena Guest. This work would not have been possible without the support and practical help of staff from Eureka Archaeological Research and Consulting, UWA. We are grateful to Sandra Bowdler, Jane Balme and Joe Dortch for the invitation to submit this article. Thanks to Kate Morse, Annie Carson and Kelly Fleming for comments on an earlier draft, and to Alana Rossi, other reviewers, Lynley Wallis and Heather Burke for their many insightful suggestions which helped in improving this paper. Any omissions or errors are the sole responsibility of the authors. This work was funded by Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Grant number G2011/7642.

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