A History of Indian And - Forgotten Books

A H ISTORY OF IND IAN AND

EASTERN ARCH ITECTURE

HISTORY OF IN DIAN AND

EASTERN ARCHITECTURE

BY THE LATE JAMES FERGUSSONLL.D .

,

Member of the Society of D ile ttant i, e tc . , e tc .

REVISED AND ED ITED , WITH ADD IT IONS

INDIAN ARCH ITECTURE

BY JAMES BURGESS, LL .D .,

Hon. Hon . Member of the Imperial Russian Archaeolog ical Soc ie ty ; CorrespondingMember Ba tavian Society Late D irector of the Archaeolog ical Survey of I ndia , e tc. , e tc .

AND

EASTERN ARCH ITECTURE

BY R . PHENE SP IERS,Honorary Member of the American Institute ofArch itects Corresponden t of the I nstitute of France

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS

VOL . I I .

' LONDON

JOHN MURRAY ,ALBEMARLE STREET

,W .

CONTENTS .

BOOK V .

JAINA ARCHITECTURE .

CHAP.PAGE CHAP PAGE

I . INTRODUCTORY 3

I I . JAI NA CAVES—Orissa CavesBfidfimi and Aihole—Dhfirfi

sinvfi—Ankai—Elfiré‘.I I I . JAI NA STRUCTURAL TEMPLES

Lakkundi Pfilitfinfi

Girnfir—Mount Abu—Féras

BOOK VI .

NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE .

I . INTRODUCTORY Dravidianand Indo-Aryan Temples at

. Pattadakal—Modern Templeat BenaresORISSA—H istory—Temples at

Bhuvaneswar, Kanérak, Pur i ,Jfijpur, and KatakWESTERN INDTA—DharwarB r a h m a n i c a l R o c k -c u t

Temples, at B lut é, Bfidfim i,E lephanta,Dhamnfir

,and Poona I I 7

nfith Rz’

inpur Gwfiliar

Khajurého—ChitorIV. MODERN JAINA STYLE—Sona

ga r h—J a i na T em p l e s a t

Ahmadfibfid Delh i Con

ver ted TemplesV. JAINA STYLE IN SOUTHERN

IND IA—Be ttas—Bastis

CENTRAL AND NORTHERNIND IA Chandrfivati and

Baroli Kirtti stambhas

Temples at Gwfiliar, Kha

jurfiho , S innar, Udayapur ,Benares , B rindaban ,

Kantanagar

,Amritsar

V. CIVIL ARCH ITECTURE—Cenotaphs

—Palaces at Gwfiliar,

Chitor , Amber , D ig—GhatsReservoirs—Dams

CONTENTS.

BOOK V I I .

INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE.

CHAT. PAGE

I . INTRODUCTORYI I . GHAZNi—Tomb Of Mahmud—Gates of Somnath—M inarson the Plain

I I I . PATHAN STYLE—Mosque at

Old Delhi—Qutb M inarTomb of ’A lau-d-Din—PathanTombs Ornamen tation ofPathan Tombs

IV. JAUNPUR—j ami ’ Masj id andLal Darwaza

V . GUJARAT—Jami’ Masp d and

other Mosques at Ahmadabad—Tombs and Mosques at

Sarkhej and Bat ’

i—Bui ldingsin the Provinces

VI . MALWA Dhar—The GreatMosque at Mandu The

PalacesVI I . BENGAL Bengal i roofing

Qadam l -Rasul Mosque , Gaur—Son§, Adinah and Eklakhi

Mosques, Mama M inarGateways

H ISTORY OF EASTERN ARCH ITECTURE .

BOOK V I I I .

FURTHER INDIA.

I . BURMA Introductory—Typesof Rel igious BuildingsCircular Pagodas SquareTemples, e tc. Ruins ofThatOn , Prome, and PaganMonasteries

I I . CAMBOD IA IntroductoryThe various classes of templeand the irdisposition

—TemplesofAngkor van,Angkor Thom,

Beng Mealea, Ta Prohm ,

Ban teai Kedei , Prah - khan ,

CHAP.

VI I I . KULBARGA—The Mosque at

Kulbarga—Madrasa at B idar—Tombs

IX . B IJAPfi R—The Jami’ Masp d

—Tombs Of Ibrahim and

Mahmud—The Audience Hal l—Mihtari Mahal l—GolkondaTombs Tomb Of NawabAmir Khan , near Tatta

X . MUGHAL ARCH ITECTUREDynasties—Tomb Of Muham

mad Ghaus, Gwaliar—Mosqueat Fathpur S ikri Akbar

’

s

Tomb , S ikandara—Palace at

Delh i—The Tfij Mahal l—TheMoti Masj id—Mosque atDe lhiThe Martiniére , Begam

Kothi,and Imambfira at Luck

now—English Tombs at Surat—Tomb at Junagadh

XI . WOODEN ARCH ITECTUREMosque of Shah Hamadfin ,

S rinagar

e tc.—Palaces and Civi l Archi

tectureS IAM—S tructures in the templeenclosures—Temples at Su

khodaya,Phra Pathom, Saj j an

alaya, Ayuth iéi, Lophaburi ,

Sangkalok and BangkokHal l of Audience at BangkokJAVA—H istory BorO-BudurTemples at Mendut—Ou the

D ieng Plateau—At JabangPrambfinan Suku NearMe lang, and at Panataran

CONTENT S .

BOOK IX .

CHINA AND JAPAN.

CRAP. CRAP

L INTRODUCTORYCH INA—The origin and de

velopment of the Chinesetemple and other structuresMaterials employed in the irbu i ldings

I I I . Temple of the Great DragonBuddhist Temples—Tombs

INDEX

ix

PAGE

Pagodas -P -ai lus—DomesticArchitecture .

IV. JAPAN—Chronology OriginalSources, etc

V. JAPANESE TEMPLEs—At HOrIUJ I , Nara, and N ikkO

Pagodas Palaces—DomesticArch itecture

L IST OF ILLUSTRAT IONS IN VOLUME I I .

N0 .PAGE

264 . Yavana Guard at Rfini -ka-naurCave , Udayagiri

265 . Map : Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves In Orissa266 . Ganesa Cave—Plan267 . Pi llar inGanesaCave , Udayagir i268 . Upper storey, Ran i -gumpha269 . Lower storey , Ran i -gumphfi270. Section of Ran i -gumpha2 7 1 . Pilaster from Ananta-

gumpha,

Khandagir i272 . Tiger Cave , Udayagiri273 . Represen tation of a Hal l , from

Bharaut sculptures274 . En trance to the Indra-Sabha

Cave , Elfirfi2 75 . Monol ith ic Stambha in the

Court Of the Indra-Sabhfi

276 . Lakkundi Jaina Temple—Plan27 7 . The Sacred H il l of Satrunjaya ,

near Pal i tana278 . Plan Of Chaumukh Temple at

Satrunjaya279 . Plan of Nandisvara dvipa

Temple , Satrunjaya280. Plan of Temple of Nem infith

,

Girnar

8 1 Plan of Temple of Vastupala,Girnar

282 . Plan of Temple at Somnath283 . Plan Of

ATemple of Vimala

,

Moun t Abfi284. Portico in Temple of Vimala,Moun t Abu285 . Plan of Temple of Tejahpala,Moun t Aba

Pendan t In Dome ofTejahpala’5Temple , AbuPi llars at Chandravat i, Gujarat

I 3

1 3

I 3

24

42

43

PAGENO .

288 . Plan of Temple at Ranpur ,near Sadari

289 . View in the Temple at Ranpur290. Temple of Adinath at Kha

juraho

29 Chausath Jogin I Temple , Khajuraho

292 . The Ghantai , Khajuraho293 . Temple at Gyaraspur294 . Porch Of H indu Temple at

Amwa .

295 . Jaina Tower at Chitor296 . Towe r of Victory of Kumbha

Rana, at Chitor297 . View of Jaina Temples , Sona

garh,in Bunde lkhand

298 . Plan of S e th Hathisingh’

s

Temple , Ahmadabad299 . V iew of the Temple of S eth

Hathisingh at Ahmadabad300. Upper par t Of Porch of a Jaina

Temple at Delh i30 1 . Colossal S tatue at Yenfi r .

302 . Jaina Bast is at S ravana-Belgola303 . Jaina Temple at Mfidabidri

304 . Jaina Temple at Mfidabidri

305 . Pi llar in a Temple at Mfidabidri306 . Pavil ion at Guruvéyankeri

307 . Tombs of Priests , Mfidabidri308 . S tambha at Guruvfiyankeri

309 . Dravidian and Indo AryanTemples at Pattadakal

3 10. Modern Temple at Benares3 1 1 D iagram Plan ofH indfi Temple3 1 2 . Temple of Parasurfimeswar,

Bhuvaneswar

3 1 3 . Temple Of Mukteswar3 14 . Plan of Great Temple at

Bhuvaneswar

xii

N o .

3 1 5

3 16 .

3 1 7

3 1 8 .

3 19 .

320.

32 1 .

322 .

323

324.

325

326 .

327 .

328.

329 .

330.

33 1 .

332.

333

334

335

336 .

337

338 .

339 .

340.

342.

343.

344

345

346

347

LIST OF ILLUSTRAT IONS

PAGE

View Of the Great or LingarfijaTemple , BhuvaneswarLowe r part of Great Tower atBhuvaneswar

Plan of Rfijarfin i TempleDoorway of Rajarfini TemplePlan of Temple of Jagannathat Pun .

View of Tower Of Temple Of

JagannathH indu Pi llar at Jaj purHindfi B ridge at Jaj purView ofTemple of Pfipanfitha at

Pattadakal

Das Avatara Cave Temple at

E luraPlan Of Upper F loor of DasAvatara CavePi llar in Lankeswar

,Kai las , at

Elfirfi 1 26

Plan of Cave No . 3 , Badami 1 27

Section of Cave NO . 3 , Badami 1 27

Plan of Dhumfir Lena Cave at

Elfirfi

Plan of Elephan ta CavePi llars and corner of the Shrineat Elephan ta 1 29

Rock -cut Temple at Dhamnar 1 30

Saiva Rock Temple near Poona 1 30

Plan of Panchfilesvara RockTemple near Poona 1 3 1

Plan of Temple at Chandravati 1 33

Temple at Baroli 1 34

Plan of Temple at Baroli 1 34

Pi llar at Barol i 1 35

Sas-Bahfi Temple at Gwfiliar 1 38

Te li-ka-Mandir Temple , Gwal iarKandarya Mahadeva Temple ,KhajurahoPlan of Kandarya Mahadeva,KhajurahoPlan of Gondesvara Temple at

S innarCross section of Gondesvara

Temple at S innarTemple at Udayapur, GwaliarTerritoryD iagram explanatory of the

Plan of M iré-Bfii ’s Temple,ChitorTemple of Vrij i , Chitor

IN VOLUME I I .

PAGEN0 .

348 .

349

350

3 5 1 .

352 .

35 3

354

35 5

35 6 .

35 7

358 .

359

360.

36 1 .

362 .

363

364 .

365 .

366 .

367 .

368 .

369 .

370'

37 1 .

372 .

373

374

375 '

376 .

377 .

378

379

380.

Temple ofVisveswar , Benares 1 52

Temple of Sindhia’

s Mother ,Gwaliar

Plan ofTemple of Govind deva,B r indaban 1 56

View of Govind -deva Temple 1 5 7Balcony in Temple Of Govinddeva, B rindabanPlan of Temple of Jugal Kishorat B rindabanTemple at Kan tanagarThe Golden Temple in the

Sacred Tank at AmritsarCenotaph of Sangrfim -Singh at

UdaypurCenotaph in the Mahasati at

UdaypurTomb of Raja Bakh téwar S inghat AlwarPlan of Kumbha Rana’s Chitorgadh Palace 1 7 1

Palace at Datiya 1 73

Palace at Urcha, Bunde lkhand 1 74

Balcony at the Observatory,B enaresPlan of Hal l at D igView from the Cen tral Pavil ionin the Palace at D igGhuslfi Ghat , BenaresBand of Lake Rfijasamudra

Minfir at Ghazn iOrnamen ts from the Tomb ofMahmfid at Ghazn iPlan of Ruins at Old De lhiSection of part of Eas t Colonnade at the Qutb , Old Delhi 202

Cen tral Range of Arches at theQutb Mosque 204

Qutb M inar 205

I ron Pi llar at the Qutb 207

Interior Of aTomb at Old De lhi 209

Mosque at Ajmir, restoredplanPlan of Ajmir Mosque as i texistsCentral Arch in the Mosque at

AJmir 2 1 3

Tomb at S ipri , Gwfiliar state 2 1 6

Tomb at Khairpur , Old De lhi 2 1 7

Plan OfTomb of Sher Shah atSahsarfim

LIST OF ILLUSTRAT IONS IN VOLUME I I .

NO . PAGE38 1 . Tomb of Sher Shah at Sahsaram 2 1 8

382 . Penden t ive from Mosque at

Old De lh i383. Plan Of Western hal f of Cour t

yard OfJami’ Masj id , J'

aunpur384 . View Of south lateral Gateway

OfJfimi’ Masj id, Jaunpur

385 . Lfil Darwaza Mosque , Jaunpur386 . Plan of Jfim i ’ Masj id , Ahmad

abad387 . Elevation of the Jami’ Masj id388 . Plan of the Queen ’

s Mosque ,M irzapur

389 . E levation of the Queen’

s

Mosque390 . Section of D iagram explanatory

of the Mosques at Ahmadabad39 1 . Plan of Tombs and Mosque at

Sarkhej392 . Pavilion in fron t of Tomb at

Sarkhej393 . Mosque of Muhafi z Khan394. Window in S idi Sayyid ’s

Mosque , Ahmadabad395 . Plan ofTomb OfM irAbfi Turai b396 . Plan and Elevat ion Of Tomb Of

Sayyid ’

Usm zi n

397 . Tombo utbu l ‘Alam at Batwa 240

398 . Plans of Tombs Of Qutbu l‘Alam and his Son at Batwa

399 . Plan of the Jami’ Mas

jId at

Champanir

400. Plan of Tomb Of MubarakSayyid , near Mahmfidabad

401 . Tomb Of Mubarak Sayyid402 . Sketch Plan of Jami’ Mosque at

MandIi

403. Courtyard of Great Mosque at

MandIi .

404 . Modern curved form of Roof405 . Qadam - I -RaSIi l Mosque , Gaur406 . Plan ofAdinah Mosque , Panduzi407 . M inar at Gaur408 . Plan of Mosque at Kulbarga409 . Half-elevat ion hal f-section of

the Mosque at Kulbarga4 10. View of the Mosque at Kulbarga4 1 1 . Plan of the Jami ’ Masj id

,

BijapIi r

4 1 2 . Plan and section Of SmallerDomes of the Jami ’ Masj id .

4 1 3 . Section through the GreatDome Of the Jami’ Masj id

220

224

224

226

23 1

23 1

233

237

238

238

27 1

PAGENo .

4 1 4. Plan of the Tomb of Ibrahim’Adil Shah , Bijap Ii r

4 1 5 . Plan Of Tomb of Muhammadat B ijapur

4 16 . Penden tives of the Tomb ofMuhammad , looking upwards 274

4 1 7 . Section Of Tomb ofMuhammadat B ijapfir

4 18 . D iagram illustrative of DomicalConstruction

4 19 . Audience Hal l , Bijapfir420. Tomb of Nawéib Sharfa Khfin ,

near Tatta42 1 . Plan of Tomb of Muhammad

Ghaus , Gwaliar422 . Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus,

Gwaliar

423 . Carved Pi llars in the Sultfina’sKiosk , Fathpur -S ikri 294

424 . Mosque at Fathpur -S ikri—Plan 295

425 . Buland or Southern Gateway ofMosque , Fathpur -S ikr i

426 . Hal l in Palace at Al lahabad427 . Plan of Akbar

’

s Tomb at

S ikandara, near Agra428. D iagram section Of one half of

Akbar’s Tomb at S ikandara 300

429 . View Of Akbar’s Tomb , S ikan

dara430. Plan of Lfihor Fort43 1 . Plan of Palace at Delh i432 . View Of Tfij Mahall , Agra433 . Plan of Tei j Mahal l434 . Section of Taj Mahal l435 . Plan of Moti Masj id , Agra436 . View in Courtyard of Mot i

Masj id 3 1 8

437 . View Of Great Mosque at De lh i 3 1 9

438 . View of the Martin iere , Lucknow

439 . View Of the Begam Kothi ,Lucknow

440. Plan of Imambara at Lucknow44 1 . English Tombs , Surat S ir

Geo . Oxenden’

s on the left442 . Tomb of Maij i Sahiba at

Junagadh443 . Mosque of Shéh Hamadan ,

S rinagar444 . Conjectural plan of a Burmese

Temple445 .

Quarter plan of Shwe HmandanPagoda at Pegu

x iv

NO .

446 .

447 .

448

449

450

45 1

452

45 3 .

454

45 5

456 .

45 7

458

45 9

460.

46 1 .

462 .

463

464

465

466 .

467 .

468.

469 .

470

4 1 -7

472

LIST OF ILLUSTRAT IONS IN VOLUME I I .

Kaung Hmaudau Dfigaba, n earSagaingView Of Pagoda at RangoonSinbyume Circular Pagoda at

M ini n

D iagram of Voussoired ArchSection of Vault and RoofPlan OfAnanda TemplePlan Of Thatpyinnyu TempleSection ofThatpyinnyu TempleView of the Temple of Gaudaupal inBurmese KyaungFacade Of King’s Palace, BurmaMonastery at MandalayMap Of Cambodia and S iam ,

showing the pos it ion Of the

principal templesPlan oftheTemple OfAngkorVatE levation of the Temple ofNakhon Vat .

D iagram Section Of CO I ridor,Angkor VfitView of exterior Of Corr idor ,Angkor VfitView of inter ior of Corr idor ,Angkor Vat .

General View of Temple ofAngkor Vat .

Pier of Porch , Angkor VatLower part of Pier , Angkor VatPlan of the Temple of Bayon ,

Angkor ThomOne of the towers of the

Temple of Bayon , AngkorThom

Plan of the Temple at BengBeng MealeaB ird ’s -eye View of the Templeat Beng MéalefiCarved Lintel of the Temple at

Bassak .

Ruins of a Pagoda at Ayuthia,S iam

473 . Transverse Section of the BotOfVat Ja

'

i'

, Sukhodaya

4 74 . The Great Tower of th e Pagoda

47s476

Vfit-ching at BangkokHal l of Audience at BangkokMap of principal Temples ofJava

47 7 . Half plan.

of Temple of BoroBudur

478 . Elevation andSectionofTempleof Boro Budur

PAGE

350

35 2

35 7

36 1

362

363

368

37 7

38 1

387

388

389

4 10

4 1 2

PAGENO .

479 . Section of one of the SmallerDomes at BorO -Budu r

480. Elevat ion Of principal Dome atBorO-B udur

48 1 . View of Cent ral En t rance and

Stairs at Boro Budur482 . Plan and Section Of Temple of

Chand i Bhima483 . Plan of Chandi Sewu ,

Prambanan

484. Plan Of Chandi Lumbang , nearPrambanan 436

485 . Plan and Section OfChandi Sari 437

486 . Head of a doorway in ChandiKal i Ben ing , near Kalasan

487 . Plan of Chand i Jago, nearTumpang

488 . Chand i Panataran : plan Of

terraces 443

489 . D iagram OfChineseConstruction 452

490. Chinese Roof with I’

rimoya

Gables49 1 . B racke t Group492 . Temple of the GI eat Dragon ,

Pekin493 . Monumen tal Gateway of Bud

dhist Monastery, Pekin .

494 . BuddhistTemple in the SummerPalace , near Pekin 463

495 . Chinese Grave 465

496 . Chinese Tomb 465

497 . Plan Of the Tomb of Yunglo 466

498. Group of Tombs near Pekin 467

499 . Porce lain Tower, Nankin 470

500. Pagoda in Summer Palace,

near Pekin501 . P

‘ai lu, near Canton

502 Chinese P ‘ai lu, Temple of

Confucius, Pekin503 . P

‘ai ln at Amoy

504 . Plan of Tai ho Hal l , Pekin505 . Section of Tai ho Hal l506 . Pavil ion In the Summer Palace ,

near Pekin507 . View in the Winter Palace

,

Pekin508 . Archway in Nan -kau Pass

509 . B ird’s -eye View Of the BuddhistTemple of Ike-gami , nearYedo(Tokio) . 490 49 1

5 10. Roof of Sangatsu do, Todaij i ,Nara

5 1 1 . Plan of the H6riuJI Pagoda5 1 2 . Section of HOriuj i Pagoda

( XV )

L IST OF PLATES TO VOL . I I .

PLATE

XVI I I . TEMPLE OF PARSWANATH AT KHAJURAHOXIX. OLD JAINA TEMPLE AT LAKKUND Ixx . DOME IN VIMALA

’S TEMPLE, MOUNT AB I’)

XX I . INTERIOR OF TEJAHPALA’S TEMPLE AT MOUNT AEG

XX I I . RANPUR CHAUMUKH TEMPLE , GENERAL V IEW OF ,

FROM S .E.

XX I I I . HUCHCHHiMALLiGUD I TEMPLE AT AIHOLE

XXIV. Ki RTTI -STAMBHA AT VADNAGARxxv . S I NNAR : TEMPLE OF GONDESVARA, FROM THE SOUTHXXVI . AMARANATH SAIVA TEMPLE , NEAR KALYANXXVI I . TEMPLE OF JUGAL K I SHOR AT BRINDABANXXVI I I . PALACE IN GWALIAR FORT, FROM THE ASCENTXX IX .

’ALAi GATEWAY AT OLD DELH I

xxx . RAUZA OF IBRAHiM’AD IL SHAH I I . , AT B IJAPUR

XXX I . TOMBS BEYOND THE COURTYARD AT GOLKONDA

XXX I I . MOSQUE OF SHER SHAH I N PURANA X ILA,DELH I

XXX I I I . TOMB OF THE EMPEROR HUMAYIi N , NEAR DELH I

XXX IV. TOMB OF NAWAB SAFDAR JANG , NEAR DELH I

XXXV. DECORATION OF THE PIERS I NS IDE THE NAN -PAYATEMPLE , MYINPAGAN

XXXVI . THE ABHAVADANA TEMPLEXXXVI I . THE SHWE-DAGON , RANGOONXXXVI I I . THE KYAUKTAUGYI TEMPLE , AMARAPURAXXX IX . W I NDOW OF NAN -PAVA TEMPLE , MVI NPAGAN

XL. THE PITAKAT-TAIK , PAGANXLI . THE ANANDA TEMPLE, PAGANXLI I . UPPER PORCH OF TSI

‘

ILAMAN I TEMPLE,PAGAN

XLI I I . TH ITSAWADA TEMPLE , PAGANXLIV. 1 . GOPURA AT PREA KHANE (PRAH-KHAN )

2 . THE SPEAN TAON NAGA-HEADXLV. CORRIDOR OF TEMPLE AT PRAH -KHAN .

XLVI . PHRA-CHED I AND PHRA-PRANGXLVI I . VAT SI sAVAI , SUKHODAYA

XLVI I I . PLAN OF THE VAT NA PHRA-THAT , LOPHABURI

XLIX . CHAND I BHiMA

L, CHANDI ARJUNA

LIST OF PLATES TO VOL. I I .

PLATELI . BAS-RELIEFS FROM BORO-BUDURLI I . CHANDI JABANGL I I I . CHAND I SAR IL IV . CHAND I KALI -BENINGLV . CHAND I PANATARANLVI . CHAND I PANATARANLVI I . 1 . MEMOR IAL AT BLITAR , NEAR PANATARAN

2 . TEMPLE AT PANATARANLVI I I . BUDDH IsT TEMPLE T

’

SIANG CHA

LIX. PA-LI CHWANG PAGODA, NEAR PEKIN

LX. TEMPLE, ENTRANCE GATE , AND PAGODA OF HOR IUJ I

LXI . THE YO-ME I -MON GATE , N IKKO

LX I I . THE PAGODA OF HORIUJ I

LX I I I . THE BELFRY AT KAWA-SAK ILX IV. BELFRY IN THE IA-VASU TEMPLE AT N IKXO

1 .xv . CASTLE OF YEDO (TOKIO)

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

4 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V .

Al toge the r the Jains form a smal l section Of the populat ionof India

,accord ing to the last census , numbe ring about

or scarce ly 1 in 2 2 1 of the whole populat ion .

1 They are by farmore nume rous in weste rn India and Raj putana than e lsewhe rethus in Rajputana there are I 1 of the D igambara divis ion

,

and fully tw ice as many S ve tambaras Whe reas in Mysore whe rethe D igambaras outnumbe r the othe rs by 6 to 1 , they on ly coun t1 and

,whilst nume rical ly fewe r , they are equal ly le ss

influent ial than the i r CO- re l igion i sts farthe r north .

2

The proper objects Of worship are the twenty- four J inas orTi rthankaras , but , l ike the Buddhists

,they al low the existence

of H indu gods,and have admitted into the i r scu lpture s at least

such of them as are conne cted with the tale s of the i r sain tsamong which are Indra or S akra , Garuda, Sarasvati , Lakshmi ,Asuras

,Nagas

,Rakshasas

,Gandharvas

,Apsarasas , e tc .

,forming

a pan theon of the i r own , d ivided into four classe s— BhavanAdhipat is , Vyantaras , Jyot ishkas , and Vaim zi n ikas .

3

The Ti rthankaras are each recogn i sable by a cogn i zance orckz

'

kna,usual ly placed be low the image and they are some times

represented as of d i ffe ren t colours or complex ionS : thu s thefirs t fi ve are Of ye l low or golden colou r, as are al so the 7 th ,

10th

and 1 1 th , 1 3 th to 1 8th , 2 1 s t and 24th the 6 th and 1 2th are red

the 8th and 9 th , white or fa i r ; the l gth and 23 rd are blue ; andthe 20th and 2 2nd

,black . Each has his own sacred tree

,and

i s attended by a male and female Yaksha or Spi ri t,usual ly

represented on the right and le ft ends Of the drama or throne ofthe image ,

whilst a th ird attendan t i s carved on the cen tre ofit. The Ti rthankaras with the i r d ist inct ive s igns

,e tc .

, are givenin the fol lowing table

1 The following statement , from the census returns 1 90 1 , will indicatedistribution of the Jains

In Bombay Presidency , Barodaand smal ler statesRfijputei na including AjmirPanjéibUn ited Provinces and OudhCen tral IndiaCen tral Provinces and BerArHaidarfibfid

Mysore and CoorgMadras BresidencyBengal , Asfim, Kashmir, etc .

Total Jaina population

2 The D igambaras seem to have migrated to the south , owing to a severe faminein Hindustan , somewhere about 50 B . C . perhaps under the leadership of the laterBhadrabfihu. Indian An tiquary, ’ vol . xx . pp . 350f and xxi . pp. 1 59f.

3 Appendix to B iihler’s Indian Sect of the Jainas, ’ English translation , pp . 6 1

CHAP . I . INTRODUCTORY.

N AME . D I ST INCTI VE S I GN . BORN . D IED .

Adi-nfi tha or R ishabha Ash tépada

Aj i ta-n zi tha Same t S ikharSambhava

Abhinandana

Sumati-nai tha

Padmaprabha

Supérsva-nai tha

Chandraprabha

Pushpadan ta

S i tala-nétha

S reyfimsa-nai tha

VAsap Ii jya Champépuri

Vimala-né tha Same t S ikharAnan ta-n zi tli a

D harma-nfi tha

SAn t i -n zi thaKun thu-nfi tha

Ara-né tha

Mal l i -n zi thaMun isuvrata

N am i -nfi tha

N em i-nei tha

Pérswa-né tha

Mahévira, or Vardham zi na

Among these the most frequen tly repre sen ted are the fi rst,

s ixteen th , and last three .

The re are few Of the problems connected with this branchof our subje ct so Obscure and so puzzl ing as those connectedwith the early history of the arch itectu re Of the Ja ins . Thisstyle

,a lways s ingu larly chaste and e legan t, was e ssent ia l ly

H indu,and was doubtless large ly common to all Hind Ii sects

in weste rn India,but in i ts evolution i t became modified by

Jaina taste and requ iremen ts . And,the B rahmans in turn

,

through the influence Of the workmen,gradual ly accepted most

of the styl ist i c improvements of the i r rivals . Th is seems tohave been more e special ly the case in Gujarat and Rei jputéna,whe re the Jains we re ve ry nume rous and influen tial

,and we

might almost with equal proprie ty designate the i r style ofarchitecture as a We ste rn Hind Ii style ; but thi s would leadto the inclus ion Of example s of greate r d iversity

,and interfe re

with clearnes s of treatmen t . When we fi rst practical ly mee twith it in the early part Of the 1 1 th century at Ai

,or at

Girnar, i t is a style comple te and perfect i n all i ts parts

,

evidently the resul t of long experience and con tinuous artistic

Bul lE lephan tHo rseApe

Cu r lewLo tusSwas t ika markC rescen t -moon

Crocod i leS rivatsa ma rkRh inoce rosBuffaloB oar

FalconThunde rbo l tAn te lopeGoa tNandyei varta markWa te r -jarTo r to iseB lue wate r -l i l yConch she l lSe rpen tLion


deve lopment . From that point i t progresse s during one ortwo cen turie s towards greate r richness, but in doing so losesthe purity and perfection i t had attained at the earl ie r period ,and from that culminat ing poin t i ts downward progress can

be traced through abundan t example s to the presen t day .

When,howeve r, we try to trace i ts upward progress the case

i s wide ly d iffe rent . Gene ral Cunn ingham found some Jainastatues at Mathura be longing to the period of the Kushankings

,and excavation s the re in 1 887 and fol lowing season s

,

brought to l ight portions of a carved rai l,s tatues

,and nume rous

othe r sculptures,be longing to a s t Ii pa, and two or more ancien t

temples the re ; but among them we re image s be longing toso late a date as the 1 1 th century.

1 B efore this last period , wehave on ly fragments of temple s Of unce rtain origin and date

,and

all in SO ve ry ruined a condition that they hard ly ass ist us inour researches . Ye t the Jain s during the whole of this in te rva lwe re a flouri shing commun i ty

,and had the i r temple s as we l l

as the i r rock- cut sanctuarie s,such as we see at Khandagiri in

Orissa,at Junagadh

,ElIi ra

,Anka i

,A ihole ,

and e lsewhe re .

Meanwh i le one th ing seems tole rably clear, that the re l igionOf the Buddhists and that Of the Jain s we re SO S im ilar to oneanothe r

,both in the i r origin and the ir deve lopment and

doctrines,that the i r arch ite cture must a l so at fi rst have been

nearly the same . In consequence of this , i f we could traceback Ja ina art from about the year 1000,

when practical lywe fi rst mee t i t

,to the year 600 or 700,

when we lose sightOf Buddhist art , we shou ld probably fi nd the two very mucha l ike . Or i f

,on the othe r hand , we could trace B uddhist

art from A D . 600 to AD 1000,we Should as probably fi nd it

deve loping itse l f in to some th ing l ike the temple s on Moun tAi

,and e l sewhe re , at that pe riod Of t ime .

A s trong presumption that the architecture Of the twosects was s imi lar ari ses from the fact of the i r principal scu lpture sbe ing so nearly iden tica l that i t i s not always easy for thecasual Obse rve r to d ist ingu ish what be longs to the one and

what to the othe r ; and i t requ ire s some experien ce to dothis readily . The Ti rthankaras are gene ral ly represented seatedin the same cross - legged att itude as Buddha

,with the same

curly ha i r,and the same stol id contemplat ive expre ss ion Of

countenance . Whe re,howeve r, the emblems that accompany

the Jaina sa ints can be recogn ised,this d ifficul ty does not

exist. Anothe r te st arises from the fact that the D igambara

1 Archaeological R 1 2,and plates 30and 3 1

23 1-244, plates 39 and and plates

M2

131V;

a ura.

CHAP . I . INTRODUCTORY .

Jaina saints are represented as naked which,in anc ien t t ime s,

was perhaps the orthodox sect, though the Swetei mbaras are

clothed much l ike the B uddhists . When,the re fore

,a figure Of

the class is repre sented as naked it may certa in ly be assumedto be long to the D igambara se ct the Swetémbara image s havea loin - cloth ; these and othe r trai ts

,as the attendan t Yakshas

and Yaksh inis carved on the throne s,and the position of the

hands,enable us to d istinguish be tween Buddhis t and Ja ina

bas - re l ie fs and sculpture s . Probably all the earl ie r Ja ina caveswe re excavated for D igambara Ja ins .1I t i s now quite apparen t that

,in consequence Of our know

ledge Of Buddhist architecture be ing derived almos t exclus ive lyfrom rock - cut examples , we miss a great deal which , i f de rivedfrom s tructural bu i ld ings , would probably solve this questionOf early similarity among other problems that pe rplex us .

The same remarks apply equal ly to the Ja ina caves . Thoseat Udayagiri , Junagadh , Badami , ElIi ra,

and Anka i,do not he lp

us i n our inve stigation ,because they are no t copies of s tructura l

bu i ld ings,but are rock -cut examples

,wh ich had grown up in to

a style Of the ir own , d istinct from that Of s tructural ed ifice s .The earl iest hin t we ge t Of a twe lve -pi l lared dome , such

as those un ive rsal ly used by the Jains , i s in a sepulchre at

My lassa in Caria,2 probably be longing to the 4 th cen tury . A

second h in t i s found in the great cave at Bai gh (WoodcutNO . 1 1 3) in the 6 th or 7 th century, and the re i s l ittle doubt thatothe rs wil l be found when looked for— but whe re ? In the val leyof the Ganges

,and whe reve r the Muhammadan s settled in

force ,i t would be in vain to look for them . These zealots

found the s lende r and e legan t pi l lars,and the richly carved

horizonta l dome s Of the Ja in s,so appropriate and so eas i ly

re -arranged for the i r purpose s,that they uti l ised all they

cared no t to destroy . The great mosque s of Ajm ir, De lh i,

Kanauj,Dhar

,and Ahmadab zi d

,are me re ly reconstructed

temple s Of the Hind Ii s and Jains . There is,howeve r

,nothing

in any of them that. seems to be long to a ve ry remote pe riod—nothing In fact that can be carr ied back to t ime s long, i f at all,ante rior to the year 1000. SO we must look further for thecause of the i r loss .

As ment ioned in the introduction the curtain drops on the

1 In Jaina images the hands are always D igambaras, Supfirsva—the seventh Jinalaid in the lap , the clothing i s scan ty even —has a smaller group of hoods over hison Swetai mbara images, and the thrones head . The Swe tfimbaras also decorateand attendan ts differ

,whilst the Jinas“ or the ir images with crowns and ornamen ts

Arhats on ly have cogn isances , and the the other sect do not .S rivatsa figure on the breast . The figures 9 Ancien t and Medieval Archi tecture, ’Of Parswanath are distingu ished by vol . i . p . 37 1 , Woodcut NO . 242 .

snake hoods over them ; and with th e

8 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V.

drama of Indian history about the year 6 50, or a l i tt le late r,and for three centuries we have on ly the faintest gl imme ringsOf what took place within he r boundaries . C ivi l wars seemto have raged everywhere ,

and re l igious pe rsecution may haveprevai led . When the cu rta in again rises we have an enti re lynew scene and new dramati cp ersona pre sen ted to us . Buddhismhad disappeared , except in a corne r of Bengal

, and Jain ism hadcont inued in influence throughout the west

,and Vaishnavism

had usurped its inhe ri tance in the east . I t was most probablyduring the se three centuries of m isru le that the structural templesand Vih z

‘

I ras of the Buddhists d isappeared , and the earl ie rtemple s of the Ja in s ; and there i s a gap consequen tly in

our history which may be fi l led up by new discove ries in remoteplaces

,

1 but which at presen t separate s this chapte r from the

accoun t Of Buddhist Architecture in Book I . in a manne r it isnot pleasan t to con template .

1 The antiquities‘

O f Java will probably , to some exten t at least , supply this deficiency, as will be poInted out in the accoun t of the architecture of the island .

264 . Yavana guard at Ran i-ka-naur Cave ,Udayagiri .

CHAP. I I . ORISSA CAVES . 9

C H A P T E R I I .

JAINA CAVES .

CONTENTS.

O r issa Caves—BAdzi mi and Aihole—DhfirAS invé‘I—Ankai—Elfira.

The Jains,l ike the othe r sects , excavated cave -dwe l l ings or

bnz'

ksnag r z'

nas for the i r recluses but the nature of the i r re l igiond id not require large assembly hal l s l ike the cha i tyas of theBuddhis ts . They natu ral ly fol lowed the fash ion Of the othe rcon temporary sects

,to which indeed all India was accustomed .

We fi nd them,con sequently

,excavat ing cave s in Orissa and at

Junagadh or G irnar in Gujarat,as early as the 2nd cen tury B .C. ,

and at late r dates at Badami,at Patna in Khandesh

,at ElIi ra,

Anka i , and e l sewhe re .

1 And be fore ente ring upon the characte rist ic example s Of the late r Ja ina Archi te cture

,i t may be as we l l ,

at th is stage , to give some accoun t of the cave archite cture ofthe sect .

ORISSA CAVES.

The Orissa cave s have a l ready been re fe rred to , as they we relong mistaken as a group Of Buddhist excavat ions .2 They are

probably as old as anything Of the k ind in India and, un le ss

some of the B ihar excavat ions we re Jaina,they are the earl ie st

caves Of the sect . The O ldest and most nume rous are in the hil lon the east cal led Udayagiri ; the more mode rn in the weste rnportion designated Khandagiri . The picture squeness of the i rforms

, the characte r of the i r sculpture s and archi tectu ral de ta i l s ,comb ined with the i r great an t iqu i ty

,rende r them one Of the

most importan t groups Of cave s in India,and one that is most

de serving of a care fu l scien t ific survey . The accompanyingplan (Woodcut NO . 26 5 ) wil l he lp the reade r to unde rstandthe i r arrangemen t .What we know of the age Of the olde r cave s he re i s principal ly

derived from a long inscription on the fron t of one of the Olde st ,

1 Buddhist and Jaina caves are known all over India as lend s .

2 An te, vol . i . p . 1 7 7 .

I o JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V.

known as the Hathi -gumpha or E lephant Cave . I t i s unfortun

ate ly in a ve ry d ilapidated condition,but from the latest and

1 REFERENCES gumphsi ; 1 8 . Jagannz’

i tha ; 1 9 . Rasui .Udayagiri caves —1 . Rfini Hansapfi ra Khandagir i caves —a, b. Tfitwfi

cave ; 2, 3 . Vajadzi ra caves ; 4 . Chhotai gumphai , Nos. 1 and 2 ; c. An Open

Hai thi -gumph zi ; 5 . Alakzi pfiri ; 6 . Jayavi cave ; d . Tentuli ; e. Anan ta-

gumph zi ;jaya ; 7 . Thzi kuran i ; 8 . Panasa-gumphei ; 9 . j : Khandagiri -gumph zi g . t i nagarha

Pzi tAlapuri ; 1 0. Manchap Ii ri ; 1 1 . Ganesa 12. Nabamun i j . BArabhuj i ; k. Trisulagumph fi ; 1 2 . Dhei nagarha ; 1 3 . Hai thi gumph zi ; l . Jaina Temple ; 772. Smal lgumph zi ; 14. Sarpa-

gumphfi ; 1 5 . BAgha¢ votive stIi pas ; n . Ru ined caves ; o. Lalzigumphfi ; 1 6 . Jambervara ; 1 7 . Haridfisa tendra-

gumphfi ; p . Akzi I a-gangzi .

1 2 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V .

not perhaps the earl iest — are found figures Of the JainaTi rthankaras and the i r attendan ts . 1

Close to the Hathi -gumpha i s a smal l cave , known as Sarpa,the whole fronton Of which over the doorway is occupiedby a great three -headed NAga, and may be as Old as the Hei thi

cave . The inscription on i t mere ly says that i t i s “the un

equal led chambe r Of Ch Ii lakama,

”who seems also to have ex ca

vated anothe r cave here , to the west of the Hathi -gumpha, cal ledHarid zi sa 2—a long room with three doorways behind a ve randah .

B eside s these,and smal le r cave s to be noticed he reafte r,

the great inte re st Of the Udayagiri caves cen tre s in two— the so

cal led Ganesa cave , and that cal led the Rai j Rani , Rani -ka-naur,

or Rei ni Hansap Ii ra, or s imply Rai ni -gumpha, from a base lessHind Ii tradition that i t was excavated by the Rémi Of Lalatendra Kesari , the reputed bui lde r Of the Bhuvaneswar templein the 7 th cen tury.

The former i s a smal l cave , cons isting of two ce l l s , toge the r30 ft. long by

‘

10 ft . wide,in front Of which is a ve randah

,

sl ightly longe r, that was on ce adorned withfi ve pi l lars , though on ly three are now standing (Woodcut NO . The re i s an inscript ion on the back wal l of th is cave in

266 , Ganem Cave , (From mediaeval characte rs , dedicat ing it to JaganLocke . ) nei th ; but this i s eviden tly an addit ion

,pro

ca e 5° t ' to I m ‘ bably cut when the image Of Ganesa was alsoinserted .

4 The s tyle Of the architecture may be j udged offrom the annexed woodcut, represen ting one of its pi l lars(Woodcut NO . They are Of extreme s impl ic ity

,be ing

square pie rs,changing in to octagon s in the centre on ly

,and

with a s l ight bracke t Of very wooden construction on eachface . The four doorways leading into the ce l ls are adornedwith the usual horse shoe - formed canopies copied from the

1 I t is to be regre tted that when theBengal Governmen t twice sen t surveypart ies to Orissa , and spen t so much onthe publ ication of the ir work

,no adequate

directions were given as to what shouldbe Observed and i llustrated .

Th is was cal led Pawan -

gumphéi byPrinsep

— probably by mistake . Thenames attached to the diffe rent caves,however, are much confused in the

differen t accoun ts that cal led Vaikunthapfi ri by Kittoe and R . M itra seems tobe now called Svargap Ii ri ; the Alakfipfi ri ,a double-storeyed cave , is apparentlythe SvargapIi ri Of Rai jendralfil M itra,who mixes up the Alakfipfiri and ChhotaHAthi -gumphfi ; the Jodev cave of Kittoe

has been cal led JayaVIJaya ; the namesOf Pfi tfilapfi ri and Manchap ii ri havebeen interchanged by Rzi jendralai l ; and

so on ,—making i t almost impossible to

reconcile the various accoun ts . OfficialReport to B engal Gove rnmen t , by Bei buManmohan Chakravarti,’ August 1 902 .

3 A recen t at tempt has been made on

the part Of Governmen t to “ res tore ”

these caves . This was i ll -advised, and

the restored e lephants at the entrancesteps he re do not conform to the originalfigures , whilst the new pillars do l ittlecredit to the Executive .

4 ‘ Journal of the Asiatic Socie ty of

Bengal , ’ vol . vi . p . 1075 .

CHAP . I I . ORISSA CAVES. I 3

fron ts of the cha itya hal l s , and which we are now so famil iarwith from the Bharaut scu lptures

,and from the open ings

common to all wooden bui ld ingsof that age . The compartmen tsbe tween the doors of the ce l l scon tain figure sculptures— one ofthem seemingly almost a repl ica ofa scene on the frieze of the uppe rstorey of the Rai ni -gumpha. The

centre pane l is occupied by a roofcarved in low

'

re l ie f with threepinnacles

,and a rai l -pattern frieze

over it

The othe r cave i s ve ry muchlarge r

,be ing two storeys in he ight

,

both Of which we re original lyadorned by ve randahs : the uppe r6 3 ft . long, open ing into four ce l l s ,the lowe r 43 ft . ,

Open ing in to three(Woodcuts NO . 268 and All

the doors leading in to the se ce l lshave Jambs sloping s lightly inwards ,which is itse lf a sufficien t indicat ion

6 P,

“ G C K t kthat the cave i s long ante rior to the 2 7 ‘

(Pi—011i Aufhirj)Christian Era. Of the n ine pi l larsOf the uppe r ve randah on ly two remain standing, and these much

268 . Upper storey , Rani -gumpha. 269 . Lower storey , Rani -gumpha.

Scale 50 ft . to I in . (From Plans by H . H . Locke . )

mutilated,while all the S ix Of the lowe r s torey have perished .

1 I tseems as i f from inexpe rience the excavators had not left suffic ien t

1 The pillars in most gim -crackrestoredshafts, d

1 4 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK v .

substance to support the mass Of rock above,and probably in

consequence Of some acciden t , the mass above fe l l in,bearing

eve rything before i t . E i ther then , or at some subsequen t pe riod ,an attempt has been made to restore the lowe r ve randah inwood

,and for this purpose a chase has been cut through the

sculpture s that adorned its backwal l

,and they have been othe r

wise SO muti lated that i t is a lmostimpossible to make out the i rmean ing. The accompanyingse ction (No . 270) wil l i l lustratethe pos it ion Of thi s woodenadjunct and that of the two

270. Section of Ranggumphé o

storeys Of th is cave . Fortu

Scale 25 ft . to x in . nate ly ,the sculpture s Of the

uppe r verandah are tole rablyen t i re , though in some parts they, too , have been ve ry badlytreated .

Bes ide s th is, which may be cal led the main body Of the

bu i ld ing,two wings project forward ; that on the left 40 ft .

,

that on the right 20 ft ; and , as these con tained ce l l s on bothstoreys

,the whole afforded accommodat ion for a cons iderable

numbe r Of inmate s .The great interest Of these two cave s

,however

,l ies in the i r

sculptures . In the Ganesa cave , as al ready ment ioned,the re

are two has-re l iefs . The first represents a man asleep unde ra tree , and a woman watching ove r h im . TO them a womani s approaching

,leading a man by the hand , as i f to in troduce

him to the s leepe r. Beyond them a man and a woman are

fighting with swords and shie lds in ve ry close combat,and

behind them a man i s carrying Off a female in his'

arms .

1

The second bas - re l ie f comprises fifteen figures and twoe lephan ts . The re may be in i t two success ive scenes , thoughmy impress ion i s

,that on ly one i s in tended

,while I fee l ce rtain

this i s the case regard ing the fi rst . In the Rai ni cave the

second bas- re l ie f i s ide ntical , in all e ssen t ial respects,with

the fi rst in the Ganesa, h i t the re l ie fs that precede and fol lowi t repre sen t d i ffe ren t scenes a ltogether. I t is

,pe rhaps

,in vain

to speculate what episode th is rape scene repre sen ts , probablysome tradition not yet ident ified ; i ts greatest intere st for our

1 There is a very fai thful drawing of and photographs, some of which werethis has-rel ief by Kittoe in the ‘ Journal published on plate 100 of ‘

Tree and

of the Asiatic Socie ty of Bengal , ’ vol . Serpen t Worship, ’ 2nd ed . , 1 873 ;‘Cave

vii . plate 44 . But casts of all these Temples , ’ plate 1 ; and in Rfijendraléilsculptures were taken in 1 87 1 -1 872 by M i tra’s ‘ An tiquities of Orissa, ’ vol . i i .M r. Locke , of the School ofAr t, Calcutta, plates 6 - 14.

CHAP. I I . ORISSA CAVES . 1 5

presen t purposes is that the fi rst named is s ingularly class ica lin des ign and execution

,the latte r wi lde r, and both in action

and costume far more pure ly Indian . Be fore the d iscoveryof the Bharaut sculpture s

,i t is hardly doubtful that we would

have pronounced those in the Ganesa cave the O ldest,as be ing

the most perfect . The Bharaut scu lpture s, however, havingShown us how perfect the nat ive art was at a very early date ,have con siderably modified our opin ions on this subject ; andthose in the RAni cave , be ing so e ssen tial ly Indian in the i rstyle , now appear to me the oldest . Those in the Ganesa

gumpha, as more class ical , may have been exe cuted at a

subsequen t date , but sti l l both long an te rior to the ChristianEra. The othe r bas- re l iefs in the RAJ-Ram cave representscenes Of hunt ing , fighting , dan cing, drinking, and love -making

-anyth ing, in fact , but re l igion or praying in any shape or form .

From the Sculptu re s at San ch i and Bharaut,we we re

prepared to expect that we shou ld no t fi nd any dire ct evidenceof Mahéy zi na Buddhism in sculpture s an terior to the ChristianEra ; but those at thi s place are not Buddhis t but Jaina

,and

t i l l we are bette r acquain ted with the Ja ina legends than we

are at pre sen t, we cannot hOpe to de te rmine What such sculpture sreal ly represen t . B es ides these bass i - ri l ievi

,the re i s in the Rémi

cave a figu re , in high re l ie f, Of a female (P) riding on a l ion .

B ehind him or her, a sold ie r in a k il t,or rathe r the dress Of a

Roman sold ie r, with laced boots reaching to the cal f Of the leg(Woodcu t NO . 264) —Ve ry s imilar, in fact , to those representedon plate 28

,fig . I

,of ‘

Tree and Se rpen t Worship,

’

as strange rspaying the i r addre sses to a three - storeyed s tIi pa

—and behindthis

,again ,

a female Of fore ign aspe ct .In anothe r cave of the same group— the Jayavijaya, cal led by

Kittoe the JodeV-Garbha— and Of about the same age , be tweenthe two doorways leading to the ce l l s

,a sacred tree i s be ing

worshipped by two men and two women with offe rings . I t issurrounded by the usual rai l

,and devotees and othe rs are

bringing Offerings . 1 The ve randah has a male figure outside at

the le ft end , and a female at the right .In ye t anothe r cave

,in the Khandagir i h i l l

,s imilar in plan

to the Ganesa cave , and probably Olde r than e i the r of the twolast-men tioned , cal led Ananta-

garbha, are bass i - ri l ievi ove r thedoorways : one - oh the right— i s devoted

,l ike the last

,to Tree

worship , the othe r to the honour Of S ri (w’

a’e an te

,vol . i . p . She

is s tanding on her lotus,and two e lephants

,s tanding l ikewise on

lotuse s,are pouring wate r ove r her ? The same represen tation

occurs once , at leas t , at Bharaut , and ten time s at Sénch i, and ,

Joprnal of

.

the Asiatic Society ofl

2 Tree and Serpen t Worship , ’ plateBengal , vol . VI I . plate 42 . 100, p. 1 05 ;

‘CavelTemples,

’ plate 1 .

1 6 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V.

so far as I know,i s the earl iest instance Of honour paid to god or

man in Indian sculpture s . The th ird to the left is partly brokenaway by the fal l of the wal l be tween the next two doors ; butenough is le ft to Show that i t repre sented S Ii rya, the sun -god

,in

his chariot drawn by four horses,with h is two wives , much as in

the smal l early v ihEi ra at Bhaja 1and the fourth had been fi l led

by a large e lephan t facing outwards,with one on each s ide

hold ing up flowers . The arches ove r these sculptures and the

frieze conne cting them are al so carved with figure s in qua in tposit ion s or flying, and each arch i s cove red by two tripleheaded se rpen ts whose hoods are rai sed at the s ide s of thearches .

The pilaste rs by the s ide s Of the doorways are of a curious ,i f not exceptional class , and more l ike some Of those found

in early cave s in the We st than any othe rs on

this s ide Of India (Woodcut NO They are

eviden tly copied from some form of woodenposts stuck in to stone base s

,as i s usual at

Karlé, Nai s ik, and othe r Wes te rn caves . He re ,howeve r

,the surface i s carved to an exten t not

found e l sewhe re,and be trays a wooden origin

indicat ive of the early age to which the excavat ion Of this cave must be assigned . The an imalfigures on the capitals and on othe r caves he rei s also a feature gene ral ly mark ing an early date ,

27 1 . Pilas ter fromAnanta-

gumpha. 272 . Tiger Cave , Udayagiri .

as i s al so the inward slope of the door jambs . The pi l lars ofthe verandah are gone , and a new support has been insertedby the Publ ic Works engineers .

1 A sketch of th ariot with a jar is

g off the

CHAP . I I . ORISSA CAVES. 1 7

One othe r cave here—the BAgh-

gumphé—deserve s to be

ment ioned . I t is a great boulde r, carved in to the semblance ofa t ige r’s head , with his jaws Open

,and his throat , as i t should

be,is a doorway leading to a s ingle ce l l about 6 ft . 4 in . dee p

,

by 7 to 9 ft . wide (Woodcut NO . I t i s a caprice,but one

that shows that those who con ce ived it had some expe rience inthe plas t ic arts be fore they unde rtook it . The door jambs slopeinwards sl ightly

,and the pilaste rs on each s ide have winged

e lephan ts on the capitals and vase - shaped bases . From the

form of the characte rs also which are engraved upon i t,i t is

undoubtedly an te rior to the Christian Era,but how much earl ier

i t is diffi cult to say .

A l ittle lowe r down the Khandagiri hi l l than the Anan ta are

Representation of a Hall from Bharaut sculptur

two cave s cal led Tzi tvzi -gumpha, the uppe r cons is ting of one room1 6 1

2~ ft . to 1 8 ft . long by 1 7 ft . deep and 5 ft . 9 in . high

,having

three entrances .

1 The doors are flanked by pilas te rs with

1 Cunn ingham s‘Archaeological Survey Reports, ’ vol . xiii . (by M r . Beglar) , pp ; 8 1 f.

Like several others , i t is not mentioned in RAjendralAl M i tra’s Antiqui ties of Orissa .

VOL . I I . B

I 8 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V.

capital s of the Pe rsepol itan type , and the facade ove r these i ssculptured as a long ridged roof with pointed sp ike s , comparablewith representation s found at Bharaut (Woodcut NO .

Unde r this is a frieze of fi ve -barred rai l ing with e lephants carvedat each end

,and the tympana are flanked by birds

,a peacock ,

and a hare , and within are fi l led with carved ornaments . But i tis of special in terest that the wal ls have once been covered witha coating of fi ne plaste r. On the middle of the back wal l aresculpture s Of the sun and moon

,on each s ide of which a long

inscript ion once extended— Of which remains st i l l exist—writtenon the plaste r with a red pigment . 1

Space forbids more de tai l of the se intere sting caves , and

unti l we have a scien t ific survey of the whole— inclus ive ofmany that on ly awa i t clearing Of the earth in which they are

buried—made in the ful l l ight Of all the knowledge we now

possess,i t i s imposs ible to do them justice from archaeological

and historical aspects .Great l ight was thrown on the history of Jaina excavations

by the d iscove ry Of a Ja ina cave at Bédei m i , 64 miles southOf B ijépur, with a fa i rly asce rta ined date ? The re i s no inscript ion on the cave i tse l f, but there are three othe r B rahman icalcaves in the same place , one of which has an in script ionwith an undoubted date , S aka 500 or A .D . 5 7 9 ; and all fou rcave s are so l ike one anothe r in style that they must havebeen excavated W ithin the same century . The Jaina cave isprobably the most mode rn ; but i f we take the year A.D . 6 50

as a medium date,we may probably con s ide r it as ce rtain

within an e rror Of twen ty years e ithe r way .

The cave i tse l f i s smal l,on ly 3 1 ft . across and about 1 6 ft .

deep, and i t is hard ly doubtful that the groups of figures at

e i the r end Of the ve randah are integral . The inne r groups,

howeve r, are ce rtain ly of the age Of the cave , and the architecture i s unal te red , and thus be comes a fixed stand ing-poin tfor comparison with othe r example s ; and when we come tocompare i t with the groups known as the Indra Sabh zi and

J agannath Sabha at ElIi ra,we cannot hes itate to ascribe them

to more than a century late r.Wi th the se we may he re ment ion that at Aihole

,bes ide s a

B rahman ica l cave ,the re i s a l so a Ja ina one of somewhat large r

d imens ions than that at BAd zi mi . The ve randah has four pi l larsin front , i s 3 2 ft. in length and 7 ft. 3 in . w ide , and has a careful ly carved roof. The ha l l i s 1 7 ft . 8 in . wide by 1 5 ft . deep ,

1 No satisfactory tr rchaeological Survey ofbeen made ; and the vol . i . p . 25 ,

2o JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V.

cut examples with structural ones . Our knowledge of thearchitecture of temple s i s , . in n ine cases o ut of ten

,de rived from

the i r exte rnal forms , to which the inte riors are qui te subord inate .

Cave - temples,howeve r, have pract ical ly no exte riors

,and at

the utmost facades modified to admit more l ight than i s u sualin structural edifices

,and then strengthened and modified so

as to su it rock -cut architecture . As no anc ien t Ja ina templeexcept that of Megut i at Aiho le

—has a dated inscription upon i t,nor a tolerably authen t icated history

,i t i s no wonder that guesse s

274. EnIrance to the Indra SabhaCave at ElfIra, (From a Photograph . )

might be wide Of the truth: Now, howeve r, that we knowposi tive ly the age Of one example

,all this can be rectified

,and

there seems no doubt that the Indra Sabha group was excavated—say no t before A.D . 8 50.

When with this new l ight we come to examine with carethe archite cture Of these facade s , we fi nd the ElIi ra groupexhibits an extraord inary affin i ty with the southern style . The

l i ttle de tached shrine in the courtyard of the Indra Sabha,

and the gateway shown in the above woodcut (NO . are

as essent ial ly D ravid ian in style as the Kailsi s i tse l f,and

,l ike

many of the de tai l s of these cave s , so nearly ident ical that

CHAP. 11 . E LURA JAINA CAVES. 21

they cannot poss ibly be very d istan t in date . May we,

the re fore , assume from this that the Chalukyan kingdom Of

Badami,in the 7 th century of our era,

and the Réshtrai ta Of

Mzi lkhed, which fol low in the 8 th to l oth cen tury , extended from

E lIi ra on the north to the Tungébhadra and Krishna on the

south ,and that all these rock- cut example s , w i th the temple

at Aiho le (Woodcut NO . we re excavated or e re cted underthe auspices Of these two dynasties "

Both the cave s named above are o f two storeys with a

numbe r Of smal le r hal ls attached,

and

be longed to the D igambara d ivis ion . Fromthis circumstance and the appearance Of

Gommata along with Parswanei th in a

numbe r Of the shrines—as We fi nd these at

Badémi— and that the on ly in scriptions arein Kanarese

,we are led to in fe r that the

excavators we re from the south and broughtthe Dravid ian s tyle with them . In the

right of the court is a large statue Of an

e lephan t,and on the le ft was a fi ne mono

l i thic stambha 3 1 ft. 6 in . in he ight includ ing the Chaumukh figure crown ing it .(Woodcut No . I t fe l l ove r aboutthirty - two years ago .

Near the ridge above these cave s is a

colossal image of Pai rswanei th,inscribed as

having been carved so late as A .D . 1 23 5 .

And to the east Of the othe r cave s is a

curious unfin i shed temple— an im itat ion on a

smal l scale Of the B rahman i cal Kai las . The

s ikhara i s low and unfin i shed , and the

work was probably sudden ly left in th isstate .

1 During a partial excavation th irty 27 5 ’ 1

fgfigfi‘

figi i‘a

gfifiiyears ago some loose image s we re found Indra Sabhfi

dated in 1 247 .

Scale ro ft . tO I In .

Reve rting to the remark as to the origin Of these caves , i tmay be assumed that the theory repre sen ts the facts Of the casemore nearly than any hithe rto brought forward . The Chalukyasand R zi shtrak ii tas we re si tuated on the borde r-l ine , hal f-waybe tween the north and the south

,and they

,or the i r subjects ,

seemed to have practised the styles of architecture be longingto those two d ivis ions indiscriminate ly— it might almost be saidalternate ly—and we con sequently find them mixed up here and

at Dhamnar in a manne r that i s most puzzl ing.

1 Cave Temples, ’ pp . 495f. and plates 86 -

92 .


The last k ing of the early Chalukyas , Kirt ivarman l I . ,

ascended the throne A.D . and was deprived of all h is

domin ion s by Dant idurga ,the Rei shtrai ta of Mal khed

,by

7 57 . I t was probably , the re fore , afte r that date that the seD ravid ian temple - forms we re introduced by the Jains at ElIi ra.

The Kai las and othe r great S aiva temple s we re excavated bythese Réshtrai tas—themse lve s a D ravid ian race—who carriedthe i r powe r up to the Narbad zi .

Before leaving this branch of the subject there i s one othe rrock- cut example which dese rves to be quoted , not e i ther for itss ize or an t iqu ity

,but from the e legan ce of its de tai l s . I t i s

s ituated at a place cal led Kalugumalai in the T inneve l lyd istrict

,

2 27 miles south from S riv illiputt Ii r, and consequen tly7 5 mile s north from Cape Comorin . L i ke the example s at

Mzimallapuram ,th is one neve r was fin i shed

,probably because

the pe rson who commenced i t d id not l ive to comple te i t , andi t was nobody ’

s bus ine ss to fin ish what was of no use , and

in tended on ly to glori fy h im who made i t . I t i s not cutout Of a separate boulde r, but out Of a ridge

,as I fan cy

those at Mai mallapuram to have been ,and i f successfu l , any

numbe r Of othe rs of any dimens ion s might have fol lowed .

The othe r S ide Of the Kalugumala i h i l l had been occupiedby the Ja ins

,and numerous image s Of the i r Tirthankars are

carved upon i t,with inscript ion s that supply the name s of

the Vi l lage s by which the diffe ren t figure s we re carved . Thisl i ttle temple i s now dedicated to Subrahmanya,

but i s said to beoriginal ly Jaina ; i t i s probably Of the l oth or 1 1 th cen tu ry, andi f i t had been comple ted i t wou ld have been one of the mos tpe rfect gems of the style . For some reason unexplained it wason ly blocked out

,and the uppe r part on ly carved , when i t was

abandoned,and i s now enti re ly forsaken .

3 From its detai l s,i t

ce rtain ly i s more mode rn than the Kai las—how much we cannotye t say with certainty.

1 ‘ Bombay Gazet teer , ’ vol . i . pt I I . temple dedicated to Ganesa or Pillayzi rp . 376 . with a pradakshina passage round the

2 Several photographs of i t are in the shrine . Cave Temples of India,

’

I ndia Offi ce col lect ion . p . 1 5 9 ;‘ Indian An tiquary , ’ vol . I I .

3 In the same rock is excavated a cave p . 202 .

CHAP . 111 . JAINA STRUCTURAL TEMPLES. 23

CHAPTER I I I .

JAINA STRUCTURAL TEMPLES .

CONTENTS .

Lakkundi—Pélitai né—Girn zi r Moun t Abfi—Pzi rasn zi th—R zi npurGw zi liar—Khajurai hO—Ch i tor .

THE temples d istinct ive ly Jaina in the t i rwér d istri cts are

no t now numerous, ye t the re are sufficien t remains at Be lgaum ,

Pattadakal, Aihole ,1and at Annige ri

,Dambal

,Lakkundi

,and

othe r places , to prove that Jain i sm was at one time ve ryinfluential . Those at Pattadakal and A ihole have been brieflynoticed above (vol . i . , pp . 3 1 9 , I t has been supposed thati t was probably owing to a succes sion Of able D igambara Jainateache rs , in th is Kanarese country , during the 8th and 9 th

centurie s , and who we re favoured by the RAshtrai ta k ingsof Malkhed , that Buddhism waned in the se d istri cts

,and final ly

d isappeared . Respecting the temple s,we learn that those at

Annige ri— probably e re cted in the 10th century—with othe rsin Mysore , we re burn t by Réjendradeva Chola about the middleof the 1 l th cen tury , and we re re stored by a local gove rnor about1070.

One of the most enti re of the Jaina Temple s is at Lakkundi ,a Vi l lage about 7 mile s eas t- south-east from Gadag, in Dharward istrict ? From the plan

,Woodcu t No . 276 , i t wi l l be seen that

i t i s not large . Though somewhat seve re for a Chalukyantemple , i t i s exceedingly we l l proportioned . The s ikhara

,as

seen in the photograph , Plate X IX . ,i s enti re and presents

the appearance of a D ravid ian work,and the head of the

1 ‘ Archaeological Survey of Western materials be ing carried off for bui ldingIndia . Belgaum and Kaladgi

,

’ pp . 1 -5 , purposes ; and in the end of 1 897 the

1 2 1 3 , 25 26 , 35 and 37 , where descrip statemen t was repeated in the ‘Revisedtions and plans of the temples at these Lists ofAn tiquarian Remains in Bombayplaces are given . Pres idency.

’The Jaina temple has Since

1 In 1885 i t was noted that all the been re occupied ; the others are now

temples here were being rapidly destroyed being looked afte r by the Archaeologicalby trees on the ir roofs , and by the Survey.


PALITANA.

The grouping togethe r Of the i rtemple s into What may be cal led

“ Ci t ie sof Temples ” i s a pecu l iarity which the

Ja in s have pract ised to a greate r exten tthan the followe rs of any othe r re l igionin Ind ia. The Buddhists grouped the i rs t Ii paS and Vih fi ras near and around

27 6 . Lakkund i Jaina Temple . sacred spots , as at San chi , Mei n iky zi la,Sea“: 25 ft : 10 I in or in Peshawar

,and e lsewhe re ; but they

(From Plan by Mr H . Cousens . ) we re scattered , and each was supposed tohave a special mean ing, or to mark some sacred Spot . The

Hind Ii s a l so grouped the i r temple s , as at Bhuvaneswar orBenares , in great numbers toge the r ; but in all case s , so faras we know

,because the se we re the cen tre s Of a populat ion

who be l ieved in the gods to whom the temple s we re dedicated ,and wan ted them for the purpose s of the i r worship . Ne ithe rOf these re l igion s , howeve r, posse ss such a group Of temple s ,for in stance

,as that at S atrunjaya, or Palit z

‘

mzi — as i t is usual lycal led from the ne ighbouring town ,

in Gujarai t , about 35 milesfrom Gogha and Bhaunagar, on i ts easte rn coast (WoodcutNo .

I t i s sacred to R ishabhanath , the fi rst of the twen ty- fourJaina Ti rthankaras , and cove rs the two summits of the S atrunjaya hil l , each about 360 yards long, with the

O

depress ion

be tween them . They are grouped in separate enclosures ca l ledT Ii ks , surrounded by high battlemented wal ls , each having at

least one prin cipal temple with varying numbe rs of smal ler ones

wal ls i s treated in a way sugge stingd i rect descen t from the Mamallapurampagodas . To provide an uppe r "

shrine,

wh ich is a feature in most of the large rJaina temple s , the fi rs t s torey Of the towe rhad to be made a distinct featu re

,and

with a proje ct ing fron t or en trance . Thistemple has an oute r open hallormandapa,

having extens ions on each s ide,with an

inne r hal l about 20155 ft . square in s ide , and

a door on the south s ide as we l l asthe entrance from the open mandap .

I t i s d ifficult from a photograph a loneto fix its age , bu t probably i t be longsto the earl ie r hal f or m idd le Of the

l o th centu ry .


over five hundred .

1 The numbe r of images Of the Ti rthan

karas in the se temples i s very great , and i s constantl be ingaugmented in 1 889 the numbe r of separate image s counted was

exclus ive of smal le r ones on slabs . A few watchmen on lyremain during the n ight

,at the gateways Of the TIi ks . The

priests come up eve ry morn ing and pe rform the dai ly se rvice s ,and a few attendants keep the place clean ,

which they do withthe most ass iduous attent ion ,

or feed the sacred pigeon s whichare the sole den i zen s Of the spot ; but the re are no humanhabitations

,properly so cal led , within the wal l s . The pilgrim

or the s trange r ascend s in the morn ing, and re tu rn s when he

has pe rformed h is devotion s or satisfied h is curios ity. He mustno t eat or drink , or at least must not cook food , on the sacredhi l l

,and he must not sleep the re . I t is a city Of the gods

,

and mean t for them on ly, and not in tended for the use ofmortals .Jaina temple s and shrine s are , Of course

,to be found in

cit ies , and where the re are a sufficien t numbe r Of votarie s tosupport a temple

,as in othe r re l igion s ; but , beyond this , the

Ja ins seem,almost more than any sect

,to have real ised the

idea that to bu i ld a temple,and to place image s in i t

,was

in i tse l f a highly me ritorious act,whi lst they also share in the

me rits Of i ts use by the i r co -re l igion ists . Bu i ld ing a temple iswith them a praye r in stone

,which they conce ive to be eminently

duteous and l ike ly to secure them benefits both he re and he reafte r .I t is in consequence of the Jains be l ieving to a greate r

exten t than the other Indian sects in the efli cacy of templebu ild ing as a mean s of salvat ion ,

that the i r arch i te ctu ral performances hear so much large r a proportion to the i r numbe rsthan those Of othe r re l igion s . I t may also be owing to thefact that n ine out of ten

,or n inety-n ine in a hundred , of the

Ja ina temples are the gifts of single wealthy individual s Of themiddle classe s , that these bui ld ings gene ral ly are smal l anddeficien t in that grandeu r Of proportion that marks the bu i ldings unde rtaken by royal command or be longing to importan torgan ised commun i t ie s . I t may ,

howeve r,be al so owing to

this that the i r bu ild ings are more e laborate ly fin i shed than thoseof more nat ional importance . When a weal thy individual ofthe class who build these temple s des i re s to spend his moneyon such an Object

,he is much more l ike ly to fee l pleasure

1 The official inventory , e Bombay Presidency,

’etc.

Bhandar or t 8,193

-2 1 3 but in the z ud

of shrines in its editor has employed athir teen . gement Of the temples.

CHAP . I I I . PALITANA. 2 7

in e laborate detai l and exquis ite fin ish than on great purityor grandeur Of concept ion .

All these pecul iarit ies are found in a more marked degreeat Pri litana than at almost any othe r known place , and , fortunate ly for the studen t Of the s tyle

,extending ove r a con side rable

pe riod Of t ime . Some Of the temple s may be as Old as the 1 1 th

century“ but the Mosl im invade rs Of 14th and 1 sth cen turie smade sad havoc of all the olde r Shrine s

,and we have on ly

fragmen ts of a few of them .

1 In the latte r hal f Of the 1 6 thcen tury, howeve r, the Jains Obta ined tole rance and securi ty,and forthwith began to rebui ld the i r O ld fanes . From 1 500

they are spread pretty even ly ove r all the inte rven ing pe rioddown to the presen t date . But the large s t numbe r and someOf the most importan t we re e rected w i thin the last seventyyears

,or within the memory of l iving men . Fortunate ly

,too ,

the se modern example s by no mean s d isgrace the age in whichthey are bui l t . The i r scu lptu re s are in fe rior, and some of the i rde ta i ls are deficien t in mean ing and expre ss ion ; but , on the

whole , they are equal,or nearly so

,to the ave rage example s

of earl ie r age s . I t is this that make s S atrunjaya one of themos t interest ing place s that can be named for the ph i losophicalstuden t Of architectural art

,inasmuch as he can the re see the

various proce sse s by which cathedrals we re produced in the

Middle Ages,carried on on a large r scale than almost anywhe re

e lse,and in a more natural manne r. I t is by watching the

methods st i l l fol lowed in des ign ing bu ild ings in that remoteloca l i ty that we become aware how it i s that the uncul t ivatedHind Ii can ri se in architecture to a degree of original i ty and

pe rfe ction which has no t been atta ined in Europe s ince the

M idd le Age s , but which might easi ly be recove red by fol lowingthe same proce sse s .

Among the S atrunjaya temple s there i s every varie ty ofform and structure , and a monograph on this group , ful lyi l lustrated

,would be Of great archite ctural

,an tiquarian ,

and

mythological inte rest ? The chie f temple is that dedicated toMulan éyak S ri Adiswar or Rishabhanai th , near the west end

of the T Ii k occupying the southern ridge . I t i s de scribedin an inscription at the entrance as

“the seven th restorat ion ’

Of the temple , carried out in 1 5 30 by Karmas imha,min iste r to

Ratnas imha of Chitor. This restorat ion ”apparently cons isted

1 The Dhundiya or Lumpéka sect are blamed for causing destruction among(founded in refuse to worship the Satrunjaya temples in a feud betweenimages , nor al low them or pictures in them and the Tapagachha Jains .

the ir Up zi srayas or places of worship , 2 The Satrunjaya temples were sur

though they revere the Jinas . Orien tal veyed by M r . Cousens some years agoChrist ian Spectator,’ 1 835 , p . 295 . They but the resul ts are not yet published .


in the rebuild ing of an Old temple dat ing from about A.D . 960,

a new colossal image , and the bu i lding of the gateway in whichi s the shrine Of Pundarika .

1 The great temple IS an Impos ingtwo storeyed bu i ld ing with a lofty spire , and w ith i ts basesurrounded by many smal l shrines . Wi th in , bes ide s the greatmarble image Of R ishabha, the re are l i te ral ly hundreds Of othe rsOf all S i ze s ; 2 and , as at RAnpur and e lsewhere

,the re are

min iatu re Muhammadan qiblas se t up outside as a protectionaga in st Mos l im iconoclasts . The area in fron t of th is is flankedby two con side rable temple s on each S ide— that on the north - eastbe ing an e legan t two - storeyed temple Of the pecul iar Ja ina formknown as a Chaumukh or fou r- faced temple . This one has

,in the

centra l hal l,a quadruple image of SAnt inAth— the 1 6 th J ina or

Ti rthankara the image s are placed SO as to appear as one block,

a similar figure facing the four en trances .

Round the great temple are others Of many sorts : somecon tain ing samosaranas

3 or Chaumukhs,as they are te rmed ;

othe rs “

pAdukA” or footprin ts Of Adiswar

,and one Of the latte r

shrines,e re cted In marble by KarmasAh or Karmas imha In 1 5 30

i s under a RAyana tree ,4 the scion of that unde r which R ishabhai s said to have attained moksha orde l ive rance .

The largest temple in the Kharatara

Vasi Tuk ,which occupie s much Of the

north ridge,i s a Chaumukh temple Of

Ad inAth,

e rected in 1 6 1 8,by S e tth i

DevarAj , a banke r of AhmadAbAd and h is

family— Of whom his sons Somaji and

D Ii paji we re Sanghapat is or leade rs of thegreat pi lgrimage at i ts consecrat ion . I tis Of two storeys

,and has a we l l -pro

port ioned s ikhara, 96 ft . in he ight, and as

shown in the plan (Woodcut“

NO . 27 8)con sists Of a mandap on the east 3 1 ft .2 in . square with twe lve pi l lars form ingan inne r square on which re sts the dome2 1 ft . 6 in . across , and the Shrine beyondit

,i s 23 ft . square with en tr ies on all sides .

In the centre Of th is i s the great quadruple image Of Ad inAth,

2 7 8 . Plan Of ChaumukhTemple at S atrunjaya.

(From a Plan by the Editor . )Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

s m i and flin othe r temples are images1 Epigraphia Indica, ’ vol . i i . 35 .

Pundarika was the chief Of Rishabha’sdisciples, and has a shrine at the entran ceof this Tirthankar’s temples .

2 Among those in the shrine on the

uppe r floor are images of the favouriteS ri or MahAlakshmi , and of Gautama

also Of Ganesa, Sarasvati and other H indIidivin i tie s .

3 GujarAti—Samosan p . 34 72015 .

4 The M imusops hexandria Of Rox

burgh Hemachandra and others specifythe Vata or Banyan as Rishabha

’

s Bo - tree .

CHAP. I I I . PALITANA. 29

placed on a marble throne about 1 1 ft . square with pi l lars at thecorne rs . The we st hal fOf the shrine i s Surrounded by a verandah ,the pi l lars Of which are very richly carved , having on the i rcapitals mus ic ians and dancing figure s . The uppe r storey hase legan t projecting bal cony W indows

,and i s reached by a stai r

on the north S ide Of the temple . At the principal entranceare two ve ry smal l shrine s— on the right Of Gaumukh Yaksha

,

and on the left of Chakresvari Yakshini — the two spiritssupposed to attend this Ti rthankara .

A type of temple , un ique in i ts arrangement , Of which the reare two examples here

,may be noted . In the smal l enclosure

cal led the Nandisvara-dvipa

TIi k,on the south s ide Of the

northern ridge i s the fi rs t Ofthese . I t was e rected by theNagar S e th of AhmadAbAd in

1 840, and as the plan (Woodcut NO . 279 ) shows

,i t i s a

square Of about 32 ft . withverandahs about 5 ft . wideattached to each s ide . The

floor is d ivided by twe lve pie rsinto n ine smal le r square s

,and

the dome s Of the roof are

supported by arche s be tweenthese pie rs . The wal l s of theve randahs and inne r squareare Of pe rforated stonework

,

and i t has entrances from all

four s ides—the principa l be ing 27 9 . Plan of Nand isvara-dvipa Templeon the west . Of the n ine

S

at s atrunjaya :cale 25 ft . to r In .

smal le r squares in to wh ich theinte rior i s d ivided

,the fi ve Inne r forming a crossare occupied by

pyramida l s ikharas with re ce sse s on the i r four s ide s for marbleimages of the Ti rthankaras . Hence they go unde r the gene ra lname Of Chaumukhs . In the central square i s the large stof these spires , and

,in the centre Of each Of the four arms

Of the cross i s one Of secondary size,with smal le r ones on

each s ide Of i t and pai rs in con tact in the corne rs . Thusthey numbe r fi fty - three in all. The fi ve large r Chaumukhs

repre sen t mythologica l mounts : the large central one repre sen tsS atrunJaya i tse lf. On the wes t Of i t , towards the main en trance ,i s AshtApada, on which Ad iswar or R ishabha i s said to haveobtained moksna or comple te emanc ipat ion

,in the north square

i s Me ru-s i khara ; in the south one S ame ta-s ikhara ; and in theeast i s a Samosan or Samosarana—a te rm we Shal l mee t with


again . The temple i s thus a shrine of “ High Place s . The

othe r temple—almost a copy of it—was erected In the Vimalavasi

T Ii k ,some th irty fi ve years late r .

The Mot isAh Tuk ,which occupie s the east end of the

depre ss ion be tween the r idges of the summit, measure s about230 ft . by 224 ft . surrounded by a lofty wal l with round towe rsat the corne rs . I t appears on the fron t part Of the photograph ,in Woodcut No . 27 7 . This great square , bes ide s the cen tra ltemple , ded icated to Ad inAth , and measuring ove r all 8 1 ft . by67 ft . 6 in .

,con ta ins al so some fi fteen othe r temples—some of

re spectable dimens ions . The whole i s surrounded by a biz amt z'

or C lo iste r of more than a hundred smal l shrine s along the

enclos ing wal ls . This great T Ii k was constructed in 1 836 , at the

expense Of S e tthi Mot isAh Amichand , a wea l thy banke r andme rchan t Of Bombay

,and Of his family re lat ions .1 In such

example s as the se we see the work that nat ive craftsmen st il lexecute when left to themse lves . Un fortunate ly the exte rior Ofthe temple has ’been pa inted , in late years , in an exceedinglyvulgar style ?

GIRNAR .

The hi l l of GirnAr, in the south of the KAthiAwAr pen in su laof GujarAt , not far from JunAgadh , i s anothe r ti rtha Of the Jains ,as sacred

,but somehow no t so fash ionable in mode rn t ime s as

that at PAlitAnA. I t wan ts,consequen tly

,that bewilde ring

magn ificence aris ing from the numbe r and varie ty Of bui ld ingsOf all ages that crowd that temple city. Be s ides this

,the

temples themse lves at GirnAr lose much Of the i r apparent s izefrom be ing pe rched on the brow Of a hi l l ris ing ft . above theleve l of the sea

,composed Of gran ite rocks s trewn about in

picture sque con fus ion . The hi l l i s regarded by the Jains as

sacred to Nem inAth,the 22nd Of the i r Ti rthankaras

,and who

is represented as the cous in Of the Hind Ii Krishna.

A l though we have a GirnAr MAhAtmyam’

as a portion of theS atrunjaya MAhAtmyam ,

3 to re tai l fable s and fa ls i fy date s,we

have at GirnAr inscription s which prove that in anc ien t t ime sit must have been a place Of great importan ce . On a rockouts ide the town at i ts foot

,cal led par excellence JunAgadh—the

1 The Temples of Satrunjaya, ’ pp . 22, and the tene ts of the Jains wil l be found23 , and photograph plates 1 5 , and 25 -28 . in Buhler’s Indian Sect of the Ja inas ’

2 For a more de tai led accoun t of (English translation ), London , 1 903 .

Satrunjaya, the reader may refer to 3 An abridged version of the ‘ Sat‘ The Temples of Satrunjaya ’

(Bombay, runjaya MAhAtmyam,

’is given in ‘ Indian

introduction—of which the text Antiquary , ’ vol . xxx . pp . 239-25 1 and

was par tly reprinted at AhmadAbAd , 288-308 . The GirnAr or Raivata MAhA1 878 ; and partly in ‘ Indian An tiquary , ’ tmyam forms sections 10 to 1 2 (pp . 288

vol . i i . pp . 354-35 7 . The early history 302) of that work .

CHAP . I I I . G IRNAR. 3 1

Old Fort —Asoka, B .C . 2 50,carved a copy of his ce lebrated

edicts . 1 On the same rock about A.D . 1 50,RudradAman

, the

Kshatrapa king of SaurAshtra, carved an inscription,in which

he boas ted of his V ictories ove r the SAtakarn i,k ing of the

Dekhan ,and recorded h is having repai red the bridge bui l t by

the Maurya Asoka and restored the Sudarsana lake ? The

embankment of the lake again burs t and carried away the bridge ,but was again repai red by Skandagup ta, the las t of the greatGuptas , in the year A.D . 457 , and an in scription on the same rockalso records this even t .3

A place whe re three such kings thought i t worth whi le torecord the i r deeds or proclaim the i r laws must, one would think ,have been an importan t c ity or place at that t ime ; but whati s so characte rist i c Of Ind ia occurs here as e lsewhe re . Few

mate rial remains are found to testify to the fact . Ful l fourcenturies OfMosl im ru le have obl ite rated most Of the trace s Ofan tiqu ity . S ti l l in the east of the town i s a group of ve ry earlycave s

,but the quarry opened close behind them has probably

destroyed numbers of them . None of them are large,but they

are Of prim itive forms and the carving quite archai c,whilst a

fragmen t Of a Kshatrapa inscription of about A .D . 1 85 foundamong them in 1 874, indicates that they be longed to the Jains .4The re i s a lso an excavated hal l and ce l l near the north wal l ofthe town ,

with two pil lars in fron t , and othe r two ins ide that havehad richly carved bases and capital s . And in the Uparkot

or old c itade l a compl icated and ve ry inte resting rock-excavationwas discovered about thi rty-fi ve years ago , the most strik ingfeature Of which was the extraordinary richne ss Of the carvingon the base s and capitals of the pi l lars in the lowe r storey ;nothing could exceed the e laborat ion Of the carving on the basesof the se . The re i s no trace of distinctive ly Buddhist symbol ismhe re

,and l ike the othe rs , they we re probably Of Jaina origin .

5

At the foot of Moun t GirnAr a st Ii pa was excavated in1 889 , but no inscription was found with the re l i cs to indicatewhe the r it was Jaina or early Buddhist .6 When Hiuen TsiangVis i ted the province , about A.D . 640,

he says the re we re fi ftymonaste rie s here , mostly be longing to the S thavira school ofthe MahAyAna teaching ; and one monaste ry he says wason the top of GirnAr with ce l ls and gal le rie s excavated in

1 See an te, vol . i . p . 5 6 note . Archaeological Survey of Western2 ‘ Indian An tiquary , ’ vol . VI I . pp . India

,

’ vol . i i . pp . 1 39 -14 1 , and plates2 5 7ff. Archaeological Survey ofWestern 1 6 -20.

India , vol . i i . pp . 1 28-1 30.

5 pp . 14 1 -144 , and plates 2 1 -24 .

3 Fleet , Gupta Inscriptions, ’ pp .

6 ‘ Journal of the Asiat ic Society of56 -65

‘

Journal Bombay B . Asiat . Bengal,’ vol . lx . p . 1 8.

vol . xviii. pp . 47 5 5 .


the rock .

1 I t is doubtful i f any trace of these i s now knownto exist.

The principal group Of temples at GirnAr,some Sixteen in

number, i s s i tuated on a ledge about 600 ft . be low the summit,

and sti l l con sequently nearly ft . above the leve l Of the sea.

280. Temple of NeminAth , GirnAr . (From a Plan by J. Burgess . ) Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

The large st , poss ibly a l so the O lde st of these,i s that Of Nem inAth

(Woodcut NO . An inscription upon i t records that i t wasrepaired in A.D . 1 27 8 , and unfortunate ly a subsequen t re store rhas laid his heavy hand upon i t, so that i t i s d ifficul t now toreal ise what i ts original appearance may have been . Thisunfortunate ly is on ly too Often the case with Jaina temple s . I fa Hind Ii temple or Muhammadan mosque i s once de secrated and

1 Beal , ‘Buddhist Records, ’ vol . I I . p . 269 .


a smal l square canopy ove r the images .

1 From this i t wpuldappear that with Ja ins

,the Mounts GirnAr, S atrunjaya, A i ,

28 1 . Plan of Temple ofVastupAla . (From a Plan by J . Burgess . ) Scale 50 ft . to r in .

e tc . ,were not on ly holy place s , but holy things , and that with

them—as with the Syrians—the worship of high places wasreal ly a part of the i r re l igion .

Some of the othe r temples at GirnAr are inte resting fromthe i r h istory, and remarkable from fragmen ts of an ancientdate that have survived the too constan t repa i rs ; but withouti l l ustrating them it would on ly be tedious to recapitu late the i rname s

,or to attempt to de scribe by words objects which on ly

the practised eye of the Indian an tiquary can appre ciate . Fortym ile s south from the hi l l

,howeve r

,on the sea- shore , stands

the S aiva temple of SomnAth,historical ly pe rhaps the m ost

ce lebrated in India,from the campaign which MahmIi d of

Ghazni unde rtook for i ts destruction in 1025 , and the momen tousresu l ts that campaign had even tual ly on the fate Of India.

As w i l l be seen from the annexed plan (Woodcut No . 282 )the temple i tse l f neve r could have been remarkable for its

popular language indicates a meet ing1 These are the forms in which stIi pasplace .

”Cunn ingham , Archaeologicalare now represen ted by the Jams .

TheArchaeological Survey ofWestern India, ’VOl . i i . p . 1 70, and plates 33 , 34 . The

GujarAti S amosan and PrAkrit Samo

sarana , Professor Barnet t informs m e ,

are represented in Sanskrit by Sama

vasarana session ” or assize ,” and in

Reports , ’ vol . xi . pp . 1 70 - 1 7 1 .

Samagzasarana proper , commemoratesthe Tirthankara’

s first sermon , and is

thus analogous to B uddha’

s“ turning the

whee l of the law, in the Deer Park at

Benares.

CHAP. I I I .G IRNAR. 3 5

d imens ions , probably i t neve r exceeded about 1 30 ft . ove r all,but the dome of its mandapa, which measures 33 ft . across , i sas large as any we know of its age . From the accoun ts ,howeve r, which we have of the s iege , i t is eviden t thatwas enclosed l ike the temple ofNeminAth (Woodcut No . 280) in a

courtyard , and that may have bee nof surpass ing magn ificence . Thoughvery similar in plan ,

i t i s nearly twicethe d imens ions of that of Nem inAth ,

and i f i ts court was proportionate lylarge

,i t may real ly have justified all

that has been said regard ing itssplendour. From what fragmentsof sculptured decorat ions rema in ,

they,too

,must have been of great

beauty, quite equal to anything weknow of this class , or of the i r age .

I t has been questioned , howeve r,whethe r what we now see are

fragmen ts of the temple attackedby Mahm Ii d

,and con sequently

Whether they bd ong to the 101311 282 . Plan of Templeat SomnAth .

or even the 9 th centu ry, or whe the r (From a Plan by J BurgessScale 50 ft . to 1 inthey may be due to a re storat i on

which was e ffe cted in the 1 2 th . The temple was ded icated toSomesvara—the moon - lord— a name Of S iva, who , as Ibn Asi rstates

,was repre sen ted by a l ingam .

1 As the story is now

told,afte r Mahm Ii d

’

s departure i t was re stored by Bhimadeva

of Anh ilwAra Pattan ,who re igned 1 02 1 - 107 3 , and adorned by

S iddharAja, 1093- 1 143 , and lastly completed , i f not rebuil t

,

by KumArapAla in 1 1 68 . Gene ral ly i t i s thought,and almost

ce rtain ly qu ite correctly , that what we now see be longs tothe last-named king, who is credited with a complete restorationof it

,and a state vis i t to ce lebrate i ts consecrat ion . Though

a B rahman ica l temple , i t i l l ustrate s the style employed by theJains in GujarAt in the 1 2th cen tu ry . The in ter ior of the wal l s ,too

,show that they are large ly con structed of mate rial s from

an earl ie r fane .

1 Some of the Muhammadan historiansrepresen t the idol as having a head witheyes

,arms , and a be l ly . And afte r

of var ious shapes and dimensions.

B rIgg’

s‘Ferish ta ,

’ vol . i . pp . 72, 74.

We must remember , however , thatdescribing the destruction of the greatidol, Ferish ta goes on to say,

“ Therewere in the temple some thousands ofsmal l images, wrought in gold and silve r ,

Ferish ta l ived fi ve and a half cen turiesafter the sack of SomnAth . Ibn Asir

’s

accoun t is the best .—Sir H . El liot's‘ H istory Of India, ’ vol . i i . pp . 47ofl

'

.

36 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK v,

MOUNT ABU.

I t i s hardly to be wonde red at that Moun t Ai,anc ien tly

Arbuda, was early fixed upon by the Hind Ii s and Jains as one

of the i r sacred spots . R i s ing from the de se rt as abruptly as

an i s land from the ocean , i t presents on almost eve ry s idesteep and rugged scarps some ft . high

,and the summit

can best be approached by ravines cut in to its s ides . Whenthe summit is reached , i t opens out into one of the love l iestva l leys imaginable , about 6 mile s long by 2 or 3 miles at

the wide st , cut up eve rywhe re by gran i te rocks of the mostfantasti c Shape s , and the spaces be tween them covered withtrees and luxuriant vege tat ion . The l i ttle Nakh i Tal

,or

Pearl Lake , i s one of the love l ies t gems of i ts class in all

India,and a mile and a hal f from it, at DilwAra, the Jains se lected

a s ite for the i r Ti rtha, or sacred place of rendezvous . I t cannot,

howeve r, be said that i t has been a favourite place of worshipin re cent t imes . I ts d istance and inacce ss ibi l ity we re probablythe causes of this , and i t con sequently cannot riva l e i the rS atrunjaya or GirnAr in the extent of i ts bu i ld ings but duringthe age of Jaina Supremacy i t was adorned with seve ral temples ,two of which are un rival led for ce rtain qual it ie s by any temple sin India. They are bui l t whol ly of white marble

,though no

quarrie s of that mate rial , except of in fe rior qual i ty , are known toexist within 20 or 30 mile s of the spot , and to transport andcarry i t up the hi l l to the s ite of these temples must have addedimmense ly to the expen se of the undertaking .

1

The more mode rn of the two is usual ly ascribed to the

same brothe rs , TejahpAla and VastupAla, whose name s are

assoc iated with the triple temple at GirnAr (Woodcut No .

the in script ions , howeve r, ascribe the e rection and endowmentto TejahpAla alone , in memory of his brothe r from whom it i sal so known as LIi n iga

’

s Vasat i or temple . This , we learn fromthe inscript ion ,

was con secrated in 1 230 A.D .,and for minute

de l icacy of carving and beauty of de tai l s tands almost unrival ledeven in the land of patien t and lavish labou r . I t i s dedicatedto Nem inAth , the 22nd Ti rthankara .

The othe r, bu il t by V imala, a min i ste r or gove rnor unde rBhimadeva, in the year A.D. i s s imple r and bolde r

,

1 I t Is supposed the material must all of the temples in Samvat 1 378, afterhave been brought from JAriwAV in, the “

theyhad been damaged by Mlechchhas”BhAkar district t

go the south east of Ai , (Moslims), i t is stated that Vimala, by the

near the shrine of AmbABhawAni . How blessing of AmbA, bui l t the temple ofso much material and in such large Ad i natha In Samvat, 1 088 (A. D .

blocks could have been carried up the‘ Asiat ic Researches, ’ vol . xvi . p . 3 12 ;

mountain is difficul t to conce ive .

‘Epigraphia Indica, ’ vol . ix . pp . r48f

2 In an inscription recording a repair

CHAP . I I I . MOUNT ABU. 3 7

though stil l as e laborate as good taste would al low in anypure ly architectural object . Be ing one of the olde st as we l l asone of the most complete examples of a Jaina temple, i ts pecul iarities form a conven ien tintroduction to the style ,and among othe r th ingsSe rve to i l lustrate howcomplete and perfect i thad al ready becomewhen we first mee t withit in India.

The annexed plan(Woodcu t No . 283 ) wil le x p l a in th e g e n e ra larrangemen ts of the

temple of V imala, which ,as will be Observed , ares imilar to some we haveal ready me t , though ofcourse varying cons ide rably in exten t and de tai l .The en trance is througha domed portico , facingwhich is a square bui lding supported by s ix

pi l lars , and con tain ingten statue s of e lephan ts

,

each a s ingle block ofwhite marble , about 4 ft .high . On each of themwas seated a figure on

a rich Izaaa’a behind thedriver. 1 The se repre

sented V imala and hisfamily in proce ss ion tothe temple ; but the

fi d 283 . Temple Of Vimala ,Moun t Abtt.gure s have been C

(From a Plan by Mr . H . Cousens . )st r oy e d by MO S II ITI Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

z ealots,and an equestrian

statue of V imala has been placed in the doorway,made of

s tucco and pain ted in a style not dese rving not ice . Behindit, in the centre

,is a Samosaran of three t iers as usual .

The principal obje ct here , as e lsewhe re,i s a ce l l l ighted

1 The names of n ine of the r iders are carved on the ir seats , six dated In A. D . 1 149and three In 1 1 80


on ly from the door, contain ing a cross - legged seated figureof the J ina to whorri the temple i s dedicated , in th is instanceR ishabhanAth or Ad inAth . The ce l l , as in all other examples

,

te rm inate s upwards in a s ikhara,or pyramidal roof 1 which

in these Ai temples , howeve r , are too low to be prope rlydes ignated spire s . To this

,as in almost all in stances

,i s

attached a mandapa or closed hal l , and in fron t of th is a

portico,general ly of cons ide rable exten t

,and in most examples

su rmoun ted by a dome resting on e ight pi l lars,which forms

indeed the distingu ishing characte rist ic of the style , as we l las i ts most beaut ifu l feature . In this example the portico iscomposed Of forty - e ight free - standing pi l lars

,which is by no

mean s an unusual numbe r ; and the whole i s enclosed in an

Oblong courtyard, 1 28 ft . by 7 5 ft . in s ide , surrounded by a

double colonnade of sma l le r pi l lars,form ing port icos to a

range of ce l ls,as usual fi fty two in numbe r? w i th some extra

chape ls at the south we s t corne r ; these enclose i t on all s ides ,exactly as they do in Buddhist v ihAraS . In th is case

,howeve r ,

each ce l l , in stead of be ing the residen ce of a monk , i s occupiedby one of those cross - legged images of J inas which be longal ike to Buddhism and Ja in i sm

,and be tween which the un taught

fi nd i t d ifficu l t to d istingu i sh . In the south-west corne r of thecourt

,on a S l ightly h ighe r leve l , i s a smal l early temple of

AmbA3 which is somewhat out of al ignment with the rest , andhas apparen tly fixed the l im it of the enclosure ; the re i s alsoa s uspicion that the cen tral shrine

,bu i lt of s tone— no t marble

— may be of earl ie r date than the 1 l th cen tury .

4

In othe r re l igion s the re may be a great numbe r of separates imi lar chape ls attached to one bui ld ing

,but in no othe I would

fi fty two he found,as in this example

,or that surrounding

the temple of Nem inAth at GirnAr (Woodcut NO . eachcontain ing an image of a Ti rthankara

,and all so nearly iden t ical

as to be a lmost undis tinguishable . With the Jain s i t seems tobe thought the most importan t poin t that the J inas or saintsare honoured by the numbe r of the i r image s

,and that each

prin cipa l image Shou ld be provided with a separate abode . In

othe r example s , howeve r, i t is on ly a separate n iche . On someJaina monumen ts the image s of the Ti rthankaras are repeated

1 See ante,vol . i . p . 322 .

21

‘ Archaeological Survey of Weste rnI ndia , ’ vol . ix . pp. 99 , 1 00.

3 AmbA is a name of DurgA, and alsoof the Yaksh ini or familiar devi of NeminAtha, the 22nd Tirthankara , to whomTejahpAla

’

s temple i s dedicated . Alarge black image of Nem inAth in an

adjoining shrine might suggest that

J ina .

this temple was firs t dedica ted to thatAmbA figures large ly in Jaina

mythology ; and her H ind Ii temple at

AmbAj i , 1 5 miles north eas t from DAntA,is vis ited by crowds of Jaina pilgrim s .

4 Many of the short inscriptions on

the ce l l doors and the images in them are

dated a cen tury later than the erectionby Vimala.

CHAP . I I I . MOUNT ABU . 39

hundreds , i t may almos t be said a thousand t ime s ove r, all theimage s al ike ,

and the n iche s arranged in rows bes ide and aboveeach other, l ike pigeon -holes in a dovecote .

Exte rnal ly the temple is pe rfectly plain ,and the re i s noth ing

to indicate the magn ificence within ,except the Spire of the

cel l peeping ove r the pla in wal l , though even this is the mostinsign ifican t part of the e rect ion . The exte rna l porch , too ,is in s ign ificant

,so that one is total ly unprepared for the

splendour of the inte rio r .


The woodcut (NO . 284) wil l give some idea of the arrangement of the porch , but i t would requ ire a far more -exten siveand e laborate drawing to convey a correct impre ss ion of i tsextreme beauty of de tai l and d ive rs i ty of des ign . The greatpi l lars

,as wil l be seen , are of the same he ight as those of

the smal le r exte rnal port icos ; and l ike them they fin i sh withthe usual bracke t-capital o f the East ; upon this an uppe rdwarf column or att i c

,i f i t may be so cal led , i s placed to

give them add it ional he ight , and on these uppe r columns re stthe great beams or architrave s which support the dome , thespringing of which i s shown in woodcut No . 284 (ante, p .

as, howeve r, the bearing is long, the we ight is re l ieved , at

least in appearance , by the curious angular strut or truss ofwhite marble , ment ioned above (vol . i . p . which

,springing

from the lowe r capital , seems to support the middle of the beam .

That this last feature i s de rived from some wooden orcarpen try original , can scarce ly be doubted but in what manne ri t was fi rst introduced in to mason ry construct ion i s unknownprobably it might be d iscove red by a careful examination of

the bu ild ings in this ne ighbourhood .

1 I t cont inues as an

arch itectural feature down to the presen t day ,but gradual ly

becoming more and more attenuated , t i l l at last, except in one

example at De lhi , to be mentioned he reafter, i t loses all i tscon structive sign ificance as a supporting membe r, and dwindle sinto a me re ornamen t .

The marble dome in th is temple i s of great beauty from itsve ry rich carving , which may be judged of to some extent fromthe photograph , Plate XX . I t d iffe rs in minor de ta i l s fromthat in TejahpAla

’

s temple (Woodcut NO . though the

gene ral de sign i s the same , and the description of the latte r,given be low,

wil l apply to th is . In the roofs of the corridors ofthis temple al so there i s a se ries of carvings of most compl i catedornamenta l de signs that are quite un rival led anywhe re e l se .

In TejahpAla’

s temple , which stands to the north-east ofthe preceding , the proce ss ion of the founde r

’s family occupies theplace of the ce l ls in the east end of the enclosure behind the

shrine ? This corridor i s separated from the court by a pie rcedscreen of open trace ry : a l i ttle rude and heavy

,i t must be

confessed , but st i l l a fi ne work of its k ind . Behind i t,in

the cen tre,i s an e laborate ly carved Chaumukh , with five

1 In th e temple of VAdipura-PArswa wood . Jaina temples with carved woodnAth ,

at Anah ilawada, bu il t in 1 594, facades and interiors are general ly met

we have an example of a temple of which with in the large r cities .

the whole interior ( i llustrated in Archaeo 2 ‘Arch itecture and Scenery in Gujaratlogical Survey of Western India, ’ vol . ix . and Rajputana, ’ p . 16 .

p . 49 and plates 4 , 20 and 2 1 ) is carved in

CHAP. I I I . MOUNT ABU . 4 1

e lephants on each s ide of very exce l len t workmanship,and

with rich trappings sculptured with the most exqu is ite precis ion .

The Mosl im has,howeve r, carried Off or destroyed the i r riders .1

The temple i s en te red on the south-west,from the court

be tween i t and Vimala’

s by a stai r at the south of the enclosure .

The plan is in imitat i on o f th e o l d e rtemple

,from which it

d iffe rs but l ittle in s ize,

measuring ove r all

about 1 5 5 ft . by 92 ft .(V

VOOdcut NO .

The pi l lars supporting the porch are

somewhat tal le r and

of e i gh t d i ffe r e n ttypes , as may be

noted in the photograph (P late XX ) .On the othe r hand

,

i n V im ala’

s t h e

gene ral style of the1 l th century is ad

he red to throughout ; the dome ofthe portico is sl ightlyle ss in diamete r thanin the forme r

,but

quite rival l ing it ine laborat ion of deta i land beauty Of de sign . 285 . Temple of TejahpAla ,

Moun t Abtt .On the octagon (From a Plan by Mr . H . Cousens . )

f Scale 50 ft. to 1 in .

o r m e d b y t h e

mass ive architraves across the heads of the pil lars re sts the dome(Woodcut No . In both temples a s ingle block in the

angles of the octagon suffices to in troduce the ci rcle . Above thesecond row of ornaments s ixteen bracke t pede stal s are introduced supporting statue s

,and in the cen tre i s a pendan t of the

most exquis ite beauty ; the whole i s in white marble,and

fin i shed with a de l icacy of de tai l and appropriateness of ornamen t wh ich is probably un surpassed by any s im ilar exampleto be found anywhe re e l se . Those in troduced by the Gothicarchitects in Hen ry V I I . ’S chape l at Westm inste r, or at Oxford ,are coarse and clumsy in comparison . I t i s d ifficu lt

,by any

1 Picturesque I l lustrations of I ndian Arch itecture , ’ p . 40 ; Tod’s ‘ Travel s inWestern India, ’ pp. 106 - 109 , 1 1 1 .


means of i l lustration ,to convey a correct idea of the extreme

beauty and de l i cacy of the se pendan t orname n ts , but the

i l l ustrations on Plate XX I . and woodcut No . 286 from photographs wil l expla in the i r form ,

even i f i t cannot reflect the i r

Pendan t in Dome of TejahpAla’

s Temple (From a Photograph . )

beauty . In each of them the re are placed,on bracke ts round

the c ircumfe re nce,s ixteen four - armed female figure s cal led

V idyAdevi s— godde sses of knowledge .

1 In the roofs of thecorridors

,a l so

,the coffe rs are carved in the riche st and most

varied patte rns .Ove r the doors of the ce l ls or kulikAs are forty- s ix inscription s

record ing the i r con struct ion and gran ts for the worship of the

1 Buhler, Indian 86 . The engraver ofEnglish translation , No . 286 ) has fai led toanalogous examples

,ures have four arms

Survey of Western I the roof qui te

CHAP. I I I . MOUNT ABU . 43

d ifferent Ti rthankaras they enshrine , chiefly by TejahpAla and

his re lat ives , and dated between A .D . 1 2 30 and 1 2 361

The othe r two temple s he re are—that of Ad inAtha, close toTejahpAla

’

s on the south east,of which the bnamt z or sur

rounding enclosure Of ce l ls has been on ly part ly comple ted ;the othe r is a great Chaumukh temple of Ad inAth , bu i l t i n

the middle of the 1 sth century— three s toreys in he ight with

Pillars at Chand rAvati . (From Tod ’

s‘Western

open domed porticos on the four s ides — that on the westbe ing the principal , and having seventy-s ix pil lars .

As before hin ted,the re neve r seems to have been any

importan t town on Moun t Ai . I t was too inaccessible forthat purpose ; but a few mile s to the southward on the plainare the rema ins of an extens ive c ity

,cal led ChandrAvat i ,2 whe re

1 Epigraph ia Indica, con tractors200-229 .

2 Forbes RAs MAIA,’

Tod, Trave ls in Wester


there are—or rathe r we re,t i l l about twenty-five years ago

extensive remains of Jaina and HindIi temples ofgthe same

age and style as those on the mount , some of them probablymore mode rn, but sti l l all Of the best age . The place , howeve r,was destroyed at the t ime of the Muhammadan conquest inthe middle of the 14th century, and has s ince remained whol lydeserted . I t has in con sequence been used as a quarry bythe ne ighbouring towns and vi l lages , so that none of its bu ild ingsnow remain . The fragment , howeve r, pre se rved in Colone lTod ’s work and shown in Woodcut No . 287 , but now de stroyed ,may se rve to i l lustrate the style in which they we re e rected

,but

no two pi l lars we re exactly al ike ; i t would have requ iredhundreds to repre sen t the i r infin ite varie ty of detai l .

PARASNATH .

The highest point of the Bengal range of hi l ls,south of

RAjmahal,has characteri st ical ly been appropriated by the Jain s

as one of the ir most favourite Ti rthas . They name i t PArasnAthand Same t S ikhar, and no le ss than n ine teen of the i r twen tyfour Ti rthankaras are said to have died there , or rather “ attainedto Moksha ”—blessedness—among others PArswanAth

,the last

but one,and he consequen tly gave to the hil l the name i t now

bears .Unfortunate ly, no photographe r has yet Vi s ited the hi l l

,nor

any one who was able to d iscrim inate be tween what was new

and what old . S uch accoun ts , howeve r, as we have are by no

means encouraging,and do not lead us to expect any ve ry

remarkable architectu ral remains . The temples on the b ill are

numerous, but they seem all mode rn , or at least to have beenso comple te ly repai red in mode rn t imes that the i r more ancien tfeature s cannot now be d isce rned . Something may also be dueto the fact that Bengal has never been e ssen tial ly a Ja inacoun try. The PAla dynasty of Bengal seem to have remainedB uddhist nearly to the Muhammadan conquest (A.D .

when they seem sudden ly to have dropped that re l igion and

plunged headlong into the Va i shnava and S a iva supe rstit ions .Whethe r from this , or from some othe r cause we cannot nowexplain ,

Jain ism doe s not seem to have taken root in Bengal . At

the t ime that i t, with Buddhism , took its rise in the sth centu ryB .C . B ihAr was the inte l lectual and the pol it ical centre of India

,

and Buddh ism long he ld i ts sway in the coun try of its birth .

Before,howeve r, Jain i sm became pol i tical ly importan t

, the

centre of powe r had gravitated towards the We st, and Ja in ismdoe s not seem to have attained any great importance in the

coun try where i t fi rst appeared . We re i t not for th is,there


in 1440, s ituated in a lone ly and dese rted glen,runn ing into the

weste rn slope o f the hil l s , be low Kumbha’

s favourite fort ofKumalmer. Notwithstanding former negle ct, i t i s st i l l nearlype rfect , and i s probably the most compl icated and extens iveJa ina temple in India

,and the most comple te for the r itual

o f the sect .I t i s rai sed on a lofty basemen t and from the plan (Woodcut

NO . 288) i t wi l l be pe rce ived that i t i s nearly a square , 198 ft .by 205 ft .

,exclus ive of the projections on e ach face . In the

289 . View in the Temple at RAnpur. (From a Sketch by the Author . )

cen tre stands the great shrine , open on the four s ides and

occupied by a quadruple image in white marble of AdinAth orR ishabha, the fi rst Ti rthankara

,the temple be ing one of the

Chaumukh class . In the uppe r storey is a S im ilar shrine,

approached by doors open ing from the te rraced roofs of thebui ld ing. Near the four angles of the court are four smal le rshrines, and around them

,or on each s ide of them

,are twen ty

domes, supported by about 420 columns , four of these dome sor maridaps—the cen tral one s of each group—are three storeysin he ight, and tower ove r the others ; and one—facing the

CHAP . I I I . TEMPLE AT RANPUR. 47

principal entrance— i s double , having a se cond dome ove r theinne r

,supported by the ve ry unusual numbe r of s ixteen columns

,

and i s 34 ft . in diame te r, the othe rs be ing on ly 2 13 ft. L ight i sadmitted to the bu i ld ing by four uncove red courts 1 at the side sof these domes , and forming the corne rs of a rectangle roundthe shrine 105 ft . from wes t to eas t by 9 5 ft . across . Aroundthis are twe lve domes— three on each s ide—with the fou rsmal le r shr ine s al ready ment ioned in the corne rs

,and the

whole i s surrounded by a bkarn t z' or range of ce l l s for images

,

each of which has a pyramida l roof of i ts own .

The inte rnal e ffect of this fore st of columns may be gathe redfrom the V iew (Woodcut No . 289) taken across one of its courtsbut it i s imposs ible that any View can reproduce the endlessvarie ty of pe rspect ive and the play of l ight and shade whichresu l ts from the disposit ion of the pil lars , and of the domes , andfrom the mode in which the l ight i s introduced . A wonde rfu le ffect also re sul ts from the numbe r of ce l l s

,most of them con

tain ing image s of the Ti rthankaras , which eve rywhe re mee t theView. B eside s the twe lve unde r the large r s ikharas the re are

e ighty- s ix ce l l shrine s of varied form and S ize surrounding thein te rior

,many of them connected by ins ide passages

,and all

the i r facade s ~more or le ss adorned with sculpture .

The gene ra l external e ffe ct of the RAnpur temple maybe judged of by the photograph

,Plate XXI I . owing to its

lofty basement,and the greate r e levat ion of the principal

domes,i t give s a more favourable impress ion of a Jaina temple

than i s usual ly the case—the greatest de fe ct of these bui ld ingsas architectu ra l de s ign s be ing the want of ornament on the i rexterior face s ; th is , howeve r, i s more general ly the case in

the O lde r than in the more mode rn temple s .The immense numbe r of parts in the bui ld ing

,and the i r

general smal lness,prevents i ts laying claim to anything l ike

archite ctura l grandeur ; but the i r varie ty, the i r beauty of de ta i l—no two pil lars in the whole bu i ld ing be ing exactly al ike—the

grace with which they are arranged,the taste ful admixture of

dome s of d iffe ren t he ights with flat ce i l ings,and the mode in

which the l ight i s introduced,combine to produce an exce l len t

e ffect . Indeed , I know of no othe r bu i ld ing in India, of thesame class

,that leave s so pleas ing an impression

,or affords so

1 In the north -west court grows the Ti rthankara . The two west courts are

RAjAdana or RAyana tree , sacred to abou t 20 ft . by 375 ft . and the two on

AdinAth , and a necessary adjunct of h is the east about 26 ft . square , but with thetemple , whilst beneath it is a slab carved inner corner of each cut off by a corner ofwith his PAdukA or footprin ts, represen t the central platform .

ing the spiritual authority of the

48 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V

many hin ts for the grace fu l arrangemen t of columns in an

in terior.1Beside s its me rits of des ign , i ts d imens ions are by no means

to be de spised ; i t cove rs al toge the r about sq . ft . , ornearly as much as one of our ord inary mediaeval cathedral s

,

and , taking the basement in to account, i s nearly of equal bu lkwhile in amoun t of labour and of sculptural decorat ions i t farsurpasses any .

Anothe r temple he re i s of marble , cove red outs ide withsculpture

,and conta ins a black stone image of PArswanAth . I t

i s probably of about the same age as the large r one .

GwALIAR .

The rock at GwAliar i s , and must always have been , one ofthe most remarkable high places in Cen tral India, and seems, assuch

,early to have been appropriated by the Ja ins . I ts posit ion

and i ts scarps,’

howeve r, led to i ts be ing fortified , and, as one ofthe strongest places in India,

i t was attacked and taken bystorm by Altamsh , the fi rst Mosl im Empe ror of De lhi

,in A .D .

1 23 2 ; and from that t ime t i l l the fal l of the Mughal empire i twas he ld by the Muhammadan s , or by Hind Ii k ings subject tothe i r suzerainty. Unde r the se ci rcumstance s , we shou ld hard lyexpe ct to find any extens ive an cient Hind Ii remain s in the

place .

’

The most striking part of the Jaina remains at GwAliarare a serie s of cave s or rock - cut sculpture s that are excavatedin the rock on all s ides

,and amoun t

,when taken togethe r

,to

hardly less than a hundred , great and smal l . They are,how

eve r, ve ry un l ike the chai tyas or vihAras of the Buddhists , s t i l lle ss do they resemble the Ja ina and B rahman ical cave s

,al ready

ment ioned or he reafte r. Most of them are me re n i che s tocontain statue s, though some are ce l l s that may have beenorig inal ly intended for re sidence s . One curious fact regard ingthem is , that, accord ing to inscription s , they we re all excavatedwithin the short pe riod of about thirty- three years

,be tween

A.D . 144 1 and 1474 . Some of the figure s are of colossal s ize ;one

,for in stance , i s 5 7 ft. high , which is greate r than any

othe r in the north of India,though in the south the re are

some which equal or compare with i t,and, as free-stand ing

figures , are express ive and more difficul t to execute ?

1 Pic turesque I llustrat ions of Ancien t pp . 93-98, and figs . 85 -98 ; Sir L. Griffin,

Architecture in H industan , ’ p . 42, and ‘ Famous Monumen ts of Cen tral India, ’‘ Arch itecture and Scenery in Gujarat pp . 60-80, and plates 39-46 ; and Workand Raj putana, ’ pp . 1 9 -22 , and plates . man

’

s‘ Through Town and Jungle , ’

2 For illustrations ofGwAliar see Dr . G . pp . 1 80ff.

Le Bon ,‘ Les Monuments de l

’

Inde,’

CHAP. I I I . KHAJURAHO . 49

KHAJURAHO.

KhajurAhO ,the ancient capital of the Chandellas , i s s ituated

44 miles east from Nangong, about 14 5 mile s W.S .W. fromAllahAbAd , and about 1 50 m i les south - east from GwAliar. I ti s now a w re tched dese rted place , but has in and around it agroup of some thirty temple s

,which are the most beauti fu l

in form as we l l as the most e legant in de ta i l of any of thetemples now standing in India.

1

S o far as can be made out from inscription s ,2 as we l l asfrom the i r s tyle

,i t appears that all these temple s

,with two

un importan t exceptions , we re executed nearly s imu l taneouslyand a lmos t with in the l im its of the 1 1 th centu ry ; and ,

whatis al so curious , they seem to be nearly equal ly d ivided be tweenthe three re l igions . Roughly speaking , they are located in threegroups

,two cons isting of H ind Ii temple s—S aiva and Vaishnava

inte rmixed— and one exclus ive ly of Jaina temples . In eachgroup there are one or more greate r than the re st , and roundsome of them a few subord inate shrine s are placed ; but mostof them are independent temples . Among the S a iva temple sthe principal i s the Kandarya MahAdeva

,Of which a repre

sentat ion wil l be given fu rthe r on ; in the Vai shnava class i tis the Chaturbhuja ;

3and in the Jaina the PArswanAth : all

three so l ike one anothe r that i t require s some famil iaritywith the photographs to d istinguish the temple of one re l igionfrom those of the othe rs . I t looks as i f all had been buil t byone prince

,and by some arrangement that ne i the r sect should

surpass or be jealous of the othe r . E i the r from this,or from

some cause we do not quite understand,we lose he re those

pecul iarit ie s we usual ly ass ign to Jaina temple s of this age .

The VimAna or s ikhara i s more importan t than the porch . Thereare no courtyards with circumambien t ce l ls ; no prominen tdome s , nor

,in fact

, anything that d ist inguishes Jaina fromHind Ii architecture . I f not under the sway of a single prince

,

they must have been e rected in an age of extreme tole ration ,

and when any rival ry that existed must on ly have been amongthe architects in trying who could produce the most beautifu l

1 In the first half of last cen tury they 11 . plate 95 . The temple he calls Jinawere much more numerous—many having nAtha

’

s (No . is that now known as

been removed for bui lding material . PArswanAth’s , whilst the temple of

2 The inscript ions are translated in AdinAth he cal ls PArswanAth’

s . PlansEpigraph ia Indica ,

’ vol . i . pp . 1 2 1 - 1 62 . of th e JinanAtha (PArswanAth ) temple3 Some times called the RAmachandra and of the Ganthai are given in Surveyor the Lakshmanj i temple . A sket ch Reports , ’ vol . x . plate 8 , and ‘ Journalmap of the KhajurAho temples is given of Asiatic Socie ty of Bengal , ’ vol . xlviii .in Cunn ingham’

s Survey Reports , ’ vol . at p . 294 .

VOL . I I .

form a fai rly compactgroup to the south-eastof the others , and the

largest and finest ofthem is the PArswanAthtemple , which extendsto about 62 ft . in lengthby hal f that in breadth .

I t has an outside porchon two advanced pillars with two squareengaged one s by the

s ide s of the en trance .

Inside , the mandapa,about 22 ft . by 1 7 ft .

,

has four pi l lars , withr e s p on d e n t p i l a s t e r ssupport ing the domedroof, cons tructed in the

u sual way by cuspedreces se s forming a re

m arkab ly b e au t i fu lde s ign . B eyond the hal li s the shrine , surroundedb y a p rad ak sh

i n a

passage . The outsidewal l s are ornamen tedwith nume rous bandsof mould ings and withthree rows of s tatues , asi s shown in the photogra ph i c V i ew ,

P l a t eXV I I I . (fron t i spie ce ) .At the back or we stend an outside shrine i s

Temple ofAd inAth at KhajurAho . a t ac d(From a Photograph . ) {3

b e

fI

e c t 1 1] ga out 9 t. e temple

cup iedby the Jain s about 1 860 ; but i t

had been re stored and al te red at a much earl ie r date .

1

1 An inscription on tcharacters of the 1 3th


congeners . 1 Both of these are c ircular enclosures with the

shrine s ranged round the inside of the wal ls . The temp le i tse l fi t i s true has gone—if any central structure eve r existed—butwhat we see i s probably as old as the 9 th cen tury, i f not older ?

The othe r excep t ional bu i ld ing i s one of total ly d iffe ren tcharacter, and is as remarkable for its extreme e legan ce , evenat KhajurAho ,

as the othe r i s for i ts rudene ss . I t i s calléd

Ghantai , e ithe r from the be l ls scu lptu red on i ts pi l lars,or for

some othe r cause unknown . Un fortunate ly,i t i s on ly a frag

men t a ske le ton without fle sh a few p il lars of a doubleport ico now stand ing a lone without the wal l s that may oncehave enclosed them (Woodcut No .

From the form of seve ral le tte rs in an inscript ion ,found

near these ruins,Gene ral Cunn ingham was incl ined to be l ieve

that th is temple may be long to the 6 th or 7 th cen tury of oure ra ; and from finding a Buddhist s tatue and a Short Buddhistinscription neér them ,

he was at fi rst incl ined to assign themto that re l igion . Late r he made excavat ions on the s ite and

found some e leven figure s apparently D igambara Jaina,and

two d ist inctive ly Va ishnava. Hence he concluded that i t musthave been a Jaina temple .

3 The plan,too, of the bu i ld ing , so far

as i t can be made out, is un l ike anything we know that isBuddhist , but ve ry s im i lar to many that certa in ly are Jaina .

‘1

Be this as i t may ,the se pi l lars are s ingularly grace fu l in

the i r form , and e legan t in the i r deta i l s,but they do not be long

to the early s tyle to which they we re at fi rst ascribed . Thereare e ight of the se sandstone shafts , each 14 ft . 6 in . in he ight .These are arranged in two square s about 1 5 ft . apart

,and

be tween the two are some square pi l lars and a carved doorway,

apparen tly the en trance to the mandap . On i ts l inte l a fourarmed godde ss i s carved , mounted on a Garuda

,and a smal l

nude male in each s ide n iche : the se could no t have beenprepared for a Jaina temple . Then the gran i te pi laste rs for thewal l s are of various lengths , seve ral having one or more blocksadded above or be l ow to make up the prope r he ights

,and

point ing to a recon struction .

5 I f i t eve r we re comple ted the

temple would be in plan almost a copy of that of PArswanAthnot iced above , having a porch on the east and a mandapa2 1 ft . 6 in . wide , with the second group of four carved columns

.

1 ‘Survey Reports, ’ vol . ix . pp . 60-74,

1 For plans of similar Jaina temples ,and plates 1 2-1 5 . The enclosure is 1 1 6 see

‘Report on BelgAm and Kaladgi

,

’

ft . diameter inside . plates 2 , 1 0, and 45 . These , however ,2 I t is buil t of grani te , and i ts plan and are more modern than this one .

the forms of its sikharas , induce me to 5 Le Bon , Les Monumen ts de l’Inde , ’be l ieve i t to be exceptional ly old . p . 79 , fig. 64 ;

‘ Journal of the Asiatic3 ‘Archaeological Survey Reports , ’ Socie ty of Bengal

,

’ vol . l ii i . pt. i . ,vol . i i . p . 43 1 , and vol . X . p . 16 . p. 294.

CHAP . 111 . KHAJURAHO . 5 3

supporting its roof, and extend ing to the two square pilaste rs

The Ghantai , KhajurAhO . (From a Photograph . )

now at the we st end, which would be on the front of the


shrine . And the shrine i tse l f Wi th the pradaksh ina wouldoccupy about 1 7 ft. to the wes t of the se pi laste rs .At the south-we st corne r

,neAr whe re the shrine would have

been , l ie s a l i fe - sized figure of AdinAth,and from this

,with the

Ja ina figure s excavated by Gene ral Cunn ingham,one of them

Temple at GyAraspur. (From a Photograph . )

dated in A.D . 108 5 , we learn that, late in the 1 1 th cen tu ry theJa ins had the place in possess ion . But i t i s a l so plain that theywe re reconstruct ing it of material s from older H ind Ii structure s .And the absence of débris sugge sts that e i the r the wal l s and

great spire neve r we re con structed or that,at a later date , the

ent ire material s we re care ful ly removed . How long be forethe 1 1 th century the e ight sandstone pi l lars we re fi rst carved

CHAP . I I I . GYARASPUR. 5 5

we are left without evidence to de te rmine ; but the re seemsno reason for ascribing them to an earl ie r pe riod than the

commencemen t of the 10th century, and poss ibly they maybe of even somewhat late r date .

The re seems ve ry l ittle doubt that more examples of this ageand style exist in Raj putana and Cen tral India. At GyAraspur,24 mile s north-east from Bh ilsA, and 140 mile s south-we st fromthis

,the re i s a group of pi l lars arranged l ike the se and l ike

them deprived of the i r wal l s (Woodcut No . In the

Mukand ra pass the re i s a third example , but of muchearl ie r date .

1 Was i t that the i r wal ls we re of burn t bricksor of smal l square stones which , be ing easi ly removed , we reutil ised ? My impress ion i s the latte r was the case ; butbe th i s as i t may , these Gyaraspur pi l lars are poss ibly al sothe remain s of a Jaina edifice , but of an age cons ide rablymore mode rn than the Ghantai . They can hard ly unde r anyci rcumstance s be ascribed to an age ante rior to the greatrevival in the l oth cen tury, and may not improbably be longto the 1 2th century . In the same town of GyAraspur is a ve rygrand old temple apparent ly of about the same age as the sepil lars . B ut i t has been so ruined and repai red

,and almos t

rebui l t, that i t i s extreme ly d ifficu lt to say what the form orpurpose of the original e rection may have been . The re i sal so a toran of great beauty in the vi l lage , probably of the1 1 th cen tury

,and in fact throughout th is region the re are

numbe rless rema in s which , i f sc ien t ifical ly examined,would

probably suffice to fi l l up some of the largest gaps in ou r history .

At Bhangarh, for instance , in the south of the A lwarte rri tory

,the re are some ve ry beautifu l temples in style

re sembl ing the Jaina ? One in that ne ighbourhood photographed by Captain Impey ,

may be long to the 10th or1 1 th century, and i s as beautifu l as any of its class , e i the r atKhajurAho or e lsewhe re , and near i t again is a colossal Ja inaimage

,cal led Nan GIi ngi , some 20 ft . in he ight , which is

apparen tly of the same age as the temple s , and con sequentlyante rior to any of the coloss i at GwAliar or in the south ofIndia ? The Jain sect are nume rous in Raj putana

, and thoughsome of the i r temples have long been neglected and fal lenin to decay, some of them ,

be ing of the be st age and un

re stored,are of extreme inte re st to the inve st igator of Indian art .

1 ‘ Picturesque I llustratIons of Indian cen tury , of great beauty of detai lArchitecture , ’ by the Author , plate 5 . probab ly they too are Saiva .

2 These are probably Sa iva . A t 3 Impey ,‘Views in Delhi , Agra, and

N ilkan th (old RAjor), also in the hills Rajpootana ,’ London

,1 865 , fron tispiece

of the Tahla pargana of the same state , and plate 60.

are some temples of about the roth


An importan t group of anc ien t temples is reported at Os ia,a decayed town about 3 2 m ile s north of Jodhpur. Among themis a J a ina temple of con s ide rable s ize , wh ich an irfscript ionindicate s as having been founded original ly in the latte r partof the 8 th cen tury ; and the H ind Ii temple s may be long tosomewhe re about the same pe riod . A care fu l survey of themmight be he l pfu l in se ttl ing the age of other monuments bysupplying fresh l inks in the chronometri c scale .

A S before ment ioned , the Buddhists,though employing

circular roofs,and in all ages bu i ld ing topes with domica l

forms exte rnal ly,do not seem to have attempted an inte rnal

dome,in stone at least . I t i s a feature of both H ind Ii and Jaina

architecture , and i s special ly prevalen t among the northe rn Jains,

though , why this particu lar se ct should have adopted i t , and whythey should have pe rseve red in using it through so long a pe riod ,are ques t ions we are not ye t in a posit ion to answe r. I t was ane ssen t ial featu re in the archite cture of the Moslims before they

Porch of Hindtt Temple at AmwA, near AjantA.

(From a Photograph by Major Gill . )

came in to India, and they consequen tly eage rly se i zed on the

dome s of Hind Ii s and Ja ins when they fi rst arrived the re,and

afte rwards from them worked out that domical s ty le which i sone of the mos t marked characte ri sti cs of the i r art in India.

CHAP . I I I . AMWA. 5 7

Yet we must not forget that the Hind Ii s also have shownthat they could , and d id frequently employ the dome ve rysuccessful ly . Among examples of the i r use of it few are morepleasing than the l i ttle temple at AmwA or AmVAr, near Ajan tA(Woodcut No . I t i s on ly a fragment . The sanctuarywith its spire are gone

,on ly the portico remain ing ; and i ts roof

external ly i s so ru ined , that i ts des ign can w i th difficulty be madeout. Yet i t s tands SO we l l on its stylobate

,and the th irty sma l l

columns that support the roof external ly are so we l l proport ioned and so artistical ly arranged

,as to leave l ittle to be desired .

The great feature of the inte rior i s a dome 2 1 ft . in diamete r,supported on twe lve richly carved pi l lars

,with e ight smal le r

one s inte rspersed . L ike all Indian dome s,i t i s horizontal in

const ruction,and con sequently al so in ornamen tat ion

,but as

that i s done here,i t i s as e legan t or more so than the ribbed

dome s of weste rn art . This one i s plain in the centre , havingno pendan t—which

,however

,i s one of the most marked and

pleasing features of such dome s,as may be gaAthered from

the example in the temple of V imala at Moun t A i (Woodcut No . 284 and Plate X IX . ) A large r and pe rhaps be tte rexample might be cited in the case of the great sun - temple at

ModherA in GujarAt , when ent i re,but on ly the lowe r courses of

i ts dome s now remain .

1

One of the most interest ing Jaina monumen ts of the age

i s the towe r, forme rly known as S ri Allata’

s? which sti l l adornsthe head of Ch itor (Woodcut No . 295 , next page ) , and i s oneprobably of a great numbe r of s imilar monumen ts that may at

one t ime have existed . From the i r form ,howeve r

,they are fra i l ,

and tree s and human violence so easi ly ove rthrow them ,that

we ought not to wonde r that so few rema in . This one i s a

s ingularly e legan t spec imen of i ts class,about 7 5 ft . in he ight ,

and adorned with sculpture and mould ings from the base tothe summit. 3 I t stands on a basement 20 ft . square and 9 ft.high , with a stai r on the south s ide

,lead ing to the doorway,

which is 6 ft . 2 in . above the platform . The shaft of the toweri s 1 2 ft . 10 in . square be low

,and i s fou r storeys high to the

open canopy of twe lve pi l lars,the floor of which is 64 ft . 2 in .

from the ground . An in script ion once existed lying near i tsbase , which is said to have given its date as A.D . though

1 ‘ Archaeological Survey of Western 3 ‘ Picturesque I llustrat ion s of Ancien tI ndia,’ vol . ix . pp . 7 5 ff. and plates 49 , 50. Archite cture in H indostan ,

’ by the2 A l lata, to whom the erection of this Au thor , plate 8 , p . 38 .

tower was ascribed,ruled between 9 5 3

‘1 Tod , RAjasthan ,

’ vol . I I . p . 763 .

and 972 , as we gather from inscriptions , (Madras ed . p . This would be

and is the 1 2th king , ment ioned in before the time of A llata. The tower isTod’s Aitpur inscription . RAjasthan ,

’also local ly known as Kaitan RAni

’s

vol . i . p . 802 , Madras ed. p . 706 . but who she was is unknown .

JAINA ARCHITECTURE.

60

296 .

JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK V .

Tower ofVictory of Kumbha RAnAat Chitor . (From a Photograph . )

1 The dome that now crownsthis tower was subst ituted for anolder dome s ince I ske tched I t In1 839 .

in he ight ; the wholebe ing cove red wi th arch itectural ornaments and

sculptures ofHind Ii divini t ie s to such an exten t asto leave no pla in parts

,

whi le at the same t imeth is mass of decorat ion iskept so subdued

,that i t

in no way in te rfe res e i the rw i th the outl ine or the

gene ral e ffect of the

pi l lar . lThe Muhammadans

,

as we shal l afte rwardssee

, adopted the plan ofe re cting towe rs of Vi ctoryto commemorate the i rexploits , but the mostd ire ct imitat ion was bythe Chinese

,whose n ine

s t o r ey e d p ag o da s a re

almost l i te ra l Copies ofthese Indian towers

,trans

lated in to the i r own

pecul iar mode of express ion .

Othe r example s ofthis m iddle style of Jainaarchitecture are to be

found at PAlitAnA, GirnAr,

and all the fash ionableti rthas of the Jains

,but

they have no t been de

scribed or i l lustrated tothat extent that enable sus a lways to fee l su rethat what we see rea l lybe longs to this date

,and

may no t be a repai r or amodificat ion of some preex isting build ing. The

Chaumukh or Four

CHAP . I I I . TOWER OF CHITOR. 6 1

faced—at PAlitAnA seems ce rtain ly to have been e rected in i tspresen t form In 1 6 1 8

,and Is a very grand and beautifu l example

of the style ? The t,

emple too, of Adiswar Bhagavan ,which

is the largest s ingle temple on that hi l l , seems to have assumedits presen t form in 1 5 30, though parts of i t may be olde r.At least, i t i s certain that an olde r temple stood on the spot

,

though not with the fabulous an tiqu ity ascribed to it by the

priests , and credulous ly repeated by Colone l Tod ?

Though deficien t in the extreme grace and e legance thatcharacterised the earl ie r examples , those of the middle styleare bold and vigorous spe cimen s of the art

,and st i l l show an

original i ty and an adherence to the traditions of the style,

and a freedom from any admixture of fore ign e lements,which

cannot be predicated of the mode rn style that succeeded it .

3

1 Burgess , ‘ Satrunjaya,’ p . 20

,and

photographs 6 - 1 2 ; the plan of this33

-35 and plates 1 9-2 1 Dr . J . F .

S trat ton ’

s Chitor and the Mewar family , ’temple is given an te, Woodcut NO . 278 ,p . 28.

2 Tod ’s ‘ Travels InWestern India, ’ pp .

280, 28 1 .

3 For Chitor , see‘ Arch itecture and

Scenery in Gujarat and Raj putana,

’ pp .

pp . 76 -99 ;

‘ Archaeological Survey ofIndia Reports , ’ vol . xxiii . pp . 101 - 1 24 ,and plates 20-25 G . Le Bon , Les

Monuments de l ’Inde,

’ pp . ggf. and figs .

99 - 1 04 and Workman , Through Townand Jungle in India, ’ pp . 305 -3 1 1 .


CHAPTER I V .

MODERN JAINA STYLE .

CONTENTS .

SonAgarh—Jaina Temp le s at AhmadAbAd—Delh i—Converted Temp les .

THE two places in northe rn India whe re the most mode rn stylesof Jaina arch itecture can probably be stud ied to most advantageare SonAgarh , near Dat iA

,in Bunde lkhand

,and Mukhtagiri,

near Gawilgarh, 1 3 mile s north-east of E lichpur in BerAr. The

forme r i s a gran i te hi l l, cove red with large loose masse s ofprimit ive rock

,among which stand from e ighty to one hundred

brick temple s of various shapes and s izes (Woodcut No. 297 ,p . So far as can be made out

,most of the se temples

date from the 1 6th and 1 7 th cen turies , though a few of themmay be olde r. The i r original foundation may be earl ie r, but ofthat we know nothing, no one having yet en l ightened us on

the subject, nor explained how and when th is hil l becamea sacred mount .L ike most Hind Ii bu i ld ings of the pe riod , all these temple s

Show very d istinctly the immense influence the Muhammadanstyle of architecture had on that of the nat ive styles at this age .

Many of the temple s he re are surmounted by the bulbousdome of the Mughal s . The true native s ikhara rare ly appears

,

but a modified form of it i s prevalent, and the open ings almostinvar iably take the form of the Muhammadan fol iated pointedarch. The re i s eve ry varie ty of style and form

,and gene ral ly

each stands on a terrace , and i s su rmoun ted by one or moreSpires . The re sul t i s p icturesque

,but not satisfactory when

looked close ly in to , and gene ral ly the de tai l s wan t the purityand e legance that characte rised the earl ie r examples . The rei s not a tree or S ign of vegetat ion to break the sol itaryappearance of the surrounding landscape .

1

Mukhtagiri, instead of be ing s ituated on a hi l l,as the tirthas

of the Jains usual ly are , i s in a deep roman t ic val ley,and the

large st group of temple s is s ituated on a platform at the foot of

1 L . Roussele t ,

CHAP. IV. MODERN JAINA STYLE.

64 JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK v .

a wate rfal l that thunde rs down from the he ight of 60 ft . abovethem . L ike those of SonAgarh, they are all of the moderndomed style , copied from Mosl im art

,and none of them

,so far

as can be asce rtained from such i l lustrat ions as exist , remarkable for beauty of de s ign . I t would

,howeve r

,be difficul t to

fi nd anothe r place in India whe re architecture is so happilycombined with the beautie s of natu re , and produce s SO pleas ingan impre ss ion on the l ove r of the picture sque

,though neare r

acquain tance may re su lt in disappointmen t to the ant iquarianstudent of the s tyle ?

In remote parts of the empire,

and e special ly in the

immed iate vicin ity of the O lde r shrines,th is Muhammadan

influence was much le ss fe l t than in the place s j us t ment ioned .

The mode rn temple s , for ins tance , at PAlitAnAhave domes, i t istrue

,but they are much more d irectly the l ineal de scendan ts of

the old Ja ina dome s than Copie s of those of the Mughal s,and the

fol iated pointed arch rare ly occurs in the wa l l s of that templec ity . I t requ ires, indeed , a practised eye to d iscrim inate be tweenwhat i s Old and What i s new

,and without the too man ifest

infe riority of modern sculpture th is would not always be easyeVen to the most accompl ished an t iquary .

One example must for the presen t suffice to Show the effecta imed at by this style in recen t t ime s , as we l l as to i l lustrate

how l ittle i t has degene rated from its

ancient exce l lence . For,though th is

woodcut (NO . 299 ) does not prove i t, thereare photographs which do exhibi t themarve l lous detai ls of th is temple in a

manne r not to be mistaken . I t was

e re cted about s ixty years ago by S e thHathis ingh

,a rich Jaina merchant

, at a

cost of about a mil l ion rupees,

and

dedicated to DharmanAth,the 1 sth

Ti rthankara . In thi s in stance the ex

te rnal porch be tween two circu lar towersi s of great magn ificence and most e laborately ornamen ted , and leads to an oute r

298 1213 11 01 5 6 111 11 3 1111' court with numerous smal l shrine s all

smgh Sf

’

f’

i’

fle

jncif ale 1 00 round . In the centre of this is a domed

porch of the usual form ,with twenty-six

pi l lars (see plan ,Woodcut No . Th is leads to an inne r

mandap or hal l , two storeys in he ight , and w i th a roof of a formve ry fashionable in mode rn Jaina temple s , though by no means

CHAP . IV. MODERN JAINA STYLE.


remarkable for beauty , and difficul t to rende r inte l l igible withoutmore i l lustration than i t me rits . This leads to a trip le sanctuary,marked by three s ikharas , or spires , exte rnal ly. Beh ind this i s asmal le r court with two groups of seven shrine s

,one in each angle ,

with a large r ce l l in the centre , and two— sti l l mo re important,at

the poin t Of junction between i t and the fron t court . To the eye

of a European,unaccustomed to its forms

,some of them may seem

strange ; but its arrangemen t , at least, wil l probably be admittedto be ve ry pe rfect . Each part goes on increas ing in d ign i ty as

we approach the san ctuary . The exte rior expre sse s the in te riormore comple te ly than even a Gothic de sign ; and whethe rlooked at from its courts or from the outs ide

,i t possesse s

varie ty without confus ion ,and an appropriateness of eve ry part

to the purpose for which i t was intended ?

JA INA TEMPLE,DELHI .

There i s one othe r example that ce rtain ly de serves noticebefore leaving th is branch of the subject, no t on ly on accoun tOf i ts beauty , but i ts s ingularity . In the preceding pages i t hasfrequently been ne cessary to remark upon that curious woodenstrut by which the Jain s sought to re l ieve the apparen t weakr

A

Iess

of the longe r beams unde r the i r dom e s . I t occurs at A i

(Woodcut NO . at GirnAr, at Udayapur,and many othe r

place s we shal l have to remark upon in the seque l eve rywhe re ,in fact, where an octagonal dome was used . I t was alsoemployed by the Hind Ii s in the i r toran s

,and so favouri te an

ornamen t d id i t become that Akbar u sed it frequen tly bothat Agra and Fathpur S ikri . For cen turie s i t continued withoutmuch a l te rat ion ,

but in stone,as for example in the great Baol i

at Bundi? we fi nd i t a me re ornamen t, and i t i s gene ral ly usedas such . I t was le ft

,howeve r

,for a Ja ina architect of the end of

the 1 8th or beginn ing of last centu ry,in the Muhammadan c ity

of De lhi , to s uggest a mode by which what was on ly conven

t ionally beauti fu l m ight real ly become an appropriate,and real ly,

construct ive part of l i th ic architecture .

As wil l be Obse rved in the next out (No . the arch itecthas had the happy idea of fi l l ing in the whole of the back ofthe strut with p ierced fol iaged trace ry of the most exqu is itedevice— thus turn ing what, though e legant , was one of thefeeble st parts Of Ja ina de sign in to a thoroughly construct ivestone bracke t ; one Of the most pleas ing to be found in Indianarchitecture , and doing this whi le pre se rving all i ts traditional

1 For more de tai l ustrations of IndianSurvey of Western87f. , and plates 69 -7 1 .


ce rtain ly of i ts age . The weak part of the compos it ion i sthe dome . I t i s e legan t, but too conventional . I t no longe rhas any constructive proprie ty, but has become a me re ornamen t . I t i s not d iffi cul t, howeve r, to see why native s shou ldadmire and adopt it. When the eyes of a nat ion have beeneducated by a gradual succe ssion of changes in any arch itectura lobject, pe rseve red in through fi ve or S ix centurie s

, the tastebe comes so accustomed to be l ieve the last fash ion to be the

best,the change has been so gradual , that people forge t how

far they are straying from the true path . The European, who

has not been so educated , sees on ly the resu l t, without havingfol lowed the steps by which i t has been so reached

,and i s

shocked to fi nd how far i t has deviated from the form of a

true dome of construct ion ,and

, find ing it al so unfamil iar,

condemns i t . So , indeed , i t is with n ine - ten ths of the ornamentsof Hind Ii arch itecture . Few among us are aware how mucheducat ion has had to do with the i r admirat ion of class ical ormed iaeval art , and few , consequently , perce ive how much the i rcondemnat ion of Indian forms arise s from this ve ry want ofgradua l and appropriate education .

CONVERTED TEMPLES .

Anothe r form in which we can study the arch itecture ofthe Ja ins in the north of India i s the courtyards of the earlymosque s which the Muhammadans e rected on the i r fi rs t entryinto India . SO e ssen t ial ly do some of these re tain the i r forme rfeature s that i t might be conven ien t to de scribe them he re . I ti s doubtfu l

,howeve r, in some in stan ce s whe the r the pi l lars are

some or all of them—ih the i r o riginal pos it ion,or to what

exten t they have been al te red or eked out by the conquerors .Be this as i t may ,

for our presen t purpose s the one fact thati s ce rtain i s, that none of them are now Ja ina temples . All

are Muhammadan mosques , and i t wi l l , the re fore , be morelogical

,as we l l as more conven ien t, to group them with the

latte r rathe r than with the forme r class of bu i ld ings .We re i t not for this , the Arhai-din -ka JhomprA, at Ajmir—so

cal led—might be , and has been , described as a Jaina temple :1

i t was probably bui l t on the s ite and with the material s ofB rahman i cal ones . SO might a great part of the mosque at

the Qutb, near De lhi . That at Kanauj , howeve r, was original ly a

rearrangemen t , and -has been much a l te red s ince I knew i t ;that at DhAr, near Mand ii , i s of comparat ive ly recen t date ;while the H ind Ii and Ja ina pil lars , so frequen tly used at

1 Tod’s Rajasthan , ’ vol . i. p . 7 78, and plate facing it .

CHAP. IV. CONVERTED TEMPLES. 69

AhmadAbAd in the fi fteenth century , are all imported , and usedin positions for which they neve r were intended .

The astylar temple s of the Hind Ii s we re use less to the

Moslims except as quarrie s—a purpose to which they werefrequen tly appl ied ; but the l ight columnar style .of the Jain snot on ly suppl ied mate rial s more easi ly adapted to the i rpurposes

,but furn i shed hints of which the Mosl im architects

we re not slow to ava i l themse lve s . The archite cture ofAhmadAbAd

,for instance (A.D . 14 10 to i s derived far

more directly from the Jaina than from any style famil iarto the i r co - re l igion i sts in any othe r part of the world . The

same may be sa id of that of Jaunpur, though in the last-namedc ity the re i s hard ly a stone that can be said to be de rivedd ire ct from any previous ly exist ing bui ld ing .

The process by which this conve rs ion Of a Jaina templeto a Mos l im mosque was e ffected wi l l be eas i ly underst

A

ood

by re fe rring to the . plan of that of V imala on Moun t A i(Woodcut No . 283 , sup ra ,

p . By removing the principal ce l land i ts porch from the cen tre of the court , and bu ild ing upthe en trance s of the ce l l s that surround it

,a courtyard was

at once obtained , surrounded by a double colonnade , whicha lways was the typica l form of a mosque . S t i l l one e ssen tialfeature was wan ting— a more importan t s ide towards Mecca ;this they easi ly obtained by removing the smal le r pi l lars fromthat s ide , and re -e recting in the i r place the large r pi l lars ofthe porch , with the i r dome in the centre ; and , i f there we retwo smal le r domes

,by placing one of them at each end . Thus ,

without a s ingle,

n ew column or carved stone be ing required ,they obtained a mosque which

,for conven ience and beauty,

was unsurpassed by anything they afterwards e rected fromthe i r own original designs .

7 6 JAINA ARCHITECTURE . BOOK V .

CHAPTER V .

JAINA STYLE IN SOUTHERN IND IA .

CONTENTS .

B e t tas— Bas t is .

A GOOD deal has been done in the way of photographing themonumen ts Of the Jains in southe rn India, but few plans ofthe i r bu i ld ings and fewe r architectural de tai l s have ye t beenprope rly publi shed

,so that al togethe r our knowledge of the

subject i s somewhat supe rficial ; but i t i s inte re sting from itsexten t

,and curious from the unexpected re lat ionsh ip i t reveals

w ith othe r style s . The Jains are said to have come to southernIndia

,owing to a famine in the north in the fi rst century, B C ?

We know from the i r cave temples that the re we re Jain s atAihole and BAdAm i (sup ra ,

p . 1 8) as early as the end of the6 th ,

or ce rtain ly in the 7 th cen tury ; 2 but afte r that there is a

pause or break of four or fi ve centurie s , when the s ty le reappearsin strength at Be lgaum and in that ne ighbourhood in the 1 1 th

and 1 2th cen tu rie s ? In the same manne r southe rn Ja ins seemto have pre ssed northward as far as ElIi rA in the 9 th cen tu ry,taking the i r D ravid ian style with them (supra ,

p . but the reaga in we stop

,in so far as any direct evidence has been found ,

t i l l the great outburst of Jaina magn ificence at the end of the10th cen tury

,which then seems to have con t inued in the north

t i l l d isturbed by the Muhammadan invas ion . I t is by no mean sclear whe the r the destruction of the i r temples , as at Ajmir and

De lh i , may not have led many of the Jains to move south tothe Dekhan . Of course i t existed in Mysore long be fore , andsome of the early k ings of the Chalukya and Hoy sala BallAla

dynasties we re nominal ly patrons at least of the Jains . All

the i r late r build ings,howeve r, so far as we know them , e i the r

at SomnAthpur, Be lti r, or Halebid , be long to the B rahman i calsects .

1 Epigraphia Indic 48, and 49 .

24 , 26 , 28 ;‘ Indian in the 8th cen tury Kunku

xxi . 60. ster of VijayAditya, the

g , bui l t a Jaina temple a

CHAP . V . BETTAS. 7 1

I f Buddhism was not prevalent or powerfu l in the south ,there are eve rywhere trace s of the prevalence of Se rpen tworship in those districts whe re the Jaina re l igion now prevai l s .Sculptured serpents, with many heads and in all the i r con

vent ional forms,are found eve rywhere about and in the temple s

and Subrahmanya in South Kanara, be low the GhAts , is sti l la principal seat of Serpen t worship in southe rn India.

1 I t i snot

,unfortunate ly

, easy to say how far Tree -worship was mixedup with the latte r faith

,but the Obse rvance s of Se rpen t-worship

are in timate ly connected with those pa id to Tree s . Tree sperish more eas i ly and quickly than scu lptured stones, and

when the worsh ip cease s its trace s disappear more readi ly .

The re are indicat ions that i t d id preva i l he re al so , but , t i l lpurpose ly enqu ired afte r

,i t is imposs ible to say to what extent .

Enough,howeve r

,i s known

, even now ,to justify the asse rtion

that Tree and Se rpen t worship did exist an te ceden tly in thosed istricts in which Ja in ism preva i led in the south

,as a l so in

the Dravid ian countries whe re the people are devoted to the

worship of S iva and the membe rs of the Hind Ii Pantheon ?

The truth of the matte r appears to be,that unt i l plans are

made avai lable of the i r bui ld ings it i s idle to spe cu late about theintroduct ion of Jain ism into the south

,or i ts vicissitude s during

its existence the re . I t i s a task which , i t i s to be feared , feware capable of undertaking

,and that fewe r st i l l are wil l ing to

devote the t ime and labour requisite for i ts successfu l accomplishment but i t i s worthy of be ing attempted

,for

,i f successful ly

carried out, i t would add to our scan t store s of knowledge one

of the most in te resting chapte rs st i l l avai lable for the re l igiousand artist ic history of the people of India.

BETTAS

The fi rst pecu l iarity that strikes one as dist inguishing theJaina arch itecture of the south from that of the north

,i s the

divis ion of the southe rn temples in to two classe s , ca l led Basti sand Be ttas .3 The forme r are temple s in the usual acceptance ofthe word

, as unde rstood in the north , and,as the re

,always

contain ing an image of one of the twenty- four Ti rthankaras ,which is the obje ct there worshipped . The latte r are unknown

1 ‘Madras Manual of Admin istration ,

’

Prel im . arts, pp . 82, 83 . NAgarko il inTravankor, i s also a chief seat of Snakeworship .

2 In the Hinduism of Malabar,Phal li c

and Sakti -worsh ip and Tree -worship are

inextricably mixed upwith Snake -worship .

—Logan’

s‘Malabar , ’ vol . i . p. 1 83 .

3 Basti, properly “ Basadi , is a Jainamonastery or temple i t is the Kannadaform of the Sanskri t “ Vasat i having thesame mean ing ; VasahikA is applied tobu ildings in cludingmonasteryand temple .

‘Ueber das Leben des Hemachandra, ’ p . 5 7 .

‘ Be tta, ’ in Kannada,means a hill .


in the north ; and are courtyard s usual ly on a hi l l or ris ingground

,open to the sky and contain ing image s , not of a

Ti rthankara , but o f GOmata or d atesvara so cal led,though

he is not known to the Jain s in the north . All the image s on

the rock at GwAliar are of one or othe r of the Ti rthankaras,and

even the A lwar colossus , Nan GIi ngi , can hard ly be iden t ifiedwith the se southe rn image s .

1 The statues of this Jaina sain tare among the most remarkable works of nat ive art in the

south of India. Three of them are we l l known,and have long

been known to European s ? That at S ravana Be lgola attractedthe atten tion of the late Duke of We l l ington when

,as S ir A .

We l le s ley ,he commanded a d ivi s ion at the s iege of Se ringapatam .

He , l ike all those who fol lowed him,was as ton ished at the

amoun t of labour such a work must have en tai led,and puzzled

to know whe the r i t was a part of the hi l l or had been movedto the spot whe re i t now stands . The forme r i s the moreprobable theory . The hi l l

,cal led Indragiri

,i s one mass of gran i te

about 400 ft . i n he ight , and probably had a mass or Tor standing on i ts summit— e ithe r a part of the subjacent mass or lyingon i t . This the Ja in s unde rtook to fashion in to a statue 5 8 ft .in he ight

,and have achieved i t with marve l lous success . The

task of carving a rock standing in i ts place the H ind Ii mindneve r would have Shrunk from ,

had i t even been twice the

s ize ; but to move such a mass up the steep smooth S ide ofthe hi l l seems a labour beyond the i r powe r

,even wi th all the i r

sk i l l in concent rat ing masse s of m en on a s ingle poin t . Whe the r,

howeve r, the rock was found in s z

'

tze or was moved,nothing

grande r or more impos ing exists anywhe re out of Egypt,and

even the re no known s tatue surpasse s it in he ight,though

,i t

must be con fessed , they do exce l i t in the pe rfection of artthey exhibit ?

The image at KArkala in south Kanara,which is next in s ize

be ing 4 1 ft . 5 in . in he ight , and we ighing about 80 tons 4—was

vol . VI I . pp . 108 et seqq, where the inscript ion s also are given . A t S ravana-gutta,near I lavAla in Mysore district

,on a rocky

he ight , is another of th ese statues now

abandoned, about 20 fee t in heigh t thereis also one on a hill n ear Tippfir about

1 I t would appear from the inscriptionson these sta tues in the sou th that they represen t BAhubalin a son ofRishabhanAthaand brother of Bharata . Indian An tiquary ,

’ vol . vi i . p . 35 3 vol . xxx . p . 248

R ice ’s Inscriptions at S ravana B elgola, ’in trod . pp . 25 et seqq. The firs t of thethree Kevalins or immediate successorsofMahAvira was also named Gautama .

2 Three from Kanara were engravedin Moor’s H indu Pan theon

,

’1 8 1 0 , plates

73 and 74 and two of them in Buchanan ’s

‘ Journey through Mysore , etc.

’ vol .i i i . pp . 83 and 4 10 ; also in ‘ Ind ianAn tiquary, ’ vol . i i . pp . 1 29 and 35 3

°

vol . v . p . 5 7 ; and‘EpIgraph ia Indica,

9 ft . high , but on ly in hal f rel ief ; and on

the Chan dragi ri h il l is an unfin ished one

abou t 10 ft . high .—R ice , a t mp , 29 .

3 The inscription on the statue ascr ibesi t to ChAmunda-rAya, min iste r to the

Ganga king RAchamalla I I . who ru ledabout A . D . 980.

4 ‘ Asiatic Researches, ’ vol . ix . p . 285Indian An tiquary, ’ vol . i i . p. 353.

CHAP. V. BETTAS. 7 3

moved certain ly to the place whe re i t now stands , and i ts datelucki ly is engraved upon it,—A.D . 1432.

The thi rd at Yen Ii r or Ven ii r,al so in . south Kanara, i s

smal le r,about 3 5 ft . high apparen tly

,

1and i s the latest of the

three , having beene re c t e d i n 1 604

(Woodcut NO .

All these threefigure s be long to theD igambara sect ofJains , be ing ent ire lynaked ; and all possessthe pecu l iarity of having twigs or creepingplants twisted roundthe i r arms and legs

,in

the manne r found inthe cave -temple s

,and

in having se rpen ts atthe i r fee t. In the

Ja ina cave at BAdAm i

a s im ilar figure has

two creeping plan tswound round its armsand legs prec ise ly as

these twigs are here,

and se rpen ts at h isfee t , while the Dikshaor Bo - tree i s re legatedto the background ?This figure

,though

poss ibly not so oldas the cave in whichit i s found—say A.D . 600—i s much olde r than the three greatmonol iths , but repre sen ts the same individual— the ideal asce t ic—who stood in med itat ion unt i l the an t-hil l s arose at his fee tand creeping plan ts grew round his l imbs . Th is GOmata

,

Gummata, or DOrbali has no prominen t place in the Swe tAmbarapan theon ,

though PArswanAth is , with them , occas ional ly repre

sented in a s im i lar posit ion .

3

301 . Colossal Statue at Yenfi ru (From a Photograph . )

1 Moor’s ‘H indu Pan theon ,

’ plate 73 ; cal led KAyotsarga. In the SwetAmbara‘ Indian An tiquary , ’ vol . v . p . 37 . temples standing figures of Jinas are often2 ‘Archaeological Survey of Western placed on each S ide of the pr inc ipal

India, ’ vol . i . p . 25 , plate xxxvii . image and in GujarAti are known as

3 Nearly all the Tirthankaras are said to KAii sagiyas,” that i s—figures i n the

have at tained bl iss (mokslz a) in this posi tion KAyotsarga mfidra.


BASTi s.

The principal group of Basti s of the Jains, above the GhAts ,i s that at S ravana Be lgola. The re are the re two hi l ls—theIndragiri

,on whose summit the colossal image just described

stands, and dominates the pla in . On a shoulde r of the othe r,

cal led Chandrag iri , stand the Basti s,fifteen in numbe r . As

might be expected from the i r S i tuat ion,they are all of the

D ravidian style Of architecture,and are consequen tly bu i l t in

gradual ly receding storeys , each of which i s ornamented withsmal l s imulated ce l l s , as was explained above , vol . i , p . 1 7 2 ,and wi l l be more ful ly descr ibed pre sently . No instance occu rsamong them of the curvi l inear s ikhara or spire

,which is un i

ve rsal with the northe rn Jain s,except in the in stance Of ElIi rA

above a l luded to .

The fol low ing woodcut (No . 302) repre sen ting the ChAmunda

rAya and SAsana basti s on the north s ide of the Chandragirih i l l

,with the stambha in fron t Of the PArswanAthaswAm i basti ,

conveys an idea of the i r genera l external appearance , whichis more ornamen tal than that of the genera l i ty of northe rnJaina temple s . The oute r wal l of those in the north i s qu itepla in . The southern one s are as frequen tly ornamen ted withpilaste rs and crowned with a row of ornamental ce l ls ? The

ChAmunda-rAya temple is the mos t imposing on the hil l , bothin style and d imens ions

,and was probably e rected about 1 1 35 A.D .

External ly it measure s about 70 ft . in length , exclusive of theporch on the east face , by 36 ft . across . In side i s a mandapa, orhal l about 28 ft . wide by 2 95 ft. deep . The D ravid ian mode ofroofing does not accept the dome on an octagon

,and here a

square of four round column s,8 ft . 4 in . be tween cen tres , i s

surrounded by anothe r of twe lve octagona l p i l lars,1 9 ft . be tween

the cen tre s of the corne r pil lars . Behind the hal l i s a vest ibuleabout 1 8 ft . wide by 6 ft. deep

,from which the smal l shrine i s

ente red—surrounded apparently by wal l s of unusual th ickness tosupport the VimAna or spi re ? The temple at the south s ide ofthis one i s ded icated to Adiswar, but known as the SAsana basti ,

1 The native Governmen t Archaeologi

cal survey, carried on for many years past ,has concerned itsel f almost exclusivelywith epigraphy . A few plans and detaildrawings have been inser ted in the 1 2

quarto volumes , but descriptive de tails arefew and meagre while , for the drawings ,scales are e ithe r wan ting or too short anduncertain to be depended on, and the

l i thography so poor that measuremen tscannot always be trusted as accurate .

2 The measuremen ts here are takenfrom the plan in R ice ’s ‘ Inscriptions atS ravana Belgola, ’ at Tr. p . 149 , on the

assumption that the scale is 1 : 147 5possibly intended for 1 2 ft . to 1 in . The

plan shows the wal ls round the shrine as

about 1 25 ft . thick .

JAINA ARCHITECTURE. BOOK. V .

of the gene ral aspect of the se temples external ly . The re are

some s ixteen basti s at thi s place , of which the largest and mostnotable i s the Hosa-basti

,bui l t in A.D . 1430. They are much

plaine r than Hind ii temples usual ly are . The pil lars lookl ike logs of wood with the angles partial ly chamfe red off

,so as

to make them octagons , and the s loping roofs of the ve randahsare so evidently wooden that the style itse l f cannot be far

Jaina Temple at Mti dab idri . (From a Photograph . )

removed from a wooden original . In many place s,indeed ,

be low the GhAts the temple s are sti l l wholly constructed inwood without any admixture of stone , and almost all the feature sof the MIi dab idri temples may be found in wood at the presen tday . The bl inds be tween the pi l lars

,which are there executed

in stone , are found in wood in eve ry city in Ind ia , and withve ry l ittle variation are used by European s in Cal cutta to a

greate r extent, pe rhaps , than they we re eve r used by the nat ive s .The feature , howeve r, which presen ts the greate st re semblance

to the northe rn styles , i s the reve rse s lope of the eaves abovethe ve randah . The same style is found in the old temples at

KArkala and elsewhe re in Kanara, but in no othe r d istrict south

CHAP . V . TEMPLES AT MUDABIDRI . 7 7

of NepAl but when we look for its origin , we at once recogn isei t in the huts and house s of the d istrict

,from the thatched roofs

of which it has eviden tly been copied .

There are s ixteen of these Basti s at Mii dab idri,though

the Jain inhabitan ts of the vi l lage are now but few. Thein te riors of these temple s are in marked cont rast with theplainness of the exte riors . Nothing can exceed the richness

Jaina Temple at Mtidabidri . (From a Photograph . )

or the varie ty wi th which they are carved .No two pi l lars

seem al ike , and many are ornamented to an exten t that mayseem almost fantastic . This again seems an indication ofthe i r recen t descen t from a wooden original . Long habit ofusing stone would have sobe red the i r forms : they are now of

JAINA ARCHITECTURE.BOOK v.

305 . Pillar in a Temple at Mti dabidri . (From a Photograph . )


the ne ighbourhood of Mii dab idri . Three of the se are i l lustratedin the annexed woodcut (No . They vary much in ‘

s i z e andmagn ificence , some be ing from three to fi ve or seven storeys inhe ight ; but they are not

,l ike the s toreys of D ravid ian temple s

,

ornamented with s imulated ce l l s and fin i shing with domical roofs .

The d ivis ion of each storey is a s loping roof l ike those of the

Tombs of Priests , Mti dab idri . (From a Photograph . )

pagodas at KAthmAnd Ii , and in China or T ibe t. In India theyare quite anomalous . In the fi rst place , no tombs of priestsare known to exist anywhe re e lse , and the i r forms , too, are

quite un l ike any othe r bu i ld ing now known to be standing inany othe r part of India.

Though not the grande st , ce rtain ly the most e legant and

graceful objects to be found in Kanara be longing to the Jainastyle of archite cture are the stambhas , which are found attachedto many Of the i r temple s . These are not

, howeve r, pecul iarto the place or s tyle . They are used some t ime s by the H ind Ii s,

CHAP. V. STAMBHAS. 8 1

but then frequen tly as dipdAns, or lamp-bearing pi l lars, and inthat case have some arrangemen t for exhibit ing l ight from the i rsummits or round the i r shafts . With the Jains this does not

appear eve r to have been the case . The i r p i l lars are the l inealdescendants of those of the Buddhists , which bore e ithe r emblemsor statues— gene ra l ly the forme r— or figures of an imal s with theJains and Va ishnavas they as general ly bore figure s ? In the

south,howeve r

,the Jain s

have two style s Of pi l larsthe Brahmadeva S tambhas ,bearing figure s Of the godB rahma

,and the MAna

stambhas wh ich are talle rand bear a smal l pav il ion on

the capital ? The examplehe re given of one of the

latte r class at GuruvAyanke rii s a fa i r ave rage spec imen of

its class (Woodcut NO .

The sub-base is square and

spreading ; the base itse l fsquare

,changing in to an

octagon,and thence in to a

polygonal figure approaching a ci rcle ; and above a

w ide - spreading capital ofmost e laborate de s ign . To

many this may at fi rst s ightappear top -heavy

,but i t is

no t so in,

real i ty . I f youe rect a pi l lar at all

,i t ought

to have some th ing to carry.

Those we e rect are Copiedfrom pil lars mean t to supportarchitrave s, and are absurdSOq isms When merely SUp 308 . S tambha at GuruvAyankeri .port ing statue s ; we have

, (From a Photograph . )

howeve r,got accustomed to

them,and our eye is offended if anyth ing be tte r proportioned to

the work to be done i s proposed but,look ing at the breadth of

the base and the strength of the shaft,anything less than he re

exh ibited would be found disproportionate ly sma l l .On the lowe r or square part of the se s tambhas as we l l as on

1 An te, pp . vol . i . 347 , 348 , and vol . I i . p . 2 1 .

2 ‘Epigraphia Indica, ’ vol . viii . p . 1 23 .

VOL . I I .


the pi l lars ins ide the temple s at MIi dab idri (Woodcut NO . 305 )and e l sewhe re in Kanara, we fi nd that curious in te rlaced baske tpatte rn

,which is so famil iar to us from I rish manusCrip tS or

the ornamen ts on I rish crosse s . As poin ted out e l sewhe re? i ti s equal ly common in Armen ia,

and can be traced up the val leyof the Danube into cen tral Europe ; but how it got to the we stcoast of India we do no t know

,nor have we

,so far as I know

,

any indicat ion on which we can re ly for its introduction . The rewas at all t imes for the last fifteen centurie s a large body ofChristian s es tabl ished on this coast who we re in connection withPe rs ia and Syria, and are so now . I t would be strange

,indeed

,

i f i t we re from them the Ja in s obtained th is device . But strange rth ings have happened than even this in the history of architecture

,

and few things can be more inte re st ing when the mean s existof tracing any conne ction that may be de te cted be tween them .

I f any one wished to se le ct one feature of Ind ian architecturewhich would i l lustrate i ts rise and progre ss

,as we l l as i t s

perfe ction And weakness , there are probably no objects moresu ited for this purpose than these s tambhas

,or free standing

pi l lars . They are found of all age s, from the s imple and monol ithic lAts which Asoka se t up to bear inscriptions or emblems

,

some 2 50 years B .C. down to the seventeenth or pe rhaps evene ighteenth cen tury of our era. During these 2000 years theywe re e re cted by the B uddhists and by the Jains , as we l l asby the othe r sects in all parts of India ; and notwithstand ingthe i r inhe ren t frai l ty, some fi fty

—it may be a hundred—are

known to be st i l l standing . Afte r the fi rst and most S imple,

e rected by Asoka,i t may be safe ly asse rted that no two are

al ike though all bear strongly the impre ss of the age in whichthey we re e rected , and all are thoroughly original and Indianin design ?

I t may be owing to the s ty loclastic propens ities of the Moslims

that these pi l lars are not found so frequently whe re they havehe ld sway

,as in the remote r parts of India ; but , whe the r from

this cause or not , they seem to be more frequen t in Kanara and

among the southe rn Jain s than in any othe r part of India. In

the north we depend main ly on the rock- cut example s for the i rforms

,but they are so usual the re that i t seems hard ly doubtfu l

they we re re lat ive ly as frequen t in conne ct ion with structuralexamples , though the se have gene ral ly d isappeared .

I t has been sugge sted that the re may be some connectionbetween these stambhas and the obe l isks of the Egyptians . The

the Saiva and Jaina pil lars at

in Woodcuts N05 . 202 and

BOOK V I .

NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE .

CHAPTER I .

INTRODUCTORY.

CONTENTS .

In t roduc tory—D rav id ian and Indo -Aryan Temp les at Pattadakal—Modern

Temple at B enares .

OF the three style s in to wh ich H ind Ii arch itecture natural lyd ivide s itse l f, the northe rn is found spread ove r a far large rport ion of the country than e i the r of the othe r two . I t wants ,howeve r, the compactne ss and strongly-marked individual ity ofthe D ravid ian ,

and neve r was deve loped with that exuberancewhich characte ri sed the sou the rn s tyle from the 1 5 th to the

i 8 th centu ry . In many re spects i t re semble s more the Chalukyanstyle

,the examples be ing smal l and e legan t

,and found d ispersed

ove r the face of the coun t ry , whe re wan ted , without any apparen tmass ing toge the r in parti cu lar spots .Unfortunate ly , we have no name which would describe the

s tyle in i ts e thnographica l and geographical re lat ion s withoutbe ing open to the Obje ction of expre ss ing e i the r too much ortoo l itt le . In th is respe ct the sou the rn s tyle is s ingularlyfortunate : D ravid ian correctly l im its i t to people speak ingTAm il, Te lugu ,

or some cognate d iale ct and the coun try whe rethe people speaking those tongue s are to be found is gene ral lyand corre ctly known as DrAv ida - desa

,or coun try of the

D ravidians .The te rm Chalukyan ,

appl ied to th e second style,i s not

so expre ss ive ; but i t i s unobje ct ionable , as i t cannot m is leadany one . I t is on ly a conven tional te rm

,de rived from the

principal known dynasty rul ing in that coun try,appl ied to

a style occupying a borderland be tween the othe r two,but a

CHAP. I . INTRODUCTORY. 8 5

land whose boundarie s cannot yet be fixed with pre c is ion .

T i l l they are , a conven t ional name that does no t mislead i sall that can be hoped for.I f i t we re al lowable to adopt the loose phraseology of

philological e thnography,the term Aryan might be employed , as

i t i s the name by which the people practis ing this style are usual lyknown in India

,and i t would be particu larly conven ien t he re ,

as i t i s the correct and d ire ct antithe s is of f D rav id ian . I t i seviden t, howeve r, that any such te rm ,

i f appl ied to arch itecture,

ought to be descript ive of some s tyle practised by that people ,whe reve r they se ttled

,all across Europe and As ia

,be tween

the Shore s of the Atlan t ic and the Bay of B engal ; 1 and i tneed hard ly be said that no such style exists . I f used in

conj unct ion with the adjective Indian or Indo-Aryan ,i t become s

much le ss Obje ctionable,and has the advan tage of l im it ing its

use to the people who are general ly known as Aryans in Indiain othe r words , to all those parts of the country whe re San skritwas Spoken

,or whe re the people now speak tongue s so far

de rived from Sanskri t as to be d ist inguishable as offse ts of thatgreat family of languages . I ts use

,in this re spe ct, has the

great conven ience that any ord inary e thnograph ical or l inguisticmap of India i s sufficien t to de scribe the boundaries of thestyle . I t extends

,l ike the so - cal led Aryan tongue s

,from

the HimAlayas to the south of the V indhya moun tains . On

the eas t , i t i s found prevalen t in Orissa ; and on the west inMahArAshtra. I ts southe rn boundary be tween these twoprovince s wi l l on ly be known when the Nizam ’

s te rritory i sarchitectural ly surveyed .

Anothe r reason why the te rm Aryan Should be appl iedto the style i s

,that the coun try just de scribed , whe re i t prevai l s ,

i s,and always has been ,

cal led AryAvarta by the nat ive sthemse lve s . They cons ide r i t as the land of the pure and

j ust—mean ing the reby the Sanskri t-speak ing people s— as con trad istingu i shed from that of the caste le ss Dasyus

,and othe r tribe s ,

who,though they may have adopted B rahman ical inst itut ions ,

could not acqu ire the i r puri ty of race .

The great de fect of the te rm ,howeve r

,i s that the people

inhabiting the north of India are not Aryan s in any reasonablesense of the term ,

whateve r philologists may say to the con trary .

The Sanskrit-speaking people , who came in to Ind ia 2000

1 In 1848 Gen . Cunn ingham appl ied term that be longs to two con t inents tothe term Aryan to the archite cture of an insign ifican t val ley in one of them .

Kashmir , apparen tly on the s trength of I t was , bes ides, wholly uncalled for .a pun (

‘ Journal of the Asiatic Society The term Kashmir i was amply sufficien t ,of Bengal , ’ vol . xvii . pt . i i . 1 848, p . and all that was wan ted for so strictly

This, however , was l imiting a local a s tyle .

86 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

or 3000 years B .C. , could neve r have been numerical ly one

hal f of the inhab i tants Of the country, except

,pe rhaps , in

some such l imited district as that be tween the Satlaj and the

JamnA and S ince the Christian Era no Aryan race has migratedeastward acros s the Indus , but wave afte r wave of people s ofTuran ian race

,unde r the name s of Yavanas

,S akas

,H ii nas

,

TIi rkS,or Mongols, have poured into India . This

,combined

wi th the ascendancy of the mixed or aboriginal race s du ring thepe riod when Buddhism was the prevai l ing re l igion of the coun try,has so completely washed out Aryan ism from northe rn Indiaduring the bu ild ing age s

,that the re i s probably no commun i ty

the re wh ich cou ld cla im one - ten th of pure Aryan blood in

i ts ve ins,and with n ine - tenths Of impurity the te rm i s ce rta in ly

a misnome r. I f i t we re not,we would ce rtain ly fi nd some

trace O f exte rnal Aryan affin i t ies in the i r style ; but in fact ,no style i s so pure ly local

,and

,i f the te rm may be used , so

aboriginal,as this . The orig in of the Buddhis t style is obvious

and unmistakable ; that of the D ravid ian and Cha lukyannearly as ce rta in ,

though no t quite so Obviou s ; but the originof the northe rn H ind ii s tyle remain s a mys te ry , un less , indeed ,the solution suggested above (an te , vol . i . p . 3 25 ) be con s ide red anexplanat ion . I t may be so

,to some exten t ; but I con fe ss

it i s to my mind ne ithe r quite satis factory nor sufficien t .The s ty le was adopted by the Ja ins

,and seve ra l example s

of the pecul iar forms of the i r v imAnas,or s ikharas have a l ready

been given (Woodcuts N03 . 290,299 , but i t s ti l l remains

to be asce rta ined from what original form the curvi l inear squaretowe r cou ld have arisen . The re i s nothing in Buddhist, orany othe r art , at all l ike i t . I t does not seem to have beende rived from any wooden form We know ,

nor from any brickor stone

,or t ile mode of roofing found anywhe re e l se . I have

looked longe r,and

,pe rhaps

,thought more

,on this problem

than on any othe r of its class connected with Indian arch itecture

,but I have no more plaus ible suggest ion to Offe r than

that h in ted at above . The real solution wi l l probably be foundin the acciden tal d iscove ry of old temple s—so old as to be trayin the i r prim it ive rudeness the se cre t we are now guess ing at

in va in . Meanwhile,we probably may rema in sure that i t was

not an imported form,but an ind igenous product ion ,

and thati t has no connection with the arch itecture of any o the r peopleouts ide of India .

The View above proposed for the origin of the style de rive scons ide rable support from the mode in which the temple s are

now found distributed . The re are pe rhaps more temples now

in Orissa than in all the re st of H industan put toge the r . Theyare ve ry frequen t in MahArAshtra, and , i f we admit the Jain s

88“NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

Muhammadans , and the pi l lars and roofing-stone s

,with a few

poss ible exceptions , we re carved by them for the purpose s forwhich they we re appl ied . They may have used the stone s ofde serted monaste rie s, or othe r Buddhis t o r H ind ii build ings ,in the foundat ion s or on the i r te rraces

,or for l ittle de tached

pavi l ion s ; but all the arch itecture,properly so cal led , i s in a

style invented , or at least in troduced by the PathAns,and

brought to perfe ct ion unde r Akbar.That the Moslims destroyed Hind ii temple s all ove r the

south of Hindustan and in the i r raids in to the Dekhan i sce rtain

,but i t was not t i l l the t ime of Aurang z ib that any

of the i r monarchs fe l t h imse l f sufficiently powe rful or was sobigoted as to dare the powe r and enmity of the B rAhmans ofBenares

,by e re cting a mosque on the s ite of one of the i r most

sacred temple s as an insu lt and a defiance to the Hind Ii s .

Even then,had such a temple as the great one at Bhuvaneswar

existed in Benare s, eve ry stone of which , from the ground tothe ka las

,i s cove red with carving, i t seems remarkable that all

these carved stones shou ld be hid away and not one now to befound . But so i t appears ; sti l l we know h istorical ly that the rewe re many temples in the ci ty , and during the pre

-Mughalpe riod the city was often sacked , whilst the rive r course s havechanged and probably buried what the Mos l im fai led to de stroy .

The rock at GwAliar was one of the earl ie st conquests ofthe Moslims

, and they he ld i t more or less d irectly for fivecen tu ries . They bui l t palaces and mosques within i ts pre cincts ,ye t the most conspicuou s obj ects on the hi l l are H ind ii temple s ,that we re e re cted be fore they obtained posse ss ion of it . In

l i ke manne r Chitor was thrice bes ieged and thrice sacked bythe Muhammadan s

,but nume rous bu i ld ings the re are com

parat ive ly intact .The instan ces of early temples d iscove red during the last

forty years,howeve r, bears some te st imony to the numbe rs that

must have existed all ove r the country prior to the MusalmAn

conquests . The se are ve ry nume rous in the we st and southwest Of Bengal

,whe re the Aryan e lemen t in the population i s a

min imum . No temples are men t ioned in the Vedas or the O lde rIndian writings

,and we re no t required for the S imple quas i

domesti c rite s Of the i r worship ; and so long as they remainedpure perhaps no temple s we re bu i lt . With the introduction ofthe B rahman i c ri tual they became a necess i ty . I t i s to be unde rstood then that though we may use the te rm Indo-Aryan as

the most conven ien t to de scribe and d efine the l imits of thenorthe rn style

,the name i t i s intended to convey is , that the

style arose in a coun try which they once occupied , and in whichthey have left a s trong impress of the i r superior men tal power

CHAP . 1 . S IKHARAS AND PLANS 89

and civi l isat ion ,and ove r which the language s spoken are of

Sanskrit i c descen t .I f this rese rvation i s a lways borne in mind , I know of no

te rm that more conven iently expre sse s the characte ri st ics Of

this s tyle,and i t i s consequent ly proposed to adopt i t in the

fol lowing page s as the name of the style that preva i led amongthe Hind Ii s in northe rn Ind ia

,be tween the H imAlaya and

Vindhya moun tains,and even much furthe r south , from the

7 th century to the presen t day .

309 . Dravidian and Indo-Aryan Temples at Pattadakal . (From a Photograph . )

The general appearance of the northe rn temple s, and the

points of diffe rence be tween them and those Of the south,wil l

be Appreciated from the above woodcut (No . repre sent ingtwo ve ry ancien t temple s, bu il t in j uxtaposition at Pattadakal,in B ijAp Ii r d istrict . That on the le ft is a comple te specimenof D ravid ian architecture (an te, vol . i . p . 35 The re is the samepyramida l form

,the same d istinction of s toreys , the same ce l ls

on each,as we fi nd at MAmallapuram (Woodcut No . at

Tanjor (Woodcut No . or at MadurA (Woodcut NO .

The right-hand temple— that of GalaganAth , to the north -we stof Sangamesvar

’

s— is Indo - Aryan of somewhat late r date ,and in which

,on the con trary

,the outl ine of the pyramid is

curvil inear ; no trace of d ivis ion of storeys is observable , no

remin i scence of habitation s and no pi l lars or pi laste rs any


whe re . Even In i tssti l l retains the same

3 10. Modern Temple at Benares . 3 1 1 . D iagram Plan of Hindi) Temple .

architecture . I t does no t seem to be de rived from any of these ,and

,whe the r we con s ide r i t as beautifu l or othe rwise , i t se ems

ce rta in ly to have been invented princ ipal ly at leas t for aesthe ti cpurpose s , and to have re tained that impre s s from the earl iestt i l l the present day .

The plan of a northern temple i s a lways a square in te rnal ly,and gene ral ly the same form is re tained in the exte rior ; butve ry rare ly

,if eve r, without some add ition . In some instance s

i t i s on ly a th in paral le l projection ,as at A in the d iagram

modern form (Woodcut No . i tcharacte rist ics , and all the l ines of thepyramid or s ikhara are curvil inear,the base polygonal . No trace ofutil i tarian i sm is Vi s ible “

anywhe re .

I f Woodcut No . 3 10 i s comparedwith that at vol . i . page 339 (WoodcutNo . the two style s wil l be ex

h ib ited in the i r most mode rn garbswhen ,

afte r more than 1000 yearspract ice , they have receded furthestfrom the forms in which we fi rst mee tthem . Ye t the Madras temple re ta insthe memory of its storeys and i tsce l l s . The Bengal example recal l snothing known in c ivi l or domesti carchite ctu re .

Ne i the r the pyramid nor the

tumulus affords any sugge st ion as tothe origin Of the form

,no r doe s the

towe r,e i the r square or ci rcu lar ; nor

doe s any form of civi l or dome st i c

9 2 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

CHAPTER I I .

ORISSA .

CONTENTS .

H is tory—Temp les at Bhuvaneswar, KanArak, Puri, JAjpur, and Katak.

CHRONOLOGY .

Anantavarman Chodaganga Narasimhadeva I . cz'

r . 1238-1264deva 1078 Narasimhadeva I I . 1 27 7-1 305

KAmArnava 1 144- 1 1 5 5 SulaimAn, King of Bengal

Aniyanga Bhimadeva I I . 1 1 90- 1 1 98 conquered Orissa

THE two province s o f India,whe re the Indo -Aryan style can be

stud ied with the greatest advantage , are DhArwAr on the west,and Orissa on the east coast . The forme r has the advan tage ofbe ing m ixed up with the D ravid ian s tyle

,so as to admit of

synonyms and con trasts that are s ingularly in te re sting, bothfrom an e thnologica l and h istori cal poin t of View. In Or is sa, onthe contrary

,the style is pe rfe ctly pure , be ing unmixed with any

othe r, and thus forms one of the most compact and homogeneousarch ite ctural groups in India

,and as such of more than usual

interest,and i t i s con sequen tly in this province that the style

can be s tud ied to the greate st advan tage .

One of the most marked and strik ing pecu l iarit ies of Orissan

arch ite cture i s the d ist inct and almost absolute contrast i tpresen ts to the style of the D ravid ian at the southe rn end ofthe pen insula. The curved outl ine of the towe rs or VimAnashas a l ready been remarked upon

,but

,bes ide s th is , no Orissan

towe rs presen t the smal le st trace of any storeyed or even stepl ike arrangemen t

,which is so un ive rsal fu rthe r south , and the

crown ing membe r i s neve r a dome , nor a remin iscence of one .

Even more remarkable than th is , i s the fact that the Orissan

style i s almost enti re ly astylar. In some of the more modernexample s

,as for instan ce in the porche s added to the temple s

at Bhuvaneswar and Puri in the 1 2th and 14th centu rie s , we dofind pi l lars

,but i t i s probably corre ct to state that , among the

100 or 1 50 original shrine s at Bhuvaneswar,scarce ly a pil lar i s

to be found ? Thi s i s the more remarkable because ,w ithin s ight

CHAP . I I . ORISSA. 93

of that capital , the cave s in the Udayagiri (ante, p . 1 3) are

adorned with pi l lars to such an exten t as to show that the i rforms must have been usual and we l l known in the prov in cebefore any of the temples we re constructed . When we recol le ctthat no great temple in the south was cons idered comple tewithout i ts “ hal l of 1000 column s ,” and many bes ide s this hadhundreds dispe rsed about the place , and used for eve ry conce iv

able purpose , the contras t i s more strik ing, and shows what acomplete barrie r the Chalukyas inte rposed be tween the tworace s on th is s ide of India, though not on the othe r. As a rule

,

eve ry Orissan temple cons ists of two apartments , s imilar in plan ,

as shown in the diagram (Woodcut No . The inner one i sgene ral ly a cube

,surmoun ted by a towe r, he re cal led BarA-de ij l

,

or Dewal , corre sponding w i th the v imAna of the south , and in i tthe image or images Of the god s are enshrined ; in fron t Of th isi s a porch or an tarAla

,cal led Jaga-mohan

,gene ral ly square in

plan or approaching it, and surmoun ted by a pyramida l roof ofvarying p itch . The pe cu l iari t ies are i l lustrated in the d iagram(Woodcut No . 1 84) j us t re fe rred to , which purports to be an

e levat ion of the ce lebrated B lack Pagoda at KanArak . I t ison ly

,howeve r, an eye

- ske tch , and cannot be depended upon form inute detai l and correctne ss , but i t i s sufficien t to expla in themean ing of the text . Some t ime s one or two more porche s(mandapas) we re added in front o f th is one , cal led the NAtamandir or dancing-hal l— corre sponding to the SabhA-mandapa ina GujarAt temple— and the Bhoga-mandir or refe ctory

,but these ,

in almost every instan ce,are afte rthoughts , and not parts of the

original de s ign . Be th is as i t may ,in every in stance in Ori ssa

the towe r with its porch forms the temple . I f enclosed in a

wal l,they are always to be seen outs ide . The re are gateways ,

i t i s true , but they are always subord inate,and the re are none

of those accre t ion s of enclosure s and gopurams that form 5 0

marked a characte rist i c of the southern style . There gene ral lyare othe r shrine s within the enc losu re s of the great temples , butthey are always kept subord inate

,and the temple i tse l f towe rs

ove r eve ryth ing to even a greate r exten t than that at Tanj or(Woodcut No . giving a un ity and purpose to the wholedes ign , so frequent ly want ing in the south .

Othe r con trasts wi l l come out as we proceed , but , in the

meanwhile , few examples bring out more clearly the vast importance of e thnography as appl ied to archite cture . That twopeoples , inhabiting practical ly the same country , and worshippingthe same gods unde r the guidan ce of the same Brahman icalpries thood , should have adopted and adhe red to two such dissimilar styles for the i r sacred build ings , shows as clearly as

anything can we l l do how much race has to do with these


matte rs , and how l i ttle we can unde rstand the cause s of suchcontrasts

,un le ss we take affin i t ie s or difference s of race into

cons ide ration .

H ISTORY .

About e ighty years ago Mr. Andrew S t irl ing publ ished an

Account of Orissa prope r or Cuttack ,’ giving a dynast ic l is t ofthe rule rs from B .C . 3 10 1 to the beg inn ing of last cen tury , withdate s and notable even ts Of the i r re ign s ? This was drawn upfrom nat ive records be longing to the temple of JagannAth at

Puri ; and , dismis s ing the early port ions as man i fe stly fabulous,

the re cord , from the acce ss ion o f YayAt i Kesari towards the end

of the 5 th century , was accepted as tole rably tru stworthy ,and

was revised and publ ished w i th a ful le r l is t of the n ame s by S irW . W . Hun te r in his ‘Orissa .

’ 2 But,l ike othe r nat ive his torie s

,

i t cannot stand examinat ion ,and must be d iscarded as worthless

previous to the 1 2th cen tury ,and ve ry inaccurate even for the

last four or fi ve cen turie s . He re , as e lsewhe re , we can hope fortrustworthy historica l in format ion on ly from the steady pursui tof epigraphica l research , which as ye t has yie lded but fou r orfi ve name s of a Somavams i o r Lunar dynasty that ruled be forethe 1 2th cen tury ; and the i r in scriptions are un fortunate ly datedon ly in regna l years , and must be re legated

,on ep igraphica l

ground s , to abou t the 1 1 th cen tury ? We have thus , as y e t ,but l ittle he l p from historica l source s . I t i s true that the date sof two of its temples have been approximate ly asce rtained .

The great one at Bhuvaneswar i s said to have bee n e re ctedabout A .D . 640— but poss ibly late r— and that at Puri betweenA .D . 1080 and 1 140,

n early the fi rs t and the last of the se rie s .My impre s s ion is that in the late r d i re ction i t can hard ly beextended beyond the year 1 260,

but within the se l im its i t seemsposs ible to arrange the sequence of all the temple s in the

province without much d ifficu l ty , and to asce rtain the i r dateswith some degree Of approximate ce rtain ty .

With the exception of the great temple of JagannAth at Puri ,the bui ld ings described in th is chapte r we re mostly e rected

1 ‘As iat ic Researches , ’ vol . xv. the new Gaze tteer of Pur i , ’ chap . i i .pp . 1 63th ; also ‘H istory of the RAjas of 2 Among four successive rulers , ofO rissa, from the re ign of RAja Yudh istira. which we have inscription s, ten tat ivelyTranslated from the placed in the 1 1 th cen tury, the th ird ,Asiat . Soc. Bengal , ’ vol . vi . pp . YayAti MahA-S ivagupta, may possibly be7 56 766 . the YayAti Kesar i , which the Vam sAvali2 ‘Orissa ’

(ed . 1 872 ) vol. i . pp . 1 98f. makes the founder of the dynasty in 474and vol . i i . pp . 1 83 1 9 1 also i n Sewe l l ’s 5 26, or five cen turies before h is probable‘ Lists of Inscri

ptions and Dynast ies of date .

-Dr J . F . Flee t in ‘Epigraphia

Sou thern India, ’ pp . 204 209 . An out Indica,

’ vol . i i i . pp . 323-

359 .

l ine of the history of Orissa is given in

96 NORTHERN OR INDO -ARYAN STYLE. BOOK V I .

group is nearly as exten s ive and magn ificen t,but they we re

all e rected with in the l im its of about a cen tury, 9 50 to 1050? so

that l i tt le sequence can be traced among them . The re are al sotemples in the Kanare se d is tricts more magn ificen t than any inOri ssa, and extending through a long se rie s of years ; but theyare scatte red over a wide extent of count ry

, and are consequently

Temple of ParasurAmeswar .

varied by loca l pecu l iar it ies of s tyle .

(From a Photograph . )

I t the re fore requires moreknowledge and experien ce to classi fy them than i t does those inthis province . A l toge the r the re i s not

,pe rhaps , any group

which,i f properly invest igated , would add more to ou r know

ledge Of Ind ian archite cture , and give i t more precis ion , thanthe Bhuvaneswar temples ?

1 Cunn ingham ,

‘Archaeological SurveyReports , ’ vol . ii . p . 4 1 6 ; i nf ra , p . 14 1 .

2 The late RAjendralAl M i tra , who wassen t with the expedition organ ised by theBengal Governmen t in 1 868 to survey thean t iqui t ies Of Orissa, mos t un fortunate lyhad no knowledge whatever of arch itectural surveying or draughtsmanship ;nor had he any acquain tance with Indianstyles to gu ide him in determining the

periods to which different bui ldingsbe longed . Even his vaun ted acquain tan ce with epigraphy was superficial andinexact ; and the two fol io volumes heprepared at publ ic expense , added l ittle ,i f anything , to our knowledge .

—‘ IndianAn t iquary , ’ vol . ix . pp . l i 3f. and 142f. ;

Fergusson’

s‘Archaeology in India, ’ pp .

CHAP . I I . HISTORY . 9 7

The olde st temple in the town of Bhuvane swar i s probably that ca l led ParasurAmeswar (Woodcut No . which

,

from the te rm inat ion of the name , as we l l as the L inga in the

ce l la, and subjects portrayed in the three princ i pal n iche s ofthe towe r, mark it as a S a iva shrine . I t may be long to the7 th century, though i t may be as late as the 8th . I ts s tylei s ce rta in ly d i ffe ren t from the othe r early temple s he re , and

more l ike what we fi nd at othe r place s outs ide the province . I tis not large

,be ing on ly 20 ft . square 1 at i ts base ; but i ts

scu lpture s are cut with a de l i cacy se ldom surpassed , and the rei s an appropriateness about the ornamen ts greate r than i s seenin most of the temples .

The temple i tse l f is apparen tly 42 ft . in he ight, and from the

summit to the base i t i s covered with sculpture s Of the moste laborate characte r? but sti l l without de tracting from the

s impl ic ity and vigour of its outl ine .

I f I am corre ct in assign ing so early a date to the towe r ofthis temple

,i t is eviden t that the porch mus t be a subsequen t

addi tion , be cause i t fi ts badly to the towe r. I t may ,howeve r

,

be that i f th is i s real ly the olde s t temple of its clas s in Orissa,

its des ign may be copied from a fore ign example,and borrowed

,

with all i ts pecu l iarit ies , from a s tyle pract ised e lsewhe re . B e

that as i t may ,i t is in te re sting as showing the mode by which

l ight was somet ime s in troduced into the porche s of the se temple sbe tween the ends of the beams of the stone roof. As the S lopingroofi ng

- stone s project cons ide rably beyond the open ings,a

subdued l ight is in troduced , without e ithe r the direct rays of thesun

, or the ra in be ing able to penetrate ?The temple of Mukteswar (Woodcut No . 3 1 3) i s ve ry s imilar

in general des ign to that of ParasurAmeswar, but even riche r andmore varied in de tai l

,and i ts porch partakes more of the regular

Orissan type . I t has no pi l lars in te rnal ly , and the roofexte rnal ly exhibits at least the germ Of what we fi nd in the

porches of the great temple at Bhuvaneswar and the B lackPagoda. I ts d imension s are somewhat le ss than those of thelast temple described

,but in its class i t may be conside red

the gem of Orissan architectu re .

4

1 This dimension is from BAbu RAjendralAl

’

s Orissa An tiquities , ’ vol . i . p . 4 1 ,but I don ’t l ike i t . [Judging from a

photograph - the estimated he ight beingabout 43 ft .—this dimension seems to beat least 27 ft.]

2 G . Le Bon ,

‘ Les Monuments del’Inde ,

’ p . 70 and figs . 49 , 50.

3 This temple has of late been in thehands of the Official

,and we learn that i t

has been thoroughly restored the wholeVOL . I I

roof of the mandapa was dismantled andrebui lt . ” Archaeological Survey AnnualReport , 1 902 p . 46 .

4 This temple is surrounded by “a

number of smal l shrines , and close to i talso stands the temple of S iddhesvara, alarger structure . All the shrines are

inferior works of art , but neve rthe lessthey have all been restored .

” D r . T.

B loch,th at. p . 46 . NO survey is

men tioned as having been made .

G

98NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

Bes ides these , the re are seve ral other temple s which , fromthe style of the i r archite cture , I would fee l incl ined to place as

Temple of Mukteswar . (From a Photograph . )

earl ie r than the great temple . One i s known as SAri Dewal ,near the great temple , and anothe r, a ve ry comple te and

beautifu l example , i s cal led Maitreswar, which is a lmost a

dupl icate,on a smal l scale , of the great temple , except that i t


far as I can make out , none we re original ly erected with them .

The true Orissan temple i s l ike that repre sented in WoodcutNo

. 1 84 ,a build ing with two apartmen ts on ly, and the se astylar,

or pract ical ly so : the pi l lars we re on ly in troduced in the comparat ively modern addit ion s .

3 1 5 . View of Great or LingarAja Temple , Bhuvaneswar . (From a Photograph . )

The outl ine of this temple in e levat ion i s not , at fi rst s ight,

CHAP . I I . GREAT TEMPLE AT BHUVANESWAR.

'

1 01

pleas ing to the European eye ; but when once the eye i saccustomed to it , i t has a s ingularly solemn and pleasing aspect .I t i s a sol id , and would be a pla in square towe r

,but for the

s l ight curve at the top,which takes off the hardne ss of the

out l ine and in troduces pleas ingly the c ircu lar crown ing Obje ct(Woodcut No . As compared with that at Tanjor (Woodcut No . i t ce rtain ly is by far the fine r de s ign of the two .

In plan the southe rn example is the large r,be ing 82 ft . square .

This one is on ly about 66 ft . 1 from angle to angle,though i t i s

7 5 ft . across the cen tral project ion . The i r he ight is nearly thesame

,both of them be ing ove r 1 80 ft . , but the uppe r part of the

northe rn towe r i s so much more sol id,that the cubic con ten ts

of the two are probably not ve ry di ffe ren t . Be sides,howeve r

,

greate r beauty in form,the northern example exce l s the othe r

immeasurably in the fact that i t i s whol ly in stone from.

the

base to the apex , and—w hat,un fortunate ly , no woodcu t can

show— eve ry inch of the surface i s cove red w ith carving in the

most e laborate manne r. I t is no t on ly the d ivis ion s of thecoIIrses

,the rol l -mould ings on the angle s , or the breaks on the

face of the towe r : these are sufficien t to re l ieve i ts flatness,and

with any othe r people they would be deemed suffi cien t ; buteve ry individual stone in the towe r has a pattern carved upon i t

,

not so as to break its outl ine,but suffic ien t to re l ieve any idea

of monotony . I t is,pe rhaps

,not an exaggeration to say that

i f i t would take a sum— say a lakh of rupee s or pounds—to e rectsuch a bu i ld ing as th is , i t wou ld take three lakhs to carve i t asth is one i s carved . Whe the r such an outlay is jud icious or not

,

is anothe r quest ion . Most people would be of opin ion that abui lding four t ime s as large would produce a greate r and moreimposing arch itectural e ffe ct ; but this i s not the way a Hind iieve r looked at the matte r . Infin i te labour bestowed on eve rydetai l was the mode in which he thought he cou ld rende r hi s

1 This and the dimensions in plangenerally are taken from a table in BAbuRAjendralAl

’

s An t iqu it ies of Orissa, ’ vol .i . p . 4 1 . I am afraid they are on ly roundnumbers , but they suffice for comparison .

They are cer tain ly incorrect . In the tablethe towe r is described as 66 ft . by 60,while all the photographs prove that i t isundoubtedly square . In the plan (vol .i i . pl . 48) the sides are represen ted as 66by 54 ft . from angle to angle , and the

in ternal dimensions are given in the tableas 42 square . In the plan they are 44 by46 , and approach so near ly to the exterior,that if the tower had been bu i lt

, as represen ted in his plan

,i t would not have

stood for an hour . In figure 3 14 the

in ternal dimension is reduced to 40 ft .with the larger external one of 65 ft .The Bhoga-mandapa is said in the text(p . 72 ) to be 56 ft . square by scale i t is63 by 70. The NAta-mandir is said to be52 ft . square , and scales 58 by 6 1 . The

Jagamohan in the text is said to measure65 ft . by 45 ; on the plan i t measures 70by 50. Making these and other adjustmen ts from the plan , i t reduces the totallength to about 2 10 ft . , instead of the290 of the plan . This is confirmed byM r A tkinson ’

s plan (pl . In likemanner the temple of Bhagavati (pl .xlviii . ) is represen ted as 1 60 ft . in length ,while M r . Atkinson makes i t on ly 1 10.

‘ Archaeology in India, ’ pp . 49 ,

1 02 NORTHERN OR INDO -ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

temple most worthy of the de i ty ; and , whe the r he was rightor wrong

,the e ffe ct of the whole i s ce rtain ly marve l lous ly

beautifu l . I t i s no t,howeve r

,in those parts of the bui ld ing

shown in the woodcut that the greatestamoun t of carving orde s ign was be stowed

,

but in the perpen

d icu lar parts seenfrom the courtyard(Woodcut No .

The re the sculpturei s of a ve ry high orde rand great beauty ofde sign . This

,how

eve r, ought not tosurprise us when we

r e c o l l e c t t ha t at

AmarAvati , on the

banks of the KrishnA,

not far from the

southe rn boundary ofthis k ingdom

,the re

stood a temple morede l icate and e laboratein i ts carv ings thanany othe r bu i ld ingin India? and thatth is temple had beenfi n i s h e d p r o bab l ye ight centurie s be fore

6 . L t f G t T t Bh3 1 ower par 0 rea ower a uvaneswar th i s one was e rectedAF Ph h .rom a 010g” ? 1

and though the h i storyof art in Ind ia i s now written in decay

,i ts growth and vital i ty

had,in earl ie r time s

,been Vigorous .

Attached to the Jagamohan of thi s temple i s a NAta-mandir,

or dan cing-hal l,whose date i s, traditional ly assigned to about

the year 1 100 : but this i s pe rhaps too early,as the re are

inscription s of the 1 2th and 1 3th centu rie s on the doorway ofthe temple porch , and they are probably earl ie r than the NAtamandir . But even then i t enable s us to measure the exten tof this decay with some degree of ce rtain ty . I t i s e legan t

,

Of course,for art had not ye t pe rished among the Hind ii s

,

1 ‘ Tree and Serpen t Worship , ’ plates 48-98 ; ‘AmarAvati and JaggayyapetaBuddhist Stfipas ’


are of the most exqu is ite beauty, i t i s one of the gemsof Orissan art .

1 The fol lowing woodcut (No . withoutattempting to i l lustrate the art

,i s quoted as characte rist ic

of the emblems of the pe riod . Be low the pi l lar are threekn ee l ing e lephan ts , ove r wh ich domineer three l ion s or leogriffs .

Doorway in Rajaran i Temple .

(From a Photograph . )

Above th is a Nagni‘ , orfemale Naga, with herseven headed snakehood

,adorn s the upper

part of the pi l lar . Theyare to be found , gene ral ly in great numbers , inalmost all the temple s ofthe province . Ove r thedoorway are the Navagraha

,or n ine plane ts ,

which are a lmost moreun ive rsa l at the L ingaraja temple .

Throughout the province , from the t ime wefi rst mee t i t , about the7 th cen tury, i f so early,t i l l i t d ie s ou t aboutA.D . 1 300,

the s tyleseems to be s ingularlyun i form in i ts feature s

,

and i t require s cons ide rable famil iarity with itto de tect its gradual

progre ss towards de cay . Notwithstanding this,i t i s easy to

1 Both the temples ot Muktesvara and

Rfijarfini have been restored by Dr .B loch , the Archaeological surveyor, whogives photographs of them before , andafter repairs, ” but from so very differen tpoin ts of view , that i t is not clear whati s the exten t of these repairs —but inthe Reports , this method of photographing from differen t poin ts “ before and

after ” meddling with the bui ldings, isremarkab ly frequen t . No men tion seemsto be made of securing correct plansof the temples , which m ight readily havebeen made whilst the works were goingon . The work done is thus described :“ The temples general ly were fairly in tact ,but a number of stones had‘ become e itherloose or unsafe , in the roof of the man

dapa and the upper parts of the spire .

These had to be disman tled and bui l t upagain ,

using as far as possible the an cien tmaterials . Carvings , when broken and

lost , were replaced by new ones , and

the work of the modern stonemasondoes not fal l much behind the old work ,except that mode rn restorations ofhuman or an imal figures are less graceful than their older models . On ly suchcarvings have been replaced by new onesof which the original pattern was avai lable .

—‘Archaeol . SurveyAnnual Report ,1 902 pp . 45

-

46 . I t is pitiable tothink of the barbarity of 20th cen turyimitations, or supposed —but very in ferior

- imitations, be ing inserted in these venerable structures.

CHAP. I I . KANARAK. 1 05

pe rce ive that the re are two styles of architecture in Orissa,which ran s ide by side with one anothe r during the whole course .

The first i s repre sented by the temple s of Parasurameswar and

Mukteswar (Woodcuts No . 3 1 2 , the second by the greattemple (Woodcut No . They are not an tagon ist ic , buts iste r styles

,and seem ce rtain ly to have had at least partial ly

d iffe ren t origin s . We can fi nd affin it ies with that of the

Mukteswar group in Dharwar and most parts of northernIndia : but I know of nothing exactly l ike the great temple anywhe re e lse . I t seems to be qu ite indigenou s , and if no t the mostbeautiful, i t i s the s imple st and most maje st ic of the Indo-Aryanstyles . And I cannot he l p suspect ing a wooden origin for itthe courses look so much more l ike carved logs of wood laid one

upon anothe r than course s of mason ry,and the mode and exten t

to which they are carved certain ly savours of the same mate rial .There i s a mosque bu i l t of Deodar pine in Kashm i r, to be re fe rredto the reafte r

,which ce rtain ly seems to favour this idea ; but

ti l l we fi nd some olde r temple s than any ye t discove red in Orissathis must rema in in doubt. Meanwhile

,i t may be we l l to poin t

out that the majority of the olde r temple s in Ori ssa fol low the

type of the great temple,and the rest that of Parasuramswar but

the two get con founded toge the r in the 9 th and l oth centu ries ,and are mixed toge the r in to what may almost be cal led a new

style in the Rajarani and temples of the 1 1 th and 1 2th centu ries .

KANARAK .

With,pe rhaps , the s ingle exception of the temple of

Jagannath at Puri,the re IS no temple in India be tte r known ,

and about which more has been written than the so-cal ledB lack Pagoda at Kanarak

,19 mile s north -east from Pur’i ; nor

i s the re any one whose date and dedicat ion i s be tter known ,

s ince the l i te rature on the subject can he re be dependedupon . S tirl ing’s statemen t that the pre sen t edifice was buil t bythe Raja Naras ingh

-deva I . , who ru led from about 1 238 to 1 264,i s supported by coppe rplate inscript ions .

1 Comple te as th isevidence appears

,one i s almost tempted to question i t , for the

s imple reason that i t seems improbable— afte r the e rection ofso in fe rior a specimen of the art as the temple of Puri (Cir . A.D .

1 100) appears to be —the style could have reverted to anything sobeautiful as th is . In gene ral design and de ta i l i t i s so s im ilarto the Jagamohan of the great temple at Bhuvaneswar that atfi rst s ight I should be incl ined to place i t in the same century ;1 ‘ Asiat ic Researche

1 06 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. Boox vi .

st i l l the detai l s of the tower exhibit a progre ss towards mode rnforms which is unmistakable .

1 Abul Fazl afte r describing thetemple with considerable de tai l and c i rcumstant ial i ty and

ascribing it to Raja Naras ingh- deva I . , adds that “ i t is sa id

to be a work of 7 30 years’

ant iqu ity .

” 2 In othe r words,i t

was e rected about A.D . 860,or just about 400 years before

Naras ingh’

s date which must ari se from an e rror in the hundredsfigure . Naras ingh-deva must

,howeve r

,have employed architects

of ve ry d iffe ren t taste s and abil i ties to those engaged a centuryearl ie r in e recting the Puri temple .

Anothe r poin t o f in te rest connected with thi s temple i s,

that all authors , apparen tly fol lowing Abu l Fazl,agree that i t

was,l ike the temple ofMartand

,in Kashmi r (ante, vol . i . , p .

dedicated to the sun .

3 Sun -worship, we know,was prevalen t

in various parts of India, previous to the 1 2th cen tu ry,but i t

seems to have become me rged in the V ishnu cul t— SuryaNarayana be ing regarded as a form of V ishnu . In the we stof India the re are remains of quite a numbe r of sun - temple sof about the e leven th century

,

4and probably others wi l l be found

in Central Ind ia and e lsewhe re,when looked for.

This temple diffe rs in no re spe ct from othe r temple s ofV ishnu found in Orissa. The archite ctural forms are iden tical ;they are adorned with the same symbols . The Navagraha, orn ine plane tary divin i t ie s

,adorned the l in te l of this as of all

the temple s of the d istri ct . The seven-headed se rpen t-formsare found on eve ry temple

,from the great one at Bhuvaneswar

to th is one,and i t i s on ly d ist inguishable from those of S iva

by the Obscen i t ies that d isfigure a part of i ts sculptu res . Thisi s

,unfortunate ly

,on ly too common a characteristic of Vaishnava

temples all ove r India, but is not frequent in S aiva temple s . A

detached mandap that stood in fron t of i t,occupying a correspond

ing place to that at Mudhera,and the fine stambha we re removed

to Puri , in the 1 8th cen tury , by the Marathas ; a corne r of thes ikhara was sti l l s tanding in 1 839 , but with in the next thirtyyears had d isappeared ; and the great l in te l ove r the entranceto the principal hal l

,carved with the Navagraha, with othe r

parts about the doorway had fal len ,or we re removed , and

an abort ive attempt was made to carry the l in te l to Cal cutta.

Architectural ly, the great beauty of this temple arises from

1 When I visi ted Orissa in 1 837 and somewhat over 7 30yearsago RajaNarsingsketched th is temple , a great part of the D eo completed this s tupendous fabric andtower was stil l standing . See Pictur left this mighty memorial t o posten ty .

”

csque I llustrations of IndianArchitecture , ’ 3 Arka is a name of the sun as the

plate ii i . I t has sin ce fallen en t ire ly . l ightner ” the place is men tioned as

2 Ayeen Akbery,’

Gladwin ’

s transla Arka -kshetra or Padma-kshetra.

tion , vol . i i. p . 1 6 . Jarrett’s version (vol . 4 ‘ Archaeological Survey of Westernii . pp. 1 28-1 29) reads I t is said that India, ’ vol . ix . pp . 73, 74.

1 08 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE . BOOK VI .

FURL

When from the old capital we tu rn to Puri,we find a state

of affai rs more al te red than might be expected at the date towhich the ce lebrated temple the re be longs . The Somavansa

dynas ty with t he i r S a iva worship,had been supe rseded about

107 8 by the Gangavansa, who we re nominal ly much devotedto the se rvice of V ishnu ; and they set to work at once tos ignal ise the i r triumph by e rect i ng thet emple to j agannath ,

which has s ince acqui red such a world -wide ce lebrity. Purl

Ou t er E nc l osur e Wa lL

Sc al e ZOOfbto th e I n ch

3 1 9 . Plan of Temple of Jagannath at Puri . (From a Plan by R . P . Mukerj i . )

holds for the Vai shnava cu l t the l ike rank as Benare s or Kar idoes for the S a iva

,or B rindaban (Mathura) for the worship of

Krishna.

How this great fane came to be raised by the new sove re ignAnantavarma-Chodagangadeva in a s tyle so in ferior to thoseof the previous dynasty must be matte r of conjecture . As freshconque rors

,the Gangas m ight not have accumulated wealth ; and ,

moreove r, they would almos t ce rta in ly employ archite cts ofthe i r own race who were al ready known to them . These ,

CHAP . I I . PURI . 1 09

coming from the Dekhan , would natural ly adopt the leadingfeature s of the temple s of the i r nat ive province in pre fe renceeven to the best tra i ts of the earl ie r structures . The stylewould thus be an intrus ion break ing in upon the Orissan style .

Even S t irl ing, who was no captious crit ic , remarks that i t seemsunaccountable , in an age when the archite cts obviously possessedsome taste and sk i l l

,and we re in most case s particularly lavish

in the use of sculptural ornamen t, so l i ttle pains should havebeen taken with the de corat ion and fin i sh ing of this sacred and

stupendous ed ifi ce .

1 I t i s not in the de tai l—which , howeve r, i sseriously obscured by the plaste rings appl ied during the lasttwo or three cen turie s , —but the outl ine , the proportions, and

arrangemen ts of the temple , show that the art in this provincehad re ce ived a downward impe tus at the t ime .

As wil l be seen from the annexed plan 2(Woodcut No .

th is temple has a double enclosure , a th ing othe rwise unknownin the north . Exte rnal ly it measure s 670 ft . by 640 ft . , and i ssurrounded by a wal l 20 ft . to 30 ft . high , with four gates . The

inner enclosure measure s 420 ft . by 3 1 5 ft . ,and is enclosed by a

double wal l with four open ings . Within this last stands theBara-Dewal

,A

,measuring 80 ft . across the cen tre

,or 5 ft . more

than the great temple at Bhuvaneswar ; with its porch orj agamohan ,

B,i t measure s 1 5 5 ft . east and we st, whi le the great

towe r rise s to a he ight of 1 92 ft .

3 Beyond this two othe rporche s we re afte rwards added , the Nata-mandir

, C,and Bhoga

mandir,D

,mak ing the whole length of the temple about 300

ft .,or as nearly as may be the same as that at Bhuvaneswar.

Be s ides th is there are,as in all great H indu temples

,numbe rless

smal ler shrine s within the two en closure s , but , as in all instancesin the north

,they are kept subord inate to the principal one

,

which here towe rs supreme ove r all.Except in i ts double enclosure , and a ce rtain i rregulari ty of

plan , th is temple does not d iffe r mate rial ly in arrangemen t fromthe great one s at Bhuvaneswar and e l sewhe re ; but bes ide s theapparen t wan t of de ta i l al ready remarked upon

,the outl ine

of its vimana i s quite devo id e i the r of that solemn sol id ity ofthe earl ie r example s

,or the grace that characte rised those sub

sequen tly e rected and when we add to this that whitewash and

pain t have done the i r wors t to add vulgarity to forms a l readysufficiently ungracefu l

,i t wi l l eas i ly be unde rstood that th is the

most famous,is al so the most d isappoint ing of northern Hmdfi

1 ‘ Asiat ic Researches, ’ vol . xv . p . sad Muke rj i , and is the only plan I ever3 1 5 . found done by a nat ive sufficien t ly correct

2 The plan is reduced from one to a to be used , except as a diagram , or afterscale of 40 ft . to 1 inch , made by an se rious doctoring .

intel l igen t native assistan t to the Publ ic 3 Hunte r , ‘Orissa ,

’ vol . i . p . 1 28 .

Works Departmen t , named Radh ica Pra

I I O NORTHERN OR lNDO -ARYAN STYLE. Boox VI .

temple s . 1 As may be seen from the fol lowing il lustration (Woodcut No . the parts are so nearly the same as those found in

View of Tower of Temple of Jagannath . (From a Photograph . )

all the olde r temples at Bhuvaneswar,that the d iffe rence cou ld

1 News reached this coun try , abou tthirty -two years ago, of a curious acciden thaving happened in this temple . Justafte r the gods had been removed fromthe ir S inhasan to take the ir annualexcursion to the Gundicha-ghar , somestones of the roof fe l l in ,

and would havekilled any attendan ts, and smashed thegods had they not fortunate ly all beenabsen t . Assuming the interior of the

Bara-Dewal to be as represen ted (Woodcut No . i t is not easy to see how

this could have happened . But in the

same woodcu t the porch or Jagamohanof the Kanarak pagoda is represen tedwith a flat false roof, which had fal len .

That roof,however , was formed of s tone

laid on iron beams, and looked as i f i tcould on ly have been shaken down byan earthquake . I have l itt le doubt thata s imilar false roof was formed someway up the tower over the al tar at Puri ,but formed probably of stone laid on

wooden beams, and e ither decay or the

1 1 2 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

poin ted out as the iden t ical one . I t may be so , and i f i t isthe case

,the pi l lar i s of the l o th or 1 1 th cen tury . This al so

seems to be the age of some remarkable pieces ofa sculp ture

which we re d iscove red some years ago on the brink of the rive r,whe re they had apparen tly been thrown down by Muhammadanbigotry .

1 They are in qu ite a diffe ren t style from anything at

Bhuvaneswar or Kanarak , and probably more ancient thananyth ing of the same k ind at those place s .Katak

,accord ing to tradition

,became the capital o f the

country in A.D . 989- 1006

,when a certain Markat Kesari i s said

to have bui l t a stone revetemen t to protect the s ite fromencroachmen t of the rive r .2 I t too

,howeve r

,has suffe red

,fi rst

from the in tole ran t bigotry of the Mos l im,and afte rwards from

the stol id indiffe ren ce of the B rit ish rulers ,3 so that ve ry l ittlerema ins . But for th is the great palace of Makund Deo

,the

contemporary of Akbar,might st i l l remain to us in such a

state at least as to be inte l l igible . Abul Fa z l’s descript ion ofthis palace

, howeve r, has been misunderstood by the tran slators

, who have represen ted it as “ consist ing of n ine storeys,

”

instead of n ine courts or enclosure s . “ The fi rst enclosure wasfor e lephan ts

,came ls

,and horses ; the se cond for arti l le ry and

mil i tary store s whe re a l so we re quarte rs for the guards andothe r attendants ; the third was occupied by porte rs and

watchmen ; the fourth was appropriated for the severalart ifi cers ; the kitchen s made the fi fth range ; the s ixth con

ta ined the Raja’s publ ic apartments ; the seventh was for thetran saction of private bus ine ss ; the e ighth was whe re the

women re sided ; and the n inth was the Raja’s s leeping apartmen t .” “ To the south

,

”he adds

,of this palace is a ve ry

an cien t H indu temple .

”

As Orissa at the period when this was written was practical lya part of Akbar’s kingdom

,the re seems l i ttle doubt that Abul

Fa z l’

s de scription was furn ished by some one who knew the

place .

A l though i t thus con sequen tly happens that we have no

more mean s of asce rtain ing what the c ivi l edifice s of the IndoAryan s of Ori ssa we re l ike

,than we have of those of the con

temporary Dravid ians , the re i s a group of engineering objectswhich throw some l ight on the arts of the pe riod . As has been

1 They were of more than l ife size and 11 . p . 1 27 . The word fish iyana nests,”represen ted three of the Matris . was rendered “

storeys . W . B ruton ,2 ‘ Asiat ic Researches, ’ vol . xv . p . 367 . who visited Katak in 1 633, makes i t3 l bia

’. p . 335 ; Hunte r’s ‘ Orissa, ’ vol . plain that en closures or courts ”

i .p

. 266 . are mean t . News from the East IndiesAyeen Akbery, Gladwin ’

s trans in Osborne’s Collection of Voyages andlation

,vol . 11 . p . 1 3, and Jarre tt’s , vol . Travels , ’ 1 745 , vol . i i . pp . 27 1 -272 , 275 .

CHAP . I I . JAJPUR AND KATAK. 1 1 3

frequen tly stated above,the Hindu s hate an arch , and neve r wi l l

use i t except unde r compuls ion . The Muhammadans taughtthem to ge t ove r the i r prej ud ice s and employ the arch in the i rc ivi l bu i ld ings in late r time s

,but to the pre sen t day they avoid

i t in the i r temple s in so far as i t i s poss ible to do so . In Orissa,howeve r, in the 1 3th cen tury, they bu il t nume rous bridges invarious parts of the province

,but neve r employed a true arch in

any of them . The Athara-na la bridge at Puri has been drawn

Hindu B ridge at Jajpur . (From a Photograph . )

and de scribed by S t i rl ing, and i s the fine st in the provinceof those st i l l in use . He ascribe s its con struction to KabirNars ingh -deva I I . , about 1 280 ; Rajendralal Mi tra placed i t twocen turies earl ie r.1 Be tween the abutmen ts i t is 27 8 ft . long, withn ine teen spans of 7 to 1 6 ft. wide , and with a roadway 3 8 ft .wide . That shown in the above woodcut (No . 322) i s at

Jaj pur and i s probably olde r, and ce rtain ly more picture sque ,though constructed on the same ident ical plan . I t may be

unscien tific,but many of the se old bridge s are stand ing and

1 From the Puri temple annals.—‘An tiquities of Orissa,’ vol . 11 . p. 1 1 2 . Ne i ther

date has satisfactory authority .

VOL . I I

H 4 NORTHERN 0R INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

in use while many of those we have constructed out of theruins

‘

of the temples and palace s have been swept away as i fa cu rse we re upon them .

Be fore leaving these Orissa temple s ment ion may be madeof three at Mukhal ingam ,

in Ganjam district,a place of

pi lgrimage adjoin ing the town of Nagarakatakam . This wasthe s i te of Kalinganagara, the old capital of the easte rn Gangadynasty of Ka l inga be fore , and for some t ime afte r

,the i r

conque st of Orissa in the 1 1 th cen tu ry.

1 The place i sde scribed as a wilde rne ss of ru ins , and the large st and mosten tire of the temples cons i sts of a shrine and mandap withtwo rows of three plain pi l lars in each 2 support ing the roof.Outs ide

,this roof i s in the Orissa form ,

somewhat flat and

with three fi n ials in l ine across i t . The shrine i s surmoun tedby a towe r or s ikhara of numerous thin moulded courses ,crowned by a double amalas ila with domed apex and smal lfin ial . The doorway , on the east

,i s deeply re ce ssed and has

two broad frame s round the en trance— the inne r sunk con

s iderably within the oute r—and both ri chly carved on the i rface s and l in te l s with floral patte rns . Th is i s flanked by squarejambs scu lptured on the fron t with figure s in compartmen tsand supporting a projecting l in te l . Proje cting sti l l more on

each s ide i s a richly carved pi laste r with capitals of the Guptatype ,

supporting an uppe r l in te l crowded with figure s .Smal le r temple s occupy the corne rs of the court, which is

enclosed by a wal l , and has en trance s on the east and southsid e s . The gateway in fron t of the temple has , l ike Orissan

porches,a stepped roof with leogriffs ove r i t . The en try , l ike

that of the mandap , i s cons ide rably rece ssed , the inne r jambsand three l in te l s be ing e laborate ly carved .

Of the Bhimesvara temple on ly the shrine and mandaprema in ,

and are of the gene ral s tyle of the Mukhalingesvara

j ust de scribed . When i ts inscription s have be en ful ly examined,

some defin i te clue may be found to dete rm ine i ts date , whichmay pe rhaps be of the 1 1 th cen tu ry. But the fine st ofthe group has been the Somesvar temple , of which on ly the

s ikhara remains . I t re semble s in i ts proportions and varie tyof sculpture s the Parasurameswar temple at Bhuvaneswar.

The carving round the thre e n i che s on each face are exceedingly e laborate and in te re st ing. But un ti l we have the fu l le ri l lustrat ion s of a survey or some epigraphical gu idan ce

,we may

1 Nagarakatakam is on

dhara r iver , in Lat . 1 8° 34’

and the wal ls bear2’E . , abou t 20 miles N .N . of which are said to

modern Kal ingapatam, an th cen tury.

1 1 6 NORTHERN OR INDO -ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

I t i s not on ly, howeve r, that many techn ical questions wil lbe an swe red when any compe ten t pe rson unde rtake s a thoroughexaminat ion of the ru ins , but they wil l afford a picture of thec ivi l isat ion and of the arts and re l igion of an Indian commun i tyduring seven cen turie s of isolat ion from exte rnal influences

,such

as can hardly be obta ined from any othe r source . So far as we

at pre sen t know,i t is a singularly pleasing picture

,and one that

wi l l we l l repay any pains that may be taken to pre sen t i t to theEngl ish publ ic in a comple te and in te l l igible form .

TENTATIVE L IST OF DATES OF THE PR INCI PAL ORISSAN TEMPLES .

1

DATE S .

Parasurémeswar, N .W. from Muk teswar .S is ireswar.

6 50-900 Kapalin i .

U ttareswar .

Somesvar at Mukhal ingam .

Sar i D eula.

Mukteswar , S . from S iddheswar

Lingaraj , Tribhuvaneswar or Bhuvaneswar G reat Temple .

Kedareswar, S . from Muk teswar .

Siddheswar, 50 yards N . from Muk teswar .

900- 1000 Bhagavati .

Som es var, 250 yards N . from the G rea t Temp le .

B rahmeswar .

Mukhalingeswar .

Virajaand Varahanath at Jaj pur .Markandeswar at Pu ri .Nékeswar .

Bhaskareswar.

1 1 th cen tur y Rajaran i , 300 yards N .E . from Muk teswar .

Ch itrakarni .

Kapileswar .

Rameswar .

Yameswar.

1 2th century Maitreswar .

G rea t Temp le of Jagannath at Furl.

Megheswar .

Vasudeva, on S .E . of the Vindusagara tank .

Kanarak Sun Temple .

1 3th cen tury Nata Mandap of Lingaraja temp le .

Vishnu temple at Madab , in Katak d is t r ic t .Gop inath at Remuna.

The obje ct of this , or any chronological class ificat ion ofsuch a se rie s of temple s , i s to bring us neare r a solution ofone of the most obscure problems that pe rplex the studen tof Ind ian archite cture .

way the Dutch Archaeoof Java does i ts work

,i t

ible to arrange defin itelyples .

CHAP . I I I . DHARWAR. 1 1 7

CHAPTER I I I .

WESTERN IND IA .

CONTENTS .

Dharwar—B rahman ical Rock-cut Temp les, at Elfi ra, Badam i ,E le phan ta

,D hamnar, and Poona .

DHARWAR

IF the province of Orissa i s in te re sting from the comple tene ssand un iformity of its style of Indo -Aryan archite ctu re

,that

of Dharwar,or

,more corre ctly speak ing of Maharashtra

,is

a lmost equal ly so from exac tly the oppos ite condit ions . In

the we s te rn province , the D ravid ian s tyle s truggle s with the

northe rn for supremacy during all the earl ie r stage s of the i rgrowth

,and the mode in which the one in fluenced the othe r

w i l l be one of the mos t in te re st ing and instruct ive lesson s wecan learn from the i r study, when the mate rials are avai lablefor a thorough inve stigation of the archite ctura l h is tory ofthis province . In magn ificence

,howeve r

,the we ste rn can n eve r

pre tend to r ival the easte rn province . The re are more and

far fine r bui ld ings in the one city of Bhuvaneswar alone thanin all the cit ies of Maharashtra put toge the r

, and the extremee laborat ion of the i r de tai ls gives the Orissan example s a

supe riori ty that the we ste rn temple s cannot pre tend to rival .Among the olde s t and mos t characte ri st ic of the Dharwar

temple s i s that of Papanatha ,at Pattadakal. A s wil l be seen

from the plan of th is temple given above (Woodcu t No . 1 82,

vol . i . , page the ce l l,with its towe r

,has no t the same predom i

nat ing importan ce which it a lways had in Orissa ; and in steadof a me re vest ibu le i t has a four-pil lared porch

,which would

in i tse l f be sufficien t to form a comple te temple on the easternS ide of India. B eyond th is

,howeve r

,i s the great porch ,

Mandapa,or j agamohan— square , as usual , but he re i t posse sses

s ixteen pil lars,in four groups

,instead of the astylar arrange

ments so common in the east . I t i s,in fact

,a copy

,with ve ry

sl ight al te rat ions,of the plan of the great S a iva temple at the

same place (Woodcut No . or the Kai las at E lura (Woodcut No . The se

,with othe rs

,form a group of early temple s

1 1 8 NORTHERN OR INDO-‘ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

wholly Dravid ian in s tyle , but having no affin i ty,except in plan ,

with the temple of Papanatha, which is as essent ial ly IndoAryan in its architectural arrangemen ts . This

,in fact

, may be

looked upon as the characte ristic d iffe rence between the style s ofDharwar and Ori ssa. The we s te rn s tyle , from its proximity tothe D ravid ian and admixture with i t

,in fact

,used pi l lars free ly

and with e ffe ct wheneve r wan ted ; while the i r use in Ori ssai s a lmost unknown in the be st age s of the style

,and the i r

introduction ,as i t took place the re , showed on ly too clearly

the necess i ty that had arisen in the decay of the s tyle,to supply

with fore ign forms the wan t of original i ty of inven t ion .

V iew of Temple of Papanatha at Pattadakal . (From a Photograph . )

The exte rnal e ffe ct of the bui ld ing may be j udged of from the

above woodcut (No . The outl ine of the towe r is not

un l ike that of the Parasurameswar temple at Bhuvaneswar,with which i t was probably contemporary — air . A.D . 700

CHAP . I I I . DHARWAR. I 1 9

but the central be l t i s more pronounced , and always apparen tlywas on the west s ide of India. I t wi l l al so be obse rved in th istowe r that eve ry thi rd course has on the angle a form which hasbeen described as an amalaka in Speak ing of the crown ingmembers of northe rn temple s . Here i t looks as i f the twoin te rmediate course s s imulated roofs , or a roof in two storeys ,and then th is crown ing membe r was introduced , and the sameth ing repeated ove r and ove r again t i l l the requis ite he ight wasobta ined . In the Parasurameswar the re are three in termediatecourses (Woodcut No . 3 1 2) in the great towe r at Bhuvaneswar,fi ve and in the more mode rn temples they disappear from the

angle s,but are suppl ied by the min iature temple -forms appl ied

to the s ides . In the temple at Bodh -Gaya the same formoccurs (Woodcut No . 1 9 ) on the angle of each storey ; butthe re i t looks more l ike the capital of a pi l lar

,wh ich , in fact,

I be l ieve to be i ts real original . But from whateve r formde rived

,this repe t it ion on the angle s is in the best poss ible

tas te ; the eye i s led upwards by it, and i s prepared for thecrown ing membe r

,which i s thus no longe r i solated and a lone

,

but a part of a comple te des ign .

The frequency of the repe t i t ion of this ornament is , so far asi s now known

,no bad tes t of the age of a temple . I f an

example we re found whe re eve ry al te rnate course was an

ama laka,i t probably would be olde r than any temple we have

ye t known . I t would then repre sen t a se ries of roofs,fi ve

,

seven , or n ine storeys,bu i l t ove r one anothe r. I t had

,how

eve r, passed into conven tional i t ies be fore we mee t with i t.To the north-west of A iho le i s a S a iva cave - temple

,

1and

n ear i t on the north-we st is an old temple with a porch on

four plain square pi l lars, the mandap bu i l t of mass ive stones

,

with a sloping roof,a pradaksh ina round the shrine , and , from

the figure of Kartt ikeya on the roof of the entran ce porchand of Garuda on the l in te l of the shrine door

,i t was evidently

dedicated to V ishnu (Plate XX I I I . ) I t i s known as the

temple of Huchchhimalligud i , and appears to be’

of qu ite as earlya date as any at Bhuvaneswar or e lsewhe re . The S ikhara i sre lative ly smal l

,and i f we compare th is temple with that of

Parasurameswar (Woodcut No . we obse rve that the latte ris much more deve loped in style than the forme r . Unfortu

nate ly we have no direct re cord of i ts construct ion,the on ly

indicat ion of its date i s an inscription on the north s ide of thewe st fron t , re cord ing a gran t for o i l made in the thirteenth yearof the Chalukya King V ijayaditya ,

that is in 7 1 8 A .D . ;2 but

the temple was clearly then e stabl ished,we know not how

1 Archaeological Survey of Western Kaladgi , ’ pp . 38-

40 .

Ind1a, ’ V01 l . ; Report on Belgam and 2 Indian An t iquary, ’ vol . viii . p . 284.

1 20 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN sTYLE. BOOK VI .

long previously , though we may fa i rly assume that i t had beene rected at least as early as

, i f no t be fore , the re ign of V ikramaditya (6 5 5 to 6 80 Indeed , comparing it with the templeof Papanatha at Pattadakal (Woodcut No . 323) we are at onces truck by the more ancien t s ty le of the feature s of this , and

would be qu i te prepared , on fai r eviden ce,to ascribe i t to the

beginn ing of the 7 th centu ry or soon afte r.When the drawings made by the Archae ological Survey

of the temple s of this d istri ct 1 are comple te ly publ ished,they

wi l l,no doubt , throw immen se l ight on the early h istory of

this style .

1 As the case now stands,howeve r

,the principal

inte rest centre s in the cave s of Badami,which be ing the on ly

B rahman i ca l cave s known that have a pos it ive date upon them,

they give us a fixed poin t from which to reason in re spect ofothe r se rie s such as we neve r had be fore .

BRAHMAN ICAL ROCK-CUT TEMPLES .

A l though the s tructural temple s of the Badami group 2 inDharwar are of such extreme in te re st

,as has been poin ted

out above,they are surpas sed in importance

,for our present

purpose s at least,by the rock - cut example s .

At Badami the re are three cave s,not of any great d imen s ions ,

but of s ingular in te re st from the i r architectural deta i l s and

sculptures,and more so from the fact that one of them ,

No . 3 ,con tain s an in scription with an undoubted date upon i t . The reare

,as poin ted out above

,innume rable Buddhis t in scription s

on the we ste rn cave s,but none with date s from any we l l

asce rta ined e ra,and none

,un fortunate ly

,of the B rahman i cal

caves at E lu ra or e lsewhe re have in script ion s that can be ful lyde ciphe red

,and not one with a date on i t . The consequence

i s,that the on ly mode by which the i r age s cou ld be approx i

mated was by arranging them in sequence s , accord ing to ourempirica l or rea l knowledge of the history of the pe riod duringwhich they we re supposed to have been excavated . At E lu ra,for instance

,i t was assumed that the Buddhis t preceded the

B rahman i cal excavat ion s,and that the se we re succeeded by

the j a ina ; and various local and archite ctural pecul iarit ie s1 The works as ye t published on and Pattadakal 8 miles east -north -eastth is subject are the ‘ Architecture in from Badami . F ifteen miles cove rsDharwar and Mysore , ’ fol . , 1 00 plates , the whole , which must have beenMurray, 1 866 ; Burgess’s ‘Archaeological in the 6 th or 7 th cen tury a place ofReport on the B elgam and Kaladgi great importance , Vatapipura or BadamiD istr icts , ’ 1 874 and Rea

’

s‘ Chalukyan being then the capital of the Chalukyas

Architecture , ’ 1 896 .—‘Journal Royal Asiatic Socie ty , ’ vol . iv .

2 For architectural purposes the three p . 9 ; Indian An t iquary , ’ vol . viii . p .

places may be considered as one . Aihole 243 .

is about 7 miles north -east of Pattadakal,


instance , we fi nd the sculptures about equal ly d ivided be tween

S aiva and Va ishnava subje cts,whilst the shrines contain

l ingams of S iva ; and in two of the three Badami caves ,

CHAP. 111 . BRAHMANICAL ROCK-CUT TEMPLES . 1 23

whilst the large r figure s are mostly Va ishnava, the othe rs arelarge ly S aiva

,and the 024173 or al tars in the middle of both

shrine s may prope rly be supposed to have supported the

emblem of S iva .

The Das Avatara (No . 1 5 ) at E lura, i s a two - s toreyed cave ,ve ry s im i lar in its architectura l de tai ls to the Buddhist DonThal and Tin Thal

,but the scu lptures are all B rahman i cal . At

fi rs t s ight it seems as i f the excavat ion had been made by theBuddh is ts

,and appropriated and fin ished by the i r succe ssors .

But on examinat ion i t appears that we owe i t en ti re ly to the

325 . Plan of the Upper Floor of the Das Avatara Cave at Elura. Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

1

B rahman s . I t is , perhaps , the earl ie st B rahman ica l temple he reand i t is natura l to suppose that when the S a ivas attempted torival the ir an tagon is ts in cave - temple s they Shou ld fol low the

mode ls that al ready exis ted,me re ly appropriat ing them to the i r

own worship . The circums tan ce,howeve r, that make s th is most

probable is the existence ofa pseudo- structural mandapa,or shrine

of the Nandi,in the courtyard (Woodcut No . 324) th is evidently

must have been a part of the original de sign ,or the rock would

1 Reduced from Cave Temples of India, ’ plate 74 .

1 24 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE BOOK VI .

not have been le ft he re for i t, and i t i s a mode l o f the usua ls tructural bu ild ing found in S a iva temple s in diffe ren t parts ofIndia .

1 This i s a piece of bad grammar the B uddhists neve rwe re guilty of the i r excavation s always are cave s

,whilst the

great characterist ic of B rahman ical excavations,as distingu ished

from that of the i r predece ssors,i s that they general ly copied

structura l bui ld ings,a sys tem that rose to i ts greate st he ight

in the Kailas, ,

already de scribed (vol . i . , page The B uddhis texcavations , on the contrary, were always caves and noth ing e l se .

The ground floor is l i ttle more than a corridor, 9 5 ft . in length ,

and about 30 ft . deep, with ce l ls . The . uppe r storey hal l,of which

Woodcu t No . 325 is the plan ,i s nearly square— 9 5 ft . wide by

97 ft . deep— the roof supported by forty- four square pil lars , ofwhich those in fron t are richly carved . The rece sses betwe en thepilaste rs in the s ide wal ls are fi l led with large sculptures in a l tori l ievo—those on the north s ide be ing S aiva

,and on the othe r

mostly Vaishnava.

Un fortunate ly the re are no Buddhist bu i ld ings or cave s sofar south as Badami

,and we are con sequen tly deprived of that

means for comparison : such as are south of Karle,at Karhad

,

e tc .,are of l ittle or no accoun t arch ite ctu ral ly . The result

,

howeve r , of the t ran slat ions of inscriptions col lected during thelast th irty-fi ve years

,and of the surveys made

,leads us to

compre ss our history of the weste rn cave s within narrowe rl imits than at one t ime seemed ne ce ssary . The cave s in the

south of B ijapu r d istrict seem all to be comprised be tween theyears 500 and 7 50 A.D . ,

and those at E lura,be ing syn chronous ,

must a lso,with the exception of the Ja ina cave s

,be l imited

to the same period of t ime , with probably a s l ight exten s ione i the r way .

The fol lowing may now be offe red as an approximatechronology of the far- famed se rie s of cave s at Elfi ra :

Buddh is t —Visvakarma to Tin Thal 500-650

Hindfi —Das Avatara, Ravan -ka-Khai , and Ramesvara 6 50-

7 50

Dhumar Lenaand o thers 7 50-850

D ravid ian z—Kai las 7 50-800

Jaina z—Indra and Jagannath Sabbas, e tc . 800- 1 100

The cave at E lephan ta fol lows of course the date heregiven for the Dhumar Lena, and must thus date afte r themiddle of the 8th cen tury.

2

1 The Rashtrak dia,’ vol . v. p . 87 .

the date given in th e descripThe Caves of Elephan ta, ’


Afte r all, howeve r, the subject is one more su ited to the

purpose s of the mythologist and the sculptor than to thearchitect. L ike all rock -cut examples

, except the D ravidian ,

the cave s have the in tole rable defe ct of having no exte riors,

and consequen tly no exte rnal archite ctura l form . The on lyparts of them which strictly be long to archi tectura l art are

the i r pi l lars , and though a se rie s of them would be in te re sting,

they vary so much,from the

nature of the mate rial inwhich they are carved

,and

from local c i rcumstan ce s,that

they do not posse ss the samehistorical s ign ificance thatexternal forms wou ld afford .

Such a pi l lar,for instan ce

,as

th is one from the cave cal ledLankesvara on the s ide of thepit in which the Kai las s tands(Woodcut No . though inex qu is ite taste as a rock cutexample

,whe re the utmos t

strength is apparently re

quired to support the massof rock above

,doe s not afford

any poin ts of comparison withstructural examples of the

same age . In a bui ld ing itwould be cumbersome and

absurd unde r a mass of rockPillar in Kailas , Elura. 0

‘

(From a Drawing by the Au thor . )6

533

131

11;

a

i

l

flld

tile

) p2252

1

8

3 1

23

1:

Mamal lapuram fa i l from the

opposite fault : they re tain the i r structural form,though used

in the rock,and look fra i l and weak in con sequence ; but while

this d ive rs ity in practice prevai led , i t preven ts the i r use as a

chronome tri c s cale be ing appre ciated , as i t wou ld be i f thepract ice had been un i form . As

,howeve r, No . 3 at Badami is

a cave with a pos it ive date,A .D . 5 78 , i t may be we l l to give

a plan and se ct ion (Woodcuts Nos . 327 and 328) to i l lus tratei ts pecul iaritie s

,so as to enable a comparison to be made

be tween i t and othe r example s . I ts de tai ls wil l be found ful lyi l lustrated in the fi rst volume of the Survey of We ste rn India.

Though not one of the larges t,i t i s sti l l a fi ne cave

,its

ve randah measuring 70 ft. , with a depth of 50 ft . ,beyond

which is a s imple plain ce l l,con tain ing the al tar for the image .

At one end of the ve randah is the Naras inha Avatara ; at the

CHAP. I I I . BRAHMANICAL ROCK-CUT TEMPLES. 1 2 7

othe r end V ishnu seated on the five -headed serpen t Anan ta.

The fron t pi l lars have three bracke ts each,of ve ry wooden design

all of which are ornamen ted by twoor three figure s

,gen eral ly a male and

female , with a child or dwarf— all ofcon s ide rable beauty and de l icacy ofexecut ion . The inne r pi l lars are

varied,and more archite ctural in the i r

form s,but in the bes t style of H indu

art . 1

Compared with the style of art

found at Amaravati , on the oppositecoast

,i t is curious to obse rve how

nearly Buddha, seated on the many 327

(1

1161

81 of (Eve 1

1210 313Badami

headed Naga ,

2 re semble s V ishnu onr

ft1'

t

15 1 ’ff

ess"

Anan ta in the next woodcut,and

though the re l igion is changed,the art has hard ly alte red to

such an exten t as might be expected , cons ide ring that three

Section of Cave No . 3 , Badami . (From a Drawing by j . Burgess . )Scale 2 5 ft . to I in .

cen turie s at least had probably e lapsed be tween the exe cutionof these two bas- re l ie fs . The change of re l igion

,howeve r

,i s

comple te .

Some time s the Hindus successfu l ly conquered one of themain difficultie s of cave arch itectu re by excavat ing them on

the spur of a h il l , as in the Dhumar Lena at E lu ra,and by

surrounding them by courts,as the re and at E lephan ta and

at Jogeswar ; so that l ight was introduced on three s ides ins tead of on ly one , as was too often the case both with B uddhistand Hindu excavations . The se , though probably among thelast , are ce rtain ly the finest H indu excavat ions ex isting

,i f

looked at from an architectura l poin t of view . The E lu raexample is the large r and finer, measuring 149 ft . by 1 48

(Woodcut No . That at E lephan ta,though extreme ly

s im i lar in gene ral arrangemen t (No . i s less regular in

1 Burgess , Report on B elgam and I2 ‘Tree and Serpen tWorship ,

’

plate 76Kaladgl ,

’ plates and Cave Temples of India,

’ plate 39 .

1 28 NORTHERN OR INDO -ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

plan ,and also somewhat smal le r, measuring on ly 1 30 ft . by

1 29 ft. I t i s easy to see that i f these temple s stood in theopen they would on lybe porches , l ike that atBe lu r (Woodcut No .

and numbe rles sother example s

,wh ich

are found everywhe rebut the nece ss itie s ofrock - cut architecturerequired gene rally thatthe ce l la shou ld be

placed ins ide the man

dapa, or porch , insteadof exte rnal ly to it

,as

Dhumar LenaCave atElura.

was always the case

(From Dan iel l 's ‘

Views in 1 In structura l example s .Scale 1 00 ft . to I m .

This , perhaps, was

hard ly to be regretted ;but i t shows how l i ttle the practice of cutting temple s in the

rock was su i ted

Hindus , and we

need not,the re

fore , fee l su rprisedhow readi ly theya b a n d o n e d i t

when any ideaof riva l l ing the

B u d d h i s t s h adceased to promptthe i r e fforts in

h Cth i s d irection .

ep an ta ave .

In the capital s(Frc’gciif

1

1

8

5811

11, ié of the pi l lars in

these caves, as

repre sen ted in the accompanying woodcut (No . 33 1 ) from theE lephanta cave , we fi nd the pe rfected form of those r1bbedcushion - capitals that are found at Badami and in so many othe rcave s , dating from at least as early as the 6 th century ; but 1nthese excavation s i t seems to have reached its fu l le s t deve lopmen t and beauty of form . From its frequen t recurrence of

1 Dan iell ’s plan is not quite accurate , but sufficien tly so for our purpose . See‘ Cave Temples of India, ’ plate 79 , and

‘ Archaeological Survey of Western India,

’

vol . v . plate 37 .

NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

places in Java. The Buddhists had the i r ce l l s for priests andasce t ics ; the Jains fi l led the i r re siden t ial ce l ls with image s

Rock-cut Temple at Dhamnar . (From a Plan by Gen . Cunningham . )Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

and made them l i ttle temples ; and the Hindus in the i r shrinesmade smal le r ce l lae for the attendan ts or family of the god .

S aiva Temple near Poona . (From a Ske tch by Daniell . )One more i l lust rat ion must conclude what we have at

pre sen t to say of H indu rock- cu t temples . I t is the templeof Panchalesvara at Bhamburdé near Poona

,and i s but l ittle

known , though much more appropriate to cave architecture

CHAP. I I I . BRAHMANICAL ROCK-CUT TEMPLES. 1 3 1

than most example s of its c lass . The temple i tse lf i s a s implepil lared hal l , with e ight pi l lars in fron t ,and poss ibly had original ly a structurals ikhara bui lt on the uppe r plateau to markthe pos it ion of the sanctuary (WoodcutNo . The most original part of it,howeve r, is the Nandi pavi l ion

,wh ich

stands in the courtyard in fron t of thetemple (Woodcut No . I t i s ci rcu larin plan , and i ts roof—which is a great s labof rock—was supported by sixteen squarepil lars of ve ry simple form— four within and

twe lve in the circumfe rence ,-o f which four

have now crumbled and fal len . A ltoge the ri t i s as appropriate a bit of de sign as i s tobe found in Hindu cave architecture . I thas

,howeve r, the de fect— on ly too common

in those Hindu excavat ions— that,be ing 334 Temple

gf Panchél

in a pit,i t can be looked down upon ; £ 23

2

;which is a te s t ve ry few bui ld ings can

stand,and to which none ought to be exposed .

2

1 There is a s imilar temple at Amba India ,

’ vol . i ii . p . 50, and plates 33, 34.

nearMominabad, in theHaidaré’

tbad S tate .

2 Cave Temples of India, ’ p . 426 and‘ Archaeological Survey of Western plate 69 .

NORTHERN OR INDO -ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

CHAPTER I V .

CENTRAL AND NORTHERN IND IA .

CONTENTS .

Chand ravat i and Baro l i -Ki rtti - stambhas—Temples at Gwaliar, Khajuraho,S innar, Udayapur, B enares , B ind raban , Kan tanagar, Am r i tsar .

THERE are ce rta in ly more than one hundred temple s in Centraland Northe rn India which are we l l worthy of be ing described indetai l , and ,

i f de scribed and i l lustrated,would convey a wonde rful

impre ss ion of the fe rti l i ty in invent ion of the Hindu mind and

of the e legance with which it was capable of express ing itse l f.None of these temple s can make the smal lest pre tens ion to rivalthe great southe rn example s in scale ; they are all

,indeed ,

smal le r even than the greate r of Orissan example s ; and whilesome of them surpass the Orissan temples in e legance of form

,

many riva l them in the profuse e laborat ion of m inute ornamental de ta i l s .None of these temple s— none , at least

,that are now

comple te— seem to be of any great ant iqu ity . At E ran,in

the Sagar d istrict, are some fragmen ts of columns , and seve ralscu lptures that seem to be long to the flour ishing age of theGuptas , say about A.D . 450 ; and in the Mukandwara Pass inKota

,the re are the rema in s of a chaultri that may be as old

,

but i t i s a me re fragmen t ,1 and has no inscript ion upon i t.Among the more comple te example s , the oldest I know of,

and con sequen tly the most beautifu l,i s the porch or temple of

S i talesvara at Chandravati , near Jhalrapathan ,in Raj putana.

2

Assuming that i t be longs to the early years of the 9 th cen tu ry ,with the chawadi in the Mukandwara Pass

,and the pil lars at

1 A view of this was published in

my ‘ Picturesque I l lustrat ion s of IndianArchitecture , ’ plate 5 .

2 In its ne ighbourhood Colone l Todfound an inscription , dated 746 of an era

,

not named , which at one t ime I th oughtmight have been taken from this temple ,and consequen tly m ight give its dateabout A . D . 689 , which would fairly agree

with the style , judged from that of someof the caves at Elfira

,which i t ve ry much

resembles .

‘ Picturesque I llustrations ofAncien t Architecture inHindostan , ’ plate6 , with descript ion . Tod ’s ‘ Annals ofRajas than , ’ vol . i i . p . 734 . His translation , however, was worthless ; the dateis more probably of A. D . 824 . IndianAntiquary , ’ vol . v . pp . l 80f.

1 34 NORTHERN OR 1ND0 -ARYAN STYLE. 8 001: VI .

In fron t of the temple i s a de tached porch , cal led a Chawadi

or nuptial hal l , s im ilar to that in fron t of the temple at Mudhera

Temple at Baroli . (From a Drawing by the Author . )

Plan of Temple at Baroli . (From Drawings by the Author . )

in Gujarat in th is trad ition re cords the marriage of a Huna(Hun) prince to a Rajputni bride , for which purpose i t i s fabled

CHAP. IV. BAROLI . 1 3 5

to have been e rected ; 1 but whe the r th is i s so or not, i t i sone of the fine st example s of such detached hal l s known in

the north . We miss he re the octagonal dome of the Ja ins ,which would have given e legance and re l ie f to its ce i l ing, thoughthe varie ty in the spacing of thecolumns has been atta ined by a

d ifferen t proce ss . When the domewas first employed in Hindu arch itecture , they seem to have at

tempted to gain sufficient re l ie fto the i r othe rwise monotonousarrangemen t of columns by breaking up the exte rnal outl ine of theplan of the mandapa

,and by

ranging the ai s les,

as i t we re,

diagonal ly across the build ing ,

ins tead of placing them paral le lto '

the s ide s .Othe r two temple s he re ,

to thesouth of the preced ing, are smal le rbut e ssential ly of the same style

,

though more poin ted in the ir form ,

and are consequently e i the r moremode rn in date , or i f of the sameage—which may doubtle ss be the

case—would bring the date of thewhole group down to the l oth

cen tury , which , afte r all,may be

the i r true date ‘

(Fromr

amfil

l

l

afa

e

t

iga’I-

‘

c

dl

d’s ‘ AnnalsThe large r of the two IS known of

as the temple of Parvati , and in

fron t of it,a l i ttle way from the great temple , we re two pi l lars ,

one of wh ich (sti l l standing in 1 87 3) i s he re repre sented2

(Woodcut No . They evident ly supported one of thosetoran s

,or archways

,wh ich succeeded the gateways of the

Buddhis t topes , and form frequen tly a ve ry pleasing adjunctto H indu temple s . From the architrave s of ce rta in of these ,the god was swung at ce rtain fest ivals . They are ,

howeve r, frai ledifice s at best, and eas i ly ove rthrown

,whe reve r the bigotry

of the Moslims came in to play .

1 Tod’s Annals of ph of this and of thep .

_

7 1 2 . For the legen ples, see‘ Archi ~

PIngalfi. Rani , see in Gujarat andvol . i i . p . 2 1 5 .

1 36 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. Boox v1 .

KIRTTI -STAMBHA GATEWAYS .

Toran gateways or Kirtt i-s tambhas,as above remarked

,we re

common adjuncts to H indu temple s as we l l as to Buddhiststupas . The gateways at Sanch i and Bharaut are the earl ie stwe can now poin t to ; but of S im i lar purpose , though of ve ryd iffe ren t con struct ion ,

we re such gateways as those at Barol iand the four al ready ment ioned at Worangal (vol . i . , p .

which may be long to the 1 2th cen tury. But there are othe rsof the same characte r that may be he re men t ioned . The

on ly one ye t known in the Dekhan i s at the ruined templeof Galaganath , outs ide Aihole

,which st i l l re ta ins the l in te l

supported by two mass ive square carved p il lars , and fromthe style and carving may date from about A.D . 900 ; but i fthe re ever was a pediment over the l inte l i t has tota l lyd isappeared .

Of more ornate style 15 one at Pathari,in the Gwaliar

te rri tory ,about? 1 1 mile s south -east from E ran

,whe re are al so

many remains of great an t iqu ity and inte re st . I t stands infron t of an old temple cal led Gadarmar. The shafts of thepil lars are S ixteen s ided with Gupta bases and capital s of thesame patte rn as the pi l lar from the E ran temple (WoodcutNo . The bracke ts that support the toran arch—now

lost—al so bore female and an imal figure s on four s ides,but

these are mostly now lost . Above these bracke ts the pi l larsare c ircular

,and support a large abacus on the inne r proj ection s

of which re sts the ri chly- carved l in te l,which carries ove r i ts

centre a c ircu lar stone or amalasi la,with l ions on each of

the end blocks .

1 I t has had no pedimen t, and must be longto the age of the Gupta remains at E ran .

In fron t of the great Su rya temple at Mudhera in Gujaratthe re stood a fine Kirtt i- stambha gateway , bu t the whole ofthe pediment has fal len

,and on ly the pi l lars , 24 ft . 6 in . high

,

remain s tanding of the structure e rected in A .D . 1026 . But ,bes ide s the arch at the Rudra Mahalaya at S iddhapur, about 32 ft.

“

in he ight , but now cons ide rably inj ured , the re are at Vadnagar,

the ancien t Anandapu r,two fi ne examples almost e nt i re , about

3 51; ft. in he ight . The photographic view (Plate wi l lenable the reade r to form an idea of the style of these GujaratKi rtti-stambhas . They must have be longed to some largetemple in th is once notable sacred city. Anothe r smal le r butsimilar gateway , of nearly 2 3 ft . total he ight , stands above a

1 Ancient Monuments , Temples, etc. , of India, ’ plate 222 ; ‘ Journal Asiat . Soc.

of Bengal , ’ vol . xvii . pp . 3o7ff.

PLATE XX IV .

K iRTT I -STAM BHA AT VADNAGAR .

[To/ace page 1 36 , Vol . I I .

VI .BOOKE.YLSTNDO-ARYAINORRNHERTNO1 38

CHAP. IV. GWALIAR.

Teli-ka-Mandir , Gwaliar . (From a Photograph . )


but the porch,which is three storeys in he ight

,i s construct ive ly

enti re , though its detai ls— and principal ly those of its roof—are

ve ry much shattered (Woodcut No .

An olde r temple i s de scribed by Gene ral Cunn ingham ,

1 but,

as i t was used as a mosque , the re i s too l ittle of the originals tructu re left to show the characte r of the des ign . A muti latedinscript ion was dated in A .D . 1 108

,and seve ral Jaina image s

we re found in the substructure .

At the same place the re i s anothe r,bearing the not ve ry

d ign ified name of the Te l i-ka-Mand ir,or O i lman ’s Temple

(Woodcut No . I t i s a square Of 60 ft . each way ,with

a portico on the east proje cting about 1 1 ft . Un l ike the othe rtemple s we have been de scribing

,i t doe s not te rm inate upward s

in a pyramid,nor i s i t crowned by an amalaka

,but in a

ridge of about 30 ft . in exten t , which may original ly havehad three amalakas upon i t . I cannot he lp be l ieving thatth is form of temple was once more common than we now

fi nd i t . There are seve ra l examples of i t at Mamal lapuram(Woodcut Nos 1 85 , 1 93 , evidently Copied from a formcommon among the Buddhists , and one ve ry beautifu l examplei s found at Bhuvaneswar,2 the re cal led Kapi la Devi , and dedicatedto S iva . The Te l i - ka - Mandir was original ly ded icated toV ishnu

,but the re i s no inscription or any trad ition from which

its date can be gathe red on the whole , howeve r, we may placei t about the 10th or 1 1 th century .

3

KHAJURAHO.

As ment ioned above,the fine st and most extens ive group of

temples be longing to the Northe rn or Indo -Aryan style ofarchitecture is that gathered round the great temple at

Bhuvaneswar. They are al so the most in te re st ing histori cal ly,

inasmuch as the i r date s extend through four or fi ve cen turie s ,and they a lone consequen tly enable us to bridge ove r the darkage s o f Indian art. From its remote s i tuat ion

, Orissa seems tohave e scaped , to some exten t at least

,from the trouble s that

agitated northe rn and weste rn Ind ia du ring the Midd le Age s ;and though from this cause we have as ye t few remains inCentral India except the Chaturbhuj rock-temple at Gwaliar,to fi l l up the gap between Chandravati and Gwaliar, in Or issathe serie s i s comple te , and , i f prope rly examined and described ,would afford a con se cutive history of the style from say 800 to1 100 01

‘

1 200 A.D .

1 Cunningham , a t 4 ,

pp . 362, 363 . Famous Monuments,’2 A view of thi and plate 40.

in my ‘Pic turesque I


Kandarya Mahadeva temple , Khajuraho . (From a Photograph . )

CHAP. IV. SINNAR. 1 43

in breadth ove r all, and exte rnal ly rises 1 1 6 ft . above the ground ,and 88 ft. above i ts own floor. I ts basemen t, or pe rpendicularpart

,i s

,l ike all the great temples he re , sur

rounded by three rows of sculptu red figure s .Gene ra l Cunn ingham coun ted 87 2 statue son and in this temple , ranging from 2 1} ft.to 3 ft . in he ight , or about hal f l ife - s ize

,

and they are mixed up with a profusionof vege table forms and conven t ional de ta i l swhich de fy de script ion . The vimana, ortowe r, i t wil l be obse rved , is buil t up ofsmal le r repe t i tion s of itse l f, which becameat th is age one of the favourite mode s ofdecorat ion ,

and afte rwards an e ssen t ia lfeature of the style . He re i t is managedwith s ingular grace , giving great varie tyand play of l ight and shade , without unne ce ssari ly breaking up the outl ine . The

roof of the porch , as seen in fron t,i s a

Plan of3l15andaryal i ttle confused , but as seen on the flank Mahadeva , Khajuraho .

i t rise s pleas ingly step by s tep t i l l it abuts (Frogui rfifghgrfigm

against the towe r, every part of the 1n ternal Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

arrangemen t be ing appropriate ly d is t inguished on the exterior.I f we could compare the design of the Gwaliar temple

(Woodcut No . 339 ) with that of th is bu ild ing, we cannotbut admit that the forme r is by far the most e legan t , but onthe othe r hand the richness and vigour of the Mahadevatemple redeems its wan t of e legance and fascinate s in spiteof its somewhat confused outl ine .

. The Gwaliar temple i sthe legitimate outcrop of the class of temple s that originatedin the Great Temple at Bhuvaneswar, while the KandaryaMahadeva exhibits a comple te deve lopmen t Of that s tyle ofdecorat ion which resul ted in con t inued repe t i tion of itse l f ona smal ler scale to make up a comple te whole . Both systemshave the i r advan tage s

,but on the whole the s imple r seems to

be pre fe rable to the more compl icated mode of de s ign .

S INNAR , AMBARNATH ,AND UDAYAPUR .

The example s al ready given wil l pe rhaps have sufficed torende r the gene ral form of the Indo-Aryan temple famil iar tothe reade r, but as no two are qu ite l ike one anothe r

,the i r

varie ty is infin ite . The re is one form,howeve r

,which be came

ve ry fash ionable about the 1 1 th cen tury,and con t inued to a

much late r date ,and is so characterist ic that i t de serve s some

i l lustrat ion.


A fai rly represen tat ive example occurs in the temple ofGondesvara at S innar, about 1 8 miles from Nas ik . The plan ,

(Woodcut No . and the view,Plate XXV . ,

wil l i l lustrate the

Temple of Gondesvara at Sinnar,

Scale 1 00 ft . to 1 in .

arrangemen t and style of the temple , which be longs probablyto the early part of the 1 2th cen tury. About the 1 1 th cen turya Yadava dynasty of pe tty kings seems to have ruled ove rthe pre sen t Nas i k d istrict , and poss ibly had a seat he re .

1

To them the e rect ion of this temple i s ascribed . I t s tand s,

outs ide the town ,in a wal led enclosure measuring in s ide 284

ft . from north to south by 3 14 ft . from east to we st,with

en trance gateways on the east and south . I t is placed on a

ra ised platform ,1 24 ft . by 94 ft .

,with the Nandi pavi l ion in

fron t and four smal l shrine s at the corne rs .2 Except thecrown ing membe rs of the s ikhara, and the porches

, the temple

dedicated to Ganesa, thateast to Narayana, that on

Surya , and on the

CHAP . IV. SINNAR. 145

i s in good pre servat ion .

1 The mandap is 2 1 ft . 9 in . squarewith four highly sculptured pi l lars and responden t p i lasterssupporting the roof, which is of somewhat pecu l iar construction ,

as ind icated in the section (Woodcut No . The cen tralsquare area i s carried up as a dome to a he ight of 1 9 ft. richlycarved ; and the surround ing ai s le s have sloping roofs , a l so

Cross-section ofGondervara Temple at Sinnar .Scale 20 ft . to 1 in .

e laborate ly scu lptured , whilst the front and s ide porche s are inkeeping with rich carving.

The shrine with its s i khara,as wil l be seen from the plan

and view,h ave the large st d imension through the cen tre s of

the oppos ite faces , the corne rs be ing suppre ssed by a se riesof smal le r angles cross ing them . The spi re has then a bandcarved in fine diape r patte rn on each face runn ing up to itssummit, and the flanks are ornamen ted in a way no t met within earl ie r temple s , and diffe ring from both the Northe rn andthe Chalukyan styles . The whole contrasts with the olde rform i l lustrated by the surrounding smal le r temples ( seen inPlate No . XXV . ) All the oute r wal l s of the temple are cove red

1 The modern Marathi (An te, Woodcut No.odcut No . 345 . I t has

V01 1 . I I .


with carving of great de l icacy , in which figure sculpture i s keptcomparat ive ly subord inate ? The oute r roof bears a trace of itsdescent from early Chalukyan temple s .1 The four smal l shrinesare in the usual I ndo -Aryan style and r ichly sculptured .

Temple at Udayapur , in Gwaliar territory .

1 The section,Woodcu the in ter ior in th is caseM r . H . Cousen ’

s survey ion is conjectural , butthe roof as hollow or dou example of the Ambarcase in all these iquary,

’ vol .

CHAP . IV. UDAYAPUR 1 47

Anothe r example , fortunate ly in a more perfe ct state,i s at

a place cal led Udayapur, about 40 miles north -north -east fromBhi lsa in the Gwaliar te rritory . As wil l be seen from the

woodcut (No . 345 ) the porch is cove red , as at S innar, with a lowpyramidal roof, placed d iagonal ly on the substructure , and ris ingin steps

,each of which is ornamented with vase s or u rns of

varying shapes . The towe r is ornamented by four flat bands,of

great beauty and e legance of des ign,be tween each of which are

th irty -fi ve l i ttle repet i tions of i tse l f, placed one above the othe rin five t ie rs , the whole surmoun ted by an amalas ila

,and a vase

of ve ry e legan t des ign . As eve ry part of th is i s carved withgreat pre cis ion and de l icacy, and as the whole i s qu ite pe rfe ct atthe pre sent day ,

the re are few temple s of i ts class which give a

be tte r idea of the style than this one . From an inscript ioncopied in 1 840,

and tran slated by a pandit,i t was be l ieved that

th is temple was e rected in A.D . 1059 ; but though the in script ioni s Of doubtfu l value

,othe r inscriptions prove that Udayad itya

Pramara was rul ing in and the style poin ts to the latte rpart of the 1 1 th cen tu ry .

At Kalyan ,near Bombay , the re is a temple cal led Ambarnath

ve ry s im i lar to this , drawings and casts from which we re madeby orde rs of the Bombay gove rnment , in I t i s

,howeve r

,

in a ve ry ru inous s tate,and even when pe rfe ct could neve r have

been equal to this one at Udayapur, and to many othe rs inthe Pres idency . In i t the re i s an inscript ion

,dated in the

S aka year 982, or A.D . I t thus accords in age with all

e l se we know of the style .

I t measures about 84 ft . in length over al l by 6 1 throughthe s ide porche s , and consi sts of a ce l la and a mandap

,23 ft .

square,the roof of the hal l supported by four richly sculptured

pi l lars , with a s mal l dome in the midd le,as at S innar

,and all

the ce i l ing e laborate ly carved . The re are en trance porche son three s ide s — each with a lobby in the depth of thewal l s which are 1 1 ft . 8 in . th ick at the se poin ts . A stai rdescends into the shrine

,which i s 1 3 ft . square , i ts floor be ing

7 ft . 9 in . be low that of the mandap—which is an exceptionalarrangemen t in S aiva temples

,—though seve ral instances occu r.

The temples al so mostly face the east, this one the west . The

ri chness of its exte rior may be j udged of from the photographic i l lustrat ion (Plate XXVI . ) Unfortunate ly it i s now ina ve ry ru inous condit ion .

Journal.

of the Asiatic Society of South Kensington Museum . TranscriptsBengal , ’ vol . ix. p . 548 ;

‘Journal of the from fifteen of the drawings wereAmer ican Or1ental Society,” vol . vii . p . published in the Indian Ant iquary, ’ vol .5 3 ; Duff s ‘ Chronology of India,’ p . 1 3 1 i i i . pp. 3 1 6fi

'

.

and refs.3 ‘ Journal of Bombay Br . Royal

2 A port ion of the casts are in the Asiatic Socie ty, ’ vol . xii . p . 329 .

NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE.1 48 BOOK VI .

Hemadpanti temples , as they are cal led , are pre tty nume rousin Berar, the central d istri cts of the Bombay Pre s idency and

the northern parts of the Haidarabad te rritory—distri cts thatbe longed to the Devagiri kingdom of the 1 2th and 1 3thcen turie s, to which they seem mostly to be long. But the

style i s found to have prevai led far beyond the l im its of thatstate , and even at an earl ie r date . From the late r temples atleast

,in B erar and Khande sh , the mythological represen tat ions on

the oute r wal l s had disappeared , and geometrical carvings hadtaken the i r place . On ly upon the olde r ones—usual ly muchruined— as at Lonar, do we fi nd bands of figure sculpture roundthe mandap .

1

NAGDA.

Near the great temple of Eklingaj i , abou t 1 2 mile s northfrom Udaypur, i s a group Of scarce ly known temple s , that se emto range from the 1 2th century , i f not earl ie r, to the 1 5 th . Theyare on the we ste rn margin of the Baghe la- talao

,a large art ificial

lake,and be long to the remains of the ancien t c i ty of Nagda or

Nagahrad , extending for about a mile in length . The temple sare of white marble and be long to both the Jaina and Hindure l igion s, and form one of the most remarkable se ries on this s ideof Ind ia. Though the place i s qu ite dese rted and the templesmuch d i lapidated , and wh ilst the sculpture s have in many casesbeen much muti lated , they are p f great beauty, and comparenot unfavourably with those at Abu.

2 The finest he re are twoVa ishnava temples , known as Sas -bahu ,3 standing, with othe rsmal le r Shrines , on a raised platform or te rrace . Be low the

te rrace on the east i s a handsome swing torana with fourpil lars in l ine . This i s in fron t of the Bahfi temple , which isthe smal le r and plaine r of the two . I ts mandap or port icoi s open and square , with extens ion s on the three s ides

,from

which project the entrances , and i s su rrounded by a low screenwal l on which stand fourteen short pi l lars supporting the roof

,

1 Forty years ago Maj or G i l l made a

tour through parts of West Berar , photographing the Hemadpanti temples at

Sfikegaon ,Jaypur-Kotli , Amdapur , Sir

pur, Mehkar , Sendurjana, Lonar , Dhotrz’

i

and Satgaon . I expanded his brief notesfor him in to a somewhat detai led accoun tthis be somewhat abridged and al tered ,and i t was then prin ted in the Proceedings of the Asiat ic Socie ty of Bengal , ’ Feb .

1873 , pp. 66 -7 1 . These abridged noteswere used in the

‘ Lists of Ant iquarianRemains in Bombay Presidencypp. 226-24 1

2 The editor paid a very hurried visi tto them early in 1 873 . Archi tecture andScenery in Gujarat and Raj putana

,

’ pp .

28, 29 , and plates 1 5 , 1 6 . D r . Le Bon ,

during h is tour in 1884, visi ted them , and

published photographs of the Hindolfitorana or swinging arch , and three eachof the Sasu and Bahfi temples, which hemistaken ly calls Banka and Sasoukaor Sahaskot ’ respectively. Les Monuments de l’Inde, ’ pp . 1 05 - 107 , and figs.1 1 1 - 1 1 8.

3 Mother and daughter -in-law,

’as at

Gwaliar.


mosque and tomb w indows in the 1 sth cen tu ry and subsequen tly . The re are also several Jaina temples among the

ru ins of Nagda— one ded icated to Parswanath in 1429 , and

another cal led Adbudhaji’

s e rected in 1437 in the re ign ofKumbhakarn a, and furthe r, a numbe r of othe rs of somewhatsmal le r d imen s ion s of which , l ike the preceding, the sculptu resare much inj u red , as we l l as parts of the structure s , but wh ichare of con s ide rable inte re st and some of them of architecturalbeauty and impo rtan ce . But un ti l we have de tai led surveysof them , these temples cannot be sat isfactori ly describe d .

1

CH ITORGADH .

One othe r i l lustration must comple te what we now have tosay regard ing th es e Indo-A ryan temples . I t i s one of the mostmode rn of the s tyle

,hav ing been e rected by M i ra Bai , the wife

of Kumbha Rana of Chitor (A.D . 14 1 8 Kumbha was , asi s we l l kn oun

,a patron of the Ja in s in hi s t ime was e re cted the

temple at Ranpu r (Woodcu t No . 288) and the Ki rt ti - stambha at

Chitor (\Voodcut No . But he was an orthodox H indu ,and he re we find him and his wife e rect ing in the ir capital two

temple s dedi cated to V ishnu . The k ing’s temple ,which i s close by

,i s ve ry much sma l le r than th is

one,for which his wife ge ts credit . In plan ,

the on ly pe cul iari ty is that the pradakshina,or process ion -path round the ce l la,

i s he re an

open colonnade,w ith l ittle pavi l ion s at th e fou r

corne rs,and th is i s repe ated in the po rt ico in

D iagram explamat ( “the manne r shown in the annexed diagram

of the P lan of ( \Vood cut No . 346 )1 11121 The roof of the porti co , in the form of a

x 0 pyramid,i s placed d iag onal ly as at Udayapur,

whi le the towe r itse l f i s of so sol id and unbrokenan outl ine

,that i t m ight at fi rst s ight be as cr ibed to a much

earl ie r date than the 1 5 th cen tu ry ( \Voodcut No . \Vhen ,

howeve r,i t i s c lose ly looked at

,we miss the frequen t amalaka

bands and othe r o rnamen tal fea tu res of earl ie r times , and the

crown ing membe rs are more un l ike those of an cien t temples .The cu rve

,too

,of its outl ine is regular from base to summit ,

and consequen tly feeble r than that of the O lder examples ; buttaking it all in all

,i t ce rtain ly is more l ike an ancien t temple

than any othe r of its age I am acqua in ted with . I t was a

re t i n l,the last expi ring effort of a s tyle that was dying out ,

in that form at least .1 The above is based on notes made I the ‘Progress Repo rt of th e Archaeologim l

in 1873, on Dr . G . Lebon’

s photographs , 1 Survey of India, Wes tern C ir cle ’ for

and on the pho tographs and brie f notes in 1 904-1 905 .

the repo rt of Mr. D . R. Bhandfirkar in

CHAP . IV .VISVESWAR,

BENARES. 1 5 1

V IS VESWAR,BENARES .

I f you ask a B rahman of Benares to point out to you themost anc ien t temple of hi s city

,he inev i tably leads you to the

Temple of Vrij i , Chitor .g (From a Photograph . )

V isveswar,

1as not on ly the most holy

,but the oldest of its

sacred edifice s . Ye t it i s known , and cannot be disputed ,

that the temple , as i t now stands , was e rected from the founda

t ion in the 1 8th cen tu ry,to replace one of Ki rt t i Visveswar,

1 Visverwara or Visvanatha the lord of the universe is the name under whichS iva IS worshipped at Benares .


that had been thrown down and desecrated by the bigotAurangz ib . This he did ( in 1 6 59) in orde r that he mighte re ct on the most vene rated spot of the Hindus hiS ‘ mosque ,whose tal l m inare ts sti l l rear the i r heads in in su lt ove r allthe Hindu bu i ld ings of the city . As has al ready been remarked(page the re i s hard ly any great city in Hindus tan that canshow so few evidence s of an t iqu i ty as Benare s . The Buddhistremains now exist ing at Sarnath hard ly can be said to be long

Temple ofVisveswa 1 . (From Prinsep '

s Views in No Scale .

to the c ity . I t must be remembe red that the i conoclasti c zea lo f the Muhammadan s was eve r ready to burst forth against thefane s of H indu idolatry. And afte r the de feat of Jayachandraof Kanauj , in 1 1 94 , Benare s fe l l into the hands of Mu’

i z z u-d

1 5 4 NORTHERN OR INDO -ARYAN STYLE. BOOK VI .

and to it was added a tomb or cenotaph e i the r by he rse l f orher son . As wil l be seen from the woodcut (No . 349) i t i se legant , though feeble as compared with ancient example s .The Muhammadan dome appears in the background

,and the

cu rved Bengal i roof in the pavi l ion in front . The most strik ing

Temple of Sindh ia’

s Mother , Gwaliar . (From a Photograph . )

pecul iarity of the style i s that the s ikharas have nearly lostthe grace fu l curved form ,

which is the most marked pecu l iarityof all the ancien t example s . As has al ready been remarked ,the straight- l ined pyramid fi rst appears in the Takht- i-Sulaimantemple in Kashmi r, where i ts in troduction was probablyhastened by the wooden straight- l ined roofs of the orig inal

CHAP . IV. BRINDABAN . 1 5 5

nat ive style . I t i s equal ly eviden t,howeve r

,in a temple

which Cha it S ingh , the Raja of Benares , e rected at Ramnagarin the end of the 1 8th or beginn ing of the l gth cen tu ry . S incethat t ime the tendency has been more and more in thatd irect ion

,and i f not checked , the probabi l ity i s that the curve

wil l ve ry soon be en t i re ly lost . To a European eye , accustomedon ly to our straight- l ined spires, that may seem hard ly a matte rfor regre t ; but to any one educated in Easte rn forms i t canscarce ly appear doubtfu l that the se spi res wi l l lose hal f the i rcharm i f deprived Of the gracefu l cu rved outl ine they have solong retained .

In orde r not to in te rrupt the story of the gradual deve lopmen t of the style

,the history has been brought down to the

pre sen t day in as nearly a consecut ive manne r as poss ible ,thus ant ic ipat ing the dates of several temples . I t seemsexpedien t

,howeve r, in any history that this should be done ,

for few th ings Of i ts class are more intere sting than to tracethe progress ive change s by which the robust form of theParasurameswar temple at Bhuvaneswar

,or of the great

temple the re , became changed in to the feeble e legance of theV isverwar or Gwaliar temples . The few example s that can beadduced in such a work as this may no t suffice to make th is soclear to others as i t i s to myse lf. Wi th twen ty or thi rtyexamples i t could be made se l f-evident

,and that may one day

be done , and this cu rious chapte r in architectural h istory be thusadded to the establ ished sequences which eve ry true style ofart affords . Meanwhile , howeve r, i t i s necessary to go back a

l i ttle to men t ion one or two abe rran t types which sti l l are not

without inte rest .

BR INDABAN .

Whe ther the Moslims wan ton ly threw down most of thetemples of the Hindus or not

,i t i s evident that the fi rs t three

cen turies ofMuhammadan ru le in Ind ia were s ingularly un favourable for the deve lopmen t of H indu art in any part of the countrywhere the i r rule was firmly establ ished . With the tole ran t re ignof Akbar, howeve r, a new state of affa i rs was inaugurated . Noton ly was he himse l f ent ire ly devoid of re l igious bigotry

,but

most—or at least the most—eminent of his m in iste rs and

friends were Hindus , and he len t an atten t ive ear to the RomanCathol ic m issionarie s who frequented his court . But

,bes ides

its tole rance , his re ign was marked by a degree of prospe rityand magn ificence t i l l then unknown during that of any othe rIndian sove re ign of his re l igion . Not on ly are h is own

bu i ld ings unrival led in the i r exten t and magn ificence , but heencouraged all those around him to follow

'

his example , and


found,among o the rs , a most apt im itator in the ce lebrated

Man S ingh of Ambe r, afte rwards of Jaypur, who re igned

A.D . 1 592- 1 6 1 5 . In 1 590 be e rected at B rindaban

,

'

5 mile snorth of Mathura, a temple

,of Govind

deva or Krishna, which e ithe r he le ftunfin i shed at his death ; or, as i s re lated ,the s ikhara of i t was thrown down byAurang z ib, who i s said to have e rectedal so an

’

Ibadat -gah , or place for Mosl impraye r

,on the roof. 1 I t i s one of the

most in te re sting and e legan t temple s inInd ia

,and the on ly one , perhaps , from

which a European architect might borrowa few hin ts .

The temple , as i t now stands , con sists ofa cruciform porch

,inte rnal ly nearly quite

perfect,though exte rnal ly it i s not clear

how it was in tended to be fin ished (Wood350 ’ cuts Nos . 3 50,

The antarci/a or(By Capt C016

.) inne r mandap of the original temple was

scale 1 0° f" to x m '

afte rwards apparently converted in to a

shrine,and i s pe rfect inte rnal ly—and used for worship—but

the s ikhara i s gone , having been destroyed along with the

ce l la ; afte r which the an tarala was made in to a shrine .

3

Though not large,i ts d imensions are re spectable

,the porch

measuring 1 1 7 ft . east and west , by 105 ft . north and south ,and i s cove red by a true vaul t

,bui l t with radiating arches

the on ly instance , except one , known to exist in a Hindutemple in the north of India. On each s ide of the originalshrine are two side chape ls . Ove r the four arms of the

cross the vaul t is pla in,and of 235 ft. Span

,but in the cen tre

i t expands to 35 ft . , and i s qu ite equal in des ign to the be stGoth ic vaulting known . I t i s t he exte rnal des ign of th istemple

,howeve r, which is most remarkable . The angle s are

accen tuated with s ingular force and dec i s ion ,and the open ings ,

which are more than sufficien t for that cl imate,are picturesque ly

arranged and pleas ingly d ivided . I t i s,howeve r

,the combina

t ion of ve rt ical with horizon ta l l ines,cove ring the whole surface ,

that forms the great me ri t of the des ign . This is,indeed , no t

1 I t consisted ofa wal l l ike an Id -

gfih ,’ chapels . 2nd ed . pp . 223

-224.

as seen in Woodcut No . 35 1 ; this was 3 The original image is said to haveremoved during repairs in 1 873 . been removed to Jaypur . The cella was

2 M r . Growse be l ieved that i t was roughly rebui l t in brick behind this, aboutin tended to be fin ished with fi ve Spires 1 854 , and ded icated to Kr ishna.

ove r the shrine, the an tarala, the dome of,

Growse’s Mathura, ’ 2nd ed . pp . 223

the mandap , and on each of the attached 224.

PLATE XXVI I .

TEM PLE OF JUGAL K I SHOR AT BR INDABAN .

'

[Toface page 1 5 7 , Vol. I I .

CHAP. IV BRINDABAN

pecul iar to this temple ; but at Bhuvaneswar, Halebid , and

e lsewhere , the whole surface i s so ove rloaded with ornament as

View of Govind-deva Temple at Brindaban . (From a Photograph . )

to ve rge on bad taste . He re the accen tuation is equal,but

the surface s are comparat ive ly plain ,and the e ffe ct dependen t

on the e legan ce of the profi le of the mou ld ings rathe r than on

the extent of the ornamen tat ion . Without e laborate draw ingsi t would be difficul t to convey a correct impre ss ion of this butthe View on next page (Woodcut No . 3 5 2) of a bal cony , with itsaccompan iments , wil l suffice to i l lustrate what i s mean t . The

figure s m ight as we l l be omitted ; be ing carved whe re Mosl iminfluence s had long been strong, they are the we akes t part ofthe des ign .

The re are other three temple s at B rindaban,much in the

same style and of the same pe riod,but also much ru ined .

They we re ra ised through the influence of the Gosains ord isciple s of Chai tanya and

,consequently

,all dedicated to

Krishna unde r h is various names—as Madan Mohan , Gopinath ,and Jugal Kishor. The e rection of the last

,repre sen ted on

Plate XXV I I . , i s refe rred to 1 627 , in the re ign of Jahangi r.I ts plan i s given in Woodcut No . 3 5 3 , but the oute r porchhas enti re ly d isappeared , and what is le ft is on ly the ardha

1 5 8 NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE. BOOK v 1 .

mandap and shrine . I t faces the east,and the mandap

,1 7 ; ft .

3 5 2 . Balcony in Temple of Govind-deva , B rindaban . (From a Photograph . )

square inside,has also entrances on the north and south

,with

353 . Temple ofJugal Kishor . 1 Scale 25 ft . to I in .

close ts in the s idewal ls which are 5 ft.9 in . thick . The

ce l la i s about 1 6 ft .square ins ide , withrecesse s for imagesouts ide i t is octagona l in plan withthe angle s brokenup so as to makei t almost circu lar.Above the leve l of

the mandap roof the s i khara tapers upwards with three string1 From a drawing by the Archaeological Survey of India .


the i r attent ion to more permanent mode s of bu i ld ing they should

Temple at Kan tanagar . (From a Photograph . )

have copied this one . I t i s nearly ce rtain that i t was employedfor the same purpose s before the Muhammadan sove re ignty, as

CHAP. IV. AMRITSAR. 1 6 1

i t i s found in all the mosque s at Gaur and Malda ; but wedo not know of its use in Hindu temple s t i l l afterwards, thoughnow i t is extreme ly common all ove r northe rn India.

One of the best examples of a temple in this style i s thatat Kantanagar, 1 2 miles from the stat ion of D inajpur. I twas commenced in A.D . 1 704 and fin ished in As wil l beseen from the preceding il lustrat ion (Woodcut No . 3 i t i s an ine - towered temple

,of conside rable dimens ions , and of a

pleasingly picturesque de sign . The cen tre pavi l ion i s square,

and, but for i ts pointed form ,

shows clearly enough its de scen tfrom the Orissan prototypes ; the othe r e ight are octagonal

,

and the i r form sugge sts , as i ts origin ,a n umbe r of bambus

arranged in a c i rcle or polygon,with the i r heads ben t toge the r

and cords binding them horizon tal ly at equal in terval s .2 The

poin ted arches that preva i l throughout are certain ly de rivedfrom Muhammadan original s

,but the bui ld ing be ing in brick

the i r employment was inevitable .

No stone is used in the bui ld ing, and the whole surface i scove red with designs in te rra-cotta

,partly conven t ional , and

these are frequen tly repeated,as they may be without offence

to taste but the bulk of them are figure- subjects

,which do not

eve r seem to be repeated , and form a pe rfe ct repos i tory of themanne rs , customs , and costume s of the people of Benga l at thebeginn ing of the e ighteenth cen tury . In execution they d isplayan immeasurable infe riori ty to the carvings on the Old templesin Ori ssa or in Mysore

,but for gene ral effect of richne ss and

prodigal i ty of labou r this temple may fai rly be al lowed tocompete with some of the earl ie r example s .

The re i s anothe r and more ornate temple , in the same styleat Gopal-ganj

,

3 close to D inajpur, bu i l t in 1 764, but in infin ite lyworse taste and now ru inous ; and one known as the B lackPagoda, at Ca l cutta

,and many othe rs all through Lowe r

Bengal ; but hardly any so we l l worthy of i l lu strat ion as th isone at Kan tanagar.

AMRITSAR .

One othe r example may se rve for the pre sen t to comple tewhat we have to say regard ing the temple s of mode rn India.

1 Buchanan Hamil ton , Eastern India,’ and square sikharas , are found among theed ited by Mon tgomery Mar tin , 1 837 , later Jaina temples at Kundalpur in the

vol . ii . p . 628 . I t is a Vaishnava temple . Damoh distr ict of the Cen tral Provinces,2 The turre ts of these temples resemble at Sonagarh (Woodcut No . and at

somewhat the sikharas of Jugal Kishor.Khajuraho . See Grifl‘in

’s Famous

and Madan Mohan . at B rindaban (Plate Monumen ts, ’ plate 5 1 ; or G . Le Bon ,

which the Din z’ijpur Maharaja ‘Les Monumen ts de l’Inde,’ p . 89 , fig . 80.

had visi ted just before building h is 3 Fron t ispiece to Buchanan Hamilton ’

s

Kan tanagar temple . Examples of this ‘Eastern India, ’ vol . i i . and pp . 626-627 .

form of construction ,both for polygonal

VOL . I I .


This t ime , howeve r , i t i s no longe r an idol -shrine , but a monothe i stic place of praye r, and d iffe rs , consequently, most e ssent ial lyfrom those we have been de scribing . The re l igion of the S ikhsappears to have been a prote st a l ike again st the gross idolatryof the Hindus and the inflexible monothe ism of the Moslims .

I t doe s not , howeve r, seem that temples or gorgeous ceremon ialformed any

part of the re l igious system propounded by itsfounde rs . Read ing the

‘ Gran th ’

and praye r are what were

35 5 . The Golden Temple in the Sacred Tank at Amritsar , from the north-east .

in s isted upon ,but even then not nece ssari ly in publ ic . We

,

in consequence , know bu t l ittle of the i r temple s , of which theyseem to have but few . Ramdas , the fourth S ikh Guru , or highpriest , obtained a gran t of the s ite of Amritsar from the

tole ran t Akbar, dug the tank , which is I 70 yds . square ,and

began the temple ,which was completed by h is succe ssor,

Arjun .I t was named Har-mand ir , and stood in the middle of

the tank ; but Ahmad Shah Abdali , on his ret urn from Panipatin 1 76 1 , was opposed near Ludhiana by a S ikh army , which hes ignal ly de feated , and entering Amritsar blew up the Har

1 64 CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. BOOK v1 .

CHAPTER V .

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE .

CONTENTS .

Ceno taph s—Palaces at Gwaliar, Ch i tor, Amber, D ig—GhatsRe servo irs—Dam s .

CENOTAPHS .

AS remarked above,one of the most unexpected pecul iari t ie s

of the art, as p ractised by the inhabitan ts of southe rn India,

i s the absence of any attempt at sepulchral magn ificence . As

the Dravid ian s we re e ssen t ial ly bui lde rs , we might expect thatthey shou ld show some re spe ct for the memories of the i r greatmen . I t i s

,howeve r

,even unce rtain how far the cromlechs

,

dolmens,or sepul chral c i rcle s found all ove r the south of India

can be said to be long to the Dravidians in a rude r stage ofsocie ty, or whethe r they be long to some aboriginal t ribes whomay have adopted the language of the supe rior race s withoutbe ing able to change the ins tincts ‘ of the i r race . Even afte rthey had seen how much re spect the Muhammadans paid todeparted greatness , they fa i led to im itate them in this pecul iar i ty .

I t was othe rwise in the north of India— not among the pureA ryan s ; but in the Rajput states

,whe re blood is less pure

,

they eage rly se ized the suggestion offe red by Muhammadanmagn ificen ce in th is re spe ct, and e rected chhatri s on the spotswhe re the i r bodie s had been burn t . Whe re , too, the i r widows ,with that strange devotion which is a tra i t in the Hindu female ’scharacte r, had sacrificed themse lves to what they conce ived toto be the i r duty .

In Rajputana every nat ive capita l has i ts Mahasati , or placewhe re the sove re ign s of the state and the i r neare s t re lat ive sare burned with the i r wive s . Most of the se are appropriate lys ituated in a secluded spot at some l i ttle distance from the

town ,and

,the local i ty be ing gene ra l ly chosen because i t i s

rocky and we l l -wooded , i t forms as picturesque a necropol isas i s to be found anywhe re . Of the se , however, the most

CHAP . V . CENOTAPHS. r65

magn ificent, and ce rtain ly among the most picture sque , i sthat of Udaypur, the capital of Mewar and the chie f of theRajput states st i l l existing. Here the tombs exist l i te ral lyin hundreds, of all s izes

,from the l ittle domica l canopy

supported by four columnsj to the splend id chhatri whose

3 56 . Cenotaph of Sangram-Singh at Udaypur . (From a Photograph . )

octagonal dome i s supported by fi fty - S ix ,for i t has been the

ne cropol is of the race eve r s ince they we re expe l led from the

ancient capital at Chitorgadh by Akbar in 1 568 . All are

crowned by dome s,and all make more or less pretens ions to

archite ctural beauty ; whi le as they are grouped togethe r as

1 66 CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI .

acciden t d ictated , and interspersed with noble t ree s, i t wouldbe d ifficul t to poin t out a more beautiful cemete ry anywhere .

Among the finest i s that of Sangram -S ingh 1 1 one of the mosti l lustrious of his race

,who was cremated on this spot , with

twe nty-one of his wive s , in A .D . 1 7 34 . As wi l l be seen fromthe preceding Woodcut (No . i t i s a fi fty - s ix pi l lared portico,with one octagonal dome in the cen tre (a z

'

a’

e an te, vol . i . ,

Cenotaph in the Mahasatt at Udaypur . (From a Photograph . )

Woodcut No. The dome i t se l f i s supported on e ight dwarf

pil lars,which

,howeve r, hard ly seem suffic ient for the purpose .

The architect seems to have des i red to avoid all appearances of

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI .

CHAP. v . PALACES. 1 69

gon istic fee l ings of the two re l igions into at least a supe rfic ials imilarity.

At Kota, about 50 miles N .N .W . from Jhalrapathan ,i s a

fi ne marble mausoleum e rected in memory of the MaharaoUmed S ingh who died in 1 8 1 9 . I t i s of cons ide rable s ize , andthe taste shown in the rich surface decorat ions , as we l l as in the

arrangemen t, i s good . The style i s more Muhammadan thanHindu

,and the dome appears heavy for the support ing columns .1

Furthe r north,whe re the Ja ina style had not been used to

the same exten t at least as in the south-west, the Hindusadopted qu ite a diffe ren t style in the i r palaces and cenotaphs .I t was much more of an arched style

,and though neve r, so far

as I know,using a true arch , they adopted the form of the

fol iated arch,wh ich is so common in the palace s of Agra and

De lhi , and in all the Mughal bu i ld ings . In the palace at D ig ,

and in the cenotaphs of Govardhan,this style i s seen in great

pe rfection . I t i s we l l i l lustrated , with all i ts pecul iarit ies , in the

preced ing view of the tomb of Bakhtawar S ingh at A lwar, e rectedabout 1 8 1 5 (Woodcut No . To a European eye , perhapsthe least pleas ing part wi l l be the B engal i curved corn ice sal luded to in the last chapte r ; but to any one famil iar with thes tyle

,i ts employmen t gets ove r many difficu lt ie s that a straight

l ine could hard ly mee t,and a l togethe r it makes up with its

dome s and pavi l ions as pleas ing a group of i ts class as i s to befound in India

,of its age at least . The tombs of the Bharatpur

Rajas , Randhi r S ingh and Baldeva S ingh , at Govardhan ,with

the earl ie r one of Suraj Mal (about 1 7 70) are s im i lar to this one ,but on a large r scale

,and some of them be ing olde r, are in be tte r

taste ; but the more mode rn one s avoid most of the faults thatare on ly too characte risti c of the art in Ind ia at the presentday , and some of them are ve ry mode rn . One was in course ofconstruction when I was the re in 1 839 , and from its architectI learned more of the se cre ts of art as practised in the Midd leAge s than I have learned from all the books I have s ince read .

Anothe r was commenced afte r the t ime of my vis it, and i t is

far from be ing one of the worst bu ild ings of its class . I f onecould on ly inspi re the nat ives with a fee l ing of pride in the i rown style , the re seems l ittle doubt that even now they couldrival the works of the i r fore fathers .

PALACEs.

Anothe r feature by which the northern style i s mostpleas ingly distinguished from the southe rn

,i s the number and

beauty of the palaces, which are found 1n all the capital s of the1 A view of this is given on plate 23 of ‘Architecture, etc. , in Gujarat and

Raj putana.

’

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI .

native states, e special ly in Raj putana. These are se ldomde s igned with much re fe rence to archi te ctura l symmetry ore ffect, but are neve rthe less always picturesque and . general lymost ornamental objects 1n the landscape whe re they are found .

AS a rule , they are s i tuated on rocky eminences,j utting into

or ove rhanging lake s or artificial p iece s of wate r,which are

always pleasing accompan imen ts to bu ild ings of any sort inthat cl imate ; and the way they are fi tted into the rocks

,or

seem to grow out of them ,frequent ly leads to the most

pictu resque combinat ion s . Some time s the i r bases are fortifiedwith round towe rs or bastions , on whose te rraces the palacestands ; and even when this i s not the case

,the basement i s

general ly bu il t up sol id to a conside rable he ight , in a manne rthat gives a most pleas ing e ffect of sol id ity to the whole

,how

eve r l ight the supe rs tructure may be , and often i s . I f to thesenatural advan tage s you add the fact that the high caste Hindui s almost incapable of bad taste , and that all these palaces areexactly what . they profe ss to be

,without any affe ctat ion of

pre tending to be what they are not , or of copying any style ,ancien t or mode rn ,

but that be st sui ted for the i r purposes—itwil l not be difficul t to real ise what pleas ing objects of studythe se Raj put palaces real ly are . At the same t ime i t wi l l beeas i ly understood how d iffi cult i t must be in such a work as th isto convey any adequate idea of the i r beauty ; without plan sexplain ing the i r arrangemen ts , and architectu ral detai l s of the i rinte rior, ne i the r the i r e legance nor appropriatene ss can be

j udged of. A palace i s no t l ike a temple—a s imple edifice ofone or two hal ls or ce l l s , almost ident ical with hundreds ofothe rs ; but a vas t congerie s of publ i c and private apartmentsgrouped as a whole more for conven ience than e ffect .

Few of the palace s of India have escaped the fate of thatclass of edifice all the world ove r. E ither they must bedese rted and le ft to de cay, which in India means rapid obl iterat ion , or they must be alte red and modified to su it the requirements of subsequen t occupants

,t i l l l ittle i f anything remains of

the original structure . This fate , so far as i s known,has

ove rtaken all the roya l abodes that may have existed beforethe dark age s ; so much so, indeed , that no trace of them has

been found anywhere . Even afte r that we look in vain foranything importan t be fore the 1 3th cen tury. At Chitorgadh, forinstance

,whe re one of the earl ie s t Raj put dynast ies was

e stabl ished , there are bui ld ings that bear the name of thePalace of the Mori

,al so known as Ratnas ingh

’

s,but so al tered ,

remode l led and ru ined as to be unrecognisable as such .

At Chitor no build ing of this class can with ce rtainty be

1 72 CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. BOOK v1.

said to have existed ante rior to the sack of the place by’

A lau-d -Din in 1 303 . The so - cal led palace of Bhim and

Padm ini , which remains pe rhaps unal te red , i s a comparat ive lymode rn structure but smal l , with arched open ings .1 The ru inedpalace of Kumbha Rana (A.D . 14 1 8- 146 8) in the same place i smore grandiose , and shows some of that beauty of detai l whichcharacte rise s his bui ldings in general .2

The latte r palace,of which Woodcut No . 3 59 represen ts the

plan ,may afford some idea of the arrangements of one of these

re s idence s . The principal entran ce (A ) , known as the Su rajPol or Sun -gate , leads in to an open court

,with a shed (B ) for

a rh inoce ros and othe r rooms to the le ft of the gateway.

Oppos ite the en trance i s the Darikhana,behind which i s the S u raj

Gokhra (C) , and to the right of i t i s an exit to (D) the S ringarchauri Mandir or shrine . A long the wal l from this are the

stable s (H ) , be s ide a shrine of Ganesa (E) , which is close tothe l iving apartmen ts (F) of the palace , and near these i s (G)the zanana.

"

Outs ide th is is a fort ified wal l and a courtseparates the royal zanana from ( I ) that of the he i r-apparen t,of whose palace (K,K) i t forms part . Connected with hisrooms 15 (J ) a mandir or shrine , and outs ide th is re s idence i sal so a large court d ivided off from the royal palace court , inan enclosu re in a corne r of which is a ru ined dwe l l ing (N ) ,whils t on the oppos ite s ide of the court i s (L) a large c iste rn .

The palace s at Chitor be longing to this dynasty we re , howeve r

, far surpassed , in exten t at least, by those wh ich Udayas ingh commenced at Udaypur, to wh ich place he removed hiscapital afte r the th i rd sack of Chi tor by Akbar in 1 5 68 . I t hasnot unfrequently be en compared with the Castle at Windsor,and no t inaptly

,for both in outl ine and extent i t i s not un l ike

that palace,though d iffe ring so wonde rfu l ly in de ta i l and in

s ituat ion .

3 In this latte r re spect the Easte rn has the advan tageof the We ste rn palace

,as i t stands on the ve rge of an extens ive

lake , surrounded by hi l l s of great beauty of outl ine , and in the

lake are two island palaces,the Jag-newas and Jag-mandir

,

which are more beautifu l in the i r class than any s imi lar obje ctsI know of e l sewhe re .

4 I t would be difficul t to find any scene

1 A view of it is given in Tod’s Raja 3 G . Le Bon’s Monumen ts de l’Inde , ’sthan ,

’ vol . 1. plate 267 . Some parts figs. 1 35- 1 37 .

have been misunderstood by the engraver , 4 A view of one of these is givenbut on the whole i t represents the bu ild in Fergusson

’

s I llustrat i ons of Ancien ting fairly. A photograph is given on Arch itecture in India,’ plate 1 5 . Otherplate 20 of ‘

Scenery and Architecture i l lustrations wil l be found in L’

Inde

in Gujarat and Raj putana.

’

des Rajahs , ’ at pp . 1 85 et segq. and2 Two views of i t are given in ‘ Scenery and Architecture in Gujarat

Rousselet, L’Inde des Rajahs, ’ pp . and Raj putana,’ plate 1 7 .

232-233.

CHAP . V. PALACES. 1 7 3

whe re art and nature are so happily blended togethe r, andproduce so fai ry- l ike an e ffect . Certain ly nothing I know ofso modern a date equal s i t .The palace at Bund i is of about the same modern age as

that at Udaypur, and almost equal s i t in architectu ra l e ffect .I t is smal ler

,howeve r

, and i ts lake i s less in exten t, and has on lytemple s standing on i ts islets

,instead of pa lace s with the i r

pavil ions and garden s . S t i l l , the mode in which i t is placed on

i ts hi l l,and the way in which its bu ild ings gradual ly fade in to

the bastions of the h il l above,are s ingularly picture sque even

for this country,and the hi l l s be ing highe r, and the val leys

narrowe r, the e ffe ct of this palace i s in some respects even

more imposing than that at Udaypur.The re are , howeve r, some twen ty or th irty s im ilar royal

residen ce s in Cen tral India, all of which have points of in tere s tand beauty : some for the i r exten t , othe rs for the i r l ocal i ty,and some for the i r beauty in de tai l , but eve ry one of whichwould requ ire a volume to de scribe in de ta i l . Two example s ,

Palace at Datiya. (From a Photograph . )

though among the least known ,must at pre sen t suffice to

i l lustrate the i r gene ral appearance .

That at Dat iya (Woodcut No . in B unde lkhand , i s a


His successo r, V ikrama Shahi, added anothe r palace , ofeven greate r exten t, to this one in 1 5 1 8 ;

2and Jahangi r and

Shah Jahan added palace s to these two, the whole making upa group of edifices unequal led for picturesqueness and in terestby anything of the i r class that exists in Cen tral India (Plate

Among the apartments in the palace was one

cal led the Baradari , supported on twe lve column s,and 4 5 ft .

square , with a stone roof, which was one of the most beautifu lapartmen ts of its class anywhere to be found . I t was

,bes ides

,

s ingularly in te re sting from the expedients to which the Hinduarchite ct was forced to resort to imitate the vaults of theMos lims . They had not then learned to copy them ,

as theydid at the end of that cen tury , at B rindaban and e l sewhere ,unde r the guidan ce of the tole ran t Akbar.Of these bu ild ings , which so excited the admirat ion of

the Empe ror Babar, probably l ittle now remains . The Mos lims

added to the palace s of the Hindus and spared the templesand the statues of the Jains we have ruthles sly set to work todestroy whateve r in te rfere s with our conven ience , and duringthe few years we occupied the fort

,probably did more to

d isfigure i ts beautie s , and obl iterate i ts memories,than was

caused by the Moslims during the centu ries they possessedor occupied i t. Be tte r things we re at one t ime hoped for

,

but the fact seems to be that subord inates and con tractorsare al lowed to do as they please , and i f they can save themse lve s trouble , the re i s nothing in India that can escape the

e ffe ct of the i r unsympath is ing ignorance .

AMBER .

The palace at Ambe r, the original capital of the JaypurS tate , ranks next afte r that of Gwaliar as an arch itectural

1 Erskine’s ‘ Memoirs of Baber , ’ p .

84 .32 Cunn ingham ’

s‘ Archaeologica l Re

ports,

’ vol . i i . pp . 346 et rega , plates 87and 88.

3 We occupied the for t during the

mut iny , and re tained it l ong after . The

firs t thing done was to occupy the

Baradari as a mess-room ; to fi t upportions of the palace for military occupat ion ; then to build a range of barracks ,and clear away a lot of ant iquarianremains to make a parade ground . Wha tall this means is only too easily understood . M . Roussele t—no unfriendlycri tic—observes “ Les Anglais son ttres-activemen t occupés a simplifi er la

besogne de l’archéologue, et a faire

disparai tre ce précieux documen t del’

histoire de l’

Inde . Déja toutes les constructions a la gauche de . la porte del ’est son t l ivrées a la pioche , et le

meme sort est réservé au reste L’Inde

des Rajahs , ’ And, again“ Mais , hélas " l’Ourwaha‘

I‘

lui auss i a

vécu . Quand j ’y revins en décembre ,1 867 , les arbres étaien t coupés, lesstatues volaien t en éclats, sous les picsdes travai lleurs , e t le ravin se remplissai tdes talus d ’une n ouvel le route construi tepar les Anglais : talus dans lesque lsdorment les palais des Chandélas e t desTouars les idoles des Bouddhistes et dcsJainas .

—Loc. ci t . p . 366 .

1 78 CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. Boox VI .

though not ve ry architectural in i ts general appearance,has on

the rive r-face a bal

con ied window ,which

is a fai r and pleas ingspec imen of the architecture of his age

Woodcut No .

He al so was the kingwho e rected the templeat B rindaban

,which

has been i l lustratedabove (pp . 1 56. 1 57 )

D IG.

All the palace sabove described are

more or less irregularin the i r d isposit ion ,

and are all s ituatedon rocky and unevenground . That at D ig ,howeve r

,i s on a per

fectly leve l pla in ,and

laid out with a regularity thatwould sat isfythe most fastid iousRenai ssan ce architect.I t i s whol ly the workof S fi raj Mal l

,the

virtual founde r of theBharatpur dynasty

,

who commenced it,ap

parently in 1 7 2 5 , and

left it as we now see i t ,when he was s lain in

362 . Balcony at the Observatory,Benares . (From a battle W ith NajafKhan

Drawing by the late James Prinsep . ) in Dec . I 763 . I t wants ,i t i s t rue , the massive

character of the fortified palaces of othe r Raj put states , butfor grandeur of conception and beauty of detai l i t surpasse sthem all.

The whole palace was to have consisted of a rectangularenclosure twice the length of its breadth

,surrounded with

bu ild ings,with a garden in the centre

,d ivided into two parts by

a broad terrace , intended to carry the central pavil ion . On lyone of these rectangle s has been comple ted

,measuring about

CHAP. V . DIG . 1 79

700 ft. square ,1 crossed in the centre by ranges of the mostbeautifu l fountains and parte rres

,laid out in the formal style

of the East,and inte rspe rsed with architectural ornaments of

the most e laborate fin ish .

The pavi l ion on the north s ide con tains the great audiencehal l , 76 ft. 8 in . by 54 ft . 7 in . , divided in the cen tre by a noblerange of arcade s, behind which are the

principal dwe l l ing apartmen ts , two , and

in some parts three , storeys in he ight .Opposite this i s a pavi l ion occupied princ ipal ly by fountains . On one S ide standsa marble hal l , attached to an olde r palacefacing the principal pavil ion ,

which was

meant to occupy the centre of the garden .

As wil l be seen by the plan (Woodcu tNo . i t i s a paral le logram of 1 5 2 ft .by 87 ft .

,each end occupied by a smal l

but ve ry e legan t range of apartmen ts , in 363 . Hall at Dig .

two storeys ; the cen tra l hal l ( 108 ft. by (Fros

n

gi eP1

1221

387 ft . ) i s supported on four rows Of column s ,and open at both sides ; at each end i s a marble re se rvoirfor founta ins

, and a s imilar one exists exte rnal ly on eachs ide . The whole i s roofed with stone , except the cen tral part,which

,afte r be ing contracted by a bold cove

,is roofed with

a flat ce i l ing of timbe r exquisite ly carved . This woodence i l ing seems to have been cons ide red a de fect, nothing butstone be ing

‘

used in any othe r part of the palace . The architect

,the re fore

,attempted to roof the correspond ing pavi l ion

of the unfin i shed court with slabs of stone 34 ft . in length ,and 1 8 in . square . Some of these sti l l exist in the i r placesbut the i r we ight was too great for the arcade s , which are on ly1 8 in . thick

,and not Of sol id stone , but of two fac ings 4 or

5 in . thick, and the inte rmediate Space s fi l led in with rubble .

Bes ides this,though the form of the arch is l ite ral ly copied

from the Muhammadan style,ne i the r he re , nor e lsewhere

throughout the palace , i s there a s ingle true arch,the open

ings be ing virtual ly cove red by two bracke ts '

mee t ing in the

centre .

The gene ral appearance of the arcade s of the se bu ild ingsmay be gathe red from the annexed View (Woodcut No .

and may be characte rised as more e legant than ri ch . The

glory of Dig, howeve r, cons ists in the corn i ces,which are

gene ral ly double , a pecul iarity not seen e lsewhe re , and which

1 A plan of i t is given in Lieut . Cole’s Report on the Bui ldings near(pp . 4 1 58 and eIght plates) , correct as far as i t goes, but not comple te .

I 80 CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI .

for extent of shadow and r ichness of de tai l surpass any s imi larornamen ts in India, e ither in ancient or modern bui ld ings .

The lowe r corn ice i s the usual s loping entablature , almostun ive rsal in such bui ld ings . This was adopted apparently

364. View from the Central Pavilion in the Palace at Dig . (From aPhotograph . )

because i t took the slope of the curtains , which almost invariably hang beneath its projecting shade , and which

,when

drawn out, seem almost a continuat ion of it . The uppercorn i ce

,which was horizontal , i s pecul iar to D ig, and seems

de signed to fu rn ish an extens ion of the flat roof which inEaste rn palace s is usual ly considered the best apartment ofthe house ; but whe the r designed for this or any othe r purpose , it adds s ingularly to the r ichness of the efl

'

ect , and bythe double shadow affords a re l ie f and characte r se ldom ex

ceeded even in the East .General ly speak ing, the bracket arcades of Dig are ne ither

so r ich nor so appropriate as the bold bracket cap itals of theolde r style s . That the bracke t i s almost exclus ive ly an originalIndian form of capital can, I th ,ink scarce ly be doubted ; butthe system was carried much furthe r by the Mughals

, especial lyduring the re ign of Akbar, than i t had eve r been carried by its


the bank i s h igh , the lowe r part of the se bui ld ings i s so l id ,and when ,

as in thi s instance , i t is nearly plain , i t affords a

GhuslaGhat , Benares . (From Prinsep’

s Views . )

noble basemen t to an ornamen tal uppe r storey, with whichthey are gene ral ly adorned , or to the temple which frequentlycrowns them .

Though the Gange s i s , par excellence, the rive r of ghats ,one of the most beaut ifu l in India i s that e re cted by AhalyaBai (Khande Rao Holkar

’

s widow) at Maheswar , on the Narbada;and Ujjain and othe r anc ien t c itie s almost r ival Benare s in th i sre spe ct . Indeed , the re i s scarce ly a tank or stream in all Indiathat i s without its fl ight of steps , and i t is se ldom indeed thatthe se are le ft without some adornmen t or an attempt at architectural display, wate r be ing always grate fu l in so hot a

cl imate , and an e spec ial ly favourite resort w ith a people sofond of wash ing and so clean ly in the i r habits as the H indu s .Of such the re are abundan t example s , such as the Kunda orpond be fore the Surya temple at Modhera, the tanks at Vi ramgam ,

Kapadvanj, and almost everywhere .

CHAP. V . RESERVOIRS—DAMS. 1 83

RESERVOIRS.

The same fondness for wate r has given ri se to anothe rspecie s of arch itectural d isplay pecul iar to India, in the greatreservoirs or éaolis

,which are found wherever the we l l s are

deep and wate r far from the surface . In de sign they are

exactly the reverse of the ghats , s ince the steps are whol lybe low the ground

,and descend to the wate r somet imes even

at a depth of 80 ft. or 100 ft . Exte rnal ly they make no

display,the on ly objects usual ly seen above ground be ing

two pavi l ion s to mark the en trance,between which a bold

fl ight of steps , from 20 ft . to 40 ft . in width , leads down tothe wate r. Facing the entrance i s a great screen ,

ris ingpe rpendi cu larly from the wate r to the surface of the ground ,and divid ing the stai rs from a circu lar shaft or we l l

,up which

the water i s drawn by pul leys for agricu lture,and for those

who pre fer that mode of obtain ing it in stead of de scendingthe steps . The wal ls be tween which the steps descend are

ornamen ted by n iche s,and cove red with gal le rie s

,

leading tothe great screen . Where the depth is great

,there i s often

one or more screens across the stai rs d ivid ing the way down .

To persons no t famil iar w ith the East such an architecturalobject as a baol i may seem a strange pe rve rs ion of ingenu ity

,

but the grate ful coolne ss of all subte rranean apartmen ts,

e special ly when accompan ied by wate r,and the qu ie t shade of

these rece sse s , ful ly compensate , in the eye s of the Hindu,for

the more attract ive magn ificence of the ghats . Consequent ly,

the descend ing fl ights of which we are now speak ing,have

often been made more e laborate and expens ive pieces ofarch itecture than any of the bu ild ings above ground found inthe i r vic in ity .

1

DAMS .

In the same manne r the bands or dams of the artificiallakes , or great tanks , which are so nece ssary for i rrigat ion ,

are often made works of great architectural magn ificence,fi rst

by cove ring them with fl ights of steps , l ike those of the ghats ,and then e recting temple s or pavi l ions

,and k iosks

,in terspe rsed

with foun tains and statue s i n breaks be tween these fl ights .

Where all these are of marble , as i s somet ime s the case inRajputana, the whole make up as pe rfect a piece of arch itectural combinat ion as any the Hindus can boast of.

One of the most beauti fu l of the se i s that e rected at

Rajanagar near Kankrol i,by RanaRajas ingh , who ascended the

1 3-1 6, 22 and 23 ; vol .

1,1 1 2 -1 1 3, and plates 3 ,

107 .


throne of Udaypur in 1 6 53, to form the lake of Rajasamudra(Woodcut No . which i s the second most exten s ive in hisdomin ion s . I t was unde rtaken , too , as a re l ie f work duringthe great famine of 1 66 1 . This band is about 1070 fee t in

Band of Lake Rajasamudra . (From a Sketch by the Author . )

length , and whol ly cove red with white marble steps ; and withits beaut ifu l k iosks proje cting into the wate r, and the oldpalace s which crown the hi l l at one end, i t make s up a fai ryscene of arch ite ctural beauty, with i ts wate rs and i ts woods

,

which is hard ly surpassed by any in the East .1I t would be ted ious

,howeve r

,to enume rate

,without

i l lustrat ing them , which the l im its of th is work wi l l not pe rm it,all the mode s of archite ctura l magn ificence of the Hindu s .

‘

L ike all people un tramme l led by rule s de rived from incongruousobjects , and gifted with a fee l ing for the beautiful

,they adorn

whateve r they requ i re , and conve rt eve ry Object , howeve rut i l itarian in i ts purpose s

,in to an object of beauty. They long

ago found out that i t is not temples and palace s alone thatare capable of such display , but that eve ryth ing which man

flight of steps, are four5 , of no great size , butpleasing character of the

BOOK V I I .

IND IAN SARACEN IC ARCHITECTURE .

CHAPTER I .

INTRODUCTORY .

FROM a very early period in the world ’s h istory a great groupof civi l ised nat ions existed in Western As ia between the

Medite rranean and the Indus . They l ived apart, having fewre lations with the i r ne ighbours , except of war and hatred

,and

se rved rathe r to separate than to bring togethe r the Indianand European commun i t ie s which flourished beyond themon e i the r hand .

A lexande r’s great raid was the fi rst attempt to break throughthis barrie r

,and to join the East and West by comme rcial o r

social in te rchanges . The steady organ i sat ion of the Romanempire succeeded in consol idat ing what that bri l l ian t conque rorhad sketched out. During the pe rmanence of her supremacythe space interven ing be tween Ind ia and Europe was bridgedove r by the order she main tained among the various commun it ie se stabl ished in We stern As ia, and the re seemed no reasonwhy the in te rcourse so e stabl ished should be in te rrupted .

Unsuspected , howeve r, by the Roman world,two nomad

nat ions,un influenced by its civi l isat ion

,hung on e ithe r flank

of this great l ine of commun icat ion,ready to avai l themse lves

of any momen t of weakness that might occur.The Arabs

,as the most impetuous

,and nearest the cen tre ,

we re the fi rst to break the i r bounds ; and in the course of the7 th centu ry Syria, Pe rs ia, Egypt, and the north ofAfrica becamethe i rs . Spain was

‘ conquered,and India nearly shared the

same fate . Unde r Mu’

awiah , the fi rst Khalifah of the

Umayyades , attempts were made to cross the Indus by the

southe rn route—that which the Sky thians had succe ssful lyfol lowed a short t ime before . Both these attempts fai led , butunder Wal id

,Muhammad ibn Qasim ,A.H. 93 (A.D . they d id

CHAP. 1 . INTRODUCTORY. 1 8 7

effect a se ttlemen t in S indh . I t proved a barren conquest, howeve r for though a Muhammadan dynasty was establ ished there ,i t soon be came independen t of the Khali fat, and eventual lyd ied out .

The supremacy of the Khali fat was as brief as i t wasbri l l iant . I ts hour of greatest glory was about the year A.D .

800,in the re ign of Hartin al-Rashid . From that t ime d ecay

set in ; and after two centu rie s more the e ffeminacy and

corruption inhe rent in Easte rn dynastie s had so far progressedas to encourage the Northe rn hordes to move .

During the course of the 1 1 th century the Tartar horde s ,who were hitherto on ly known as shephe rds pasturing the i rhe rds on the steppe s of Central Asia,

made the i r appearancesouth of the Paropam isan range as conque rors ; and for S ix

cen turie s the i r progress was steadi ly onwards , t i l l , in the yearA.D . 1 683 , we fi nd the Turks encamped unde r the wal l s ofV ienna ,

and the Mughal Aurangz ib lord paramoun t of thewhole of India Prope r

,whi le Egypt and all the in terven ing

countries owned the ru le of sove re igns of Turan ian race .

The architecture of the nat ion s under the Arab Khali fat hasbeen e l sewhe re described , and i s o f very m inor importance .

1

The rul ing people we re of Semitic race , and had no great tastefor architectural magn ificence and un less whe re they happenedto gove rn a people of anothe r stock , they have left few tracesof the i r art .

With the Northern hordes the case was wide ly diffe ren t ;they were of Turan ian blood , more or less pure , and whereve rthey wen t the i r mosques , and e spec ial ly the i r tombs

,remain

to mark the i r presence , and to convey an idea of the i r splendour.In orde r to unde rstand what fol lows , i t i s nece ssary to bear inmind that the Semitic conquest, from Mecca as a cent re

,

extended from the mouths of the Guadalqu ivi r to those ofthe Indus , and le ft but l itt le worthy of remark in arch ite cture .

The Turan ian conque st, from Bukhara and Balkh as centre s,

extended from Con stant inople to Katak, and cove red the wholeinte rven ing space with monuments of eve ry class . Thoseof the we st and cen tre have been de scribed in speaking ofTurkey and Pe rs ia ; 2 the Easte rn branch remains to be discussed , and i ts monumen ts are those of which th is workpurpor ts to be a descript ion .

The Saracen i c arch itects showed in India the same pl iancyin adopting the style s of the various people among whom they

commences with the Saljfiqides,1036 .

H istory of Ancien t and Medieval

1 88 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I .

had sett led which characte rised the i r practice in the countriesj ust men tioned . I t thus happens that in India we have at

least twe lve or fifteen d iffe ren t style s of Muhammadan architecture : and i f an attempt were made to exhaust all the

example s , i t would be found nece ssary to enumerate evena greate r numbe r . Meanwhile , howeve r, the fol lowing thirteendivis ion s wi l l probably be found suffic ien t for presen t purposes

1 . The first of the se i s that of Gnaani , which , though not ,

stri ctly speaking, in India,had wi thout doubt the most

importan t influen ce on the Ind ian style s,and formed in fact

the stepping- stone by mean s of which the arch itecture of theWe st was introduced in to Ind ia, and i t long remained the

connecting l ink be tween the style s of the Eastern and thoseof the We ste rn world . I t would consequen tly be of the

greate st importance in enabl ing us to unde rstand the earlyexample s of the style in India Proper , i f we could describethis one with anything l ike pre c is ion

,but for that we must

wai t t i l l some qual ified pe rson vis i ts the province .

2 . Next to th i s come s the P a tnan style of northe rn India(A.D . 1 1 93

- 1 5 spreading ove r the whole of Uppe r India,and last ing for about three cen turie s and a half. Afte r thedeath

,howeve r, of ’

A lau -d—D in Muhammad Shah I . (A.D . 1 3 1 6)the cen tral power was at t ime s so weak

,that the recen tly

conquered outlying province s we re frequen t ly enabled torende r themse lves independent , and , when th is was the case ,exhibited the i r ind ividual i ty eve rywhere , by inven ting a styleof arch itecture express ive of the i r local pecul iari t ies .

3 . One of the fi rst to exhibit th is tendency was the bri l l iantbut short- l ived Sharqi dynasty of j aunpur (A.D . 1 394Though exist ing for le ss than a cen tury, they adorned the i rcapital and othe r c it ie s with a serie s of mosque s and othe rbui ld ings which are hard ly surpassed by those of any cityand d istrict in India for magn ificence

,and by none for a

we l l-marked individual i ty of treatmen t .4 . The style adopted by the k ings of Guj arat during the i r

pe riod of independence (A.D . 1 396- 1 5 7 2) was ri che r and more

varied than that of Jaunpur, though hard ly so original ormarked by such individual i ty. They borrowed too much

,

phys ical ly as we l l as in te l le ctual ly,from the archite cture of

the Hindus and Ja in s , among whom they we re located,to be

ent i re ly independen t but the ri chness of the i r style i s in proportion to the Hindu de tai l s they introduced .

5 . Meme became independent in A.D . 1401 , and betweenthat date and A.D . 1 569 , when they were absorbed in the

Mughal empire , her kings adorned the i r capital at Manda

with palace s and mosques of great magn ificence , but more


Ona'lt (A.D . 1 7 56 In i ts capital the re are range s of

bu ild ing equal in extent and richness to those of any of thecapital s above enume rated but degraded in taste to an extenti t i s hardly possible to credit in a people who so shortly beforehad shown themse lve s capable of such noble aspi rat ions .

1 3. The style adopted by the short- l ived dynas ty ofMy sore(A.D . 1 760 be ing furthe r removed from the inflUences ofEuropean vulgari ty, i s not so degraded as that of Lucknow

,

but is poor and inart istic when compared with earl ie r s tyle s .In an exhaust ive treatise on the subject

,the s tyle s of

Ahmadnagar and Aurangabad , A.D . 1490- 1 707 , ought, pe rhaps ,to be enumerated , and some minor styles e l sewhere . Thesehave not

,howeve r, sufficient individual i ty to de serve be ing

regarded as separate styles , and the amount o f i l lustrationthat can be introduced into a work l ike the presen t i s notsufficien t to rende r the d iffe rences sens ible to those who are

not personal ly acquainted with the examples .Even as i t is , i t would require a much more extensive se ries

of i l lustrat ions than that he re given to make even the i r mostmarked merits o r pecul iari ties e vident to those who have no

othe r means than what such a work as th is affords of formingan opin ion regard ing them . Each of the se thi rteen stylesdese rve s a monograph ; but , except for B ijapur,1 Ahmadabad ,2Jaunpur,3 and Fathpur S ikri ,‘1 noth ing of the sort has ye t beenattempted , and even the works in which this has been attemptedhard ly qu ite exhaust the mate rial s for these c it ie s avai lable forthe purpose . Le t us hope that the deficiencies wil l be suppl ied ,and the othe rs unde rtaken be fore i t is too late , for the bui ld ingsare fast perish ing from the ravages of t ime and cl imate and

the st i l l more de structive exigenc ie s and i l l -advised inte rfe rencesof the gove rn ing powe r in India.

1 ‘ Architecture of Beejapore . Photo 3 ‘ The Sharqi Architecture of Jaungraphed from Drawings by Capt . Har t pur, etc. , with Drawings, etc. ,

byand A . Cumming, C.E .

,and on the Spot

by Col. B iggs and Maj or Loch , with textby 001. Meadows Taylor and J . Fergusson .

’ Folio, Murray , 1 866 .

2 Architecture of Ahmedabad . 1 20

Photographs by C01. B iggs , with Text byS ir T .C . Hope , I .C .S . and Jas . Fergusson .

’Smal l folio , Murray , 1 866 The

Muhammadan Architecture of Ahmadabad and Gujarat general ly will be founddescribed in detail in volumes vi . to ix .

of the Archaeological Survey of WesternIndia ’

0896

Ed . W. Smith , edited by J . Burgess( 1 889L

‘1 The splendidly illustrated work on

the ‘ Moghul Architecture of FathpurS ikr i , by the late Edmund W. Smith ,in four quar to volumes with 402 excel len tplates ( 1894 must not be overlooked . I t treats exhaust ive ly of the

architecture of that one place ; and his‘ Moghul Colour Decoration of Agra ’

( 1 901 ) supplies some importan t architectural drawings .

CHAP. I I . GHAZNI 1 9 1

CHAPTER I I .

GHAZNI.

CONTENTS .

Tomb ofMahmud—Gates of Somnath—M inars on the Plain

CHRONOLOGY .

Sabuktigin , founder ’Abdu-l-Rashid A .D . 1048

Mahmud Ibrahim 1 059Mas ’ud Shih zi bu-d-D in (Ghfiri dynasty) 1 203

TOWARDS the latte r part of the 9th century the powe r of theKhali fs of Baghdad was s ink ing into that state of rapid decl inewhich is the fate of all Easte rn dynast ies . During the re ignof Al Mo

’

tamid, A.D . 870-89 1 , Egypt became independent , andthe northe rn province of Bukhara threw off the yoke unde rthe gove rnor appoin ted by the Khali fah Nasr Ahmad , a

grandson of Saman , a Tartar ch ie f,who de clared and main

tained his independence , and so formed the Samani dynasty.

Afte r the dynasty had existed about a cen tury, Sabukt igin ,

a Tu rkish slave be l onging to a gene ral of one of the last of theSaman ian kings

,rende red himse l f also independent of his

maste r, and e stabl ished himse l f in Ghazni , of which he wasgovernor, founding the we l l -known dynasty of Ghaz navides .

His son and successor, Mahmud,A.D . 997 - 1030, i s one of the

be st-known kings in Indian History owing to his bri l l iantcampaigns in India, and more especial ly that in which he

de stroyed the ce lebrated temple of Somnath .

On his re turn from an earl ie r campaign,in which he had

sacked the town of Mathura,we learn from Ferishta that the

k ing orde red a magn ificen t mosque to be bui l t of marble and

gran i te , afte rwards known by the name of the Ce lestial B ride .

Near it he founded a un ivers i ty . When the nobil i ty of Ghazniperce ived the taste of the i r k ing in architecture , they al soendeavoured to vie with one another in the magn ificence of

the i r palaces , as we l l as in the publ ic bu ild ings wh ich we re

1 9 1 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I .

raised for the embe l l ishment of the city .

“ Thus , cont inueshistorian ,

capital was in a short t ime ornamented

367 .Minar at Ghaz ni . (From a Drawing by G . T . Vigne , Esq. )

with mosques , porches , fountains, aqueducts, rese rvoi rs , and

c iste rns, beyond any c1ty in the East.” 1

The plain of Ghazni st i l l shows the remains of thissplendour ; and, in the dearth of in format ion regard ing Pers ianart of that age , an account of i t would be one of the most

1 Brigg’s t ranslation of Ferishta,’ vol . 1. p . 6 1 .


the place where they we re found .

1 I f any other parts of thetomb are ornamented in the same style , i t would be of greatin te rest to have them drawn . I t probably is

,howeve r, from

the Jami ’ Masj id that we Shal l Obtain the best picture of thearts of that day , when any one wi l l take the t rouble ofexamin ing it .

Two minars s ti l l adorn the plain outs ide the city, and form ,

i f not the most str ik ing , at least the most prominent of theru ins of that c ity . Ne i the r of them was ever attached to a

mosque ; they are , indeed , pi l lars of victory, or j ay a S tambhas ,l ike those at Chitor and e l sewhe re in India, and are such as

we might expect to find in a coun try so long Buddhist . One

of them was e rected by Mahmud h imse l f ; the othe r was bui l t ,or at least fin i shed , by Mas’ud

,one of h is immediate succe ssors .2

The lower part o f these towe rs i s of a star- l ike formthe plan be ing apparen tly formed by placing two squaresd iagonal ly the one ove r the othe r. The uppe r part

,ris ing

to the he ight of about 140 ft. from the ground , i s c i rcular ;both are of brickwork , cove red with ornamen ts of te rra-cottaof extreme e laboration and beauty

,and re tain ing the i r sharp

ness to the pre sen t day .

S eve ral othe r m inars of the same c lass are found furthe rwest, even as far as the roots of the Caucasus ,3 which , l i kethese , were pil lars of victory, e rected by the conque rors on

the i r battle - fi elds . None of them have the same arch itecturalme ri t as those of Ghazni , at least in the i r pre sen t state , thoughi t may be that the i r ornaments , having been in stucco or somepe ri shable mate rial , have d isappeared , leaving us now on ly theske le ton of what they were .

The weakness of Mahmud ’s succe ssors le ft the Indians inrepose for more than a centu ry and a hal f ; and

,l ike all

Eastern dynasties , the Ghaz navides we re gradual ly s ink ing toinevitable de cay, when the i r fal l was prec ip itated by the crimesof one of them , which were fearful ly avenged by the destructionof the i r empire and capital by ’

A lau-d-Din Hasan, and the i r race

was at length superseded by that of the Ghu ri , in the person ofSh ihabu-d -D in Muhammad ibn Sam ,

in the year 1 1 86 .

Though centuries of misrule have we ighed on this countrys ince the t ime of the Ghaz navides, i t i s scarce ly probable thatall trace s of the i r magn ificence have passed away but t i l l the i r

1 An excel lent representat ion of these these minars, ‘ Journal of the Asiat icgates wil l be found in the second edition Socie ty of Bengal , ’ vol . xii . pp .

of ‘ Marco Polo’s Travels, ’ by CO1. Yule, 7 7 , 78 .

vol . i i . p . 390.3 Two are represen ted by Dubois de

2 See translation of the inscript ion on Montpéreux,‘Voyage autour duCaucase .

’

CHAP. I I . GHAZNI . 1 9 5

cit ie s are examined and photographed by some one competentto d iscriminate between what i s good or bad

,or old or new

,

we must be content mere ly to indicate the posit ion of thestyle

,leaving this chapte r to be written when the requ is ite

informat ion shal l have been obtained . In the meanwhile i t i ssat isfactory to know that be tween He rat and the Indus the redo exist a sufficien t numbe r of monumen ts to enable us toconnect the style s of the We st with those in the East . Theyhave been casual ly described by trave l le rs , but not in such a

manne r as to rende r them ava i lable for our purposes ; and inthe un se ttled state of the country it may be some t ime yetbefore the i r elucidat ion can be accompl ished .

1 96 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Boon VI I .

CHAPTER I I I .

PATHAN STYLE .

CONTENTS .

Mosque at Old D e lh i—Qutb M inar—Tomb of ’Alau-d-D in—PathanTombs—Ornamen tat ion of Pat han Tombs .

CHRONOLOGY .

Sh ihabu d Din Ghur i A. D . 1 1 93 Tughlaq Shah I . 1 32 1

Qutbu-d D in Ibak 1 206 Khizr Khan, under TimurlangA.D . 14 14

Shamsu d D in Altamsh . 1 2 10 Bahlol Lodi 145 1’Alau d Din Khalj i 1 296 Sher Shah 1 540Nfisiru-d-D in Khusrfi , last of S ikandar Shah Sur, defeatedbythe Khaljis Akbar

WITH all the vigour of a new race , the Ghfi rians se t about theconque st of India. Afte r sustain ing a de feat in the year 1 19 1 ,Sh ihabu-d-Din again ente red India in A.D . 1 1 92, when he

attacked and defeated Pr ithviraja of Ajmi r. This successwas fol lowed by the conquest of Kanauj in A.D . 1 19 3 ; and

afte r the fal l of the se two , the capital s of the greatest empire sin the north of India may be said to have been conque redbe fore his assass inat ion , which happened in A.D . 1 206 .

At h is death h is great em ire fe l l to piece s,and Ind ia fe l l

to the share of Qutbu d Din bak . Thi s prince was original lya Turk ish s lave , who afte rwards be came one of Sh ihabu d Din ’sgene ral s , and contributed greatly by his talents and mil itaryski l l to the success of h is maste r who had le ft h im as hisdeputy in India in 1 19 2. He and his successor

, Altamsh,

con t inued nobly the work so successful ly begun,and be fore

the death of the latte r , in A .D . 1 23 5 , the empire of northernInd ia had permanen tly passed from the hands of the Hindu sto those of the i r Muhammadan conquerors .

For a cen tury and a half afte r the conquest the empire con

t inued a un i ted whole , unde r Tu rkish , or, as they are usual lycal led , Pathan dynastie s . These monarchs exhibited a con

tinued vigour and ene rgy ve ry unusual in the East, and not

1 98 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Boon VI I .

subjects we re capable of executing. Nothing could be moresuccessfu l than the resu lts . The re i s a largeness and grandeu rabout the plain s imple outl ine of the Muhammadan arche swh ich qu ite overshadows the smal le r parts of the Hindu fane s ,and at the same t ime the ornamentat ion ,

though appl ied to a

greate r exten t than in any othe r known example s,i s kept so

flat as neve r to in terfe re with or break the s imple outl ine s Of

the architectural construct ion . The re may be othe r example sof surface -decorat ion as e laborate as th is, but hard ly anywhe reon such a scale . Some parts of the in te rior of S ta. Sophia at

Constant inople are as beautiful,

1 but they are on ly a few squareyards . The palace at Mashita

,i f comple ted

,might have rival led

it,but i t i s a fragmen t ; 2 and there may be

— ce rtain ly we reexample s in Pe rs ia be tween the t imes of Khosroes and Har i mal-Rashid , which may have equal led these

,but they have

pe rished , or a t least are not known to us now ; and even i fthey eve r existed , must have been un l ike the se mosques . In

them we fi nd ~'

a curious ex emp lification of some of the bestqual it ie s of the art

,as exhibited previously by the Hindus ,

and pract ised afte rwards by the i r conque rors .

DELHI .

Of the two mosque s at Old De lh i and at Ajmir, the fi rs tnamed is the earl ie r

,having been begun some seven or e ight

years before the othe r,and i s also ve ry much the large r .3 I t i s ,

be s ides , associated with the Qutb M inar, and some of the mostbeautifu l tombs of the age , which al toge the r make up a groupwith which noth ing at Ajmir can compare . The s ituat ion ,

too,of the De lh i ru ins i s s ingularly beautifu l

,for they stand on

the gen tle s lope of a hi l l,ove rlooking a plain that had once

apparently been a lake,but which afte rwards became the s ite of

three succe ss ive capital s of the East . In fron t are the ru in s ofTughlaqabad

,the gigant ic fort of an old Pathan chief ; and

furthe r north the plain i s st i l l covered with the ru ins ofFi rozabad and Indrapat , the capitals of the late r Pathansand earl ie r Mughal s . B eyond that

,at the d istance of about

1 ‘ H istory of Ancien t and Medieval Altamsh , who was the real bui lder ofA rchitecture, ’ vol . i. pp . 440 at seqq. both, the screen of arches at Delh i had2 I bia

’. vol . i . pp 40 1 et scqg. been extended to 380 ft. as compared

3 Gen . Cunn ingham ’s

‘ Archaeological with the 200 ft . at Ajmir, and the courtReports, ’ vol . i i . p . 260. But though yards of the two mosques are nearly inthe inner court—the Quwat ul I slam the same proportion , their whole supe rat Delhi was the whole mosque as origin fi cial area being ft . at Ajmir, asal ly designed ; yet before the death of compared with ft . at Delhi .

CHAP . I I I . DELHI . 1 99

10 miles , are seen the towe rs of Shahjahanabad , the mode rncapital

,and t i l l 1 857 the seat of the nominal monarchy of the

Great Mughal . S ti l l fu rthe r north are s ituated the c ivi l stat ionand ru ins of the old B rit ish can tonments . I t i s a fortunatecircums tance that the B rit ish stat ion was not , as at Agra, placedin the midst of the ru ins

,s ince i t i s to this that we owe the i r

prese rvat ion . But for the distance,marble column s would

doubtless have been taken for all purposes for which they mighthave been ava i lable , without regard to the i r beauty, and the

inte re st of the ruins the reby ann ihi lated . Even as i t is , thebuild ings be longing to the ce lebrated Shal imar gardens , whichwe re the on ly bui ld ings of importan ce in the ne ighbourhood ofthe Engl ish station

,have long since disappeared .

The gene ral arrangemen t of the princ ipal ru in s wil l beunde rs tood from the plan (Woodcut No . which was takenwith great care

,though the scale to which it has been necessary

to reduce i t preven ts all i ts pecul iari tie s from be ing seen . The

d isposition of the various e re ct ions may fi rst be briefly ex

p lained z—The inne r court on the west s ide i s that of theoriginal mosque ofQutbu -d -Din

,which measure s 142 ft . by 108 ft .

within the corridors ; and in the middle of its we st hal f theI ron pi l lar stands . The main en trance i s unde r a dome , about20 ft. in d iamete r on the east s ide

,a long which runs a corridor

supported on four rows of pil lars,the back row be ing placed

against the wal l s,and in the north and south ends are two

storeyed pavil ions . The s ide corridors had each three rows ofpi l lars with an entrance on each side

,though the gateway and

all the weste rn port ion of the corridor has quite d isappeared .

About 20 yards of the easte rn hal f of the wal l remain and partof the colonnade

, the pil lars of which are of much plaine rpatte rns than those of the othe r s ide s . 1 The west end of thiscourt is the great screen wal l , 8 ft . th ick , with its gigan t i c arche sforming - the entrance s in to the mosque i tse l f which stood behindi t and was 1 35 ft . in length by 32 ft. deep , but is now a comple teru in—on ly some twenty-two of the tal l columns that supportedits roof be ing left . Outs ide the south-east . corne r of the courtstands the Qutb Minar

, e rected at the same t ime .

2

Shamsu -d -D in Altamsh,about A.D . 1 22 5 , extended the great

1 This colonnade and i ts back wal l re -arrangemen t at the same t ime .

were, “with a strange wan t of dis Carr Stephen ’

s‘ Archaeology of Delhi , ’

cr im inat ion , reconstructed ” by Maj or p . 43 note .

R . Smith , Executive Engineer, early in 2 The inscript ion on the east gatewaylast cen tury , who used the pillars of of the mosque cour t gives i ts date as

Altamsh’s extension in fron t of the A.D . 1 1 9 1 (or and another on the

eastern gate of the mosque , for the north en trance says it “ was commenced ”purpose . And even the windows of in 1 196 .

—Cunn ingham ,

‘ArchaeologicalQutbu-d -D in’

s work did not escape Repor ts , ’ vol i . pp . 1 85 -1 86 .

200 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I .

screen both to the north and south by 1 19 ft . , with five archedentrance s in each section , which diffe r conside rably in the

de tai l s of the i r decorat ion as we l l as in s ize from those raised by

0 0 9 0 9 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Plan of Ruins at Old Delhi . (From a Plan by the Author . ) Scale 1 00 ft . to 1 in .

Qutbu-d-Din . These we re to be the facades of two extensionsof the mosque ; and part of the back wal l o f the northe rnextension

,with the pos it ions of the central and one of the s ide

mihrabs in i t,st i l l remain . Of the en larged court

, the southwal l wi th its corridor sti l l exists

,but on ly a few pil lars of the

east corrido r from which we learn that the en larged court with


the two -storeyed pavi l ions in the angles,and those behind the

screen,may pe rhaps be as original ly e re cted but to th is we wi l l

re turn when speak ing of the Ajmi r mosque , whe re the Hindupil lars are probably all re -arranged . I t i s qu ite certain

,how

eve r, that some of the pil lars at the Qutb are made up ofdiss imilar fragmen ts , and all we re placed whe re they now standby the bu ilde rs of the mosque . I t may ,

howeve r,be necessary

to explain that the re cou ld be no difficu l ty in tak ing down and

rebu i ld ing the se e rections,because the jo in ts of the pil lars are all

fi tted with the precis ion that H indu pat ience a lone could give .

Each compartmen t of the roof i s composed of n ine stone s— fourarchitrave s , four angular and one cen tral s lab (as expla ined indiagram No . 1 74 , vol . i . , p . all so exactly fi tted

,and so in

dependen t of cemen t, as eas i ly to be taken down and put upaga in . The same i s true of the domes

,all which be ing hone stly

and fai rly fi tted , wou ld su ffe r no damage from the proce ss ofremoval and re - e re ction .

The section (Woodcut No . of one hal f of the principalcolonnade ( the one facing the great se rie s of arche s) wil l expla in

370. Section 01 part of East Colonnade at the Qutb, Old Delhi . Scale 2 5 ft . to 1 i

i ts form bette r than words can do . I t i s so pure ly Jaina inarrangement , that i t should , pe rhaps , have been men t ioned inspeaking of that s tyle ; but as forming a part of the earl ie stmosque in India, i t i s more appropriate ly introduced in thisplace . The pi l lars are of the same orde r as those used on

Mount Abu (Woodcut No . except that those at De lhi aremuch richer and more e laborate . Most of them probablybe long to the 1 l th or 1 2th cen tu ry , and are among the few

p. This, however , proves l ittle , Rfinpur near Sfidari would supply a

unless we know what the temples were suffi ciency for the whole mosque , and

l ike which were destroyed for this pur though the lat ter is more modern , wepose . Twen ty-seven temples l ike those have no reason for supposing thatat Khajuraho , excepting the Ghan tai , s imilar temples did not exISt beforewould not provide pillars for one half Muhammadan times .

the inner court . One temple l ike that at

CHAP. I I I . DELHI . 203

spec imens to be found in India that seem to be ove rloaded withornamen t . The re i s no t one inch of plain surface from the

capital to the base,except the pi l lars behind the screen ,

and

some othe rs which may be long to O lde r build ings . S t i l l theornament is so sharp and so cleverly executed , and the e ffect , inthe i r pre sen t state of de cay and ru in

,so picture sque

,that i t is

ve ry difficu l t to find fault with what is so beautifu l . In somein stan ces the figure s that we re on the shafts of the pi l lars havebeen cu t off

,as offens ive to Muhammadan strictn ess with regard

to image s but on the roof and le ss seen parts,the cross- legged

figures of the Jaina saints,and othe r emblems of that re l igion ,

may sti l l be detected .

The glory of the mosque,howeve r, i s not in these Hindu

remains,but in the great range of arche s of the screen wal l on

the weste rn s ide , extending north and south for about 385 ft . ,

and cons ist ing of three greate r and e ight smal le r arche s ; thecentral one 22 ft. wide and 5 3 ft . high ; the large r s ide -arche s24 ft . 4 in .

,and about the same he igh t as the central arch the

smal le r arche s,which are un fortunate ly much ru ined , are about

hal f these dimens ions (Woodcut No . The central part ofthis screen

,147 ft . in length , form ing the mosque prope r

,i s

ascribed to Qutbu-d -D in afte r h is re turn from Ghazni . Beh indthis , at the d istance of 32 ft . , are the foundat ions of the wal l thatformed the back of the mosque

,but was on ly in te nded , apparen t ly,

to be carried as high as the roof of the Hindu pi l lars it encloses .I t seems probable that the Hindu pi l lars be tween the twoscreens we re the on ly part proposed to be roofed in 1 196 , sincesome of them are bui l t into the back part of the great arche s ,and all above them is qu ite pla in and smooth

,without the least

trace of any in ten tion to construct a vau l t or roof of any sort .Indeed , a roof is by no mean s an e ssen tia l part of a place ofpraye r a wal l facing Mecca i s all that is requ ired , and in Indiai s frequently all that is bu i l t

,though an enclosure i s often added

in front to prote ct the worshippe rs from in terruption . Roofedcolonnade s are , of course , conven ien t and ornamen tal accompan iments

, yet far from be ing indispensable .

The history of this mosque , as told in i ts construct ion ,i s

as curious as anything about i t. I t seems that the Afghanconquerors had a tole rably d i s tinct idea that pointed arche swere the true form for architectura l open ings but they le ft theHindu archite cts and bu ilde rs whom they employed to fol lowthe i r own devices as to the mode of carrying ou t the form . The

Hindus up to this t ime had neve r bui l t arche s —nor, indeed , didthey for cen tu ries afte rwards . Accord ingly

,they proceeded to

make the pointed open ings on the same principle upon whichthey buil t the i r domes . They carried them up in horizontal

INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I .204

courses as far as they could , and then closed them by long slabsmee ting at the top , the construction be ing, in fact

,that of the

arch of the aqueduct at Tusculum .

1 The same architects we reemployed by the i r mas te rs to ornament the face s of the searches ; and this they d id by copying and repeating the

ornamen ts on the pil lars and frie ze s on the Opposite s ide s of the

37 1 . Central Range 01 Arches at the Qutb Mosque . (From a Sketch by the Author . )

court,cove ring the whole with a lace -work Of intricate and

de l icate carving, su ch as no othe r mosque,except that at Ajmir,

eve r rece ived before or s ince and which—though perhaps in a

great measure thrown away when used on such a scale—is ,without exception

,the most exquis ite specimen of i ts c lass

1 As Shown in‘H istory of Ancien t crippled when I saw and sketched it .

and M edieval Architecture, ’ vol . i . I t has s ince been careful ly restored byGovernment .(Woodcut No . p . 301 . This mode

of construction is on ly feasible whenmuch larger stones are used than werehere employed . The consequence was

that the arch had become seriously

The two great side archese i ther were never comple ted, or havefallen down in consequence of the falsemode of construction .

206 INDIAN SARACEN IC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I .

forms of the bases of the minare ts at Ghazni appear to lendprobabil i ty to the fi rst hypothes is ; but the star- l ike form ofmany temples— principa l ly Ja ina—in Mysore and e l sewhe re(an te, vol . i . , pp . 439 et seqq. ) would seem to countenance the ideaof the i r be ing of H indu origin . No star- l ike forms have ye t ,howeve r

,been found so far north , and the i r de struction has

been too comple te for us to hope that they may be found now .

Be th is as i t may ,i t i s probably not too much to asse rt that

the Qutb Minar is the most beaut ifu l example of its classknown to exist anywhe re . The r ival that wil l occu r at onceto most people i s the campan i le at F lorence , bu i l t by G iotto .

That i s , i t i s true , 30 ft . ta l le r, but i t is cru shed by the massof the cathedral alongside ; and ,

beautifu l though it is , i t wan tsthat poetry of design and exqu is ite fin i sh of de tai l which markseve ry mould ing of the minar . I t m ight have been be tte r i fthe mpe of the s ide s had been at a highe r angle , but that i son ly apparent when seen at a distance ; when viewed from the

court of the mosque i ts form is perfect , and ,unde r any aspe ct

,i s

pre fe rable to the prosai c squareness of the outl ine of the I tal ianexample .

The on ly Muhammadan bu i ld ing known to be tal le r thanth is is the minare t of the mosque of Hasan

,at Ca i ro ; 1 but as

the pi l lar at Old De lh i i s a whol ly independent bu i ld ing, i thas a far noble r appearance

,and both in design and fin ish far

surpasse s not on ly i ts Egyptian rival , but any bu i ld ing of i tsclass known to me in the whole world . This , howeve r, mustnot be looked at as i f e re cted for the same purpose s as thoseusual ly attached to mosque s e lsewhe re . I t was de s igned , butpe rhaps not sole ly , as a place from wh i ch the mu ’azz in shouldcal l to praye rs , though its lowe r gal le ry was used for thatpurpose , but probably a lso as a towe r of V ictory—a JayaS tambha— in fact an emblem of conquest, which the Hindu scould on ly too eas i ly unde rstand and appre ciate .

At the distance of 470 ft . north of this one a second minarwas commenced in 1 3 1 1 , by

’

A lau -d-Din Khalj i , of twice i tsd imen sions

,or 2 54 ft . in circumfe rence . I t was on ly carried up

to the he ight of 7 5 ft . above the pl in th , and abandoned , probablyin con sequen ce of the death of i ts founde r in

The date of all these bui ld ings i s known with suffic ien texactne ss from the inscription s which they bear,3 from which it1 ‘ H istory of Ancien t and Medieval Nasiri ,

’

pp . 62 1 -622 , notes . The tomb orArch itecture , ’ vol . i i . p . 5 32 , and Wood Dargah of Khwa‘jah Qutb Sfihib s tandscut No . 982. about three furlongs S . S .W. from the2 I t has been supposed that i t was m infirs .

erected in memory of Qutbu - d Din 3 Translated by Wal ter Ewer, Asiat icBakhtiyfir Kaki of Ush , a notable Researches ,

’vol. xiv. p . 480. See also

Muhammadan Pi r or sain t , who died Cunn ingham ,

‘ A rchaeological Reports, ’here in 1 235 Raverty

’s

‘ Tabaqfit- i vol . 1. pp. 1 32 et segq.

CHAP. I I I . DELHI . 207

appears that the inne r court was enclosed by Shihabu-d-Din .

The central range of arche s (Woodcut NO. 37 1 ) was bu i l t byQutbu-d -D in the wings by Altamsh

,whose tomb is beh ind the

I ron Pillar at the.

Qutb . (From a Photograph . )The dotted l ine shows the ex ten t below the ground .

northe rn range , and the Qutb Minar was e i the r bui l t or fin ishedby the same monarch they extend

,the re fore

,from A.D . 1 1 96 to

1 23 5 , at which date they we re le ft in complete , probably in con

sequence of the death of the last-named king.


One of the most intere sting objects connected with thismosque i s the i ron pi l lar which stands in i ts courtyard (WoodcutNo . I t stands 22 ft . above the ground

,and as the depth

unde r the pavement i s now asce rtained to be on ly 20 in . ,the

tota l he ight is 23 ft . 8 in .

1 I ts d iamete r at the base i s in . ,

and at the capital in . The capita l i s 3} ft . high , andis sharply and clearly wrought into the Pe rs ian form that make si t look as i f i t be longed to an earl ie r pe riod than i t doe s and i thas the amalaka mould ing , which is indicative of cons ide rablean t iqu ity. I t has not

,howeve r

,been yet correctly ascertained

what i ts age real ly is . The re i s an inscription upon i t,but

without a date . From the form of its alphabe t, Prinsep ascribed

i t to the 3 rd or 4th century ; 2 Bhau Daj i,on the same evidence ,

to the end of the 5 th or beginn ing of the 6 th cen tury .

3 My own

convict ion i s that i t be longs to one of the Chandra Rajas of theGupta dynasty, e i the r consequen t ly about A.D . 370 or A.D . 4 1 5 .

Tak ing A.D . 400 as a mean date— and i t ce rtain ly is no t far

from the truth— it open s our eye s to an unsuspe cted state ofaffai rs to fi nd the Hindu s at that age capable of forging a bar ofi ron large r than any that have been forged even in Europe upto a ve ry late date , and no t frequen tly even now . As we fi nd

them ,howeve r, some centu ries afte rwards

,us ing bars as long as

this lat in roofing the porch of the temple at Kanarak (an te,p . we mus t now be l ieve that they we re much more famil iarwith the use of this me tal than they afte rwards became . I t i salmost equal ly startl ing to fi nd that , afte r an exposure to windand rain for fourteen cen turies , i t i s un rusted , and the capitaland inscript ion are as clear and as sharp now as when put upfifteen cen turie s ago .

‘1

1 I t is a cur ious i llustration how diffi

cul t it some t imes is to obtain correctinformat ion in India, that when Gen .

Cunn ingham published his Reports ’ in1 87 1 , he stated , apparen tly on the

authority of M r Cooper, Deputy Commissioner , that an excavation had beencarried down to a depth of 26 ft . , butwithout reach ing the bottom .

“ The man

in charge , however ,” —te’mein ocu la i re

assured him that the actual depthreached was 35 ft . —Vol . i . p . 1 69 . He

consequen tly estimated the whole lengthat 60 ft . , but fortunately ordered a new

excavation ,de termined to reach the

bottom—can'

te gn i come—and found it at20 inches below the surface —Vol. iv.

p. 28 , plate 5 . At a distance of a few

inches be low the surface i t expands in a

bulbous form to a diame ter of 2 ft . 4 in .,

and rests on a gridiron of iron bars ,

which are fastened with lead into the

stone pavemen t .2 ‘

Journal of the Asiat ic Socie ty ofBengal

,

’ vol . vii . p . 629 .

3 ‘ Journa l B ombay B ranch of the

Royal Asiatic Socie ty , ’ vol . x . p . 63 .

D r Fleet in ‘ Inscriptions of the EarlyGuptas

,

’ pp . 1 39f. gives a revised version .

I t bears a posthumous inscription ‘

in

eulogy of the conquests of a k ing Chandraas to whose date or dynasty nothing isstated .

4 There is no mistake about the

Meharauli pi llar_

be ing of pure iron .

Gen . Cunn ingham had a bit of i t ana

lysed in India by D r . Murray, and

another portion was analysed in the

School of M ines he re by D r. Percy .

Both found it pure malleable iron without any al loy .


A more beautiful example than even this is the ’

A laiDarwaza

,shown on the le ft hand of the plan (Woodcut No .

I t was e re cted by ’

Aléu-d-Din Khalj i,and the date 1 3 10 i s found

among'

i ts inscription s . I t is,the re fore

,about a century more

mode rn than the othe r bui ld ings of the place,and d isplays the

so-cal led Pathan 1 s tyle at i ts period of greatest pe rfect ion ,when

the Hindu mason s had learned to fi t the i r exquis ite style ofdecorat ion to the forms of the i r fore ign maste rs . I ts wal l sare de corated inte rnal ly with a diape r pattern Of unrival ledexce l lence , and the mode in which the square i s changed into anoctagon i s more s imply e legan t and appropriate than any othe rexample I am acquain ted with in India (Plate XXIX .)

2 The

penden t ives accord perfectly with the pointed open ings in the

four othe r faces, and are in eve ry respect appropriate ly con

structive .

8 True the re are defects . For in stance,they are rathe r

too plain for the e laborate d iapering which cove rs the whole ofthe lowe r part of the bu i ld ing both in te rnal ly and external ly ;but ornament might eas i ly have been added and the i r plainnessaccords with the s impl ic ity of the dome

,which is indeed by no

means worthy of the substructure . Not be ing pierced withwindows, i t seems as i f the architect assumed that i ts plainne sswould not be detected in the gloom that in consequence prevai l s .

This bu i ld ing,though smal l— it i s on ly 56 ft . 9 in . square

external ly, and with an inte rnal apartmen t on ly 34 ft . 6 in . in

plan— marks the culminat ing point of this Pathan style in

De lh i . Nothing so comple te had been done before , nothing soornate was attempted by them afte rwards : In the province swonde rfu l bu i ld ings we re e re cted be tween this pe riod and the

Mughal conquest,but in the capital the i r edifice s we re more

marked by solemn gloom and nakedne ss than by ornamentat ionor any of the highe r grace s of architectural art . Exte rnal ly iti s a good deal damaged

,but i ts e ffect is sti l l equal to that of

any bui ld ing of i ts class in India. I t was copied , with somemodificat ions , in the gateway to the fi ne Khai rpu r Mosque , nearSafdar Khan’s tomb

,e rected unde r S ikandar Lodi in 1494 .

AJMIR .

The mosque at Ajmi r (Woodcut No . 37 5 ) was commencedapparen tly in the year 1 200,

and was ce rtain ly completed during1 Maj or Raverty has shown that the 2 From Fanshawe’s ‘ De lhi, ’ p . 270.

name of “ Pathfins does not apply to the 3 The same form of penden tive is

first six dynast ies of Sul tans of Delhi , found at Serbistan , nearly n ine cen turieswho were Turkish s laves, Khalj is, Jats, before this t ime . H istory of Ancien tl ow caste Hindus and Sayyids .

” We and Medieval Architecture , ’ 3rd ed. volowe the blunder to the translators of i . p . 396, Woodcut No . 259 . Conf. R .

Firishta.—‘Journal of the Asiat ic Socie ty Phené Spiers, Arch itecture East and

of Bengal , ’ vol . xl iv. pp . 24 et segg. West, ’ pp . 65 ct segg.

INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I .

ruined . The principal entrance i s , of course , on the east S ide ,but there was anothe r on the south with a projecting porch . Thenorth s ide i s bui l t c lose to the scarped rock of the hill . TheOpen court wou ld be about 200 ft . wide by 1 7 5 ft. to the fron tof the Masj id on i ts west s ide , which is the on ly part nowstanding ; and Woodcut No . 376 shows all that now exists

376 . Plan ofAjmir Mosque as it exists (from a drawing by Mr . H . Cousens).Scale 1 00 ft . to 1 in .

of the mosque i tse lf. No towe r at the north - west corne rprobably eve r existed , whil st that at the south-west has beenthe shrine of a smal l H indu temple of which the s ikharawas demol ished ; but the smal l bast ions on the east corne rsof the court are Muhammadan and of the same plan as the

turre ts ove r the central p ie rs of the screen . The corridoron the east has been rebui l t but of much less width than i sshown on the re stored plan ; of the north corridor the re i s no

trace,and on ly the wal l of the south one i s le ft. What

remains , howeve r, is su ffi cient to show that , i f comple ted , i tmust original ly have been a s ingularly e legan t spec imen of anearly Indian mosque . The roof extends on ly ove r s ix of thefron t p iers , or about 14 1 ft .

, beyond which about 54 ft . at

each end is quite open and even unpaved . Beh ind the screenpie rs the area of the mosque i s 40 ft . 8 in . deep . The roofi s supported by four rows of lofty shafts and anothe r of pi laste rs(or pi l lars bui l t into the back wal l )—7O in all— each formedof three superimposed H indu pil lars . These are arranged as in

Jaina and Hindu temple s so as to support on e ight pil larseach the roof and i ts fi ve dome s , or rather, con i cal roofs , whichare all that exist. 1

The glory ,howeve r, of this mosque , as of that of the Qutb, i s

the screen of seven arche s with which Altamsh adorned thec ourtyard (Woodcut NO. I ts d imens ions are ve ry s im ilarto those of its rival . The cen tral arch is 22 ft . 2 in . wide ; thetwo on each s ide 1 3 ft . 3 in . ,

and those at the ends 1 3 ft. 4 in .

and 1 2 ft . 8 in . Each arch i s surrounded by three l ine s of

1 The outer form Survey replaced them a

i n conformity wi th by “ better Shaped hemi

CHAP . I I I . AJMIR.

writing, the oute r in the Kufic and the other two in Arabic

characte r, and d ivided from each other by bands of Arabesqueornament bold ly and clearly cut , and sti l l as sharp as when fi rs t

Great Arch in Mosque at Ajm ir . (From a Photograph . )

chise l led . In the centre the screen rise s to a he ight 01 56 ft . ,and on i t are the ru ins of two smal l m inarets 1 01 ft . in diamete r,ornamen ted with alte rnate circular and angular flutes , as in the

lowe r storey of the Qutb . I t i s not clear whethe r anything ofthe same sort existed at De lh i—probably not , as the great m inarmay have served for that purpose , and thei r introduct ion here


looks l ike an afterthought, and the production of an unpractisedhand working in an unfamil iar style . Wherever and wheneve rm inars were afte rwards introduced , preparat ions for them werealways made from the foundat ion s , and the i r l ine s are alwayscarried down to the ground ,

in some shape or othe r,as in true

art they ought to be . This solec ism , i f i t may be so cal led ,eviden tly arose from the arch itects be ing Hindus

,un famil iar

with the style ; and to this also is due the fact that all the

arches are constructed on the horizon tal principle . There i snot a true arch in the place ; but , owing to the i r having the

command of large r stone s than we re avai lable at De lh i,the

arche s are not here crippled,as they were there be fore the

repai rs .I t i s ne i the r

,howeve r

,i ts d imens ion s nor design that make s

th is screen one of the mos t remarkable architectu ral objects inIndia, but the mode in which it i s decorated . Nothing can

exceed the taste with which the Ku fi and Tughra inscription sare interwoven

’

w i th the more pure ly arch itectural decorat ions ,or the manne r in which they give l i fe and varie ty to the whole ,without eve r interfe ring with the construct ive l ine s of the de sign .

As be fore remarked,as example s of su rface decorat ion

,the se

two mosque s of Altamsh at De lh i and Ajmir are probablyun rival led . Nothing in Cai ro or in Pers ia i s so exquis ite i n

detai l,and nothing in Spain or Syria can approach them for

beau ty of surface -decorat ion . B e s ides thi s,they are un ique .

Nowhe re e lse would i t be poss ible to find Muhammadan largene ss of conception ,

combined with Hindu de l i cacy of ornamen tat ion

,carried out to the same ex ten t and in the same manne r .

I f to this we add the i r h istorical val ue as the fi rst mosque se rected in India

,and the i r e thnographic importance as bringing

out the leading characte ri st i cs of the two races in so dist inct andmarked a manne r

,the re are ce rtain ly no two bui ld ings in India

that be tte r dese rve the protect ing care of Gove rnmen t ; the one

has re ce ived its fai r share of attent ion the other has,ti l l qu ite

late ly, been most shameful ly neglected,and most barbarously

i l l -treated .

1

LATER PATHAN STYLE .

After the death of ’

Alau -d-Din (A.D . 1 3 1 6 ) a change seemsto have come over the Spirit of the arch itects of the succeedingTughlaq Shahi and Sayyid dynastie s , and all the i r subsequen tbu i ld ings , down to the time of the Afghan She r Shah , A.D .

1 Owing to the Muhamm thirty-five years ago .

bet ter bui l t and with large I can judge, no bu ildingmosque is not in the same rthy of the attent ion of

this.


is so picturesque that i t is difl‘i cult to find faul t with i t . I fall the mate rial s we re original , the design would be _

Open t o

Tomb at Sipr i , Gwaliar State . (From a Sketch by the Author . )

crit ic ism ; but, when a portion i s avowedly borrowed , a sl ightwan t of balance between the parts may be excused .

There are seve ral example s of tombs of this sort at the

Bakariya Kund in Benares, evidently made up from ancien tmate rial s ; 1 and

,indeed , whe reve r the Muhammadans fai rly

se ttled themse lves on a s ite previously occupied by the Hindu s ,Jains, or Buddhists , such combinat ion s are frequen t ; butno attempt is eve r made to ass im i late the parts that are

Muhammadan with those be longing to the Hindu style whichthey are employing ; they are of the age in which the tombor mosque was bu il t, and that age , consequently, easi ly recogn isable by any one famil iar

,

with the style .

The usual form of a Pathan tomb wi l l be be tte r unde rstoodfrom the fol lowing woodcut (No . repre senting a name lesssepulchre 2 among the hundred s that st i l l strew the plain s of

Journal of the Asiat ic Society of died 1443, but to whom Sayyid AhmadBengal , ’ vol . xxxiv. pp . 1 et scgg. , plates ascribes another octagonal tomb to the1 -8. n orth -east of the mosque—Cunn ing2 Cunn ingham says i t is ascribed to ham ’

s‘ Archaeological Reports , ’ vol . xx

Mubarak Khan Pathan ; M r Fanshawe pp . 1 58, 1 59 ; and Fanshawe ’s ‘ Delhi,

assigns it to Muhammad Shfih IV., who p. 244.

CHAP. I I I . LATER PATHAN STYLE. 2 1 7

Old De lh i . I t stands at the vil lage of Khai rpur, about 3 milessouth from the Ajmir gate of De lhi , and on the south-west of the

379 . Tomb at Khair ur , Old Delhi . (From a Sketch by the Author . )vfc é m -ZM L

.

2

mosque . I t cons ists of an octagonal apartmen t, 3 1 ft . 10 in .

in s ide diameter,su rrounded by a ve randah fol lowing the same

form—the base be ing 7 2 ft . 2 in . in d iame te r—each face be ingornamented by three arche s of the st i l ted poin ted form genera l lyadopted by the Pathan s

,or rathe r Sayyids , and i t i s supported

by re ctangular p i l lars,which are almost as un ive rsal with

them as this form of arch . I t i s a form eviden tly borrowedfrom the square pie r of the Jains , but so alte red and sosimpl ified

,that i t requires some ingenuity to recogn i se its

origin in i ts new combinat ion .

Anothe r octagonal tomb,to the north -east of the mosque ,

i s bu i l t in the same style and of almost exactly the samedimensions ; and the tomb of Mubérak Shah I I . (murdered in1434) at Kotila or Mubarakpur, abou t a mile and a hal f south ofKhai rpur, i s al so of the same patte rn and size . I t i s the earl iestof those in the late r Pathan style .

1

This series of tombs close s with that of She r Shah ( 1 5 39

1 A plan is given in Cunn ingham’

s‘Archaeological Reports, vol . xx . plate 35 .


1 545 ) (Woodcut NO. the most i llustrious of his race . I t

380. Tomb of Sher Shahat Sah sarém .

Scale 1 00 ft . to 1 in .

i s s ituated on a terrace 30 ft . high andabout 300 ft . square ,

in the middle ofa large tank

,near Sahsaram,

in Shahabad

,and , from its local i ty and i ts

des ign,i s now a s ingularly pictu resque

obje ct (Woodcut No . I ts d imen

s ion s too are con s iderable .

1 I ts base isan octagon

, 56 ft . on each side exte rnal ly,

or 1 35 ft . in diame te r. A gal le ry,10

ft . 2 in . wide , surrounds the cen tralapartmen t, which is surmoun ted bya large dome 7 1 ft. in diamete r, beneath which stands the tomb of the

founde r and of some of his favourite compan ion s in arms .

Tomb of Sher ShAh at Sahsaram . (From a Photograph . )

On the exte rior, the te rrace on which it stands is ornamented1 Cunn ingham

’s

‘

Archaeological Reports,’ vol . xi . p . 1 35


minarets , which , so far as I know, we re not attached to mosquesduring the so-cal led Pathan pe riod . The cal l to praye r wasmade from the roof ; and ,

ex cept the fi rst rude attempt at

Ajmir, I 'do not know an in stance of a minare t bu i l t sole ly forsuch a purpose , though they we re , as we know

,un iversal in

Egypt and e lsewhe re l ong be fore th is t ime,and we re cons ide red

nearly indispensable in the bu i ld ings of the Mughal s ve ry shortlyafterwards . The Pathan s seem to have regarded the minar asthe I tal ians viewed the Campan i le , more as a symbol of powe rand of victory than as an adjunct to a house of worsh ip .

The body of the mosque became gene ral ly an oblonghal l

,with a central dome flanked by two othe rs of the same

horizontal d imen s ions, but not so lofty, and separated from itby a broad

,bold arch

,the mould ings and decorat ion s of which

formed one of the principal ornamen ts of the build ing.

The penden t ive s we re even more remarkable than the arche s

382 . Pendentive from Mosque at Old Delhi . (From a Sketch by the Author . )

for e laborateness of detai l . The i r forms are so various that i ti s impossible to class ify or describe them ; perhaps the mostusual i s that represented in Woodcut No 382, where the angle i s

CHAP . I I I . LATER PATHAN STYLE. 22 1

fi l led up with a numbe r of smal l imitat ions of arches, bracke tingout one beyond the othe r. I t might seem probable that thi sscheme of decorat ion was based on the honeycomb or stalact itevaul t used by the Arabs in Spain ; but he re the pendent ive i sd ifferently constructed from the Arab pendent ive s , which are

curved in plan , whilst this is s imply a corne r bracket. 1I f i t were not that the build ings of the earl ie r S ultan s are so

complete ly ecl ipsed by the greater splendour of those of theMughal dynasty

,which succeeded them in the i r own capital s

,

the i r style would have attracted more attent ion than has

hithe rto been bestowed upon i t ; and i ts monograph would beas inte re st ing as any that the Ind ian -Saracen ic affords . In i tsfi rst period the style was characte rised by all the richness whichH indu e laboration could bestow ; in the second by a sterns implici ty and grandeur much more appropriate

,according to

our ideas,to the spirit of the people and during the latte r part

of its existence,by a re tu rn to the e laboratene ss of the past ;

but at this pe riod eve ry de ta i l was fitted to its place and i tspurpose . We forge t the Hindu except in his de l i cacy

,and we

recogn i se in this last deve lopmen t one of the completedarch itectural style s o f the world .

1 R . Phené Spiers , ‘ Architecture—East and West , ’ pp . 34-

35 .

2 22 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I ;

CHAPTER I V

JAUNPUR .

CONTENTS

Jeimi’ MaSJld and Lal Darwaz a.

CHRONOLOGY.

Khwaja-i -Jahfin assumes inde Mahmud Shfih Sharq ipendence at Jaunpur A .D . 1 394 Husain ShfihMubarak , his adopted son 1 399 deposed and seeks refugeShamsu-d-D in—Ibrfihim Shah at GaurSharq i

IT was j ust two centuries afte r the conque st of India by the

Moslims that Khwaja- i-Jahan, the Subahdar or gove rnor of the

province in which Jaunpur 1 i s S i tuated,assumed independence ,

and establ ished a dynasty which maintained itse l f for nearly a

century, from A.D . 1 394 to about 1479 , and though thenreconquered by the sovere ign of De lhi , stil l retained a sort ofsemi - independence ti l l final ly incorporated in the Mughal empireby the great Akbar . During this period Jaunpur was adornedby seve ral large mosque s

,three of which st i l l remain tole rably

enti re , and a cons iderable number of tombs , palaces and othe rbu ild ings , bes ide s a fort and bridge , all of which are as remarkable spec imens of the i r class of archite ctu re as are to be foundanywhe re in India.

A l though so long after the t ime when,under ’

A lau-d-D in

and Tughlaq Shah , the arch ite cture of the capital had assumedsomething l ike comple teness

,i t i s curious to observe how

impe rfe ct the amalgamat ion was in the provinces at the t imewhen the principal bu i ld ings at Jaunpur we re e rected . The

principal parts of the mosque, such as the gateways , the greathal ls

,and the weste rn parts general ly

,are in a complete arcuate

style . Whe reve r, indeed , wide open ings and large internal

awings of the lateof the Archaeol ogical

INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Boon VI I .

pi l lars be ing square and the inne r round , and richly sculptured ,

383 . Plan of Western Half of Courtyard of Jam i Masj Id , Jaunpur . (From a Plan’by theAuthor . ) Scale 1 00 ft . to 1 in .

384. View of south lateral Gateway of Jami ’ MaSJld , Jaunpur . (From a Drawing by theAuthor . )

and we re evidently taken from some temple that ex isted the re ,

CHAP. IV. JAUNPUR.2 2 5

or in the ne ighbourhood , be fore the Mosl im occupat ion , but theyseem to have exhausted the stock

,as scarce ly any othe r such

are found in the mosque s bui l t subsequently .

1

The re are three great mosques st i l l stand ing in the c ity ofthese the grande st i s the Jami’ Masj ld (Woodcuts N05 . 3 83 ,which was commenced by Shah Ibrahim ,

A.D . 1438 , but not

completed ti l l the re ign of Husain Shah A.D . 14 52- 1478 . I tstands on a platform raised from 1 6 to 20 ft . above the groundleve l and consists of a courtyard 2 1 7 ft . 4 in . by 2 1 1 ft . 6 in .

,on

the western s ide of which i s s ituated the range of bui ld ingsforming the mosque , the central area covered by a dome 39 ft .8 in . in d iame te r, in front of which stands a gate pyramid orpropy len ,

2 of almost Egyptian mass and outl ine,ris ing to the

he ight of 86 ft . This gate pyramid by its e levat ion suppl iedthe place of a minare t

,which is a feature as l ittle known at

Jaunpur, as i t was , at the same age , in the capital c i ty of De lh i .On each side of the dome i s a compartment , 44 ft . 7 in . by 2 5 ft .4 in . ,

d ivided into two storeys by a stone floor supported on

pil lars and beyond thi s , on each s ide , i s an apartmen t 39 ft . 7 in .

by 49 ft . 3 in .,cove red by a bold pointed vault with ribs , so con

structed that i ts uppe r surface forms the external roof of thebu i ld ing , which in Gothic vaults i s scarce ly eve r the case . Eachcompartmen t has three mihrabs in the back wal l

,that is fifteen

on the ground floor,with two in each of the uppe r rooms .

The three s ide s of the courtyard we re surrounded by doubleco lonnades, two storeys in he ight in ternal ly , but with three on

the exte rior,the floor of the courtyard be ing raised to the

he ight of the lowe r storey . On each face was a handsomegateway ; the southern one i s repre sen ted in Woodcut NO . 384,which give s a fa i r idea of the style . The greate r part of theeaste rn s ide of the court with the entrance on that s ide and

the uppe r storeys of the othe r clo i sters, are sa id to have beendestroyed by Sultan S ikandar Lodi in his d ispleasu re at the

ingrat itude of Husain,1499 - 1 5 10 ; though the re i s a l so a story

of the i r be ing taken down at a very much late r date .

The smal le st of the mosques in the c i ty i s the Lal Darwazaor Red Gate , which stands to the north-west of the c ity .

3 I t isin the same style as the othe rs and i ts propylon—representedin Woodcut No . 385

—displays not on ly the bold mass ivenes swith which the se mosques we re e rected

,but shows al so that

strange admixture of H indu and Muhammadan arch i tecture

1 A View of this mosque will be found No . 384 but for plans , e levati ons ,in Kittoe

’

s‘Indian Architecture , ’ plate 2 , sections

,and de tai ls, see Sharq i Archi

and a plan in Cunn ingham ’

s Archaeo tecture of Jaunpur, ’ pages 52 -63 , and

logical Survey Reports,’ vol . x i . plate 3 1 . plates 43 -73 .

I t is par tially seen in Woodcut 3 l aid. pp . 43-5 1 , and plates 26 -

40.

VOL . I I . P


which pe rvaded the style during the whole period of its con

t inuance . The Masj id measure s 1 68 ft . 6 in . in length insideby 3 5 ft. 4 in . from fron t to back

,whilst the court

' i s about1 325 ft. from east to we st , by 1 305 ft . from north to south

,

surrounded by corridors about 1 74 ft . wide on the s ides,and

385 . L811 Darwaza Mosque, Jaunpur . (From a Drawing by the Author . )

1 6 ft . at the east end . The propylon i s 45 ft . wide over allat the base and 49 ft . high .

Of all the mosques remain ing at Jaunpur,the Atala Masj ld ,

comple ted in 1408 , i s the most ornate and the most beautifu l .The colonnades surrounding i ts court are five a is le s in depth

, the

oute r pil lars , as we l l as those next the court,be ing double

square pi l lars . The four in termediate rows are s ingle squarepi l lars

,supporting a flat roof of s labs

,arranged as in H indu

temples . I t i s al so two storeys in he ight, the lower storey


ings be longing to the Moslim s , which are s ingularly pleas ingspecimen s of the Jaunpur style , and ce rtain ly be long to the

same age as those j ust described .

The kingdom of Jaunpur i s al so rich in l i ttle tombs and

shrine s in which the Moslims have used up Hindu and Ja inapi l lars

,me re ly rearranging them after the i r own fashion . The se ,

of course,wi l l not bear crit ici sm as architectura l des igns

,but

the re i s a lways some thing so inde scribably picturesque aboutthem as fai rly to extort admirat ion . The principal exampleof this compound style i s a mosque at Kanauj known popularlyas

“ S ita-ki Rasoi ,” “ S ita’s Kitchen .

” I t seems to be a Jainatemple

,rearranged as a mosque

,in the manne r described at

pp . I t measure s exte rnal ly 1 3 3 ft . by 1 20 ft . The mosquei tse l f has four rows of fifteen columns each, and three dome s .The clo iste rs surrounding the courts are on ly two rows in depth

,

and had original ly s ixty-e ight p il lars,smal ler than those of

the mosque . Exte rnal ly. i t has no great beauty,but its pi l lared

court i s very picturesque and pleasing . Accord ing to an in

scription ove r its prin c ipal gateway,its conve rs ion was e ffected

by I brahim Shah of Jaunpur, A.D .

At a late r age , and even afte r i t had lost its independence,

seve ral importan t bui ld ings we re e rected in the capital and inothe r town s of the kingdom in the style of the day ; but the seare pe rhaps s carce ly of sufficien t importance to requ ire noticein such a work as the pre sent .

1 General Cunn ingham’

s cour t on three s ides had beenvol . i . p . 287 . From this I Since I saw them in 1 836 .

shortly before 1 85 7

CHAP . V . GUJARAT . 2 29

CHAPTER V

GUJARAT .

CONTENTS

Jami’ MaSJld and o ther Mosques at Ahmadabad—Tomb s and Mosquesat Sarkhej and Batwa—B ui ld ings m the Prov inces .

CHRONOLOGY .

Muzaffar Shei h , a Raj put , Mahmud Shah Begarah .

appoin ted Viceroy A. D . 1 39 1 Muzaffar Shah I I .

Ahmad Shah , his grandson ,Bahadur Shah murdered by the

founds Ahmadabad 14 1 1 Por tugueseMuhammad Shah the Merc iful 144 1 Muzaffar Shah I I I .

Qutbu-d Din Shah ; war with Gujarat becomes a province ofRfin zi Kumbha Akbar’s kingdom

OF the various forms which the Saracen i c archite cture as sumedin India

,that of Ahmadabad may probably be con side red as

the most e legan t,as i t ce rtain ly is the most characte ristic of all.

No othe r form is so e ssen t ial ly Indian ,and no one te l l s its tale

with the same unmistakable distinctness .As ment ioned above

,the Muhammadans

,in the I st century

of the Hijra,made a bri l l ian t attempt to conque r S indh and

Gujarat,and apparently succeeded ; but the country was so

populous,and i ts c ivi l isat ion so great, that the invade rs were

absorbed,and soon disappeared from the scene .

Mahmud of Ghazni next overran the province,but left no

pe rmanent mark ; and even afte r the fal l of De lh i (A.D . 1 1 96)Gujarat maintained the struggle for independence for about acen tu ry longe r, t i l l

’

Alau -d -D in,in 1 297 , wre sted the country

from Karna Wei ghela and appoin ted provin cial gove rnors .

Muhammad Shah I I I . Tughlaq, in A .D . 1 39 1 , had appointedMuzaffar, a conve rted Raj put , of the Tak clan ,

to be his Vi ce roy .

This , howeve r, was on the eve of the trouble s caused by the

invas ion Of Timfi rlang, and Muzaffar assumed independencein 1 396 , but, matato dom ino

, Gujarat remained as independen tas be fore .

The next two centurie s—during which the Ahmad Shahidynasty occupied the throne—were spen t in con t inua l wars and


struggle s with the i r refractory vassal s and the ne ighbouringchiefs . On the whole , howeve r, the i r powe r may be said tohave been gradual ly on the increase t i l l the death of

'

Bahadur,A.D . 1 5 36 , but they neve r wholly subdued the rebe l l ious spi ri t ofthe i r subje cts , and ce rtain ly neve r converted the bulk of themto the i r fa i th . As a consequence of this

,the princ ipal bu i ld ings

with which this chapte r i s conce rned are to be found in the

capital and i ts immediate proxim ity . B eyond that the Hindu sfol lowed the i r o ld fa i th and bui l t temple s as before ; though insuch large r citie s as Dholka

, Cambay or Bharoch the Muham

madans , of course , possessed places of worship , some of themof cons ide rable importance

,and gene ral ly made up from pil lars

borrowed from Hindu bui ld ings .In Ahmadabad i tse l f, howeve r, the Hindu influence con

t inned to be fe l t throughout . Even the mosque s are Hindu , orrathe r Ja ina

,in every de ta i l ; on ly here and the re an arch is

inse rted,not because i t was wanted construct ive ly, but because

i t was a symbol of the fa i th,while in the i r tombs and palace s

even this i s general ly wan ting. The truth of the matte r is , theHindu kingdom of Gujarat had been in a high state of civi l isat ion be fore its subj ugat ion by the Muhammadans , and the

remain s of the i r temples at S idhpur, Patan ,Modhe ra

,and

e lsewhe re te st i fy to the bui ld ing capac ity of the race,and the

Muhammadan s had forced themse lve s upon this race . The

Chaulukyas , howeve r, conque red the i r conquerors , and forcedthem to adopt forms and ornamen ts which we re superior to anythe invade rs knew or could have in troduced . The re su lt i s a

style which combine s all the e legance and fin i sh of Jaina orChaulukyan art , with a ce rtain largene ss of con ception which theHindu neve r qu ite atta ined

,but which is characte rist i c of the

people who at th is t ime we re subje cting all India to the i r sway .

The fi rs t seat of the Muhammadan powe r was Anh ilwad ,the old capital o f the Gujarat k ingdom ,

and which , at the t imei t fe l l in to the i r powe r

,must have been one of the most Splend id

cit ie s of the East . L i ttle now remain s of all i ts magn ificence .

Ahmad,the second king, removed the seat of powe r to a town

cal led Karnavat i,afte rwards known as Ahmadabad , from the

name of i ts second founde r, and which , with characte rist icact ivity

,he set about adorn ing with splendid edifice s . Of the se

the principal was the Jami’ Masj id , which , though not remarkable for i ts s ize

,i s one of the most beautifu l mosque s in the

East . I ts arrangemen t wi l l be unde rstood from the next plan(Woodcut No . I ts d imen s ions are 382 ft . by 2 58 ft . ove rall exte rnal ly ; the mosque i tse l f be ing 2 10 ft . by 9 5 ft . , cove ringconsequently about sq . ft . Within the mosque i tse l f are260 pi l lars

,supporting fi fteen dome s arranged symmetr ical ly,


the Jaina and Muhammadan arrangemen ts of that day . The

form of the pil lars and the de ta i ls gene ral ly are practical ly thesame in both build ings , the Hindu be ing riche r and moree laborate . In plan , the mosque looks monotonous as compared with the temple but this i s redeemed

,to some exten t, by

the diffe ren t he ights of the domes , as shown in the e levat ion(Woodcut No . and by the e levat ion of each divis ion be ingstud iously varied . My own fee l ing is in favour of the poe try ofthe temple , but the re i s a sobriety about the plan of the mosquewhich

,after all

,may be in be tte r taste . Both plan s

,i t need

hardly be remarked,are infin ite ly supe rior to the monotony of

the southe rn hal l s of 1000 pi l lars . The latte r are remarkablefor the i r s ize and the amount of labour be stowed upon them ;but i t require s more than th is to const itute good architecture .

The gene ral characte r of the e levat ion wil l be unde rstoodfrom the Woodcut No . 387 , but unfortunate ly i ts m inare ts aregone . When Forbes 1 drew it

,they we re sti l l standing, and

we re ce lebrated in Easte rn story as the shak ing minare ts ofAhmadabad ; an earthquake in A.D . 1 8 1 9 shook them too much ,but there are seve ral others sti l l standing in the c ity from whichthe i r form can easi ly be restored .

The plan and late ral extens ion of the Jami ’ Masj id are

exceptional . The usualfo rm t ak e n by t h e

mosques at Ahmadabadwas that of the Rani

Rupawanti or Queen’s

Mosque in the Mi rzapurward

,and cons ists of

three domes standingon twe lve pi l lars each ,

388 . Plan of the Queen s Mosque, M irzapur . W i th the cen tral part SO8 1ca e so 0 1 m

raised as to admit lIghtto the interior (Woodcuts 3 88, The

mode in which this wase ffe cted wi l l be unde rstood from the annexed

3 89 . Elevation of the Queen ’

s Mosque , M irzapur . d lagram (W9 OdCUt NO 0

Scale 50 ft . to 1 in . The p i l lars Wt h

s u p p o r t t h e c e n t ra ldome s are twice as h igh as those of the s ide dome s, and tworows of dwarf column s stand on the roof to make up the

1 See plate in Forbes’ ‘ Oriental Memoirs, ’ vol . ii i . ch . xxx . ; or ‘ ArchaeologicalSurvey of Western India, ’ vol . Vi i . p . 30.

CHAP. V . GUJARAT . 23 3

he ight . In front of these inte rnal ly i s a sol id balustrade , whichi s general ly most richly ornamented by carving . Thus arranged ,i t wi l l be perce ived that the nece ssary amoun t of l ight is in troduced

,as in the drum ofa Byzant ine dome , but in a more art i st ic

manne r. The sun ’s rays can neve r fa l l on the floor,or even so

as the head of any one standing the re . The l ight is reflected

390. Section of D iagram explanatory of the Mosques at Ahmadabad .

from the exte rnal roof in to the dome , and perfe ct vent i lation i sobtained , with the most pleas ing e ffect of i l lum inat ion withoutglare . In orde r fu rthe r to guard against the last d readed con

t ingency ,in most of these mosque s a screen of pe rforated stone

work was introduced be tween the outer dwarf columns . Thesescreens we re frequen tly of the most exqu is ite beauty , and inconsequence have ve ry frequent ly been removed .

The re are three or four mosques at Ahmadabad , bui l t on thesame pattern as that last described

,but as the style progressed

it became more and more Indian . The arches in fron t we refrequently omitted, and on ly a screen of columns appeared ,supported by two minare ts , one at each angle . This systemwas carried to its greatest exten t at Sarkhej , about 5 mile sfrom the c ity . Muhammad Shah , in A .D . 1446 , commencede recting a tomb (A on Woodcut No . here , 102 ft . square ,in honour of Ahmad Ganj Bakhsh

,the friend and advise r of his

fathe r . The style of these bu ild ings may be j udged of from the

woodcut (No . 392, page represen ting the pavi l ion of s ixteenpi l lars in fron t of th is tomb ( I in Woodcut No . They are

of the usual S imple outl ine of the style—a tal l,square base ;

1 For a measured plan to three t imes this scale, see‘ Archaeological Survey of

Western IndIa, ’ vol . vii . plate 56 .


a n O o n e:


as there , but they are placed neare r to one another,and though

of greate r d iamete r the width of the whole i s less,and they

are on ly two range s in depth . Except the Moti Masj id ‘

at Agra,

to be described hereafte r,there i s no mosque in Ind ia more

remarkable for S imple e legan ce than this .

Bes ide s the se large r mosque s the re are several smal le r one sof great beauty

,of which two— those of Muhafi z Khan and the

Rani S ipri— are pre- eminen t . The

end e levat ion of the fi rst,bui l t in

1492 , i s by no means happy , but i tsde tai l s are exquis ite and i t retain si ts m inare ts

,which is too se ldom

the case .

1 As wil l be seen from the

woodcut,as we l l as from those of

the Jami and Queen ’s Mosque s(Nos . 387 and the lowe r partof the minare ts i s of pure Hinduarchite cture ; all the bases at

Ahmadabad are ne i ther more orle ss than the pe rpendicular partsof the basemen t of H indu or Jainatemple s e longated . Every formand eve ry de ta i l may be found at

Chandravat i or Abu,except in one

MOS ue OfMuhfifi Z Khan part icular — Ou the s ide s of all393 °

soaii. 2 5 ft , to 1 111 .Hindu temple s are n iches conta ining image s . This the Mosl im could

not tole rate,so he fi l led them with trace ry . We can fol low

the progre ss of the deve lopmen t of this form,from the fi rst

attempt in the Jami ’ Masj id,through all its stage s to the

exquis ite patte rns of the Queen ’

s Mosque at Mi rzapur. A fte r acen tury ’s expe rience they produced forms which as arch itectura lornamen ts wi l l

,in the i r own class , stand compari son with any

employed in any age or in any part of the world and in doingthis they invented a class of window- trace ry in which they we rea l so unrival led . The spec imen be low (Woodcut No . froma window in the desecrated mosque of S id i Sayyid in the

palace enclosure ( the Bhadr) wil l convey an idea of i ts e laborateness and grace .

2 I t would be difficu l t to exce l the ski l l with

1 The fi nials of all the early domes and hardly before this mosque was coand minars in Gujarat bore the p ippa l pleted . The detai ls of this beautileaf , but when this mosque was repa ired masj id are pretty ful ly i llustrated in

by the public works about thirty years ‘Archaeological Survey of Western India, ’ago , the Turkish crescen t was substi tuted . VOl . vii . plates 97 to 104 .

The Turks themse lves on ly assumed the 2 M id . vol . vii . pp . 4 1 ct segg. and

symbol at Constantinople,after its capture, plates 46 to 5 1 .

CHAP. V. GUJARAT .

which the vege table forms are convent ional i sed just to theexten t requ ired for the purpose . The equal spacing al so of thesubject by the three ordinary trees and four palms

,takes i t out

of the category of direct imitation of nature, and renders i t

sufficien tly structural for i ts s ituation but pe rhaps the greate stski l l i s shown in the even manne r in which the patte rn i s spreadove r the whole surface . The re are some exquis ite spe cimens of

394 . W indow in S id i_Sayyid

'

s Mosque at Ahmada‘

tbéd .

(From 81 Photograph by Colone l B iggs . )

trace ry in precious marble s ' at Agra and De lhi , but none quiteequal to this .Above the roof of the mosque s the minarets are always

round towe rs s l ightly tape ring,as in the mosque of Muhafi z

Khan (Woodcut No . re l ieved by gal lerie s d isplaying greatrichne ss in the bracke ts which support them as we l l as in the

bal us trades which prote ct them . The towe r always te rm inate sin a con ical top re l ieved by various d isks . They are

,so far

as I know, the on ly m inarets be longing to mosque s which

surpass those of Ca i ro in beauty of outl ine or richne ss ofde tai l , excepting those of the Rani S ipari mosque , which are

sti l l more beautiful . Indeed,that mosque i s the mos t exquis ite

gem at Ahmadébad , both in'

plan and detai l . I t is without


arches , and eve ry part i s such as on ly a Hindu queen couldorder

,and on ly H indu art ists could carve .

1

TOMBS .

Knowing the style , i t would not be d ifficul t to predicate theform of the tombs . The s implest would be that of AbuTuraban octagonal dome supported on twe lve pi l lars, and th is extendedon eve ry s ide , but always remain ing a square , and the entrance sbe ing in the centre of the face s (Woodcut NO. The diffe rence between th is and the Jaina arrangement i s that the latte r isd iagonal (Woodcut NO . 1 79 , vol . while the se are square . The

395 . Tomb ofM ir AbuTurab .Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

supe riority of the Hindu modei s apparen t at a glan ce . Not,i t i s true , in so smal l an arrangemen t as that last quoted , but inthe tombs at Sarkhej (Woodcut NO . the e ffe ct i s somonotonous as almos t to be comeu n p l e a s i n g. W i t h t h e J a i n sth is neve r i s the case , howeve rnume rous the pi l lars may be .

Be s ide s the monotony of the square plan , i t was fe l t at

Sarkhej—as al ready pointed out—that the octagonal domefitted awkwardly on to its supports . This was remedied , to agreat exten t, in the tomb of Sayyid ’

Usman ,bui lt in A.D . 1460

by Mahmud B egarah . In th is in stance the base of the domei s a dodecagon ,

and a ve ry con s ide rable amoun t o f varie ty i sobta ined by grouping the pi l lars in twos and fours

,and by the

d ifferen t spac ing (Woodcut No . In e levat ion the domel ooks heavy for the substructure , but not so in perspe ct ive ;

396 . Plan and Elevation of Tomb ofSayyid ’Usman . Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

1 As i t is impossible of the ‘ Archaeological Surveyconvey an impression


as some of the largest bu i ld ings above ground . I t require s ape rsonal experience of the grateful coolness of a subterranean

Tomb of Qutbu -l‘Alam ,

Batwa. Scale so ft . to 1 in .

Plans of Tombs of Qutbu-l‘Alam and h is Son at Batwa.

Scale about 50 ft . to r in .

apartmen t in a hot cl imate to apprec iate such a class ofbu i ld ings

,and in the rainy We st we hardly know how val uable

wate r may become .

1

£

1 1

1

7

1

“ an i l lustrated 11 . pp . 1 -6 and 10-1 4 at

o t e vol . vi . pp . 46 , 47 ; and in

pp. 37f. and I l z f.

CHAp . v . GUJARAT : PROVINCIAL BUILDINGS. 24 1

Anothe r object of architectu ral beauty is found in the inflowand outflow S lu ice s of the great tanks which abound everywherearound the city . Nowhe re d id the inhabitants of Ahmadabadshow how e ssential ly they we re an architectu ral people , as inthese uti l itarian works . I t was a ne cess i ty of the i r natu re thateve ry object should be made ornamen tal

,and the i r success was

as great in these as in the i r mosque s or palaces .

BU ILD INGS IN THE PROVINCES.

In addit ion to the numerous edifices that adorn the capital,

the re are , as h in ted above,several in the provincial capital s

that are we l l worthy of notice . Among these the j ami’ Masj id

at Cambay or Kambhat, i s one of the most splendid . I t wase rected in A.D . 1 325 , in the t ime of Muhammad I I . ibn Tughlaq,and i s on ly in fe rior to that of the capital in s ize . I t measure sove r all 200 ft . by 2 10 ft . , and i ts inte rnal court 1 20 ft . by 1 3 5 ft .Except be ing somewhat smal le r in scale , i ts plan and arrangemen ts are almost ident i cal with those of the Altamsh Mosque(Woodcuts Nos . 37 5 , 376 ) at Ajmi r : but, when i t i s looked into ,i t would be diffi cult to conce ive two bui ld ings more e ssential lyd iffe rent than these two are . The screen of arche s at Cambay ,on ly three in number, are plain even to baldne ss

,and low

,in

orde r to fi t the dimens ion s of the Hindu or j aina pi l lars of theinte rior . These latte r are all borrowed from de secrated temple s

,

and in th is in stance certain ly rearranged without much attent ionto congruity or arch itectural effect . S t i l l the e ffect i s picturesque

,

and the parts be ing employed for the purpose s for which theywe re des igned , there i s no offens ive incongru ity anywhe re .

One of the most remarkable feature s in th is mosque i s thetomb, which its founde r,

’

Umar b in-Ahmad al Kaz aruni,in I 333 ,

e re cted for himse l f. I t stands in an enclosure abo'

ii t 49 ft. widealong the south end of the court

,i s whol ly composed of H indu

remains , and i s two storeys in he ight, and was crowned witha dome 37 ft . in diame te r. The parts

,howeve r—borrowed ,

apparen tly, from diffe rent bui ld ings - were so badly fi ttedtogethe r that, after stand ing some three cen turies

,i t fe l l in ,

and has s ince remained a ruin ,s ingularly picturesque in form

and exqu is ite in de tai l,but a monumen t of the fol ly of

employing bui ld ing mate rial s for any purpose but that forwhich they we re des igned .

1

The re i s anothe r mosque at Bharoch , not un l ike th is one indesign but smal le r, be ing on ly 1 35 ft. ove r all north and south ,

1 For an account and drawings of the Cambay Mosque , etc. , see‘Archaeological

Survey of Western India, ’ vol . vi . pp . 23-29 and plate 1 7 to 24.

VOL . I I .

24 2 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I

and i t has—now ,at least—no courtyard but some of its de tai l s

,

borrowed from H indu temple s , are ve ry beautifu l .1About 80 mile s south-east from Ahmadabad is Champani r,hich was subjugated by Mahmud Begarah in 1484 and made

Plan of the Jami ’ Masj id at Champan ir. Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

his new capital . Here he e rected a j ami’ Masj ld , which was

fin ished in 1 508 and may fa irly be regarded as archite ctural lythe fine st in Gujarat. I t measure s outs ide 1 7 8 ft . from north tosouth by 2 1 6 ft . from west to east . The court in front had

1 Archaeological Survey of Western India, ’ vol . vi . pp. 20 at sq . and plates 2 - 16 .

244 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Boox VI I .

al so with five domes—three in the middle of the facade , and one

in each of the wings . I t was e rected about 1485 , with minare tson each s ide the cent ral arch of a patte rn s im ilar to those at

Ahmadabad . A th ird mosque , e re cted in I 36 1 a lmost ent i re ly ofmate rial s from Hindu temple s , i s known as the TankaMasj id .

1

The most beautiful , howeve r, of the se provin cial example s i sthe tomb at Mahmudabad , of its class one of the most beautifu lin India (Woodcuts Nos . 400 and I t was e re cted in the

re ign of Mahmud Begarah , A.D . 1 484 , for Mubarak Sayyid ,one of h is m in is te rs . It was unde r the same sove re ign thatthe tomb of Qutbu- l ‘A lam was e rected at Batwa, described

Tomb ofMubarak Sayyid , near Mahmudabad . (From a Photograph . )

above (Woodcut No . and i s said to have been des ignedby the same architect . This is , howeve r, a far more successfulexample ,

and though smal l—it i s on ly 94 ft . square , exclusiveof the porch—the re i s a s impl ic i ty about i ts plan ,

a s ol id ityand balance of parts in the des ign, which is not always foundin the se tombs , and has rare ly, i f eve r, been surpassed in any

1 ‘ Archaeological Survey of Western India, ’ vol . vi . pp . 32f. and plates 28-34 ;pp . 36f. and plates 50 54 .

CHAP. V. GUJARAT : PROVINCIAL BUILDINGS. 245

tomb in Ind ia . The detai l s,too

,are all e legan t and appropriate ,

so that i t on ly wan ts somewhat increased d imens ion s to rankamong the ve ry fi rs t of its class . I ts const ructive arrangemen ts , too , are so pe rfect that no al terat ions in them would berequ ired , i f the scale had been ve ry much increased .

The tomb itse l f i s surrounded by a screen of pe rforatedstone -work of the very finest trace ry, and with its doubleve randah aids in giving the sepu l chral chambe r that seclus ionand repose so ind ispensable in mausoleum .

l

1 ‘ Archaeological Survey of Western with numerous drawings and photographs,India, ’ vol . vi . pp . 45 f. and plates 1 , vols . vi . to ix . of the same Western India7 1 to 7 5 . For a ful ler accoun t of the Survey may be consul ted .

Muhammadan architecture of Gujarat


CHAPTER V I .

MALWA .

CONTENTS .

Dhfir—The Great Mosque at Manda—The Palaces .

CHRONOLOGY .

Sul tan D ilawar Ghfi ri A D . 1401 Sul tan Gh iyfis Shii h Khalj i A. D . 1475Sul tan Hushang Ghfiri 1405 Su l tan Nasi r Shah 1 500Muhammad Ghazni Khan 1434 Sul tan Mahmud I I . 1 5 10Mahmud Shah I . Khalj i, Malwa incorporated with

cotemp . Rfina Kumbha of GujaratChitor annexed by Akbar

THE Ghu ri‘ dynasty of Mandu attained independence about thesame t ime as the Sharqi s of Jaunpur,—Su1tan D i lawar

,who

gove rned the province of Malwa from AD 1 387 , having assumedthe t itle of Shah in A.D . 140 1 . I t is , howeve r, to his successorHu shang, that Mandu owes i ts greatne ss and all the fine st ofi ts bu i ld ings . The state con t inued to prospe r as one of theindependen t Mosl im principal i t ie s t i l l A.D . 1 530, when i t wasincorporated with Gujarat, and was final ly annexed to Akbar’sdomin ion in A.D . 1 569 .

The original capital of the state was Dhar, an o ld H induc ity

,about 24 mile s northward of Mandu , to which the seat of

government was transferred afte r i t became independen t .Though an old and venerated city of the Hindus, Dhar containsno evidence of i ts forme r greatness

,except two mosques e rected

whol ly of Hindu remains . The principal of these , the Jami’

Masj id,has a courtyard measu ring 102 ft . north and south

,by

1 3 1 ft . in the othe r d irection . The mosque i tse l f i s 1 19 ft . by 40ft . 6 in .

,and i ts roof i s supported by s ixty-four pi l lars o f H indu

architecture,1 2 ft . 6 in . in he ight

,and all of them more or le ss

richly carved , and the three dome s that adorn i t are al so ofpure ly H indu form . The court i s surrounded by an arcadecon tain ing forty-four columns

,10 ft . in he ight , but equal ly rich in

carving . There i s he re no screen of arche s, as at the Qutb or atAjmir. Internal ly noth ing is vis ible but H indu pi l lars, and,


4 or 5 miles east and west, and 3 miles north and south,most pleas ingly d ivers ified in surface , abounding in wate r

,

and fert i le in the highest degree , as is too plain ly evidencedby the rank vege tat ion , which was tearing the bui ld ings of thec ity to piece s or obscuring them so that , t i l l qu ite late ly, theycould hardly be seen .

The De lh i gate on the north of the fort ificat ion s by whichthey are en tered , has been a fi ne lofty structure , though now

much ruined : i t al so i s pure ly Pathan in style , but unusual lye legan t in proport ions and decorat ion .

The finest bui ld ing in the c ity is the Jami ’Maspd ,commenced

by Hushang Shah , the second k ing, who re igned from A.D . 1405to A.D . 1434, but i t was on ly fin ished byMahmud Shah I . in 1454 .

Though not very large , i t i s so s imple and grand in outl ine and

detai l s , that i t ranks high among the monuments of i ts class . I tsd imens ions are exte rnal ly 290 ft . from east to we st

, exclus ive ofthe porch on the east—which projects about 5 5 ft.—by 27 1 ft .from north to . south .

In te rnal ly, the courtyard i s almost an exact square of1 62 ft .

,and in othe r

respects the fou r s ide sof the court are exactlys imi lar

,each be ing

ornamen ted by e levengreat arche s ofprec ise lythe same d imens ion sand he ight, supportedby pie rs or pi l lars

, each10 ft. high , ofone s ingleblock of red sandstone .

The on ly varie ty at

tempted is , that the easts ide has two arcade sin depth

,the north and

south three : while thewe st s ide , or that facingMecca

,has fi ve

,bes ide s

be ing ornamen ted bythree great domes

, each42 ft . in diame te r.

As wil l be seen on

the plan (Woodcut

Sketch plan ofMosque at Manda.

NO ' these largeScale 1 1 4 ft . to x in .

dome s,

are supportedeach by twe lve pi llars .

The pi l lars are all equal ly spaced , the arch ite ct having omitted ,

CHAP . v1 . MALWA—MANDU . 249

for the sake of un i form ity,to widen the central avenues on

the inte rsection of which the dome s stand . I t fol lows fromthis that the four s ide s of the octagon supporting the dome ,which are paral le l to the s ides of the court

,are shorte r than

the four diagonal s ide s . In ternal ly,thi s produce s a ve ry

awkward appearance ; but i t cou ld not have been avoidedexcept by runn ing into anothe r d iffi culty — that of havingoblong Spaces at the inte rsection s of the wide r ai sles with thenarrowe r, to which the smal le r domes must have been fi tted .

Pe rhaps, on the whole,the architect took the le ss inconven ient

course of the two .

The in te rior of the court is represen ted in Woodcut No . 403 ,and for s imple grandeur and expression of powe r i t may ,

perhaps ,

403 . Courtyard of Great Mosque at Mandu. (From a Sketch by the Author . )

be taken as

'

one of the ve ry be st spe c imen s now to be found inInd ia. I t was, howeve r , fast fal l ing to decay , and a few yearsago con siderable repai rs we re executed on i t and othe rs of theMandfi monuments at the expense of the Dhar state .

The tomb of the founde r,which stands behind the mosque ,

though no t remarkable for s ize,i s a ve ry grand specimen of

the last re st ing-place of a ste rn old Pathan king . Both in te rnal ly and external ly it is reve ted with white marble , artistical ly,but not constructive ly

,appl ied

,and consequently was in many

places pee l ing o ff. The l ight is admitted by the doorway and

2 50 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. Boox VI I .

two smal l windows by the s ides of it, and by three pe rforatedmarble screens on the north s ide , so that the interior i s not moregloomy than seems su itable to its de st ination .

On one s ide of the mosque i s a splendid Dharmasala orhal l

,230 ft . long, supported by three range s of pi l lars , twenty

e ight in each row. These are of a patte rn pure ly H indu ; on lyon the capital s the kz‘rttz 'mu/ek or horned gorgon face

,so frequen t

in Hindu decorat ion ,has been hewn into a group of leaves of

the same outl ine ; and on the north s ide i s a porch,of which

the pi l lars and s tyle are pure ly H indu .

The palace s of Mandu are,howeve r

,perhaps even more

remarkable than i ts mosques . Of these the principal i s cal ledJahaz Mahal l or “ wate r palace

,

” from its be ing s ituated be tweentwo great tanks—almost l iteral ly in the wate r

,l i ke a

“ sh ip .

”

I t is a mass ive structure , the eastern facade be ing about 360ft . long and 40 ft . in he ight , in the cen tre of which is thearched entrance

,faced with marble , and st i l l in fai r pre serva

t ion ; ove r i t i s a projecting corn ice supported on bracke ts,

above which is a bracke ted bal cony unde r an oblong pavi l ion .

In the fron t of the lower storey on each side are five archesunde r a deep overhanging corn ice , and ove r each end of thefacade i s a domed pavi l ion . On one s ide i s a ru ined wing ofthe palace branching off from i t ; and on the oppos ite s idewe re othe r apartments and a stai r leading up to the roof. Seen

from the west , where i t ove rhangs the lake, th is i s al toge the ra strik ing bui ld ing. I ts mass and picture sque outl ine makei t one of the most remarkable ed ifice s of its date ; very un l ikethe refined e legance afte rwards in troduced by the Mughal s,but we l l worthy of be ing the res idence of an independentPathan chief of a warrior state .

The principal apartmen t i s a vaulted hal l,some 24 ft . wide

by twice that length,and 24 ft. in he ight , flanked by buttresses

mass ive enough to support a vaul t fou r t imes its section .

Across the end of the hal l i s a range of apartments threestoreys in he ight

,and the upper one s adorned with rude , bold ,

bal con ied windows . Beyond this i s a long range of vaultedhal l s

,standing in the wate r

,which were apparen tly the l iving

apartmen ts of the palace . L ike the rest of the palace they are

bold,and mass ive to a degree se ldom found in Indian ed ifices

,

and produce a corre sponding e ffect .On the brink of the precipice overlook ing the val ley of

the Narbada i s anothe r palace,cal led that of Baz Bahadur,

of a l ighte r and more e legan t characte r—bui l t apparently byNas iru-d-D

’

i‘

n Khalji“ in 1 509 , but even more ru ined than the

northe rn palace— some port ions of the courtyards and the

cupolas ove r the colonnades are almost the on ly parts that


the bui lders clung steadily to the pointed arch style,without

any attempt, howeve r, at groin ing—so successful ly employedat a late r pe riod by the Mughal architects .1

1 ‘History of Mandu, by a Bombay Bombay Br. R . Asiatic Society, ’ vol . xix .

Subal te rn ’

(Lieut . B lake ), B ombay pp . 1 54-201 vol . xx i .

reprint , 1 87 5 ; Capt . C . Harr is, Ruins pp. 378 39 1 ;‘ Archaeological Survey

of Mandoc, ’ fol . ( 1860) ‘ Journal of the Annual Report , 1903 pp . 30-45 .

CHAP. VI I . BENGAL . 25 3

CHAPTER V I I .

BENGAL .

CONTENTS .

Bengal i roofing - Qadam- i-Rasfi l Mosque , Gaur —Sona, Adinah and Eklakh i

Mosques, Maldafl Minar—Gateways .

CAPITAL—GAUR .

IT i s not ve ry easy to unde rstand why the arch itects of Malwashou ld have adopted a style so e ssen tial ly arcuate as that whichwe fi nd in the capital , while the i r bre thren ,

on e i the r hand,at

Jaunpur and Ahmadabad,clung so fondly to a trabeate form

whe reve r they had an opportun i ty of employing it. The Manduarchitects had the same in i tiat ion to the Hindu forms in the

mosque at Dhar and the re must have been innume rable Hinduand Jaina temple s to furn ish mate rial s to a far greate r extentthan we fi nd them util ised

,but we ne i the r fi nd them borrowing

n

'

or im itat ing,but adhe ring steadi ly to the poin ted -arch style

,

which is the e ssent ial Characterist ic of the i r art in fore igncoun trie s . I t i s easy to understand

,on the othe r hand , why in

B engal the trabeate style neve r was in vogue . The countryis practical ly without stone

,or any suitable mate rial for forming

e ithe r pil lars or beams . Having nothing but brick , i t wasa lmost of ne ce ss ity that they employed arche s eve rywhe re , andin eve ry build ing that had any pretens ions to pe rmanency . The

Bengal style be ing,howeve r

,the on ly one whol ly of brick in

India Prope r,has a local individual i ty of its own , which is

curious and inte re sting,though

,from the natu re of the mate rial ,

deficient in many of the highe r qual i t ie s of art whichcharacte rise the bu ild ings constructed with large r and be tte rmaterial s . B es ide s e laborating a pointed -arched brick style ofthe i r own, the Bengal i s introduced a new form of roof, whichhas had a most importan t influence on both the Muhammadanand Hindu s tyles in more mode rn t imes . As a l ready mentioned

escribing the Chhatr’I‘ at A lwar (ante, p . the Benga l is ,tak ing advantage of the e lasti ci ty of the bambu , un iversal ly

25 4 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOKVI I .

employ in the i r dwe l l ings a curvi l inear form of roof, which hasbecome so famil iar to the i r eyes , that they cons ide r i t beautiful(Woodcut No . I t i s so in fact when bambu ari 'd thatch

are the mate rial s employed , but whentran slated into stone or brick archite cture

,i ts taste i s more que st ionable .

There i s , howeve r, so much that i sconven t ional in architecture

,and beauty

depends to such an exten t on associat ion

,that strange rs are hardly fai r judge s

in a case of this sort. Be this as i tmay ,

ce rtain i t i s,at all events , that

afte r be ing e laborated in to a featu reof permanen t arch itecture in Bengal

,

404. Modem Curved Form 01th is curvi l inear form found its way in

Roof. the 1 7 th centu ry to De lhi , and in the

1 8th to Labor, and all the in te rmediatebu i ld ings from

,

“

say A.D . 1 6 50, betray its presence to a greate ror less exten t .I t i s a curious i l lustrat ion

,howeve r

,of how much there i s

in architecture that i s convent ional,and how far famil iarity may

rende r that beautifu l wh ich is not so abstractedly that , whileto the European eye th is form always rema ins unpleas ing, tothe nat ive eye

—Hindu or Muhammadan—it i s the most e legan tof mode rn inven t ions . 1

Even i rrespective,howeve r

,of its local pe cul iarit ie s

,the

archite cture of Gaur,the Muhammadan capital of Bengal ,

de serves attent ion for i ts exten t and the immense varie ty ofdetai l which i t d isplays . I t was in A.D . 1 1 9 3 that Qutbu-d

D in A ibak captured De lh i,and in the same year Muhammad

Bakhtyar Khalj i extended the Mosl im conquests down the

Gange s as far as Bengal . Immediate ly he took Nadiya hee stabl ished himse l f

,in 1 194, as gove rnor at Lakhnauti or Gaur, in

which office he was afte rwards confi rmed by the Sultan . The

succe ss ive governors ruled with almost independen t authority ,and in 1 282 Nasi ru-d -D in Bughra Khan

,a son of the empe ror

Ghiyasu-d-Din Balban

,was appoin ted gove rnor, and the office

became hereditary in his family . In 1 3 38 Fakhru-d-Din

Mubarak rebe l led and s lew the gove rnor Qadar Khan ,and

separate gove rnors ru led in Eas t and We st Bengal . But, in

1 345 , Shamsu-d-Din I lyas assass inated the ru le r of West Bengal ,

de testable in themand admire themomed to them .


brick—whereas at Jaunpur, for instance , l ight pi l lars carriedhorizon tal architrave s and flat ce i l ings .

The gene ral characte r of the style wil l be seen in the

example from a mosque cal led the Qadam - i-Rasfi l at the southeast gate of the fort at Gaur, and i s by no means devoid ofarchitectural me rit (Woodcut No . The sol id i ty of thesupports go far to redeem the inheren t weakness of brick archi

Qadam- i-Rasul Mosque , Gaur . (From 8 . Photograph . )

tecture , and by"

giving the arche s a fi rm base to start from,

prevents the smal lness of the i r parts from inj uring the gene raleffect . The facade i s re l ieved by horizontal mould ings and

pane l s of moulded brick , whi ls t string - course s of the sameextend its whole length . I t al so presents

,though in a ve ry

subdued form ,the curvi l inear form of the roof

,which is so

characte ri sti c of the style .

1 I t was buil t by Nasrtone

CHAP. VI I . BENGAL. 2 5 7

In Gau r itse l f,the Golden or Sona Masp d , cal led the

Barah Darwaza,or twe lve -doored , i s a ve ry handsome mosque .

The facade i s in stone , and cove red with fol iaged patternsin low-re l ie f

,borrowed eviden tly from the terra- cotta ornamen ts

which we re more frequently employed , and cont inued a favouritemode of adorn ing facade s down to the t ime of the e rection ofthe Kantanagar temple i l lustrated above (Woodcut No . 3In the inte riors of the mosque s the pi l lars have gene ral ly beenremoved

,and the vaults consequen tly fal len in ,

so that i t i s noteasy to j udge of the i r e ffect , even if the j ungle would admitof the whole area be ing grasped at once . The i r gene ral d isposit ion may be judged of, howeve r, by the plan on next page(Woodcut No . 406 ) of the Adinah mosque at Pandua, wh ichformed at the t ime i t was e rected the northe rn suburb of theca i tal .p

The Barah SonaMaspd, outside the fort to the north-east,

i s pe rhaps the fine st memorial now left at Gaur. B ui l t byNas rat Shah in 1 526 , i t is 1 68 ft. in length by 76 ft . outside , withwal ls 8 ft. th ick and faced ins ide and out with hornblende .

I t has e leven arched entrance s in fron t, each 5 ft. 1 1 in . wide,and

14 ft. high. The se en te r the fron t corridor, the arche s of whichsupport the e leven domes of the roof. Beyond th is i s themasj id prope r

,of which the roof has all fal len ; i t had three longi

tud inal a is les , supported by twen ty pil lars , and the re we re e levenmihrabs in the wal l . At both sides of the doorways at the endsof the corridor

,and at the back corne rs we re polygonal m inarets

of brown basal t,s ix in all

,but the i r heads are now ru ined . From

i ts mass ive sol id ity and s ize th is i s an imposing bui ld ing indeedthis characte rist ic of the Gaur architecture forms a strik ingcon trast to the l ighte r arcades of much of the Saracen i c style .

From inscriptions upon i t,i t appears that the Adinah masj id

was e rected by S ikandar Shah , one of the most i l lustrious o fh is race (A.D . 1 35 8 with the in ten tion of be ing himse l fburied within its pre cincts , or in i ts immediate ne ighbourhood .

1

I ts d imens ions are cons iderable , be ing nearly 507 ft . northand south , and 285 ft . east and we st . In the centre i t con tainsa courtyard nearly 400 ft . by 1 54 ft . , surrounded on all s ide s bya th ick wal l of brick

,d iv ided by e ighty-n ine s imi lar arched

open ings , on ly one of which,that in the centre of the we st s ide

fac ing Mecca,i s wide r and more d ign ified than the re st. The

roof in l ike manne r was supported by some 260 pi l lars about2 ft . square , at the base and 1 0 ft . 5 in . high—some of one blockof black hornblende and othe rs bu il t s imi lar in des ign to thoserepre sented in Woodcut No. 405 . They are bold and pleasing in

1 His ruined tomb is attached to the west wal l near its north end .

VOL . I I . R

25 8 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOKVI I .

design ,but i t must be con fessed wan ting in varie ty. The se

with the wal l s supported no less than 37 8 domes , all s imilar inde s ign and con struction . The on ly variat ion that i s made iswhe re a platform ,

cal led the Badshah-ka-Takht, the King

’s11' 1

m_x 7

,

- % a a a a a a a e a a a

R a g g a Z:

Throne or Royal Gal le ry,d ivide s a part of the bu i ld ing in to two

s toreys . This is supported by twenty-one short pi l lars of muchheavier form

,and has othe rs , monol ith ic , and of a more e legan t

style above . But the roof has fal len and ve ry few of theothe r supporting pi l lars are intact .


i s at some d istance from the ground , and al toge the r i t look smore l ike an I rish round - towe r than any othe r exampleknown ,

though i t i s most improbable that the re shou ld be

any connection be tween the two forms . Probably a platformabout 1 5 ft . in he ight once su rrounded the base , but i f so ,i t has ent i re ly d isappeared . Ins ide , a spi ral s ta i r leads tothe smal l chambe r on the summit, once roofed by a dome .

I t is pe rhaps a pi l lar of victory— a Jaya-Stambha— suchas the Qutb M inar at De lh i , and those at Koil

,Daulatabad

,

and e l sewhe re . The re i s said to have been an inscript ionon this monumen t which ascribed its e rection to Sai fu-dDin Fi ruz Shah who re igned in Gau r A.D . 1488

- 1490,and

the characte r of the architecture fu l ly bears out th is adscript ion . The nat ive tradition i s , that a sain t, Pir Asi

‘

l,

1 l ived,l ike

S imon S tyl ite s , on i ts summit "Bes ide s these , the re are seve ra l of the gateways of Gaur

which are of cons iderable magn ificence . The finest is thatcal led the Dakhi l or Salami gateway, the north en trance intothe fort , said to have been bu i l t by Ruknu-d-Din Barbak Shah( 1460 which , though of brick, and adorned on ly withte rra-cotta ornaments , i s as grand an object of i ts class as i s tobe found anywhere . The gate of the c itade l , and the southe rngate of the C i ty

,are ve ry noble example s of what can be done

with bricks,and bricks on ly . The latte r of these

,known as

the Kotwal ’i Darwaza, i s a handsome and impos ing gatewayleading from the south s ide of the old city, and , except above ,i s in pretty good pre se rvat ion . To the apex of the arch i s3 1 ft. and the depth is 5 1 ft . , and on the south it was providedwith semicircu lar abutments on each s ide for the mil itaryguard .

2

I t i s not , howeve r, in the d imensions of i ts bu i ld ings or thebeauty of the i r detai l s that the glory of Gaur re s ides ; i t i s in thewonde rful mass of ru in s stre tching along what was once the highbank of the Ganges , for nearly twen ty mile s, from Pandua southward s—mosque s sti l l in use

,mixed with mounds cove ring ru in s

—tombs,temple s , tanks and towe rs , scatte red without orde r ove r

an immense distance , and long hal f buried in a l uxuriance ofvege tat ion which on ly th is part of India can exhibit. Whatlooks poor

,and may be in indiffe ren t taste , drawn on pape r and

reduced to scale , may give an idea of splendour in decay when

1 Probably a corruption of Firuz -Shah . 80 ; Maj or Francklin’

s‘Journal of a Route

2 J . H . Ravenshaw’

s Gaur , i ts Ru ins from Rajmehal to Gaur in (MS .

and Inscription s ’

(4to , London , 1 878 ) in India Office ) Cunn ingham ,

‘Reports, ’

Mon tgomery Martin ’

s‘ Eas te rn India, vol . xv . pp . 39

-94, and plates 1 3-26 .

vol . i i . pp. 643-658, and vol . 111. pp . 67

CHAP . VI I . BENGAL .

seen as i t i s , and in th is respect the re are none of the ancientcapital s of India which produce a more s trik ing

,and at the same

t ime a more profoundly me lancholy , impress ion than these ru in sof the old Afghan capital of Bengal . 1

1 The clearance of undergrowth by the to these remains since then have renderedin troduction of cul tivation in 1 879 , and them much more accessible .

the atten t ion of the Bengal Governmen t


CHAPTER V I I I .

KULBARGA.

CONTENTS

The Mosque at Kulbarga—Madrasa at B idar—Tombs.

CHRONOLOGY .

’

Aléu d Din Hasan Gangfi ,’Aléu-d-D in Ahmad Shah I I . A.D . 1435

B ahm an i , a s e r v an t i n Kal im A llah Shah , last of theMuhammad Tughlaq’s court A.D . 1 347 Bahman i dynastyMuhammad Shah I . Ghfiz i 1 358

Mujahid Shah . 1 37 5Mahmud Shah I . (or Muhammad Qfisim I . , Barid

,founder of

Shah I I . ) 1 378 Barid Shahi dynasty of B idarTaju-d D in Firuz Shah marr ied ’Ali Barid Shahi , assumeddaughter of D evaraya of royal tyVijayanagar . 1 397 Amir Bar id Shah , last of hisAhmad Shah I . capital B idar 1422 race

THE campaigns of ’

A lau -d -D in and of Tughlaq Shah in the

beginn ing of the 14th cen tu ry extended the fame and fear ofthe Mosl im powe r ove r the whole pen in su la of Ind ia, as far as

Cape Comorin and the S traits o f Manar. I t was almos timposs ible

,howeve r

,that a state in the semi-barbarous cond ition

of the Afghan s of that day could so organ ise a gove rnment asto ru le so extens ive and varied an empire from one centralpoint

,and that as remote as De lh i . Tughlaq Shah fe l t th is ,

and proposed to es tabl ish the capital at Dau latabad . I f he hadbeen able to accompl ish this

, the whole of the south might havebeen pe rmanently conque red . As i t was

,the Ballala dynasty

of Halebid was destroyed in A.D . and that of Worangal

crippled but not final ly conque red ti l l some t ime afte rwards ,while the ri s ing powe r of V ijayanagar formed a barrie r whichshie lded the southe rn state s against Muhammadan encroachmen t for some centurie s afte r that t ime ; and but for the establishment of Muhammadan k ingdoms independen t of the central

1 An te, vol . 1. p . 437 .


s ix smal l domes each , whi lst on each end of the s ide corridorsare domes of 25 ft . in width .

Having on ly one example of the class,i t i s not easy to form

an opin ion which of the two systems of bu i ld ing is the bette r.

Mosque at Kulbarga . (From a Plan by the Hon . S ir Arthur Gordon ,

now Lord Stanmore . ) Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

The re i s a repose and a solemn i ty which i s s ingularly su ited toa place of praye r, in a courtyard enclosed by cloiste rs on all

s ides,and on ly pie rced by two or three doors but , on the othe r

hand , the heat and glare ari s ing from reflect ion of the sun’s raysin these open courts is some t imes most painfu l in such a cl imate

CHAP . VI I I . KULBARGA.

as India, and nowhere , so far as I know,was i t ever even

attempted to modify this by awn ings . On the Kulbarga plan ,

on the contrary,the sol id roof cove ring the whole space afforded

409 . Half elevation half section of the Mosque at Kulbarga . Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

View of the Mosque at Kulbarga . (From a Photograph . )

protection from the sun ’s rays to all worshippe rs , and eve ry ai s lebe ing open at one or both ends

,prevented anything l ike gloom ,


and admitted of far freer venti lation than was attainable in theenclosed courts , while the requis ite privacy could eas i ly havebeen obtained by a l ow enclos ing wal l at some distance fromthe mosque i tse l f. On the whole

,my impress ion i s that the

Kulbarga plan i s the pre fe rable one of the two,both for con

ven ience and for architectural e ffect, so much so indeed , thati t i s ve ry d ifficu l t to unde rstand why

,when once tried

,i t was

neve r afterwards repeated . Probably the cause of i ts be ingabandoned was the difficu l ty of d rain ing so extens ive a flat

roof during the rains . Any se ttlemen t or any crack must havebeen fatal ; yet this mosque stands in seemingly good repai r,afte r four cen turies of comparat ive neglect . Whichever waythe quest ion i s de cided , i t must be admitted that th is i s one ofthe finest of the old mosques of India

,at least among those

which are bu i l t whol ly of original material s—and in the arcuatestyle of Muhammadan art . Those at De l hi and Ajmi r are

more inte resting of course,but i t i s from adven t itious c i rcum

stances . This owe s i ts greatness on ly to its own original mer itsof des ign .

1

Besides the mosque , the re i s in Kulbarga a bazar, 570 ft .

long by 60 ft . wide,ove r all, adorned by a range of s ixty-one

arche s on e ithe r hand,supported by pil lars of a quasi-Hinda

characte r,and with a block of bu i ld ings of a ve ry ornamen tal

characte r at e ithe r end . I am not aware of anything of its c lassmore strik ing in any part of India. The arcades that mostresemble this are those that l ine the s tree t cal led the S tree t ofthe Pi lgrims

,at V ijayanagar

,which may be con temporary with

this bazar.The re are othe r bui ld ings

, especial ly one gigan t i c gateway,in the C i ty of Kulbarga

,in fron t of the shrine or Dargah of Banda

Nawaz , bui l t about 1 640 ; and in the east of the town are somevery grand old tombs— of seven of the Bahmani kings—mass ivesquare domed structure s

,with mping wal l s

,and with some

handsome stone trace ry on the oute r surfaces,but othe rwise of

l i tt le arch itectural me ri t ; inside they are e laborate ly fin ished ,but have been

,and are st i l l, used as Gove rnmen t office s and

residence s .

Afte r the seat of governmen t was removed to B idar, a l i ttleover s ixty mile s to the north-east of Kulbarga, by Ahmad

1 For the plan and section of this The mosque is now in a dilapidate‘dmosque I am indebted to my friend the condition . In an attempt to repair i t atHon . Sir Arthur Gordon (now Lord one time , an old powder magaz ine closeS tanmore) . He made the plans himse lf, by was exploded and the work was

and most l iberal ly placed them at my stopped . But i t has since been takendisposal . up afresh .


CHAPTER IX .

BIJAPUR.

CONTENTS

The Jam i’ Masy d—Tombs of Ib rahim and Mahmud- “ The Aud ience Hall

M ihtar i Mahall Golkonda Tomb s Tomb of Nawab Amir Khan,near Tat ta.

CHRONOLOGY.

Vfisuf’AgiI Shah A.D . 1490

’Al i ’Adil §hah 1 .

I sma‘ i l 1AdiI Shah 1 5 10 Ibrahim ’Adi1

AShah I I .

Mallfi’Ad Shfih 1 534 Muhammad ’Adil Shah

Ibrahim ’Adil sash I . 1 5 35’Al i Adil Shah I I .

AS mentioned above , the Bahmani dynasty of Kulbarga maintained the struggle agains t the Hindu principali t ie s of thesouth for nearly a century and a hal f, with ve ry l ittle ass is tancefrom e ithe r the central powe r at De lh i or the i r cognate statesin the Dekhan . Be fore the end of the 1 5 th century, howeve r,they began to fee l that de cay inhe ren t in all Easte rn dynastie sand the Hindas m ight have recove red the i r original possess ions ,up to the V indhya at least , but for the appearance of a new and

more vigorous compe titor in the fie ld in the person of Yusuf’Adi l Khan

,supposed to have been the son of Sultan Murad I I .

of Anatol ia. He was thus a Turk of pure blood , and born in

Constan t inople , though his mothe r was forced to send himthen ce whi le he was sti l l an in fan t . After a varied caree r hewas purchased for

,and found se rvice in the body-guard of Ami r

Barid at B idar,and soon rai sed himse l f to such pre -eminence

that on the de feat of Dastur Dinar, in 1 50 1 , he was enabled toproclaim his independence and e stabl ish himse l f as the founde rof the ’Adi l Shahi dynasty of B ijapur.For the fi rst fi fty or s ixty years afte r the i r accession ,

the

struggle for existence was too seve re to admit of the ’Adi lShahis devoting much attent ion to architecture . The realbu i ld ing epoch of the c ity commence s with ’

Ali , A.D . 1 5 57 ,and all the importan t bu ild ings are crowded into the 1 00

CHAP. IX. BIJAPUR. 269

years which e lapsed be tween his access ion and the wars withAurangz ib , which ended in the fina l des truction of the dynasty .

During that pe riod,howeve r, the i r capital was adorned w i th

a se rie s of bu i ld ings as remarkable as those of any of the

Muhammadan capital s of India, hard ly excepting even Agraand De lh i , and showing a wonde rful original i ty of de s ign not

surpassed by those of such capital s as Jaunpur or Ahmadabad ,though differing from them in a most marked degree .

I t i s not easy now to dete rmine how far th is original ityarose from the European descen t of the ’Adi l Shahis and the i ravowed hatred of everything that be longed to the Hindas

,

or whether i t arose from any local c ircumstances, the valueof which we can now hard ly appreciate . The fore ign originof the ’

Adi l Shahi dynasty and the i r partial i ty for the Shiahform of I s lam prevai l ing in Pe rs ia, rathe r than the Sunni

,

toge the r with the i r ready employmen t of Pe rs ian ofl'

i cers , mayprobably have influenced the i r architecture

,and led to that

largene ss and grandeur which characte rised the Bijapfi r style .

Earl ie r Muhammadan invade rs , be fore the’

Ad i l Shahi s—unde r Karimu -d -Din

,about 1 3 1 6—had bu i l t a mosque in the

fort at B ijapu r,constructed out of H inda rema in s . How far

the pi l lars used there by them are torn from othe r bu i ld ings,

we are no t in formed .

\

I t would appear, howeve r, that i tcon sists partly Of the portico of a Hinda temple ; but this i snot incompatible with the idea that othe r port ions we re removedfrom the i r original pos it ion s and re -adapted to the i r presen tpu rpose s . Anothe r mosque

,known as Khwaja Jaban ’s

,dat ing

from about the end of the 1 5 th cen tury, re sembles a Hindatemple

,and was evidently e rected al so from mate rial s taken

from earl ie r fanes . But as soon as the new dynasty had le isureto think real ly about the matte r, they abandoned en t ire ly all

tendency to copy H inda forms or H inda de tai l s,but set to work

to carry out a poin ted -arched,or domical style of the i r own

,

and did i t with s ingular success . 1The Jami ’ Masj id

,which is one of the earl ie r regular

bui ld ings of the C ity, was commenced by

’

Ali’

Adi l Shah '

(A.D . 1 5 57 and though cont inued by h is successors on

the same plan , was neve r comple te ly fin ished,the fourth s ide

1 B ijapfi r has been s ingularly fortunate,

not on ly in the exten t , but in the modein which it has been i l lustrated . A se t

of drawings- plans , elevations , and de

tails—were made by M r A . Cumming,C .E .

,under the supe r in tendence of Capt .

Hart , Bombay Engineers, which , for

beauty of drawing and accuracy of de tai l .are unsurpassed . These were reduced

and published by me at the expense ofthe Gove rnmen t in 1 859 , in a foliovolume with seven ty -four plates , and

afterwards in 1 866 at the expense of theCommittee for the Publicat ion of theAn tiquities of Western I ndia, i l lustratedfurther by photographic views taken on

the spot by CO1. Biggs, R .A.


of the courtyard with its great gateway not having been evencommenced when the dynasty was overthrown . Even as i tis

,i t i s one Of the fine st mosques in Ind ia.

As wil l be seen from the plan (Woodcut No . i t wouldhave been ,

i f comple ted,a rectangle of 33 1 ft . by 2 57 ft . The

Plan of the Jami ’ MaSJlCl , B ijapur . Scale 1 00 ft . to 1 in .

mosque i tse l f i s perfect,and measure s 2 57 ft . by 145 ft . ,

and

consequen tly cove rs about sq . ft . I t consequently isin i tse l f j ust about equal to the mosque at Kulbarga ; butth is i s i rrespective of the wings

,which extend 1 86 ft. beyond ,

so that,i f 2 comple ted

,i t would have cove red about sq . ft .


(Woodcut No . i t wi l l be seen what immense stride s theIndian architects had made in constructive sk i l l and e leganceof de tai l during the cen tu ry and a hal f that e lapsed be tweenthe e rection Of the se two buildings . I f they we re drawn to thesame scale this would be more apparent than i t i s at firsts ight ; but on hal f the pre sen t scale the detai l s of the Kulbargamosque cou ld hardly be expre ssed , while the largene ss of theparts , and regularity of arrangeme nt can ,

in the scale adopted,

be made pe rfectly clear in the B ijapfi r example . The latteri s

,undoubtedly

,the more pe rfe ct of the two

,but the re i s a

pi cturesquene ss about the earl ie r bui ld ing , and a poe try abouti ts arrangemen ts , that go far to make up for the want of theski l l and the e legance exhibited in i ts more mode rn rival .

The tomb which ’

Ali’Ad i l Shah I I . ( 16 56 1 67 2) commenced

for himse l f was placed on a high square basemen t,measuring

2 1 5 ft . each way ,and had i t been completed as des igned would

have rival led any tomb in India. The cen tra l apartmen t i s79 ft . square , and i s surrounded by a double arcade

,the arche s

of which re semble the Gothic form be ing struck from twocentres

,and the curve s reaching the crown .

I t i s one of the d isadvan tage s of the Turan ian system ofeach king build ing his own tomb , that i f he die s early his workremains unfin i shed . This de fect i s more than compensated

in ract ice b the fact8 8 8 9 that

?un less a than build s

his own sepulchre, the

a a chance s are ve ry muchagainst anything worthyofadmirat ion be ing dedicated to h is memory byhis surviving re lat ives .H i s g ran d fa t h e r

,

I brahim I I . ( 1 579had commenced hismausoleum on so smal la plan— 1 1 6 ft . squarethat , as he enj oyed a

l ong and prospe rousre ign

,i t was on l by

§ I

ornament that he { ou ldrende r i t worthy of himse l f

,his favouri te wife ,

and othe r membe rs ofh is family .

1 This , however, he accompl ished

41 4. Tomb,

VI

or Rauza of Ibrahim . (From a Plan byI”

Vi r Cumming . ) Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

1 Zohra Sul tana, h is fav that thegraves of


apartmen t , 1 3 5 ft . 5 in . each way ; i ts area consequen tly issq . ft .

,whi le that of the Pan theon at Rome is

,with in

the wal ls , on ly sq. ft . ; and e ven taking into accoun t allthe recesse s in the wa l ls of both bu i ld ings

,th is is s t i l l the

large r of the two .

At the he ight of 57 ft. from the floor- l ine the hal l beginsto contract , by a se ries of pendent ive s as ingen ious as theyare beautiful , to a Ci rcu lar open ing 9 7 ft . in diame te r. On th e

platform of these pendent ive s at a he ight of 109 ft . 6 in . ,the

dome is e re cted , 1 24 ft . 5 in . in diamete r, thus leaving a gal le rymore than 1 2 ft . wide all round the inte rior. Inte rnal ly , thedome i s 1 7 8 ft . above the floor

,and exte rnal ly 1 98 ft . from the

outs ide platform ; i ts thickne s s at the springing is about 10 ft . ,

and at the crown 9 ft .The most ingen ious and nove l part of the cons truction of

4 1 6 . Pendentives of the Tomb of Muhammad , looking upwards . (From a Drawing byMr Cumming . ) Scale 50 ft . to I in .

this dome i s the mode in which its late ral or outward thrustis counte racted . This was accompl ished by forming the

pendent ive s so that they not on ly cu t off the angles , butthat , as shown in the plan

,the i r arches inte rsect one anothe r,

and form a very cons ide rable mass of mason ry pe rfe ctlys table in i tse l f ; and , by its we ight act ing inwards

,coun te r

acting any thrust that can poss ibly be brought to bear upon i tby the pressure of the dome . I f the whole ed ifice thus

CHAP . IX . BIJAPUR. 2 7 5

balanced has any tendency to move , i t i s to fa l l inwards , whichfrom its C i rcular form is imposs ible ; while the act ion of thewe ight of the penden t ive s be ing in the oppos ite d irect ion tothat of the dome

,i t acts l ike a t ie

,and keeps the whole in

equi l ibrium,without in te rfe ring at all with the outl ine of the

dome .

In the Pan theon and most European dome s a great massof mason ry is thrown on the haunches , which ~en t i re ly hide sthe exte rnal form

,and i s a s ingularly clumsy expedien t in

eve ry re spe ct compared with the e legan t mode of hanging the

we ight ins ide .

4 1 7 . Section of Tomb ofMuhammad at B ijapur . Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

Notwithstanding that this expedien t gives the dome a

pe rfectly s table bas is to stand upon,which no thrust can

move , sti l l , looking at the section (Woodcut No . its formis such that it appears almost paradox ical that such a build ing


should stand . I f the sect ion repre sented an arch or a vaul t,i t i s such as would not stand one hour ; but the dome i s itse l fso pe rfect as a construct ive expedien t

,that i t i s almost as

difficul t to bu i ld a dome that wi l l fa l l as i t is to bu i ld a vaul tthat wi l l s tand . As the dome i s a l so

,art istical ly

,the most

beautifu l form of roof ye t invented , i t may be we l l,be fore

pass ing from the most extraordinary and complex exampley e t attempted anywhe re

,to pause and examine a l i ttle more

C lose ly the theory of its construct ion .

Le t us suppose the d iagram to repre sen t the plan of a

pe rfectly flat dome 100 ft . in d iame te r, and each rim cousequently 10 ft . wide .

Furthe r assuming for conven ience that the whole domewe ighs tons

,the oute r rim wi l l we igh or almost

exactly as much as the three inne r rims put togethe r ; the

next wi l l we igh the next the next 942, and the

inne r on ly 3 14 so that a cons iderable extra thickness m ightbe heaped on

“ i t,or on the two inne r one s , without the i r pre

ponde rance at all affecting the stabil ity of the dome ; butthis i s the most unfavou rable view to take of the case . To

unde rstand the problem more Clearly , le t us suppose the

D iagram illustrative of Domical Construction .

semici rcle A A A (Woodcut No . 4 1 8) to repre sent the sect ionof a hemisphe rical dome . The fi rst segmen t of th is, thoughon ly 10 ft . in width , wil l be 30 ft . in he ight , and wil l we ightons the next, 10 ft . high and 10 ft . wide , wi l l we igh the

th ird,10 ft . by 6 ft . , wil l we igh on ly the fourth wil l

we igh 942 ; and the central portion ,as be fore , 3 1 6 .

Now it i s eviden t that the firs t portion ,A B

, be ing the

most pe rpendicular, i s the one leas t l iable to d isturbance orthrust

,and ,

be ing a l so two- th irds of the whole we ight of thedome , i f steady and firmly constructed , i t i s a more than suffi

cient abutment for the remain ing third , which is the wholeof the re st of the dome .

2 78 IN DIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I .

those seven storeyed palaces which come across u s so strange lyin all out of-the-way corne rs of the world . Add to this thatthe Asar- i Mubarak has been conve rted by the Muhammadansinto a re l i c shrine to con ta in some hai rs of the Prophe t’s beard ,

Audience Hall , B ijapur . (From a Photograph . )

and we have a picture of the strange difficul ty of wean ing a

Tartar from the innate prejud ice s of h is race .

B es ide s these two the re we re five othe r palace s with in thewal l s

,some of them of great splendour, and numbe rless

re s idences o f the noble s and attendan ts of the cou rt. But

about twen ty years ago the Bombay Governmen t adapted a

numbe r of these old bu i ld ings to mode rn requirements : theB ukhara Masj id has been u sed as a post office

,and the mosque

be longing to Muhammad ’s great tomb was turned in to a

t rave l le rs ’ re st-house,bu t both have again been re stored ; the

’

Adalat Mahal l was conve rted in to the col le ctor’s res idence , andthe Suraj Mahal l in to outhouses ; the Ch in i Mahal l into publ i coffi ce s ; the Anand Mahal l in to a re s idence for the Ass istan tCol lector ; Yaqut Dahali ’s Mahal l in to a trave l le r’s bangla ;Kawass Khan ’

s tomb and mosque in to house and office forthe Exe cutive Enginee r ; the Chhota Chini Mahal l in to a housefor the Pol i ce Superintendent ; and the

’

Arsh Mahal l into theC ivi l Surgeon ’s res idence .

One of the most remarkable ed ifices i s a l i ttle gateway,known as the Mihtari Mahal l . I t i s in a mixed H inda and

CHAP . IX . GOLKONDA. 2 79

Muhammadan style,every part and eve ry de ta i l cove red with

ornamen t,but always equal ly appropriate and e legan t . I t i s

about 24 ft . square in plan and three storeys high, su rmountedin front by two slende r turre ts . On the first floor are remarkably fine bal cony windows on each of the four s ide s . The floorsof the fi rst and se cond storeys are constructed in the same wayas that in the I brahim Rauza. I t formed the entran ce to a

mosque,and of i ts class it i s perhaps the bes t example in the

coun try,though th is Class may not be the highe st.

The gigan t ic wal l s of the c ity itse l f, 6} mile s in circumferen ce ,are a work of no mean magn i tude , and, combined with the tombsof those who bu il t them ,

and with the ru ins of the suburbs of thi sonce great c ity, they make up a scene of grandeur in de solat ion ,

equal to anything e l se now to be found even in India.

1

I f the materia l s we re avai lable for the purpose , i t would beextreme ly intere sting, from a historica l po in t of view

,to trace

the various style s that grew out of each othe r as the late rdynastie s of the Dekhan succeeded one anothe r and strove tosurpass the i r predecessors in arch ite ctural magn ificence in the i rsuccess ive capital s . With the exception

,howeve r

,of B ijapu r

,

none of the Dekhan i c it ie s produced ed ifices that,taken by

themse lves i rrespect ive of the i r surroundings and historical importance , seem to be , so far as we yet know,

of great val ue in an

artist ic sense .

Burhanpur, which was the capital of the Faruqi dynasty ofKandesh ,

from A. .D 1 370 to 1 596 , doe s possess some bu i ld ingsremarkable for the i r extent and picturesque in the i r decay

,

but of very l ittle artist ic val ue , and many of them—e special lythe late r one s—in ve ry que st ionable taste . Ahmadnagar

,the

capital of the N izam Shahi dynasty, A.D . 1490 to 1 607 , i ss ingularly deficien t in architectural grandeur, conside ring howlong it Was the capital of an importan t dynasty.

Golkonda, the chosen seat of the Qutb Shahi dynasty,

A.D . 1 5 1 2 to 1 687 , l ie s 6 mile s north-west from Haidarabad .

The first of the dynasty was Quli Qutbu-l-Mulk,a Tarkman or

Pe rs ian in the service of Mahmad Shah I I . Bahmani,who rose

to be gove rnor of the Te lingana distri cts , and who assumedindependence in 1 5 1 2 . I brahim

,the thi rd king

,Ferishta te l l s

1 Besides the two larger works and (2)‘The Great Dome of Sul tan

men t ioned above , p . 269 , note , Mr Muhammed , ’ D ec . 1 854 . Mr CousensFergusson con tributed to the " Frans made a survey of the B ijapii r buildingsactions of the Royal Institute of B ritish several years ago , but the resu lts haveArchitects, ’ I st ser. vol . v . ( 1854 not yet been publ ished . H is ‘

Guide totwo papers : Architectural Splendour B ijapur ( 1907 ) is a useful handbook .

of the Ci ty of Beejapore , ’ Nov. 1 854 ;


u s,was a great bu i lde r, the country be ing then in a very flourish

ing condition and his son ,Muhammad Quli

,founded Bagnagar

now Haidarabad , the N i z am’

s capital . The tombs of the kingsof this dynasty

,and of the i r noble s and famil ies here

,form as

extensive and as picturesque a group as i s to be found anywhe re ; they are just outs ide the wal l s , to the north-we st of theci ty

,and are not unworthy of a place in history i f the mate rials

we re avai lable for i l lustrat ing them prope rly. They stand on a

s l ightly rai sed site , each in the centre of a large quadrangularte rrace

,and had each a sma l l mosque or mural/[i attached . The

tomb of Muhammad Quli Qutb, e rected about 1 625 , one of thelargest and fine st, i s an imposing structure

,with a fine frieze

ove r the main storey . I t was once ornamen ted with colouredti les and exci ted the admirat ion of Thevenot who vis ited and

described i t in 1 667 . Among othe rs of pleas ing proportions i sthat of Abdul la Qutb Shah—the s ixth king ( 1 625 - 1 67 2 )—withrich parape ts and corn ices round the princ ipal and uppe r storeys .

Near by is the tomb of his mothe r, Haiyat Bakhsh Begam , who

d ied in 1 6 1 7 : i t i s about 6 5 ft . square , and structural ly is of thestyle of her son’s . Seve ral of these tombs we re repa i red by thelate S ir salar Jang . The re are al so on the outski rts of the c i tyother mausolea of the noble s of the court

,in various architectural

s tyle s of the se Plate XXX I . i l l us trate s two example s . But

un t i l the group has been drawn and in te l l igen tly described insome de tai l we can hard ly e stimate the i r merits

,which we know

gene ral ly to be con s iderable .

S INDH.

Among the minor styles of Muhammadan art in Ind ia the rei s one that would be s ingularly inte re st ing in a h istorical sen sei f a sufficien t number of example s existed to e luc idate i t

,and

they we re of sufficien t an t iqu ity to connect the style with thoseof the We st . From its s ituat ion

,a lmost outs ide India

,the

province of S indh must always have had a ce rtain affin i ty withPe rs ia and the coun tries lying to the westward of the Indus

,

and i f we knew its archi tectura l h i story we might probably beable to trace to the i r source many of the forms we cannot nowexplain ,

and j oin the styles of the East with those of the Westin a manne r we cannot at pre sen t pre tend to accompl ish .

The bui ld ings in th is province we re nearly always in brick,

stone be ing scarce ; and though they are not exposed to thedestructive agencie s of vege tat ion l i ke those of Bengal

, the

mortar i s bad , and sal t in the soi l r ises and dis in tegrates thebricks

,which are eas i ly picked out and uti l i sed by the nat ive s to

bui ld the i r huts or vi l lages .

CHAP . IX . SINDH . 28 1

Most of what we at pre sen t know be long to a se rie s of tombsin the ne ighbourhood of Tatta, which were e rected unde r theMughal dynasty by the gove rnors or great men of the province ,during the i r sway. At least the oldest now known i s that ofJam N i z amu-d-Din bui l t in 1 508, almost coeval with which i sthe Dabgir mosque of 1 509 , and late r is the tomb of Am i rKhali l Khan

,e rected in or about A.D . 1 572, the year in which

Akbar deposed the Jami dynasty and annexed S indh to h isempire . The tombs or mosque s of the earl ie r dynast ies havenot ye t been surveyed and de scribed . The late r se ries extendsfrom A.D . I 57 2- 1 640,

and all show a strongly-marked affin i ty tothe Pe rs ian style of the same or an earl ie r age . One examplemust for the pre sent suffice to explain the i r general appearance ,for they are all ve ry much al ike . I t i s the tomb of Sharfa Khan ,

420. Tomb of Nawab Sharfa Khan,near Tatta , A . D . 1 640. (From a Photograph . )

the Nawah or min iste r to Ami r Khan,who was gove rnor of the

province in the re ign of Shah Jahan,from A.D . 1 627 to 1 6 32 , and

afte rwards A.D . 1 64 1 to 1 6 50. The tomb was bui l t apparently inA.D . 1 638 (Woodcut NO. I t i s 38 ft . 4 in . square , i s ofglazed coloured brick

,the foundat ion and pl in th are of stone,


but it was , l ike all the othe rs of its class,ornamented with

coloured ti les, l ike those of Pe rs ia genera l ly, of great beauty ofpatte rn and exquis ite harmony of colouring .

1 I t i s not a ve rymonumental way of adorn ing a bui ld ing

,but

,as carried out on

the dome of the Rock at Je rusalem,in the midd le of the 1 6 th

or in the mosque at Tabri z in the beginn ing of the 1 3th cen tury,2and gene ral ly in Pe rsian build ings , i t i s capable of producing themost pleas ing e ffects .L ike the othe r tombs in the province , i t i s so s imilar to

Pe rs ian build ings of the same age , and so un l ike any othe r foundat the same age in India Prope r, that we can have l i ttle doubtas to the nat ional i ty of those who e rected them .

1 Abundan t examples of coloured section of the Jami’ Masj ld at Tatta, thereti les from the Jami’ Masj id at Tatta, are no drawings—plans and sections—toerected about 1 646 , and from tombs and explain the posit ions of the specimens inmosques in the province have been the various mosques and tombs frompublished in a Portfolio of I l lustrations which they are copied .

of S ind T iles, ’ by M r . H . Cousens (fifty 2 H istory of Ancien t and Medievalplates, atlas folio), 1906 . But, except a Architecture , ’ vol . i i . p . 5 73 .


comparison ,in some respects

,with any architectural productions

in any part of the world . The i r bui ld ings,however, are so

original,and so un l i ke any of the maste rpiece s of art that we

are general ly acquain ted with , that i t i s almost imposs ible toinst itute any comparison between them which shal l be sat i sfactory . How,

for instance,can we compare the Parthenon

with the Taj ? They are bui ld ings of nearly equal s ize and

magn ificence , both in white marble,both admirably adapted

fo r the purposes for which they we re bui l t but what e l se havethey in common ? The one i s s imple in i ts outl ine

,and depend

ing on pi l lars for i ts exte rnal adornmen t ; the othe r has no

pi l lars,and owe s i ts greate st e ffects to its s ingularly varied

outl ine and the mode in which its various parts are disposed,

many of them whol ly detached from the principal mass . The

Parthenon be longs , i t i s true , to a highe r class of art,i ts

sculptu re s rai s ing it into the region of the most inte l lectualbran ch of phone t ic art ; but , on the othe r hand

,the exquis ite

in lay of precious stone s at the Taj is so ae sthe t ical ly beautifulas

,in a mere ly arch itectural e stimate

,almost to bring it on a

leve l with the Gre cian maste rpiece .

1

Though the i r val ue,con sequen tly

,may be nearly the same

,

the i r forms are so e ssen t ial ly d i ffe ren t that they hard ly lookl ike productions of the same art ; and in an art so essen tial lyconven t ional as architecture a lways is and must be

,i t require s

l ong famil iari ty with any new form ,and a knowledge of its

origin and use,that can on ly be acqu ired by con stant study

,

which make s i t ve ry d ifficul t for a s trange r to real i se the realbeauty that often unde rl ie s even the strangest forms . When ,

howeve r,these difficul t ies are conque red

,i t wi l l probably be

found that the re are few among the Easte rn style s that dese rvemore attent ion

,and would bette r repay any study that m ight

be bestowed upon them,than the archite ctu re of the Mughal s .

Some l i ttle inte rruption s are expe rienced at the beginn ingof the narrat ive from the in terpolation of the re igns of She r Shahand his son Salim or I s lam in the re ign of Humayfi n . He was

an Afghan by de scen t and an Indian by birth,and , had he been

1 Adopting the numerical scale de

scribed in the in troduction to the ‘ TruePrin ciples of Beauty in A rt , ’ p . 140

(‘ H istory of Ancien t and Medieva lArchi tecture , ’ vol . i . pp . 5 , I estimatedthe Parthenon as possessing 4 parts oftechn ic value , 4 of aesthe tic , and 4phone tic

,or 24 as i ts Index number ,

be ing the highest known . The Taj Ishould on the con trary estimate as

possessing 4 techn ic, 5 aesthe tic, and 2

phone tic , not that i t has any directphone t ic mode of u t terance , but from the

s ingular and pathe tic distinctness withwhich every part of i t gives utterance tothe sorrow and affection i t was erectedto express . I ts index number would consequently be 20, which i s certainly as highas i t can be brought , and near enough tothe Parthenon for comparison at least .

CHAP. X. MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. 285

le ft to fol low his own device s , would , no doubt, have bui lt in thestyle of architecture used at Agra and De lh i be fore his countrymen we re disturbed by the Mughal invas ion . We have , i t i strue

,ve ry l itt le to te l l us what that style was during the 1 70

years that e lapsed be tween the death of Tughlaq Shah and thefi rst invasion of Babar

,but it seems to have been s ingularly

plain and sol id,and very un l ike the florid art introduced by the

Mughals,and practised by She r Shah and his son apparently

in rival ry to the new maste r of H industan . So l i tt le d iffe renceis there , howeve r, be tween the architecture of She r Shah and ofAkbar that they must be treated as one style , beginn ing in greatsobrie ty and e legan ce , and ending in someth ing nearly approaching to wi ldness and exube rance °

of decorat ion , but s t i l l ve rybeautiful— in some re spects superior to the chaste but feeblee legance of the later Mughal style that succeeded it .

The re i s,aga in , a l i ttle d ifficulty and con fusion in our having

no examples of the style as practised by Babar and Humayfin .

The we l l-known tomb of the latte r king was ce rtain ly bui lt byh is son Akbar ; Babar was buried near Kabul , and no bui ld ingknown to be his has ye t been ident ified in India. Yet that hedid bui ld is certain . In his own

‘Memoirs ’ he te l l s u s,

“ In

Agra al one,and of the stone -cutte rs be longing to that place

on ly,I eve ry day employed on my palace s 6 80 pe rsons ; and

in Agra, S ikri, B iana, Dholpur, Gwaliar, and Koil , the re we re

eve ry day employed on my works s tone - cutte rs .” 1 In the

fol lowing pages he describe s some of these works , and e spec ial lya Baoli of great magn ificence he excavated in the fort of Agra ?

This was in the year 1 526 , and he l ived to carry on these worksfor fi ve years longe r. During the ten years that h is son re ta inedthe empire

,we learn from Ferishta and othe r source s that he

adorned his capital with many splendid edifice s : one,a palace

con tain ing seven pavi l ions or audience hal l s—one dedicated toeach of the plane ts

,in which he gave audience on the day of the

week dedicated to the plane t of the day .

3 The re are traditionsof a mosque he i s said to have bu i l t on the banks of the Jamna

,

opposite where the Taj now stands ; and his name i s so frequent lyment ioned in connection with bu i ld ings both at Agra and De lh ithat the re can be l i ttle doubt that he was a bui lde r to as greatan exten t as the troubled characte r of his re ign would admit of.B ut his build ings have perished

,so that practical ly the history

of Mughal architecture commence s with the bui ld ings of anAfghan dynasty who occupied the throne of India for s ixteenyears during the last part of Humayfin

’

s l i fe time .

1 Memoirs, ’ translated -by Erskine , 2 Loc. c i t . pp . 34 1-

342 .

p . 334 .3 B rigg’s translation , vol . I I . p . 7 1 .


I t i s probable that ve ry cons iderable l ight wil l ye t be thrownupon the origin of the style which the Mughals in troducedinto Ind ia,

' from an examinat ion of the bu i ld ings erected at

Samarkand by T imur a hundred years before Babar’s t ime(A.D . 1 393 Now that c i ty is in the hands of the Rus s ians

,

i t is access ible to Europeans . I ts bui ld ings have been drawnand photographed

,but no t y et described so as to be avai lable

for s cient ific purpose s,but sufficiently so to ind icate the d ire ction

in which l ight may be expected . Though a frightful savagein most re spects

,T imur was possessed of a t rue Tu rk i love for

noble architecture ; and though he gene ral ly massacred the

inhabitan ts of any town that re s is ted him ,he always Spared the

archite cts and artists,and sent them to work on the embe l l i sh

ment of his capita l s . Samarkand was con sequen tly fi l led withsplendid edifices , but , so far as can be j udged from the mate rial savai lable , more resembl ing in style those of Pe rs ia than anythingnow known to exist in India. The bulbous dome appears eve rywhe re

,and was not known at that t ime in India

,un le ss i t was in

the quas i-P e rs ian province of S indh . Coloured ti les we re the

favouri te mode of decorat ion,and al toge the r the i r style was

gorgeous in the extreme as compared with the sobriety of thelate r Pathan bui ld ings in India.

SHER SHAH ,A.D . 1 5 39 1 545 .

Ce rtain ly one of the most remarkable men who eve r ruledin northe rn India

,though his re ign was l imited to on ly five years ’

durat ion ; and during that brie f space,disturbed by all the

troubles incident to a usu rpation, She r Shah left h is impress on

eve ry branch of the admin i strat ion . The revenue system ,the

pol ice,the army admin istrat ion

,all the great re forms , in fact ,

which Akbar so succe ssfu l ly carried out,we re commenced , and to

some extent pe rfected , by this usurpe r, as the Mughal s cal l h im .

In arch itecture,too

,which most conce rns us he re , he ce rtain ly

poin ted out the path by which his successor reached sucheminence .

The most pe rfe ct of his bui ld ings that I am acquain ted withi s the mosque in the PuranaKi la or Ki laKohna at De lhi . The

wa l l s of th is place we re repai red by Humay fin in A.D . 1 533 , and ,

accord ing to the latest authorit ies,i t i s said to have been bui l t

by She r Shah in A .D . 1 54 1 (P late I t is a s ingle hal l ,with fi ve open ings in front through pointed arche s of whatwe would cal l Tudor form

,but beauti ful ly varied in de sign ,

and

1 Cunn ingham ,

‘Reports

,

’ vol . i . p . 222 vol . iv. p . 74 Carr S tephen ’s

‘ Archaeology of De lhi, ’ p . 1 90 Fanshawe ’s De lh i, ’ p . 228, from which the plate is taken .

CHAP . X . MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. 2 8 7

arranged in pane ls carved with the most exquis ite des igns and

ornamented with parti - coloured marbles . I t i s 1 68 ft . long by44 ft . 6 in . wide , and about 44 ft . high . The brackets unde r thebalcon ie s are the precursors of the type so marked in the red

sandstone palace in the fort at Agra ; and the pendent ives ins ide ,

be low the dome , are e ffe ct ive . One important dome,pie rced

with twe lve smal l windows , crown s the centre i t has,howeve r,

no minare ts and no courtyard,but even without the se adj uncts i t

i s one Of the most sati sfactory bui ld ings of i ts class in India.

In the citade l at Agra the re stood when I was there,a

fragmen t of a palace bui l t by She r Shah , or his son Salim ,

which was as exqu is ite a piece of decorat ive art as anythingof its class in Ind ia . Be ing one of the fi rst to occupy the

ground,this palace was e rected on the highe st spot within the

fort hence our Gove rnment , fancying this a favourable s ite forthe e re ction of a barrack , pul led i t down , and replaced it by a

more than usual ly hideous brick e re ction of the i r own . Thisafte rwards became a warehouse , and looms

,in whitewashed

ugl iness,ove r the marble palace s of the Mughal s— a fi t standard

of compari son of the taste s of the two races . 1Judging from the fragmen t that remains , and the accoun ts

rece ived on the spot, this palace mus t have gone far to j ustifythe eulogium more than once passed on the works of the sePathans— that “ they bui l t l ike gian ts , and fin ished l ike goldsmiths for the stone s seem to have been Of enormous s ize

,and

the de ta i l s of most exqu is ite fin i sh . I t has passed away,how

ever, l i ke many anothe r noble bui ld ing of i ts class,unde r the

ruthless barbarism of our rule . Mosques we have gene ral lyspared , and some time s tombs , because they we re un su ited to oure conomic purpose s , and i t would not an swe r to offend the

re l igious fee l ings of the nat ive s . But when we deposed the kings,

and appropriated the i r revenues , the re was no one to claim the i rnow use le ss abode s of splendour . I t was consequently foundcheape r e i the r to pul l them down,

or use them as re s idencesor arsenals , than to keep them up , so that ve ry few now remainfor the admirat ion of poste rity .

The tomb of She r Shah has been al ready de scribed (an te,p . as i t i s e ssent ial ly Pathan in style . I t was e rected at

his nat ive place in B ihar, to the south of the Gange s , far fromMughal influence at that t ime

,and in the style of seve re

s impl ic ity that characteri sed the works of h is race be tween the

1 As I cannot fi n bui lding he cal ls thebui lding in Keene’s Akbar

’

s palace I

fort in h is book on any photograph of


t ime s of Tughlaq and those of Bahlol Lod i (A.D . 145 1 the

last real ly independen t k ing of his l ine .

I t i s not quite clear how much of the tomb was bui l t byhimse l f

,or how much by h is son Salim ,

who certa in ly fin ishedi t . Salim al so bu il t the Salimgarh on an i s land in the Jamna,which Shah Jahan afte rwards connected by a bridge with hispalace in New De lhi . Whe the r

,howeve r

,he e rected any

bu i ld ings ins ide i s not ce rtain— nothing at least now remain sof any importance . General ly he seems to have carried on

and comple ted his fathe r’s bui ld ings,and be tween them they

have le ft a group of archite ctura l rema ins which,i f col le cted

toge the r and i l l ustrated , would form an inte resting chapte r inthe history of Ind ian -Muhammadan styles .1

AKBAR ,1 5 56 - 1 605 .

I t would requ ire a volume to describe all the bui ld ingse re cted by this remarkable man du ring hi s long re ign of fortyn ine years , and a hundred plate s would hard ly suffice to makeknown all the i r pecul iari t ie s . Had Akbar been content tofol low in the l ine s of the sty le inven ted by the Pathans and

pe rfe cted unde r She r Shah, i t might be easy enough to fol lowthe sequence , but nothing in his characte r i s so remarkable as

the spirit of tolerance that pervaded all his acts . He seemsto have had as s ince re a love and admirat ion for his H indasubje cts as he had for those of his own creed

,and whe ther

from pol icy or incl inat ion , to have che rished the i r arts as

much as he did those that be longed exclus ive ly to h is own

people . The consequence i s a mixture throughout all hisworks of two styles

,often more picturesque than correct , which

might,in the course of anothe r hal f cen tu ry

,have been blended

in to a complete ly new style i f perseve red in . The spiri t oftole rance , howeve r, died with him . The re i s no trace ofH induism in the works of Jahangi r or Shah Jahan ,

and

Aurang z ib would have been horrified at the sugge stion thatarts of the infide ls could influence anything he did .

One probably of h is earl ie st works was the mausoleum ,

which he e re cted ove r the remains of his fathe r,Humayfin ,

at De lhi . Though i t certain ly was fin ished by Akbar,i t was

commenced by his widow, Haj i Begam Maryam -makani , and

1 I t is not quite clear how much British “ converted the beautiful D iwanRhotasgarh owes its magn ificence to Sher Khana , of which Dan ie l l published a

Shah , how much to Akbar ; both cer drawing,in to a stable for breeding

tainly buil t there , and on the spot i t horses.—Hamilton’

s‘ Gaze tteer, ’ rub

might easily be ascertained how much w ee.

belongs to each . Unfortunate ly the


wife l ies be s ide him ; but more general ly h is family and

re lat ions are buried beneath the col late ra l domes . When onceused as a place of burial , i ts vaults neve r aga in re sound withfe stive mirth . The care of the build ing is handed ove r topriests and faqirs , who gain a scan ty subsistence by the saleof the fru its of the garden , or the alms of those who come tovis it the last resting-place of the i r friend or maste r. Pe rfe cts i lence take s the place of fe st ivity and mirth . The beauty ofthe surrounding objects combines with the repose of the placeto produce an effe ct as graceful as i t is solemn and appropriate .

Though the'

tombs,with the remain s of the i r enclosure s,

are so numerous throughout all India, the Taj Mahal l,at Agra,

i s almost the on ly tomb that re tain s i ts garden in anythingl ike i ts prist ine beauty, and the re i s not pe rhaps in the wholeworld a scene where natu re and art so succe ssful ly combineto produce a perfe ct work of art as within the precincts ofthis far-famed mausoleum .

The tomb of Humay fi n Shah , the fi rst of the Mughal s whowas buried in Ind ia, st i l l stands tole rably e nt i re among the

ru in s of Old De lh i , of which indeed i t forms the princ ipal andmost strik ing object (Plate XXX I I I . ) I t stands we l l on a largesquare platform ,

22 ft . in he ight , adorned with arche s , whose pie rsare ornamen ted with an in lay of white marble . The tomb itse l fi s an octagonal apartmen t, 47 ft . 4 in . across

,crowned by a dome

of white marble , of ve ry grace fu l con tour exte rnal ly. Four side sof the octagon are occupied by the en trance s ; the othe r foursmal le r octagonal apartmen ts , 23 ft . wide , are attached ; theseproject from the facade s of the central bays on each face

,and

the amoun t of white marble on them , give s them prominence .

In the corne r rooms are the tombs of Haj i Begam and somen ine othe rs of the roya l race . These apartmen ts make up a

bu ild ing nearly square in plan ,about 1 5 5 ft. each way ,

withthe angle s sl ightly cut away .

1 I ts plan i s in fact that afte rwards adopted at the Taj (Woodcut No . but used herewithout the depth and poe try of that ce lebrated bui ld ing. I tsmost marked characte ri stic, howeve r, i s i ts p uri ty— it mightalmost be cal led pove rty—of des ign . I t i s so ve ry un l ike anyth ing e l se that Akbar eve r bui l t, that it i s hard ly poss ible i t couldhave been de signed by h im . I t has not even the picture squeboldne ss of the earl ie r Pathan tombs

,and in fact looks more

l ike bui ld ings a centu ry at least more mode rn than i t real ly i s .I t is

,howeve r, as wi l l be seen , from the photograph

,a noble

tomb,and anywhe re e l se must be conside red a wonde r.

1 In the upper storey of the bui ld ing round the drum supporting the dome , arerooms and pavilions once occupied by a college, long since deserted .


touch of Akbar’s gen ius , which was afte rwards to work suchwonde rs .

Tomb ofMuhammad Ghaus , Gwal iar . (From a Photograph . )

One of the most remarkable and characte risti c of Akbar’sbui ld ings is the old or Red Palace in the Agra fort, so ca l ledfrom be ing con structed en t ire ly of red sandstone , un fortunate lynot of ve ry good qual ity, and consequen tly much of its ornamen thas pee led off. Though most probably e re cted by Akbar, i tgoe s by the name of the Jahangi r Mahal l

,and l ie s on the south

side of the Anguri Bagh and the Khass Maha l l or Palace whichis probably large ly due to Shah Jahan . The Red Pa lace i sa square build ing, measuring 249 ft . by 260 ft. In the centrei s a courtyard , 7 1 ft . by 7 2 ft .

,on e i the r s ide of which are two

hal l s facing one anothe r. The large st, 6 2 ft . by 37 ft .,has a

flat ce i l ing of stone , d ivided into pane l s , and supported bys truts of pure ly H inda des ign ,

ve ry s imi lar to those used ‘

in

the palace s ofMan S ingh and Vikrama Shahi at Gwaliar. Eve ry

CHAP. X . MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. 29 3

feature around this court is indeed of pure Hinda arch itecture .

No arche s appear anywhe re,but the horizon tal s tyle of con

s truction everywhe re . The ornamentat ion ,too

,wh ich is carved

on all the flat su rface s,is of a class used by Akbar

,but not

found in the bui ldings of othe rs . Indeed,throughout this

palace arche s are used so sparingly,and Hinda forms and

Hinda con struction prevai l to such an exten t,that i t would

hardly be out of place at Chitor or Gwaliar , though it s ti l lbears that impre ss of vigour and original i ty that he and he

on ly knew how to impre ss on all his works . 1I t is

,howeve r, at Fathpur-Sikri , 225 miles south-we st from

Agra, that Akbar must be j udged of as a bui lder. During thewhole of h is re ign i t was his favourite res idence . He apparentlywas the fi rst to occupy the spot, and apparen tly the las t

,at

least,to bu i ld the re

,no s ingle bui ld ing be ing ident ified as

having been e rected by any of his succe ssors .Akbar seems to have had no se ttled plan when he com

menced bu i ld ing the re . The original part of the bu i ld ing seemsto be the Maha l l -i -Khass, a block of bu i ld ing measuring about270 ft . by 390 ft . and the re fore of large r d imen s ion s than the

Red Palace in the fort Of Agra . I t has two large courtyards,

howeve r,and the bu ild ings that surround i t are ve ry in fe rior in

ri chne ss of des ign and ornamen tat ion . This,howeve r, is far

more than compensated for by the courts and pavi l ions thathe added from time to time . The re is the D iwan - i -Khass

,or

private audience -room,a square bui ld ing with a throne con

s ist ing of an enormous flowe r- l ike bracke t,supported on a

ri chly-carved pil lar ; 2 a pe ristylar bu i ld ing,ca l led his office

(Daftar-Khana) , ve ry s im i lar to one he e rected at A l lahabad,

to be men t ioned he reafte r ; a fi ve - storeyed open pavi l ion ,all the

pi l lars ofwhich are most richly carved ; and long colonnade s andwal l s connecting the se with one anothe r. The riche st

,the most

beautiful , as we l l as the most characte rist ic of all his bu i ld ingshe re are three smal l pavi l ion s , said to have been e re cted toplease and accommodate h is three favourite su ltanas : hencecal led B irbal’s daughte r’s Maha l l ; 3 Maryam - z aman i

’

s House,

appropriated to the daughte r of Raj a B ihari Mal l and mothe rof Jahangi r, which was known as Sonahla

’

Makan or GoldenHouse ”

as having been en t ire ly gi l t ; and the palace of the Ramior Turkish Sultana—Akbar

’

s fi rs t wife— Sul tana RuqayyahB egam ,

a daughte r of Mi rza Hindal, the empe ror’s uncle : i t is

1 There is a

General Cunn iniv. , plate 1 3 .

2 A cas t ofKensington Museum ,

294 INDIAN SARACENIC ARCH ITECTURE. BOOK VI I .

miscal led by the guide s Jodh-Bai ’s . 1 They are smal l,but i t i s

impos sible to conce ive anything so picturesque in outl ine , orany bui ld ing carved and ornamented to such an exten t ,without the smal lest approach to be ing ove rdone or in had

423 . Carved Pillars in the Sultana’

s K iosk , Fathpur-Sikri , (From a Photograph . )

taste . The two pi l lars shown in the annexed woodcut, are

from a cast from the last - named pavi l ion,which i s now in

the South Kens ington and othe r Museums . I t i s,pe rhaps

, the

most e laborate of the three ; but the othe r two are gene ral lyin be tte r taste .

The glory , howeve r, of Fathpur-S ikri i s its mosque , which

1 Jodh -Bai was the daughter of Udayasimha of J odhpur and wife of Jahangir.


dimen sion s in he ight (Woodcut No . I t was comple ted

Buland or Southern Gateway ofMosque ,lFathpur-Sikri . (From a Photograph . )

CHAP . x . MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. 29 7

in 1 57 5 . As i t stands on a ris ing ground , when looked at

from be low,i ts appearance i s noble beyond that of any portal

attached to any mosque in Ind ia, perhaps in the whole world .

This gateway may also be quoted as a pe rfectly sat isfactorysolution of a problem which has exe rcised the ingenu ity ofarchitects in all age s

,but was more successfu l ly treated by the

Saracen i c architects than by any othe rs .I t was always man i fe s t that to give a large bu ild ing a door

at all in proportion to its d imen s ion s was , to say the least ofi t

,ve ry inconven ien t . Men are on ly 6 ft . h igh , and they do

no t wan t portal s through which e lephants might march . The

Greeks neve r ven tured , howeve r, to reduce the proportionates ize of the i r portal s

,though it may be they on ly opened the

lower hal f,and they cove red them ,

in almost all instance s,

with porticos to give them a dign i ty that even the i r d imens ionsfai led to impart .

The Gothic archite cts tried,by splaying the i r deeply

embowed doorways , and by ornamen t ing them richly withcarving and sculpture

,to give them the d ign i ty that was

indispensable for the i r s ituat ion without unnecessari ly increasingthe s ize of the open ings . I t was le ft, howeve r, for the Saracen i carchite cts complete ly to ge t ove r the difficu lty . They placedthe i r portals —one

,or three

,or fi ve , of ve ry mode rate d imens ions

—at the back of a semi -dome . This last featu re thus becamethe porch or port ico

,and i ts d imens ions became those of the

portal,whol ly i rrespective of the s ize of the open ing . N0 one

,

for instance , looking at th i s gateway can mistake that i t i s a

doorway and that on ly,and no one th inks of the s ize of the

open ings which are provided at i ts base . The semi -dome i sthe modulus of the des ign

,and i ts sca le that by wh ich the

imaginat ion measure s its magn ificence .

The same system pe rvade s a lmost all the portals of theage and s tyle

,and always with a perfe ctly sat is factory re su lt

some time s even more sat i sfactory than in this instance,though

i t may be in les s proportionate dimens ion s . The principleseems the bes t that has ye t been hit upon ,

and,when that is

right , fai l ure is as d iffi cul t as i t is to ach ieve succe ss when the

principle of the de s ign i s wrong .

Taking it al toge the r, this palace at Fathpur-S ikri IS a romancein stone , such as few—ve ry few— are to be found anywhere ; andi t is a reflex of the mind of the great man who bui lt i t moredistinct than can eas i ly be obtained from any othe r source .

1


A l lahabad was a more favourite res iden ce of this monarchthan Agra

,pe rhaps as much so as even Fathpur-S ikri ; but the

Engl ish having appropriated the fort,i ts glories have been

nearly obl iterated . The most beaut ifu l th ing was the pavi l ionof the Chali s S i tan , or forty pi l lars , so cal led from its havingthat numbe r on the principal floor

,d isposed in two concentri c

octagonal range s, one inte rnal o f s ixteen pi l lars , the othe r outs ide of twen ty four. Above th is , supported by the inne rcolonnade

,was an uppe r range of the same numbe r of pi l lars

crowned by a dome . This bui ld ing has en t i re ly d isappeared,

i ts materials be ing wan ted to repai r the fortificat ion s . The greathal l

,howeve r, sti l l remains , represented in the annexed woodcut

( No . I t was tu rned into an arsenal a brick wal l was run

Hall in Palace at Allahabad . (From a Drawing by Dan iel l . )

up be tween i ts oute r colonnade s with windows of Engl isharchitecture , and i ts curious pavi l ion s and othe r accompan imen tsremoved ; and in te rnal ly , whateve r could no t be conven ien tlycut away was care ful ly cove red up with plaste r and whitewash

,

and hid by stands of arms and dea l fi ttings . S t i l l i ts plan can

be made out : a square hal l supported by e ight rows of columns ,e ight in each row, thus making in all s ixty- four

,surrounded by

a deep ve randah of double column s , with groups of four at theangles , all surmounted by bracke t capital s of the most e legan tand richest de s ign

,and al toge the r as fi ne in style and as rich

in ornamen t as anything in India.

Pe rhaps , howeve r, the most characte risti c of Akbar’

s bui ldings i s the tomb he commenced to e rect for himse l f at S ikandara

,

about 5 mile s north-we st from Agra, which is quite un l ikeany othe r tomb bu il t in India e i the r be fore or s ince , and of ade s ign borrowed , as I be l ieve , from a Hinda

,or more corre ctly,

Buddhist, mode l . I t was comple ted in 1 6 1 3 , and i s said to have


6 in . high , s tand on th is , all these be ing of red sandstone .

Within and above the last is a white marble enclosure 1 57 ft.each way ,

or external ly just hal f the length of the lowest terrace ,i ts oute r wal l en ti re ly composed of marble tre l l i s-work of themos t beauti ful patte rns . In s ide i t is surrounded by a colonnadeor Clo iste r o f the same mater ial

,in the cen tre of which

,on a

rai sed platform ,is the tombstone of the founde r, a splendid

piece of the most beautifu l arabe sque t racery . This,howeve r

,

D iagram section 1 of one ha lf of Akbar ’s Tomb at Sikandara , explanatory of itsarrangemen ts . Scale 50 ft . to 1 in .

i s no t the true buria l -place ; but the mortal remain s of th isgreat k ing repose unde r a far plaine r tombstone in a vaultedchambe r in the basemen t 3 5 ft . square

,exactly unde r the

s imulated tomb that adorns the summit of the mausoleum .

At fi rst s ight i t m ight appear that the de sign of this curiousand exceptional tomb was e i the r a caprice of the monarch whobu i l t i t

,or an importation from abroad (Woodcut No . My

impre ss ion ,on the contrary

,is

,that i t i s a d ire ct im itation of

some such bui ld ing as the old Buddhis t viharas which may haveexisted

,appl ied to othe r purposes in Akbar ’s t ime . Turn ing

1 The diagram is p dome and uppe r angleplain the text , but mean s of measuring ,

was mere ly makingy own sat isfaction.

CHAP . X . MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE.


back,for instance , to Woodcuts Nos . 89 and 1 9 3 , repre sent ing

the great rath at Mamal lapuram , i t wi l l be seen that the numbe rand proport ion of the storeys is the same . The pavilion s thatadorn the uppe r storeys of Akbar’s tomb appear d istinct rem in iscences of the ce l l s that stand on the edge of each platform ofthe rock-cut example . I f the tomb had been crowned by a

domical chambe r ove r the tombstone , the l ikene ss would havebeen so great that no one could mistake i t

,and my convict ion

i s that such a chambe r was part of the original de s ign . Nosuch royal tomb rema ins exposed to the air in any Indianmausoleum and the rai sed platform in the cen tre of the uppe rCloiste r, 38 ft . square , l ooks so l ike i ts foundat ion that I cannothe l p be l ieving it was in tended for that purpose . As the monumen t now stands , the pyramid has a truncated and unmean ingaspect. The total he ight of the bu i ld ing now i s a l i tt le morethan 100 ft . to the top Of the angle pavi l ions ; and a cent ra ldome 30 or 40 ft . highe r, which is the proportion that the basegives

,seems just what is wanted to make this tomb as beautiful

in outl ine and in proportion as i t i s in de tai l .1 Had i t been socomple ted , i t ce rtain ly would have ranked next the Taj amongInd ian mausolea ?

JAI IANGIR, A.D . 1 605 1 628 .

When we cons ide r how much was done by h is fathe r andhis son

,i t i s rathe r startl ing to fi nd how l ittle Jahangi r con

tribu ted to the architectu ral magn ificence of India. Partly thismay be owing to his not having the same pass ion for bu i ld ingwhich characte rised the se two great monarchs ; but partly a l soto his having made Lahor the capital during his re ign ,

and

to his having he ld his court the re in pre fe rence to Agra orDe lh i , from 1 622 t i l l h is death inAmong the bu i ld ings of Jahangi r’s re ign , the Jahangi ri

Mahal l, al ready ment ioned , in the fort at Agra, i s ascribed to

1 Eleven plates of the beautifu l colouredwork are published in Photographs andD rawings ofHistoricalBuildings ’ (Griggs ,I S96L2 After the above was written , and

the diagram drawn (Woodcut No .

I was not a l it t le pleased to fi nd the

fol lowing en try in Mr . Finch ’s j ournal .He resided in Agra for some years, andvis ited the tomb for the last t imeapparently in 1 609 , and after describingmost fai thful ly all its pecul iari ties up tothe upper floor, as i t now stands, adds :At my last sight thereof there was onlyoverhead a rich ten t with a Semaine over

the tomb . But i t is t o be han d ed overwith the mos t curious white and spe ck ledmarble , and to be see led all within withpure shee t gold richly inwrought . ”Purchas , his Pilgrims, ’ vol . i . p . 440.

3 H is father , Akbar, had also kept h iscour t here for fourteen years, from 1 5 84to 1 598 : and had repaired the for t andbui l t the Akbari Mahal l in the east endof it , and a D iwan i ’Amm , now de

molished , also the Akbar i Gate as the

principal en trance . Examples may st il lbe seen at Lahor of the architecture ofhis time, though defaced by subsequen tal terat ions.


the Shal imar garden s and summer house s near S rinagarwe re bu i l t about 1 624 ; the tomb of Anarkali in the town ofLabor ; and in the fort he added to Akbar’s build ings the

easte rn Khwab-

gah , marked in the accompanying plan (Woodcut No . 430) ;

2and the Moti Masj id of white marble

,with three

dome s,which

,though comparat ive ly pla in

,i s arch itectural ly

inte re st ing. The Khwab—gah or sleeping apartmen ts we re ina quadrangle about 140 ft . in length , with a l ofty pavi l ion in themiddle of the north s ide—then ove rlooking the Ravi—and at the

corne rs two chambe rs with H inda pi l lars r ichly carved . On the

othe r three s ides the area was surrounded by a colonnade,on

pil lars of red sandstone with bracke t capital s carved with figure sof e lephants

,peacocks , and conven t iona l an imals , s imilar to what

we find in the Red Pa lace at Agra. But the se and nearly all

the bui ld ings in the fort have me t with no re spect,but have

been ent i re ly a l tered to su it the conven iences of mi l itary l ife .

To the south of Jahangi r ’s palace Shah Jahan e rected hisD iwan i ’

Amm,and on the west an exten s ion of the palace , the

smal le r Khwab gah in which is an e legan t pavi l ion of marblearche s and open lattice work which long did duty as a garri sonchurch . At the we st end of the north fron t of the fort i s whatis known as the Samman B urj ,3 con tain ing the Shish Mahal lthe work of Shah Jahan and Aurang z ib, added to by the S ikhs ,and the Naulakha pavi l ion a costly e re ction in laid in pie tradura with flowe rs in precious stones . The square on the wes t ofthe fort

,cal led the Hazur i Bagh

,en clos ing the Barahdari of

Ranj i t S ingh , give s en trance to the Badshah i Masj id e rectedby Aurangz ib in 1 674 , to which re fe rence wil l be made be low .

The great mosque in the c ity of Lahor i s that of Wazi rKhan bui lt in 1 634 by Hakim

’

Alimu-d -Din , Sfibahdar of thePanj ab unde r Shah Jahan . I t i s in the Pe rs ian s tyle , cove redwith ename l led ti le s , and resplenden t in colours

,but not ve ry

grace ful in form . I ts brick wal l s are covered with beautifu lin laid work cal led Ad s/22

°

, a kind of mosai c of glazed potte ry .

‘

Jahangi r’s own tomb at Shahdara, about 60

mile s northof Lahor

, was rai sed by his queen ,the accompl ished and

impe rious Nar-Jahan,and was worthy of his othe r bu ild ings ,

but i t has suffe red as much as the othe rs . The tomb is inthe middle of a large wal led garden about 540 yard s square ,extending to 60 acre s , original ly with gateways on each s ide

1 Photographed In Cole ’s Buildings in tower here .

the Panjab,plates 1 and 2 .

4 This in laid work is descr ibed by2 From a nat ive plan of the For t In the J . L. Kipling, with a coloured viewtime of Ranj it S ingh .

—Cole , n t sup . of the fi ne gateway and some detai ls ,3 Samman 15 from nm ranzman octa in

‘ Journal of Indian Art and Industry , ’gonal . Tradition reports a lofty octagonal vol . i i . p . 1 7 , and plates 16- 1 8.

CHAP . X . MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. 305

that from the court of the Sara’

e on the we st having a marblearch and be ing about 50 ft . high . The mausoleum in the

centre stands on a low pl inth,2 56 ft . square , and i tse l f con s ists

of a terraced platform ,209 ft . square and about 203 ft . high,

with octagonal m inarets of three storeys above the te rracedroof, surmounted by white marble cupolas , and r is ing 8 5 ft . fromthe pl inth . I t i s surrounded by arcades

,having a cen tral arch

flanked by a doorway and fi ve othe r arche s on each s ide ; thea rcades have behind them forty rooms in all

,through one of

which on each s ide a passage leads through othe r two oblongapartmen ts in to the tomb chambe r, which i s thus enclosed innearly sol id wal l s of masonry 56 ft . th ick on all s ide s . The

sarcophagus is of white marble , in laid with pie tra dura workand stands in an octagonal chambe r of 265 ft . diamete r and

about 2 1 ft . high . On the roof ove r th is i s a raised platform5 3 ft . square with a te sse l lated marble pavemen t , the marbleparape t of which was carried off by Ranj it S ingh , but has nowbeen restored .

1 The build ing is of red sandstone in laid withmarble

,and the de ta i l s are all in exce l len t taste

,but the long

low facade between the minars i s not arch itectural ly ve ryeffective .

On the west of this IS the Sara’e , and beyond it the octagonaltomb ofA saf Khan

,the brothe r of Nur Jahan , who died In 1 64 1 ,

and across the ra i lway 15 that of the queen he rse l f—both strippedby Ranj it S ingh of the i r marble s and in la id work ?At the othe r end of his domin ions a l so he bu i l t a splend id

new capita l at Dacca,in supe rsess ion to Gaur, and adorned i t

with seve ral bu i ld ings of conside rable dimens ion s . The se ,howeve r, we re principal ly in brick-work , covered with stucco ,and with on ly pi l lars and bracke ts in stone . Most of them

,

consequently,are in a state of ru inous decay ; marve l lously

picture sque , i t must be confe ssed , pee ring through the l uxurian tvege tat ion that i s tearing them to piece s but hard ly worthyto be placed in compe ti t ion with the stone and marble bui ld ingsof the more northe rn capital s .

There i s one build ing— the tomb known as that of I ’timadud -daulah— at Agra

,howeve r

,which be longs to this re ign

,and

though not e rected by the monarch himse l f,cannot be passed

ove r, not on ly from its own beauty of de sign ,but also because

i t marks an epoch in the style to which it be longs . I t wase rected by Nar-Jahan , in memory of her fathe r, who died in

1 There is a plan of the tomb and w ith coloured details (plates 69-76) aregarden, but to a ve ry smal l scale , among to adequate scales however .Maj or Cole ’s plates in Griggs’ Photo 2 Thorn ton ’

s Lahore and Syadgraphs and Drawings of H istorical Bui ld Muhammad Latif’s Lahore give detai ledings , ’ plate 68 . The e levation and section accoun ts of the place .

V ,OL I I .


1 62 1,and was comple ted in 1628 . I t i s s ituated on the left

bank of the rive r, in the m idst of a garden su rrounded by a

wal l measuring 540 ft. on each side . In the cen tre of this ,on a rai sed platform ,

stands the tomb itse l f,a square measuring

69 ft. on each side . I t is two storeys in he ight,and at each

angle i s an octagonal towe r, surmounted by an open pavi l ion .

The towe rs , howeve r, are rathe r squat in proportion , and the

gene ral des ign of the bui ld ing ve ry far from be ing so pleas ingas that of many le ss pre ten tious tombs in the ne ighbourhood .

Had i t , indeed , been bu i l t in red sandstone,or even with an

in lay of white marble l ike that of Humayfi n ,i t would not

have attracted much attent ion . I ts real meri t con sists in be ingwhol ly in white marble , and be ing cove red throughout with a

mosai c in pietra dura — the fi rst, apparen tly , and ce rtain ly one

of the most splendid , example s of that c lass of ornamentat ionin India.

1

I t seems that in the early part of the 1 7 th cen tury I tal ianartists

,principal ly, apparently from Florence

,we re in troduced

into India,and

,i t has been said they taught the Indians the

art of in laying marble with prec iou s stones ? At FathpurS ikri , example s occu r of “ in lay ”

as we l l as of “ ove rlay,

and

in the gateway of the S ikandara tomb in laid work is qu iteprevalent ; but in the t ime of Shah Jahan it became the lead

1 For detai ls of the decorat ion , see E .

W. Smith’s Moghul Colour Decorationof Agra, ’ pp . 1 8-20, and plates 64-7 7 ;‘Photographs and Drawings of IndianBui ldings, ’ plates 1 2 -

30 or ‘ Journal ofIndian Ar t and Industry

,

’ vol . vi . pp .

90 94, and plates 59 66 .

2 Al though this was for a t ime hardlydoubted , no very direct eviden ce was

adduced to prove that i t was to fore ignF loren tine—art ists that the Indians owe

th e art of in laying in precious stones general ly known as work in “ pie tra dura .

”

Austin or Augustin de Bordeaux is the

only European artist whose name can be

iden tified with any works of the class.

He was employed by Shah Jahan at

Delhi , and is supposed to have executedthat mosaic of Orpheus or Apollo playingto the beasts, after Raphae l’s picture ,which adorned the throne there , and waslong in the Indian Museum at SouthKen sington , but was taken back and

restored to its place by Lord Curzon .

In ‘ The Nine teen th Century and

After , ’ vol . i ii . ( 1903 ) pp . 1039ff. M r .E . B . Havel l , of the Calcutta School ofArt

, has shown reason for ascribing thisinlaid work to Arab and Persian origins,

poin ting to the e laborate scrolls of conven tional A rabian design ,

”and the

familiar Persian motifs, “such as rose

wate r vesse ls , the cypress, ” e tc . , whichcharacterise the art .

Up t o the erect ion of the gates toAkbar

'

s tomb at S ikandara in the firstten years of Jahangir’s re ign ,

A . D . 1 6051 6 1 5 , we have infin i te mosaics of colouredmarble , but few specimens of “ in lay.

In I’

timadu-d -daulah’

s tomb , A . D . 1 6 1 51 628, we have both systems in greatperfection . I n the Taj and palaces at

Agra and Delhi , bu i l t by Shah Jahan ,A . D . 1 628 1 668, the mosai c has disappeared , be ing supplan ted by th e“ inlay . I t was just before that t imethat the system of in laying cal led pietradura was inven ted , and became the rageat F lorence and , in fact , all throughoutEurope but though during the re igns ofthe two last - named monarchs I tal ianartists we re in the i r service , there is no

defin i te evidence that they he ld influen tialposts , whils t artists from Shiraz, Baghdad ,Samarkand and Kanauj are mentioned asof high repu tation during the erection ofthe Taj Mahal l ,—most probably designedby ’Al i Mardan Khan , a Persian refugee.


vigou r and exube ran t original i ty of the fi rst,as compared with

the extreme but almost e ffeminate e legance of the second .

Ce rta in ly when the same people,fol lowing the same r e l igion ,

buil t temples and palaces in the same local i ty,nothing of the sort

eve r occurred in any coun try whose history is now known to us .Nowhe re i s the con trast be tween the two style s more strongly

marked than in the palace of Agra—from the red stone palaceof Akbar or Jahangi r

,with its rich sculptu re s and square H indfi

construction,a door Open s in to the white marble court of the

haram of Shah Jahan ( 1 6 38 with all i ts feeble prett ine ss,

but at the same t ime marked with that pecu l iar e legan ce whichis found on ly in the East . The court i s not large , 1 70 ft . by23 5 ft . , but the whole i s fin ished with the most e laborate care .

Three s ide s of this are occupied by the re s idence s of the ladie s,

not remarkable for s ize , nor,in the i r presen t state

,for archi

te ctural beauty ; but the fourth , ove rhanging the rive r,i s

occupied by three white marble pavil ions of s ingular e legance .

As in most . Moorish palaces,the baths on one s ide of this

court we re the most e legan t and e laborate ly decorated apartments in the palace . The baths have been de st royed

,but the

wal l s and roofs sti l l show the e legan ce with which they wereadorned .

1

B ehind this , in the centre of the palace,i s a great court

,

500 ft. by 370 ft . , surrounded by arcade s,and approached at

the oppos ite ends through a succession of beautifu l courts opening in to one anothe r by gateways of great magn ificence . On

one s ideA

of this court is the great hal l of the palace—theD iwan - i-

’

Amm —208 ft . by 7 6 ft . , supported by three range sof arcade s of exquisite beauty. I t i s open on three s ides

,and

with a n i che for the throne at the back ? Behind it are twosmal le r courts , the one contain ing the D iwan- i -Khass

,or private

hal l of aud ience , the othe r the haram . The hal l in the forme ri s one of the most e legan t of Shah Jaban ’s bui ld ings

,be ing

whol ly of white marble in la id with coloured stones, and the

des ign of the whole be ing in the bes t style of his re ign . I tcons ists of an open colonnade and an inclosed room behind

,

and measure s 6 5 ft. in length by 34 ft . and 22 ft . high . The

carving is beautifu l , and the flowe rs in laid in the white marblewith red carne l ian and othe rs are of fine e ffe ct .

1 The great bath was torn up by the fe tched probably 1 per cent. of i ts

Marquis of Hastings with the in ten t ion original cost ; but i t he lped t o eke out

of presen t ing it to George IV. , an in the revenues of India in a manner mos tten tion apparent ly never carried out but congen ial to the spirit of i ts governors.

i t is difficu l t to ascertain the facts now ,

2 Both care and money are now

as the whole of the marble flooring with expended l iberal ly for the protect ion and

what remained of the bath was sold by main tenan ce of such old bui ldings thatauction by Lord William Bent inck , and remain in the province .

CHAP. x . MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. 3 9 9

One of the most picture sque feature s about this palace i sa marble pavil ion

,in two storeys

,that surmounts one of the

circular bas tions on the rive r face,be tween the haram and the

Diwan - i - Khass . I t looks of an earl ie r s tyle than that ofShah Jahan ,

and i f Jahangi r buil t anything he re i t i s th is .On a smal le r scale

,i t occupies the same place he re that the

Chali s S i tan did in the palace at Al lahabad ; and exempl ifies,

even more than in the i r large r bu i ld ings, the extreme e leganceand refinemen t of those who des igned these palaces . 1

PALACE AT DELH I .

Though the palace at Agra i s pe rhaps more picturesque , andhistorical ly ce rtain ly more in te re sting, than that of De lh i

,the

latte r had the immense advantage of be ing bui l t at once,on one

un iform plan,and by the mos t magn ificen t, as a bui lde r

,of all

the sove re igns of India . I t had, howeve r, one l i ttle disadvantage ,in be ing somewhat late r than Agra. All Shah Jaban ’s build ingsthe re seem to have been fin i shed be fore he commenced the

e rection of the new ci ty of Shah Jahanabad with its palace,and

what he bui l t at Agra is sobe re r, and in somewhat be tte r tastethan at De lhi . Notwithstanding these de fects, the palace at

De lhi i s,or rathe r was, the most magn ificen t palace in the Eas t

—pe rhaps in the world— and the on ly one,at least in India

,

which enable s us to unde rstand what the arrangements o fa comp lete palace we re when de l ibe rate ly unde rtaken and carried outon one un i form plan (Woodcut No .

The palace at De lh i , which is s ituated l ike that at Agraclose to the edge of the Jamna, i s a nearly regu lar paral le logram

,

with the angles sl ightly can ted off,and measu re s 1 600 ft . east

and we st,by 3200 ft . north and south

,exclus ive of the gateways .

I t i s surrounded on all s ide s by a ve ry noble wal l of red sandstone , re l ieved at in te rval s by towe rs surmoun ted by kiosks .The principal en trance or Lahor Gate ( I ) on the we st face s theChandn i Chauk

,a noble wide stree t

,nearly a mile long

,plan ted

with two rows of trees,and with a stream of wate r runn ing

down i ts centre . En te ring with in its deeply- re ce ssed portal,you

fi nd yourse l f beneath the vaulted hal l (K) , the s ide s of whichare in two storeys

,and with an octagonal break in the cen tre .

This hal l,which is 37 5 ft . in length ove r all, has ve ry much the

effect of the nave of a gigan tic Gothic cathedra l,and forms the

noblest entrance known to be long to any existing palace . At i ts

1 Perfect plans of thi Agra,

’ though useful asthe War Departmen t of on too smal l a scale and

de tailed for purposes of


inne r end th i s hal l opened into a courtyard , 3 50 ft . square , fromthe centre of which a noble bazar (F,

G) extended right and le ft ,l ike the hal l , two storeys in he ight, but no t vaulted . One of these

Palace at Delhi . (From a native Plan in the possession of the Author . )led to the De lh i gate (H ) on the south , the othe r , which I be l ievewas neve r quite fin i shed , to the garden . In front, at the entrance ,

was the Naubat Khana (A) , or mus ic hal l , beneath which


The whole of the area be tween the central range of bui ldingsto the south, and eastward from the bazar

,measuring about

1000 ft. each way ,was occupied by the haram and private

apartmen ts of the palace , cove ring, consequently, more thantwi ce the area of the E scurial , or, in fact, of any palace in

Europe . According to the nat ive plan I possess,which I see

no reason for d istrusting, i t con tained three garden courts, andsome thirteen or fourteen othe r courts , arranged some for state ,some for conven ience ; but what they we re l ike we have no

means of knowing. Not one vest ige of them now remains .Judging from the corresponding parts of the palace at Agra

,

bui l t by the same monarch , they must have vied with the publ icapartments in richne ss and in beauty when original ly e rected

,

but having con tinued to be used as an abode down to the t imeof the mutiny

,they we re probably very much disfigured and

debased . Taste was,no doubt

,at as low an ebb ins ide the

wal ls of the palace during the last hundred years as i t was outs ide

,or as we fi nd i t at Lucknow and e l sewhe re ; but all the

e ssen tial parts"

of the s tructure we re the re,and could eas i ly have

been d isencumbe red from the accre tions that had been heapedupon i t. The idea, howeve r, of doing th is was far from en te ringinto the heads of ou r gove rnors . The whole of the haram courtsof the palace we re swept off the face of the earth to make wayfor a h ideous B rit ish barrack

,without those who carried out this

fearfu l p iece of Vandal ism , th inking it even worth while tomake a plan of what they we re destroying or prese rving anyre cord of the most splendid palace in the world .

Of the publ ic parts of the palace all that now rernains i s theentrance hal l

,the Naubat Khana, the Diwan i ’

Amm and

Khass,and the Rang Mahal l— long used as a mess room— and

one or two smal l pavi l ions . They are the gems of the palace ,i t is true

,but without the courts and corridors conne cting them

they lose all the i r mean ing and more than hal f the i r beauty.

1

S i tuated in the middle of a B riti sh barrack-yard , they look l ikeprecious stone s torn from the i r settings in some exquis ite pieceof Orien tal jewe l le r’s work and set at random in a bed of thecommone st plaste r ?

1 I t ought in fairness to be added that ,s ince they have been in our possession ,

cons iderable sums have been expendedon the repair of these fragmen ts .

2 The excuse for this del iberate act of

ing a s ingle bui lding of Shah Jahan ’

s

there was ample space within the wal lsfor all the s tores and mate'riel of thegarr ison of De lhi , and in the palace andSal imgarh ample space for a garrison

,

Vandal ism was, of course , the mili taryone, that i t was necessary to place the

garrison of De lh i in security in the even tof any sudden emergency . Had i t beencorrect i t would have been a val id one ,

but this is not the case. Without touch

more than doubly ample to man the irwalls in the even t of an émeute . Therewas ample space for large r and be tterven tilated barracks just outside the

palace walls , for the res t of the garrison ,

who could easi ly have gained the she l te r

CHAP. X TAJ MAHALL . 3 1 3

TA] MAHALL .

I t i s a pleasure to turn from this destroyed and desecratedpalace to the Taj Mahal l

,which even more , perhaps , than the

palace, was a lways the che f-d ’

oeuvre of Shah Jaban ’s re ign(Woodcut No . I t

,too

,has been fortunate in attracting the

attent ion of the Engl ish , who have paid sedulous atten t ion to i tfor some t ime past

,and ke ep it now,

with its gardens,in a

perfe ct state of substantial repa i r.No bui lding in India has been so often drawn and photo

graphed as th is,or more frequently described ; but, with all th is ,

i t i s almost imposs ible to convey an idea of it to those who

have not seen i t,not on ly because of its extreme de l icacy, and

beauty of mate rial employed in i ts construction , but from the

complexity of its de s ign . I f the Taj we re on ly the tomb itse l f,i t m ight be described , but the platform on which i t stands , withi ts ta l l m inare ts

,is a work of art in i tse l f. Beyond this are the

two wings,one of which is a mosque , which anywhe re e l se would

be con s ide red an important bu i ld ing . This group of bu ild ingsforms one s ide of a garden court 880 ft . square ; and beyond thisagain an oute r court

,of the same width but on ly hal f the depth .

This is entered by three gateways of its own , and con tains in thecentre of its inne r wal l the great gateway of the garden court,a worthy pendant to the Taj i tse lf.1 B eaut iful as i t i s ini tse l f, the Taj would lose hal f i ts charm i f it stood alone .

I t i s the combinat ion of so many beauties , and the pe rfe ctmanne r in which each is subord inated to the othe r, that make sup a whole which the world cannot match , and which neve rfai l s to impres s even those who are most indiffe ren t to the

e ffe cts produced by archite ctura l obje cts in genera l .The plan and section (Woodcuts N05 . 433 , 434) explain suffi

c iently the genera l arrangemen t and structu ral pecu l iarit ie s of thetomb or prin cipal bu ild ing of the group . The ra ised platformon which it stands i s 1 8 ft . high

,faced with white marble

,and

exactly 3 1 3 ft . square . At each corne r -of th is te rrace stands a

minare t 1 33 ft . in he ight , and of the most exqu is ite proport ion s,more beautifu l

,perhaps

,than any othe r in India. In the cen tre

of this marble platform stands the mausoleum,a square of 1 86

ft . , w i th the corne rs cut off to the extent of 33 ft . 9 in .,the facade

ri s ing 9 2 ft . 3 in . from the platform . The centre of this i s

of the palace wal ls in the even t of any this or some such wre tched motive ofsudden r ising of the citizens . economy the palace was sacr ificed "The engineers, i t would seem , per

1 A plan of this garden , with the Tajce ived that by gu tting the palace they and all the surrounding buildings , w i l lcould provide at no trouble or expense a be found in the

‘ Journal of the Royalwal l round the ir barrack yard , and for Asiat ic Society ,’ vol . vii . p . 42.


occupied by the principal dome , 5 8 ft. in d iamete r and ris ing 74ft. above the roof or 19 1 from the platform

,under which is an

enclosure formed by a screen of tre l l i s -work of white marble,a

che f-d ’oeuvre of e legance in Indian art .

1 Within this stand thetombs—that of Arjumand Bano Begam

,styled Mumtaz Mahal l

,

in the cen tre,and that of her husband Shah Jahan on one s ide .

These , howeve r , as i s usual in Indian supulchres , are not the truetombs- the bod ie s re st in a vault

,leve l with the surface of the

ground (as seen in the sect ion) beneath plaine r tombstones ,placed exactly unde rneath those in the hal l above .

In eve ry angle of the bu i ld ing is a smal l dom ical apartmen tof two s toreys in he ight

,26 ft. 8 in . in d iamete r

,and the se are

connected,as shown in the plan

,by various passage s and hal l s .

The l ight to the central apartmen t i s admitted on ly throughdouble screens of white marble tre l l is work of the mostexquis ite de s ign

,one on the oute r, and one on the inne r face of

the wal l s . In our cl imate thi s would produce nearly comple tedarkne ss ; but in Ind ia, and in a bui ld ing whol ly composed ofwhite marble

,th is was requ i red to tempe r the glare that othe r

wise would have been intole rable . As i t i s,no words can

expre ss the chastened beauty of that centra l chambe r, seen in

the soft gloom of the subdued l ight that reache s i t through the

distant and hal f-closed open ings that surround it . When usedas a Barahdari

,or pleasure palace

,i t must always have been

the coole st and love l iest of garden re treats, and now that i t i ssacred to the dead it i s the most grace fu l and the most impress iveof the sepulchre s of the world .

This bu i ld ing,too

,i s an exquis ite example of that system

of in laying with pre cious stone s which became the greatcharacteri st i c of the style of the Mughal s afte r the death ofAkbar. All the spandri ls of the Taj . all the angle s and moreimportant archite ctural de tai l s

,are he ightened by be ing in laid

with precious stone s,such as agate s , bloodstones, jaspers , and

the l i ke . These are combined in wreaths , scrol ls , and frets, as

exquisite in des ign as beautifu l in colour ; and , re l ieved by the

pure white marble in which they are in laid , they form the mostbeauti fu l and preciou s style of ornamen t eve r adopted in

architectu re ; though, of COIIrse,not to be compared with the

inte l lectual beauty of Greek ornamen t , i t certain ly stands fi rst

1 From its design I cannot he lp fan cy was original ly surrounded by a screen ofing that this screen was erected afte r Shah gold , studded with gems. The apartmen tJaban’s death . I t is not men tioned in had two s i lver doors, said to have costBern ier’s accoun t ‘Trave ls , ’ Constable’s rupees, which were carried off

ed . p . I t certainly looks more and mel ted by Sfirajmall’s Jats whenmodern , and is reported to be so . I t i s they sacked Agra in 1 76 1 .

said that the sarcophagus of the empress

CHAP. X . MOT I MASJ ID,AGRA. 3 1 7

among the pure ly decorat ive forms of architectural de s ign .

This mode of ornamentat ion i s lavishly be stowed on the tombsthemse lves and the screen that surrounds them ,

thoughsparingly introduced on the mosque that stands to the west ofthe Taj , or on the fountains and surrounding build ings . The

j udgmen t, indeed , with which this style of ornamen t i sapport ioned to the various parts i s almost as remarkable as the

ornament i tse l f, and conveys a high idea of the taste and sk i l lof the Indian architects of that age .

The long rows of cypresse s,which l ine the marble paths that

in te rsect the garden at right angles , and are backed up bymasse s of eve rgreen fol iage

,lend a charm to the whole which

the founde r and his chi ldren could hard ly have real i sed . Eachof the main avenue s among the se tree s has a canal along itscentre studded with marble fountains

,and each vista leads to

some beautifu l architectu ral object . With the Jamna in fron t,

and this garden with its foun tains and gateway behind ; withits own purity of mate rial and grace of form

,the Taj may

chal lenge comparison with anycreat ion of the same sort in thewhole world . I ts beauty maynot be of the highe s t class , butin i ts c lass it i s un surpassed .

Though ne i the r so magn ifi cent nor so richly ornamentedas some of his othe r bui ldings

,the Moti Masj id or Pearl

Mosque,which Shah Jahan

e rected in the fort of Agra,1 646 - 1 6 5 3 , i s one of the pure s tand most e legan t build ings ofits class to be found anywhe re(Woodcut N o . I t i s notlarge , measuring on ly 1 87 ft .by 234 ft . ove r all external ly ;and though ra ised on a loftystylobate , which ought to givei t d ign i ty

,i t makes no pre 435 . Plan of Moti MaSJId .

tens ions to architectural e ffect (From 3

8

1

0

3

35 1?(

116 1‘o t . to 1 In .

on the outs ide ; but the momentyou enter by the easte rn gateway the e ffect of its courtyard issurpass ingly beautiful . The whole i s of white marble , and the

forms all grace fu l and e legant . The on ly ornamen t introducedwhich is not s tri ctly architectural , i s an inscript ion in blackmarble

,in laid in the frieze of the mosque i tse l f. The courtyard

i s nearly a square,1 54 ft . by 1 58 ft . On three s ides it i s sur


rounded by a low colonnade 10 ft . 10 in . deep but on the west,

by the mosque i tse l f, 1 59 ft . by 56 ft. inte rnal ly, which wasacce ss ible at both ends from the private apartmen ts of thepalace . I t opens on the court by seven arche s of great beauty

,

and i s su rmounted by three dome s of the bulbous form thatbecame un ive rsal about this time (Woodcut No . The

View in Courtyard of Moti Masp d , Agra . (From a Photograph. )

woodcut cannot do it justice,i t must be seen to be appre ciated

but I hard ly know,anywhe re , of a bu i ld ing so perfectly pure and

e legant, or one that forms such a wonderfu l con trast with thebuild ings of Akbar in the same place .

The Jami ’ Masj id at De lhi begun in 1 644 but not final lycomple ted t i l l 1 6 5 8 , i s not un l i ke the Moti Masj id in plan

,

though bui lt on a very much large r scale,and adorned with

two noble minare ts , which are wan t ing in the Agra example ;while from the somewhat capric ious admixture of red sandstonewith white marble

,i t is far from possess ing the same e legance

and purity of effect . I t i s,howeve r, one of the few mosque s,

e i the r in India or e lsewhe re,that i s des igned to produce a

pleasing e ffe ct exte rnal ly. As wil l be seen from the woodcut(No . i t is ra ised on a lofty basement

,and i ts three gate

ways , combined with the four angle towe rs and the frontisp iece


and dome s of the mosque itse l f, make up a de sign whe re all the

parts are pleasingly subordinated to one anothe r,but at the

same t ime produce a whole of great varie ty and e legance . The

mosque i tse l f i s 20 1 ft . in length by 1 20 ft .,and i s flanked by two

minars 1 30 ft. high, formed in a lte rnate ve rtical stripes of sandstone and white marble , and crowned by l ight marble pavil ion s .I ts principal gateway cannot be compared with that at FathpurSikri (Woodcut No . 42 5 ) but it is a noble portal

,and from its

smal le r d imens ions more in harmony with the objects by whichi t i s surrounded .

I t i s not a l i ttle singular, look ing at the magn ificent mosquewhich Akbar bu i l t in his palace at Fathpur S ikri , and the

Moti Masj id , with which Shah Jahan adorned the palace at

Agra, that he should have provided no place of worship in hispalace at De lh i . The l itt le Moti mosque that is now found the rewas added by Aurang z ib, and ,

though pre tty enough in i tse l f,i s

ve ry smal l , on ly 60 ft . square ove r all,and utte rly unworthy of

such a palace . The re i s no place of praye r,with in the palace

wal l s,of the t ime of Shah Jahan ,

nor,apparen tly, any in ten t ion

of provid ing one . The Jami’Masj id was so near,and so apparentlypart of the same de sign ,

that it seems to have been cons ide redsufficien t to supply th is apparently anomalous defic iency. I tstands in the marke t place fac ing the De lh i gate of the fort on a

platform about 1 1 ft . high,reached by steps in fron t and on the

south s ide,but the great gateway in fron t was pul led down by

the B ritish during the Mutiny . I t occupie s but a smal l area1 30 ft . by 100 ft . —and has five en tran ces . I ts three dome s

,

without necks , are a sort of compromise be tween the earl ie r flatdome and the tal l form ,

subsequen tly introduced . They are ofred sandstone with z igzag bands of white marble c i rcl ing roundthem ,

not without beauty, i f appropriate to the bui ld ing on

which they A

are placed . The mosque was bui l t for,or in honour

of,Jahan Ara Be

,gam the noble and accompl ished daughte r

of Shah Jahan ,In 1 644 48 .

AURANGz iB , OR’ALAMGiR,

A .D . 1 6 58- 1 707 .

There are few th ings more startl ing in the history of thisstyle than the rapid de cl ine of taste that se t in with the acce ss ion of Aurang z ib . The powe r of the Mughal empire reachedi ts culminat ing poin t in h is re ign ,

and the re we re at least noexte rnal s ign s of decay vis ible be fore the end of h is re ign . Eveni f h is morose d isposi t ion d id not lead him to spend much moneyon palace s or civi l bu ild ings , h is re l igious fanat icism might, onewould th ink , have led him to surpass h is predece ssors In the exten tor splendour of the i r mosque s or re l ig ious establ ishments .

CHAP. X . AURANGZ IB,OR

’

ALAMG IR. 3 2 1

This,howeve r

,i s far from be ing the case . He d id

,indeed , as

ment ioned above,pul l down the temple of Visvesvar, at Bena ,re s

in orde r to erect a mosque , whose tal l and gracefu l m inare ts st illform one of the most prominent feature s i n every view of thecity . Afte r the shrine of S iva at Benares , the great templeof Kerava Deva or Krishna at Mathurawas the most sacred inHindustan . I t had been e rected

,or rebu i l t , by the famous

B ir-S ingh Bunde la during the re ign of Jahangir at a cost ofthirty-three lakhs of rupee s ; 1 and immediate ly afte r the destruct ion of the Visvesvar temple in 1 669 ,

“ his re l igious Maje sty ”

orde red this al so to be leve l led to the ground and a vastmosque , about 1 70 ft . in length , to be e rected on the platform ?

I t was no t , however, from any love of architectural magn ifi cence that this was done , but to insu l t h is H indu subjectsand mark the triumph of I slam ove r H indu ism . The mosque sthemse lve s are of no great magn ificence , but, except that at

Lahor, none more importan t was e rected , so far as I know,

during his re ign .

The Jami ’ or Badshah i mosque at Lahor, which is en te redfrom the we st s ide of the Hazari Bagh (Woodcut No . was

e rected in 1 674 from the proceeds of the e state s of his e lde stbrothe r Dara Shikoh , whom he had put to death in 1 6 59 . The

gateway from the Hazari Bagh,rai sed on a lofty platform se t

on arches,i s an impos ing structure of red sandstone and marble .

In a chambe r above th is archway are prese rved certa in “ re l i cs ”of Muhammad and his family . The mosque i tse l f, e re ctedunde r the supe rvis ion of F idai Khan Koka, the empe ror’s foste rbrother

,i s a bui ld ing of con s ide rable me ri t and the late st

specimen of the Mughal arch itectural style . I t has three domesof white marble and ve ry pleas ing form ,

and in thi s and the

gene ra l arrangements of the facade i t i s a lmost a copy of theJami ’ Masp d at De lh i

,but the marble ornamen tat ion of the

great cen tra l arch and the fron t arcade is ve ry in fe rior indeta i l 3 and the minarets

,instead of terminating the facade , are

qu ite plain octagonal towe rs,placed at the corne rs of the court

about ‘ 1 7 5 yards apart . They are , as usual , of three storeys , butthe i r cupolas had to be removed afte r an earthquake in 1 840.

Few th ings can show how steadily and rapidly the decl ine oftaste had se t in than the fact that when that monarch was

1 I t was descr ibed in some de tai l byTavern Ier, who saw i t in 1 650.

— Bal l ’stranslat ion of Tavern ier’s ‘

Trave ls , ’ vol .i i . pp . 24off. Bern ier also ment ions i tin 1 663 .

—"Trave ls (ed . 1 89 1 ), p2 El liot ’s ‘History of India , ’ vOl . vI I .

p . 1 84 . The idol—an Image of Krishnahad just been removed by RajasimhaVOL . I I .

Rana of Udaypur, and is now at

Nathdwara .

3 Transactions Royal Insti tute ofB ri tIsh Architects, ’ N . Ser. vol . v . p . 66

G . Le Bon , Les Monumen ts de l’Inde ,p . 220 and fig. 358 . This mosque wasused by the S ikhs as a magazine , but wasre stored to the Muhammadans in 1 856 .

X

3 22 INDIAN SARACEN IC ARCHITECTURE. BOOK VI I .

re sid ing at Aurangabad be tween the years 1 660-70 having losthis favourite wife ,

1 Rabia Dauran i,the tomb in honour of he r

memory—which is ascribed to her th ird son A’zam Shah—was

in tended , i t i s sa id , to reproduce an exact copy of Shah Jaban ’sce lebrated tomb , the Taj Mahal l . But the d iffe rence betweenthe two monumen ts , even in so short an in terva l

,is start l ing .

The fi rs t s tands alone in the world for ce rta in qual it ies all canappreciate ; the second i s by no mean s remarkable for anyqual i t ie s of e legan ce or des ign ,

and narrowly escapes vulgarityand bad taste . In the beg inn ing of the n ine teenth century a

more l ite ral copy of the Taj was e rected in Lucknow ove rthe tomb of one of i ts sove re igns . In this last

,howeve r,

bad taste and tawdriness re ign supreme . I t i s d ifficu l t tounde rstand how a thing can be so l i ke in form and so un l ikein spirit ; but so i t i s , and the se three Taje s form a ve rype rfect sca le by which to measure the decl ine of art afte rthe great Mughal dynasty passed its zen i th and began i tsrapid downward caree r .Aurang z ib himse l f l ies buried in the cou rt of the tomb of

Shaikh Zainu -d -D in,at Khuldabad

,a smal l hamle t j ust above

the cave s of E lara. The spot i s e steemed sacred,but the tomb

is mean and in s ign ifican t beyond what would have sufficed forany of h is noble s . He neglected

,apparently

,to provide for

himse l f this nece ssary adj unct to a Tartar’s glory,and his

successors we re too weak , even had they been incl ined,to

supply the om iss ion . S trange to say ,the sacred Tuls i - tree of

the Hindas on ce took root in a crevice of the brickwork,and

flourished there as i f in de ri s ion of the most bigoted perse cutorthe Hindas eve r expe rienced .

As be fore obse rved , Aurang z ib a l so made a few addit ions tothe palace at De lh i but during his re ign many splendid palace swe re e rected , both in the capital and e lsewhe re . The mos texten sive and splendid of these was that bu i l t by his aspiringbut unfortunate brothe r Dara Sh ikoh . I t

,howeve r, was con

verted into the Engl ish res idency ; and so comple te ly haveimprovemen ts , with plaste r and whitewash

,done the i r work ,

that i t requ ire s some ingenu ity to find out that i t was no t

whol ly the work of the Anglo -Saxons .In the town of De lh i many palace s of the age of Aurangz ib

long e scaped th is profanat ion ,but gene ral ly they are e i the r in

ru in s or used as shops ; and with all the i r splendour show tooclearly the degradat ion of style which had then fa i rly se t in ,

and wh ich i s even more apparent in the modern capital s of

1 Aurang z ib married D ilras Baa Safawi,in 1637 , who bore to him fi ve son s

Begam , a daughter of Shahnawaz Khan and four daughters .


s ituated about 5 mile s from the Qutb at De lh i,i s not quite

unworthy of the local i ty In which it i s found . Though so latei n date (A D . i t looks grand and imposing at a distance

,

but it wi l l no t bear close inspe ct ion (Plate XXX IV ”) I t standsin a large garden and i s rai sed on a terrace

,10 ft . high and

1 10 ft . square,ove r arched ce l ls . The tomb is about 60 ft .

square,and in the gene ra l arrangemen ts of the plan i s not un

l ike that of Humayfi n . The central room,about 20 ft . square ,

contains the ve ry handsome marble monumen t, highly pol i shedthough somewhat florid In design . The floor and lowe r portionof the wa l l s are faced with marble

,and i t i s roofed by a flattish

dome at a he ight of about 40 ft . Round this apartmen t arefour square and fou r octagonal rooms on the ground floor

,

with the l ike arrangemen t above .

1 Re specting the whole , Mr.

Fanshawe remarks “ I f the decorat ion of the corne r towe rsi s not successfu l

, the combinat ion of white marble and fawncoloured sandstone in the cen tre i s pleasing. The p laste rde corat ion of t he in te rior i s pe rhaps more degraded thananyth ing e lse about the tomb .

”Even th is qual ified prai se

can hard ly be awarded to any of the bu ild ings in the capital inwhich his dynasty was final ly e stabl ished .

I f mass and r ichne ss of ornamentation we re in themse lve ssufficien t to constitute archite ctu re

,few capital s in India cou ld

show so much of i t as Lucknow. I t i s,in fact

,amaz ing to

obse rve to what an extent th is dynasty fi l led its capita l s withgorgeous bu i ld ings during the one short cen tu ry of its ex istence ,

but all—or with the fewe st poss ible exception s— in the worstposs ible taste . Whateve r may be said of the Renai ssance , orrevival of classical arch itecture in Europe in the 16 th cen tury

,

in India i t was an unmitigated misfortune . The un inte l l igen tvulgari ty with wh ich the Orde rs ” are the re used , by a peoplewho we re capable of such noble th ings in the i r own styles , i s oneof the most startl ing phenomena in the history of architecture .

One of the earl ie st bu i ld ings of importance at Lucknow,in

the I tal ian style,i s the Mans ion of Constan tia,

3 bui l t by GeneralClaude Martin

,as a res idence for h imse l f, and on ly completed

afte r his death .

4

1 Carr S tephen ,

‘Archaeology of Delhi , ’ 1 732 , and died at Lucknow 1 800. He

p . 278 . commen ced h is career as a private soldier2 De lh i Past and Presen t , ’ p . 246 , in the French army ; but, in consequencefrom which the Plate XXXIV. is repro of Lal ly ’s severi ty , deserted at the siegeduced . of Pondiche rry , and j oined the English

3 So cal led apparen tly from the motto service , in which he rose to the rank ofLabore e t Constan t ia, adopted by the Captain . He was transferred in 1 776 to

General , and writ ten up in fron t of h is the service of the Nawab of Oudh , andhouse . in 1 796 was promoted to be Maj or

General Mar tin was born at Lyons in General . He left a considerable part of


architect is sure to fa l l in to , i t real ly does con ta in the germ of ave ry beautifu l de sign (Woodcut No .

The founde r was buried beneath in a dimly- lighted ’

vaulted

chambe r in the basemen t of the great towe r . 1 H is tomb is a

s imple,plain sarcophagus

,standing on the floor

,and at each

angle a grenadier in ful l un i form stands with arms reve rsed , inan att itude of grie f, as i f mourn ing ove r the fal l of his maste r .The execution of the monumen t , l ike eve rything about theplace

,i s bad

,but the concept ion i s one of the fines t that has

been hit upon for a sold ie r’s grave .

When new,thi s man sion “must have been ve ry stri king. At

all even ts , i t s e ffect on the Oudh sove re ign s was most remarkable . For al though the i r tombs

,the i r mosques

,and imambaras

we re sti l l e rected in the debased Saracen i c style then prevalen t,

all the palace s of Lucknow we re hence forth e rected in thispseudo- I tal ian style . The Farhat Bakhsh bu i l t by Sa’

adat ’

Ali

Khan,the Chattar Man z i l of Nasi ru-d -D in Haidar

,and nume rous

othe r bu ild ings,d isplay all the quain t

,picturesque i rregulari ty

of the age of Fran cis I .,combined with more strange de ta i ls

than are to be found in the bu i ld ings of Hen ry I V . The sewe re far surpas sed in grotesquene ss by the Qaisar Bagh ofwaj id ’

Ali Shah . This con s isted of a great square of bu i ld ingssurrounding an immen se courtyard : the whole palace be ing inexten t and arrangemen t by no mean s un l ike the Louvre and

Tui le rie s as joined toge the r by Napoleon I I I . But instead ofthe beauti fu l stone of Pari s

,all was brick and plaste r ; and

instead of the appropriate de tai l s of that palace,the build ings

su rround ing the great court at Lucknow are gene ral ly twostoreys in he ight and s ingularly various in des ign

,gene ral ly

with pi laste rs of the most attenuated forms runn ing throughboth storeys , between which I tal ian windows with Vene t ianbl inds al te rnate with Saracen i c arcade s

,or open ings of no style

whateve r . These are surmoun ted by Saracen i c battlemen ts ,and crowned by domes such as Rome or I taly neve r saw ,

and

the whole pain ted with colours as crude as they are glar ing .

In s ide the re are seve ra l large and handsome hal l s,but all in the

same bad taste as the exte rior .A de tached bui ld ing cal led the Begam Kothi i s a be tte r

spe c imen of the style than anything pe rhaps in the Qa isar Baghi tse l f, but it cannot e i the r be cal led a favou rable specimen ofI tal ian Art

,or a succe ssfu l adaptat i on of the style to Oriental

purposes , though i t has a ce rtain amoun t o f picture s quene ss

it . The mut ineersthe bu i lding , and

CHAP . X . MYSORE AND OUDH. 3 2 7

which to some exten t redeems its other defects (WoodcutNo . L ike all the othe r specimen s of Or iental I tal ianArch itecture

,i t offends pain ful ly

,though le ss than most othe rs ,

from the misappl icat ion of the de ta i ls of the C lassical Orde rs .

Begam Kothi , Lucknow . (From a Photograph . )

Of course no nat ive of India can we l l unde rstand e i the r theorigin or motive of the various parts of our Orde rs—why the

entablature shou ld be d ivided in architrave , frieze , and corn i ce—why the shafts should be a certa in n umbe r of d iame te rs inhe ight , and so on . I t i s , in fact , l ike a man trying to copy an

inscript ion in a language he does no t unde rs tand , and of whichhe doe s not even know the alphabe t . With the mos t corre cteye and the greatest pain s he cannot do it accu rate ly . In

India,beside s th is ignorance of the grammar of the art

,the

nat ive s cannot he lp fee l ing that the proje ction of the corn ice s istoo smal l i f mean t to produce a shadow

,and too deep to be of

easy con struction in plaste r in a cl imate subject to monsoon s .They fee l that brick pi l lars ought to be th icke r than the I tal ianOrde rs general ly are

,and that wooden architrave s are the worst

possible mode of construct ion in a cl imate whe re wood decaysso rapidly

,even if spared by the white an ts . The con sequence

i s,that

,between h is ignorance of the principle s of Class ic Art on


the one hand , and his knowledge Of what i s su i ted to h is wan tsand h is cl imate on the othe r, he make s a sad j umble of theOrde rs . But fash ion suppl ies the Indian with those in cen t ive sto copying which we de rive from association and education and

,

in the vain attempt to imitate his supe riors,he has abandoned

h is own beautifu l art to produce the strange j umble of vu lgarityand bad taste we fi nd at Lucknow and e lsewhe re .

The great caravansarai s which the Cal cutta Babus and the

nat ive Rajas have e re cted for the i r re s idence s in Lowe r Bengalare general ly in th is style , but with an additional tain t ofvulgari ty. But perhaps the most strik ing example of it all is a

pavi l ion which was e rected within the palace at De lh i by thelast k ing. I t stood behind

,and was seen above

,the great

aud ience hal l of Shah Jahan ,in which once stood the ce lebrated

peacock throne , and i s one of the noble st and most beautifu lapartments of its c lass in any palace in the world . Ove r th is ,on en te ring the palace , you saw a l i tt le pavi l ion of brick and

plaste r,which its bui lde r assumed to be the Dori c Orde r, with

I tal ian windows and Venet ian bl inds . The bui ld ing was paintedgreen

,the frieze red , and the ornaments ye l low —the whole in

worse taste than the summe r-house of a Dutch skippe r, as seen

ove rhanging a canal in Hol land . Con trasted with the s impl ic i tyand e legance of the white marble pai ace beneath , i t told , ina language not to be mistaken ,

how deeply fal len and howcon temptible we re the late occupan ts of the throne , as comparedwith the i r great an cestors of the house of T imur, who ruledthat m ighty empire

,and adorned its c it ie s with those faultle ss

edifice s described in the previous part of th is work .

1

Even at Lucknow, howeve r, the re are some bui ld ings intowhich the European leaven has not penetrated , and wh ich are

worthy of be ing ment ioned in the same volume as the works ofthe i r ance stors . Among these i s the great Imambara

,

2 which,

though its de ta i l s wi l l not bear too close an examinat ion ,i s st i l l

conce ived on so grand a scale as to en t i tle i t to rank with thebui ld ings of an earl ie r age . I t was bu i l t by Asafu d daula, thefourth Nawab

,as a re l ie f work during the famine of 1 784 .

As seen by the plan o f the Imambara (Woodcut No .

the principal apartmen t i s 1 62 ft . long by 53 ft . 6 in . wide . On

the two s ide s are verandahs,re spective ly 26 ft . 6 in . and 27 ft .

3 in . wide , and at each e nd an octagonal apartmen t, 5 3 ft . ind iame te r

,the whole inte rior d imens ion s be ing thus 263 ft. by

1 H istory of the Hasan and Husain are

Architecture , ’ 3rd ed . Ta’

z ias or shrines are

2 Or Imambari , a Unde r this Imambarathe Moharram festiva ried . I t now serves as

B ritish garrison .


make a sensat ion in Ken sal Green . I t con sists of a cupola inmemory of Christophe r within the loftie r and large r mausoleumof h is distinguished brothe r, which i s of two storeys , with a

English Tombs , Surat . S ir Geo . Oxenden’

s on the left .(From a Photograph . )

he ight of 40 ft . and d iame te r 2 5 ft .1 (Woodcut NO . Someof the othe rs , e spe cial ly the olde r one s , are in bette r taste , andapproach more nearly the nat ive mode l s from which they we reall more or less copied ?

I t would be a curious and instructive subject of specu lat ion to try to asce rtain what would have been the fate ofMuhammadan architecture in India had no European influencebeen brought to bear upon i t . The mate rial s for the enquiryare not abundan t, but we can perce ive that the de cadence hadse t in long be fore the death of Aurang z ib . I t i s al so eviden t

at Surat , is sa id to havee rs in magn ificence .

Modern Arch itecture , ’

CHAP. X . MYSORE AND OUDH . 3 3 1

that in such bui ld ings as we re erected at Agra or De lh i duringthe lapse of the 1 8th century

, even whe re no European influencecan be traced , the re i s a fe ebleness and wan t of true perception ,

though occas ional ly combined with a considerable degree ofe legance . The re , howeve r, the enquiry fa i ls

,because European

Tomb of Maui sahiba at Junagadh . (From a Photograph . )

influence made i tse l f fe l t before any actual change had deve lopeditse l f, but in remote corne rs the downward progre ss becameapparen t without any extraneous ass istance . This is partia l lythe case , as j ust ment ioned , in Mysore but the re i s a ceme te ryat Junagadh , in Gujarat, whe re the re exists a group of tombs

,

all ere cted within las t century,some with in the last forty or


fi fty years,which exhibit more n early than any othe rs I am

acquainted with the forms toward which the s tyle was tending.

This s tyle i s not without a ce rta in amount of e legance in

deta i l (Woodcut No . The trace ry of the window s is

frequently fascinat ing from its beauty,and all the carving is

executed with prec is ion and appropriatene ss — but i t i s all

wooden , or, in othe r words,eve ry deta i l would be more

appropriate for a s ideboard or a bedstead,or any article of

upholste ry,than for a bu i ld ing in s tone . The domes e special ly

can hard ly be traced back to the i r grand and solemn form as

used by the Pathan archi tects . The pinnacles are fanci ful,and

the bracke ts des igned more for ornament than work . I t is a

style , in fact , broken l oose from the true principle s of constructivede s ign

, and when th is i s the case,no amoun t of ornament

,

howeve r e legan t i t may be , wi l l redeem the want of proprie tyi t inevitably exhibits .I t i s curious

,howeve r, and instructive

,in conclud ing our

history of architecture as practised with in the l im its of Indiaprope rly so cal led

,to obse rve how comple te ly we have bee n

walk ing in a circle . We began by tracing how , two hundredyears be fore Chri s t , a wooden s tyle was gradual ly assumingl i th ic forms

,and by degree s be ing e laborated into a style whe re

hard ly a remin i scence of wood rema ined . We con c lude w ithfinding the style of Halebid and B ijapfi r, or De lh i

,re turn ing

to forms as appropriate to carpen try but as un su ited to mason ryas the rai ls or gateways at Bharaut or Sanch i . I t m ight somet ime ago have been a que st ion worth moot ing whe the r i t wasl ike ly i t would peri sh by pe rseve ring in th is w rong di rection .

That enqu iry,howeve r

,seems id le now ,

as i t is to be fearedthat the death-blow wil l be given

,as at Lucknow and e lsewhe re

,

by the fatal im itation of a fore ign s tyle .

1 Archae ological Survey of Western India,

’ vol , 11 . pp . 1 76 - 1 77 , and plates 37 -

39 ,


of Shah Hamadan (Woodcut No . which is equal ly e rectedwhol ly in wood , and though ve ry much smal le r than the Jami ’

443 .Mosque of Shah Hamadan , S rinagar . (From a Photograph . )

Masj id , i s intere sting , in the first place , because i ts roof isprobably ve ry s im ilar to that which once cove red the temple at

Martand (Woodcut No . and the crown ing ornament iseviden tly a remin i scence of a Buddhist Hti , ve ry much al te red ,

CHAP. XI . WOODEN ARCHITECTURE. 3 3 5

i t must be confessed , but sti l l no t so ve ry un l ike some foundin Nepal , at Swayambhfinath (Woodcut No . for instance ,and e l sewhere .

The wal l s , too, are of inte rest to us , because the mode inwhich the logs are d isposed and ornamented resemble s theornamentation of the Orissan temples more clearly than anystone forms we can cal l to mind . The course s of the stonework in the towe r of the great temple at Bhuvaneswar (WoodcutNo . and othe r temples there , produce so nearly the samee ffe ct

,that i t doe s not seem improbable they may have been

derived from some such original . The mode,too

, in which theOrissan temple s are carved

,and the exten t to which that class

o f ornamentat ion i s carried , i s much more suggestive of a woodenthan of a l ith ic origin .

These , howeve r, are question s that can on ly be profi tablyd iscussed when we have more knowledge of this Kashmi ri stylethan we now possess . When the requis ite material s are avai lable for the purpose , the re are few chapters that wi l l be ofgreate r in te rest , or that wi l l more worthi ly conclude the

Architectural H istory of India than those that treat of the t rueand fal se style s of wooden art, with which the narrat ive begins

,

and with which i t al so ends .

PLATE XXXV.

DECORAT ION OF THE I’ I ERS I N S IDE THE NAN - I’AYA TEM PLE,) IYI N I’AGAN .

[Tofm‘

e page 339 , Vo l . I I .

340 FURTHER INDIA. BOOK VI I I .

northern or T ibetan e lemen t crept into Burma across thenorthe rn moun tains by some route we cannot now fol low. Theseare in te re sting problems we shal l not be able to solve t i l l wehave a more cri tical knowledge than we now possess o f Burmesebui ld ings . Thanks to the zeal and inte l l igence of some Engl ishtrave l lers, we do know a great deal about Burmese art . The

works of Symes ,1 Crawfurd,2 and , above all,of Colone l Yule

,

3

are reple te with information ; but what they d id was donein the in te rval s they we re able to snatch from pressing publ icdutie s . What is real ly wan ted is , that some qual ified personshould take up the subject special ly

,and trave l through the

coun try with no othe r object than to inve stigate its ant iquit ies .This was attempted be tween 1 884- 1 888

, when Profe ssorForchammer

4 was sen t on a miss ion to study the temple s inWe st B urma, but he un fortunate ly d ied be fore he could comple te his task , and al though his descriptions and plan s ofbui ld ings at Mrohaung in Arakan and Kyaukku in Paganare of great value , the forme r are not always qu ite inte l l igibleowing to his wan t of acqua intance with arch itectural feature s .

This was not the case with Mr. Oe rte l ,5 an engineer and

architect in the Gove rnment se rvice , who vis ited Burma witha s imilar object, but h is pe rmit was l im ited to about two months ,so that he was on ly able to see some of the architectural centre s .His report, howeve r, contains much use ful in formation ,

and

the photographs which he took are of some value .

In Mr. Nisbet’s work ,6 publi shed in 1 90 1 , i s a chapter onBurme se arch itecture which shows care ful research

,and he

i s pe rhaps the fi rst write r on the subject who has drawn upa l i st of the olde st bu ild ings in Pagan , giving the date s of the i re re ction and the name s of the kings by whom they were bu i l t .Many othe r works have appeared s ince the B rit ish Annexation "

of B urma, in some cases conta in ing i l lustration s from photographs which add to our knowledge . Among these shouldbe mentioned Gene ra l de Bey lié

’

s work ,7 in which nearly one

hundred pages are devoted to Burma, whe re he carried out somere searche s in the early part of 1 907 . The most importan t Sourceof in format ion at presen t, however, i s given in the annual reportspubl ished by the Gove rnment of Burma,8 giving detai l s of the

1 Embassy to Ava in London ,

5 Notes on a Tour in B urma in1 800. 4to . ,

27 plates . by Fred . 0 . Oerte l ,2 ‘ Journal of Embassy to Cour t of 6 Burma under Br itish Rule and

Ava,’1 827 . 4to . , plates . B efore , ’ by John Nisbet , 1901 .

3 M ission to Court of Ava, in7 L

’Architecture H indoue en Extréme

4to . , numerous i l lustrat ions . Orien t , ’ by General L . de Beylié, 1 907 .

4 Arakan : I . Mahamuni Pagoda, I I .

8 ‘ Reports of the Superin tendent ofMrohaung : I I I . Akyab : Sandoway and the Archaeological Survey, Burma, 1902 ;the Kyaukku Temple , Pagan , 1 89 1 .

CHAP . I . BURMA. 34 1

work requi red from year to year in orde r to pre se rve the existingmonuments from furthe r decay . The se reports are supplementedin the India Office L ibrary by a large numbe r of photographsof the principal bu ild ings with descript ive note s, giving in manycases the date s of the i r e re ction ; i t i s to be hoped , the re fore ,that the subject wil l be taken up by some expe rt, and thatthe measured drawings of plans and sect ions , l i sts of whichappear in the reports

,may be publ ished with reproductions

of a se lect ion of the fi ne serie s of photographs , some of whichhave been uti l ised in this work .

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS BU ILD INGS .

The te rm Pagoda ( in Burmese,Paya) seems to be appl ied

by European s in Burma ind ifferently to two ve ry d iffe rentk inds of structure . Fi rst ly : a be l l - shaped s tfipa ra ised on a

se rie s of terrace s or platforms and crowned with a con ical fin ial .To these the term tsea

’z' or aea’z '

,which corre sponds with the

Chai tya in Nepal and the Ched i of S iam , i s some time s given .

They con s ist of sol id masse s of brickwork , with a smal l sealed -upchambe r in the basement contain ing supposed re l i cs of Buddha .

Se condly : a temple which is square on plan with some t ime sprojecting porche s or ves tibule s and

,in the th ickness of the

wal ls,narrow corridors

,the wal l s of which are decorated with

frescoes or sculptu re,with n i ches at inte rva l s con ta in ing image s

of Buddha . The i r roofs are pyramida l,con s ist ing of a serie s

of storeys of moderate he ight se t back one be hind the othe rand crowned wi th the cu rvil inear s ikhara of the Indo -Aryanstyle .

This may be cons ide red a sufficien t indicat ion that theyde rived some , at least , of the i r architectural feature s , as we l l asthe i r re l igion

,from India ; but as this form was adopted by

both Jains and Hindas in the north of Ind ia,from the mouths

of the Indus to the Bay of B enga l in that age , i t hardly enable sus to point out the particular local i ty from which i t was de rived ,or the t ime at which i t was fi rs t in troduced . I t i s

,howeve r

,so

far as we at presen t know,the on ly instance of its be ing found

out of India Proper.

C IRCULAR PAGODAS OR CHA ITYAS .

One of the earl ie st examples existing i s that at Bu -paya,at

Pagan ,ascribed to the fi rst years of the 3rd century, A .D . ,

whicha l though i t has been repai red and renovated in late r pe r iodsprobably retains the original

,

type of its des ign . The centreport ion or be l l i s of bulbous form

,raised on a triple base and


crowned with two feature s , the lowe r one a bold torus moulding,the uppe r one a con i cal fin ial , with cavetto S inkings be tween thebe l l and the torus and be tween the latter and the - fi n ial. A

s im ilar bu lbous form is found in the pagoda of Ngakwe Nadaungin the province of Myingyan , dat ing from the l oth cen tu ry

,and

in a less pronounced form in the Pe tle ik- paya pagoda,whe re

the torus becomes an importan t feature , we fi nd he re al so theearl ie st example of the decorat ive bands carried abou t twothi rds up the be l l , which has probably given rise to the idea thatthe uppe r part of the same repre sen ts the begging bowl of themendican t monks .

The re are , be s ides , three or four early examples in which a

diffe rent outl ine is given to the be l l . The Baubaugy i pagoda inProme cons ists of a sol id mas s in brickv

‘

vork of a cyl indricalform

,about 80 ft. high , ra ised on a triple base and surmounted

by a fin ial carrying the Hti 1 or umbre l la, which is always ini ron-gi lt

,a feature wh ich crowns eve ry pagoda, the total he ight

be ing about-1 50 ft . I t i s ascribed to the 7 th or 8th cen tury , as

a lso two othe r example s in Prome , the Payagyi and Payamapagodas . The se , howeve r , have convex outl ine s and resemblea bee -hive in shape . In all the se cases the re lat ive proportionbe tween the he ight and the l owe r d iame te r i s about 3 to 2

,

d iffering the refore greatly from the Indian tope . These are,

howeve r, exceptiona l examples , as from the 1 1 th centu ry,when

the great deve lopmen t of Burme se arch itecture commenced ,the S tfipa or tope a lways took the form of a be l l , some time s ofgreat s ize with de corat ive bands round , and rai sed on a se rie sof three to fi ve s tage s or platforms decorated with bold ly project ing mou ld ings with square pane ls be tween . These platforms are gene ral ly e ither square 0 11 plan 2 or have a se ries o f

'

proje cting plane s one in fron t of the othe r . In early example sthe proje ct ion s are greate r than in late r ones ,but the i r appearance can best be j udged fromPlate XXXV I I . , represent ing the ShweDagOn at Rangoon

,whe re the four plane s on

e ach face have re su lted in seven projectingangle s at each corne r of the platform . Theseprojecting angles which occur so frequently,not on ly in the platforms ,but some times in the

444. Conjectural Plan of supe rstructure , may have arisen from a desi rea Temple ' to en rich and give more inte re st to the original

square plan . Assuming A (Woodcut No . 444) to be the fi rststructure , and B and C success ive appl icat ion s on each face ,

1 Ante, vol . i . p . 70 and note 2 . in the Dhammayaz ika pagoda near Pagan ,2 There is one exceptional example which is pen tagonal .

CHAP. I . CIRCULAR PAGODAS OR CHAITYAS. 343

the result on the plan would be three angle projection s ;an entrance porch D added on each face wou ld give fi ve

angle projections , and so on .

1 The platforms on which the

structure was raised would necessari ly fol low the same plan ,

and i ts repe t i tion in the supe rstructure would re su l t in the

s ikhara of H inda origin which has usual ly three angle projec t ions . In the diagram he re given the appl ied proje ctingplane on each face and i ts return are equal in dimens ion ; thisi s not usual ly the case

,and some t imes the forme r is on ly about

hal f the latte r. The nearest approach to the d iagram is thatshown in the temple of Vat S isavai at Sukhodaya in S iam(Plate whe re these angle projections form prominen tfeatures in the de sign . In

the Shwe -Hmaudau pagoda(Woodcut No . 445 ) the planof the platform is octagonal ,and here the projecting plane s ,three in numbe r on each face ,have given fi ve angle s .

An instance of its in troduct ion in the supe rstructureis shown in the Abhayadana

p ago d a ( P l a t ewhe re the re are three proje cting angle s in the e laboratecorn ice

,carrying the fin ial .

111 the e t pagoda a445 . Quarter-plan of Shwe-Hmaudau Pagoda

s imilar corn i ce IS more com at Pegu . (From Symes . ) Scale 100 ft. to r in .

pl icated,having seven proje ct

ing angle s and e ight ve rtical fi l le ts projecting one in fron t ofthe othe r.

The principal variat ions made in the de s ign of the Z ea’t'

are

those of the re lat ive proportion of the be l l to the re st of thestructure

,

-

the outl ine of the same and i ts supe rstructure , and

the decoration employed . Thus in the Lokananda pagoda in

Pagan ,bu i l t by Anaurahta in 1059 , the be l l i s of immense

s ize,be ing three - sevenths of the total he ight of the structure ,

including the triple bas e and fin ial , and that i s general ly the

characte ri stic of the earl ie r examples , but , where occas ional lyemployed to crown the s ikharas of the square temple

,as in the

Abhayadana temple , i t i s so smal l as to be scarce ly recogn i sable .

In the olde r pagodas of Pagan the several mould ings are all

more or less convex in outl ine,but in later examples, and

1 These pagodas are general ly descr ibed as polygonal on plan , a term which ismisleading mul tiplane wou ld be more correct .


especial ly in those case s whe re the pagoda has from t ime totime been bui l t ove r and en closed , as in the Shwe -Hmaudau and

Shwe—DagOn , the conve rse outl ine s are al te rnated with concaveS i lhouettes which , whi lst it le ssens the vigou r and bo ldness ofthe des ign ,

gives it at t imes a ce rtain e legance so far has thatbeen carried that i t is some t imes poss ible to determ ine the dateof the structure by its attenuation . This i s shown in the ShweDagon (Plate where in the last rebui ld ing in 1 76 8

the l owe r part of the be l l was wide ly spread out,and the finial

or Spire , original ly con i cal with straight s ide ,has been given

a concave outl ine .

The decorat ive treatmen t of the pagoda reso lves itse l f intothree divis ions .(A) The boldly projecting mould ings of the s ide s of the

platforms or te rraces , the in troduct ion of square terra-cotta pane lswith figure bas - re l ie fs be tween the uppe r and lowe r mould ings

,

and in late r examples the addit ion of an e laborate crest ing .

(B ) The carving of lotus leave s at the base of the be l l and inthe uppe r part of the fin ial

,the r ich ornamen t appl ied to the

be l l consist ing of pendan ts on i ts upper surface , a deep mouldedring round with bead fe stoon s he ld in the mouths of gorgons andothe r surface ornamen t above the ring . The pagodas of S e innye tand Pe tle ik have in addit ion n i che s with figure s of Buddhas on

the four s ide s fac ing the card ina l poin ts , with enr i ched pedimentsove r- crowned with m in iature s toreys and s ikharas .

And (C) add itional decorat ive features such as range s of smal lpagodas on the l owe r te rrace s as in the Shwe -DagOn and the

Shw‘

e -Hmaudau,or at each angle of the seve ra l te rrace s , in many

case s taking the form of e laborate fi n ials which in the Se innye tpagoda are of fi ne de s ign .

Some of the pagodas have in the cen tre of each face a fl ightof steps leading to the uppe r te rraces , and on the leve l of the fi rs tplatform an archway s im i lar to the example s in Boro-Budur .In one or two case s al so the re are porche s in fron t of each fl ightof steps , cruciform in plan

,S im i lar to those of the temples of

Cambodia .

In the Sapada and Taman i pagodas,above the be l l i s a

square moulded pl inth which by some authorit ie s i s thoughtto be symbol ic of the chambe r in the basemen t con ta in ing theBuddhis t re l ics , and i s in fact known as the

“ dhatu -garbha”

or re l i c-chambe r. The featu re i s,howeve r

,of ancien t origin ,

as i t i s shown on the dagabas in Karlé and Ajan ta (ante, vol . i . ,Woodcuts Nos . 70 and I t forms an e ssent ial feature inall the S inhale se Dagabas , and as Sapada,

the bui lde r of thepagoda bearing h is name

,was a Buddhist monk from Ceylon ,

he probably in troduced it into Burma .


i s the great Shwe -Hmaudau 1at Pegu , of which a plan and e leva

t ion are given in Symes ’ account of h is embassy to Ava. As wi l lbe seen from the plan (Woodcut No . i t deviates

_

from the

usual type , which is exclusive ly used in the edifice s of this classh ithe rto described , having an octagonal base togethe r with thosee laborated multiplane forms which are affe cted by all the Hindabui lde rs of mode rn date . I t re turns

,howeve r, to the ci rcu lar

form be fore te rm inat ing, and i s crowned , l ike all Burme se bu i ld

ings of thi s class , by an i ron Hti richly gi lt. Anothe r pecul iari tyis strongly indicat ive of i ts mode rn date

,name ly that around

its base i s a double range of min iature pagodas—a modeof ornamentat ion that subsequently became typical in Hindaarchitecture the i r temple s and spire s be ing cove red , and

,

indeed , composed of innume rable mode l s of themse lve s , cluste redtoge the r so as to make up a whole . As before remarked ,someth ing of the same sort occurs “

in Roman art,where eve ry

window and open ing i s su rmounted by a pedimen t or m in iaturetemple end , and in Gothic art, whe re a great spi re i s surroundedby pinnacles Or spire le ts ; but in these styles i t i s neve r carriedto the same excess as in Hinda art.

The bu ild ing stands on two te rrace s , the lowe r one about10 ft . high , and 1 39 1 ft . square ; the uppe r one , 20 ft . in he ight ,and 684 ft . square ; from the cen tre rises the pagoda, the

diamete r of whose base i s 39 5 ft . The smal l pagodas su rround ing the base are 27 ft . high , and 40 ft . in c i rcumfe rencethey are in two t ie rs

,the lowe r one of 7 5 and the uppe r 53 ,

in all 1 28 ; whi le the great pagoda i tse l f rises to the he ight of324 ft . above i ts te rrace , or 3 54 ft. above the country, thus reaching a he ight about equal to that o f S t . Paul ’s Cathedral : whilethe s ide of the uppe r te rrace i s on ly 83 ft . less than that of thegreat Pyramid .

Tradit ion ascribes i ts commencemen t to two merchants , whoraised it to the he igh t of 1 2 cubi ts

,at an age sl ightly subsequen t

to that of B uddha himse l f. Succe ss ive kings of Pegu added toi t from t ime to t ime , t i l l at last i t assumed its pre sent form ,

most probably about three or four cen tu ries ago .

The next in importance,so far as we know

,i s the more

gene ral ly known Shwe DagOn pagoda at Rangoon (Platea bui ld ing ve ry s imi lar in dimens ion s to the last

named , and by no means un l ike i t, except that the outl ine of

the base i s cut up to even a greate r exten t , and the spire moreattenuated—both signs of a comparat ive ly modern date .

I ts h i story in fact fol lows that o f many of the pagodas ofBurma : original ly i t i s said to have been on ly 27 ft . high and

1 Literally “ Golden great god .


A crowd of smal le r pagodas of all s ize s , from 30 ft . to 200 ft .in he ight, surrounds the large r one ; in fact the re is scarce ly a

vi l lage in the coun try that does not posses s one or two of the sestructure s

,and in all the more importan t towns they are numbered

by hundreds ; indeed , they may almost be said to be innumer

able . They are almost all qu ite modern,and so much al ike as

View of Pagoda in Rangoon . (From a Photograph . )

not to me rit any dis tinct or separate ment ion . They indicate,

howeve r,a great degree of progre ssive weal th and powe r in the

nation ,from the earl ie st times to the pre sen t day ,

and an increas

ing prevalence of the Buddhist ic system . This is a d ire ct contrast to the history of Ceylon ,

whose glory was greate st in theearl iest centuries of the Christian Era and was los ing its purityat the t ime when the architectural history of Burma fi rst dawns

CHAP . I . CIRCULAR PAGODAS OR CHAITYAS. 349

upon us . Thus the bui ld ings of one country supplemen t thoseof the othe r, and pre sent toge the r a series of example s o f thesame C lass

,ranging ove r more than 2000 years , i f we reckon

from the oldest dagabas in Ceylon to the most modern in

Burma.

Anothe r example of importance,the Shwe -z igon pagoda

near Pagan ,might he re be included , especial ly as

,al though the

original pagoda founded in 1094 was , accord ing to Mr. Nisbe t,

bu i l t ove r and increased in I 1 64 , i t at all events is less attenuatedthan e i the r the Shwe -Tshandau or the Shwe -DagOn . I t re tainsal so in i ts three lowe r storeys, with te rraces and proce ssionalpaths round , the primit ive form of the early dagabas .

At a place cal led M ingan,about hal f-way be tween the

forme r capital of Amarapu ra and the presen t one at Mandalay,

are two pagodas , which are no t without con side rable inte re st forour pre sent purposes i f for no othe r reason , at least for thisthat both we re e rected about a hundred and twen ty years ago ,and Show that ne i the r the forms nor aspirat ion s of the art we rewhol ly extingu ished even in our day . The fi rst

,the S inbyume

pagoda,i s c ircu lar in form ,

and was e rected in the year 1 790,

in the re ign of King Bodauhpaya ( 1 7 8 1 As wil l be seenfrom the woodcut (No. i t i s pract ical ly a dagaba

,with fi ve

concen tr ic process ion -paths . Each of the se is ornamen ted bya curious serpent- l ike balus trade , inte rspe rsed with n i che s contain ing, or in tended to conta in , statue s of B uddha, and isaccess ible by four fl ights of steps facing the four card inalpoints . The whole i s surrounded by a low ci rcu lar wal l7 50 ft . in diame te r, said to repre sen t the serpen t Ananta .

Within this i s a basement,measuring about 400 ft . across

,

and th is , with the process ion -paths and dagaba on the summit,

make up seven storeys,in tended

,i t is said

,to symbol ise the

mythical Moun t Me ru .

1

The bui ld ing was severe ly damaged by the earthquake of1 838, but was restored by King MindOn Min in 1 874 ; abovethe cen tral towe r shown in the woodcut (No . 448) a low storeyhas been bui l t with projecting dorme rs and n iche s in them as

in the Tupayon pagoda and,crown ing the same

,an octagonal

base in two t ie rs support ing the be l l,the fin ial with rings

round and the Hti ; a se ries of fi ve consecutive entrance porche s

1 The above part icu lars are abstracted number of storeys—not mechan ical , offrom a paper by C01. S laden in the course , but symbolical ; whe ther, in fact ,‘ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Socie ty, ’ the basemen t should be coun ted as a

vol . iv. p . 406 , with remarks by storey , or not . The above I be l ieve toC01. Yule and others . I t is curious that be the correct enumeration . We shal lthere is a discrepancy between the native presen tly m eet with the same diffi cul tyand the European authorit ies as to the in describing Boro -Budur in Java.

FURTHER INDIA. BOOK VI I I .

3 5 2 FURTHER INDIA. BOOK VI I I .

ance to the entran ces . The fi ve te rraces and the s ikhara withfin ial which , with the Hti , crowns the structure are in the i rproportions and

A

in the s impl ic ity of the mould ings almost equalto those of the Ananda. I t i s qu ite ce rtain that here in Englandany attempt to copy a cathedral of the same period as the

Ananda in the 1 1 th centu ry,such

,for instance

, as S t A lban’

s

or Durham,would be a mise rable fai lu re compared with the 1 9th

centu ry example of the Kyauktaugy i temple in Amarapura .

Two othe r bui ld ings might here be mentioned,fi rstly , the

so- cal led Arakan pagoda, sou th of Mandalay,which was bu i lt

by Bodauhpaya in I 7 85 to con tain the brass statue of Gaudama

carried off by him from Arakan . I t is real ly a square temple on

the plan of the Ananda,with four great ve stibule s project ing on

,

each s ide , the roof be ing a seven -storeyed pyattnat in brick .

And second ly the Kuthodaw or “ thousand and one pagodas .This cons ists of an immen se z ea

’e' of the usual type

,which was

buil t by King M indon Min ,with three paral le l rows round

of smal l pagodas or shrines,all e rected be tween 1 85 7 and

1 864 to she l te r the 7 29 marble s labs on which are engraved inPal i the Buddhist scriptures . The four entrance gates are evi

dently inspired by those of Cambod ia, cons ist ing of an en tranceve st ibu le with side wings , the ve stibu le or hal l be ing surmoun tedby a tower in two storeys set back one behind the other.

SQUARE TEMPLESThe earl iest example of the second class of pagoda with

square plan and corridors in the thickne ss of the wal ls i s that ofLemyet

-hnaat Prome , attr ibuted to the 8th and 9 th cen turies . I ti s‘ about 24 ft . square and i s bu i lt in brick with a sol id pie r 8 ft .square in the cen tre surrounded by a corridor 4 ft . wide ; on

each face of the pie r are bas- re l ie fs carved in stone which are

l ighted from four en trance doorways , one on each ‘

s ide of thetemple . The se doorways st i l l preserve the arche s bu i l t withradiat ing voussoirs of bri ck which , laid flatwise , d ispensed withthe need for cente ring.

The ske tch (Woodcut No . 449 ) shows that the bricks of theBurme se arches

,which measure gene ral ly about 1 2 in .

by 8 in . and 3 in . thick , formed a thin flat ring ofvoussoirs which

,bedded in mortar, would remain in

pos it ion t i l l the ring was comple ted . This was thesystem employed in the vaulted passages lead ing totombs in Egypt dat ing from 3 500 B .C. ,

in the drain s of

49 . D iagram the As syrian palaces , at a late r date by the Sassan iansof voussoired at Se rb is tan ,

Firu z abad and Ctesiphon in Pe rs ia,and

arch ‘ i s said to be found in Chine se Tu rkistan . I t i sprobable that the origin and deve lopment of these construct ive

3 54 FURTHER INDIA. BOOK VI I I .

exposing the arched con struction behind i t. An i l lustrat ionof this can be seen in P late I I . of Yule ’s work

,repre sent ing

the Temple of Sembyo Koo (Tsfi laman i) , whe re hal f,of the

appl ied decorat ion has fal len off the left hand s ide of the doorway . That which remains on the othe r s ide shows archedforms twisted into a varie ty of curves , which , l ike those of thewindow pedimen ts of Nan Paya (Plate have no con

structional value . The natura l head of a n i che sunk in.the

wal l shou ld e ithe r be a~semicircu lar or poin ted arch

,but few

of the n iche s in the corridors of the Ananda temple are thuste rminated ; they are gene ral ly shape less and in a few case sare quatrolobed . In fact the Burme se would seem to be the

on ly people who,having discove red the con structional val ue

of the arch proper and known how to bu i ld i t with radiat ingvoussoirs

,not on ly neve r employed it as a decorat ive feature ,

but seemed to be ashamed of its invent ion ,and endeavoured

to h ide or mask i t .A

In the vaulting ove r o f these corridors, which in the Anandatemple are from 7 to 8 ft. wide , the Burmese bui lde rs adopteda semi-poin ted barre l vaul t, the section of which was S im ilarto that of the flying buttress of a cathedral

,except that i t was

rounded off at the top . This vau lt, which arose from the oute rto the inne r wal l o f the corridor, was a much s tronge r formthan that employed by the Roman s with the i r semici rcular barre lvaults

,though perhaps not of so agreeable a form . The adop

tion of the semi-poin ted barre l vaul t (Woodcut No. 4 50) lessenedthe thrust, so that i t i s not surpris ing to fi nd that nearly all

these vaults exis t down to the presen t day ,suffe ring on ly

from the percolat ion of ra in and the growth of tree s and shrubson the top . Ove r the centra l corridors or ve stibules of theAnanda temple a poin ted arch barre l vau lt i s employed ofs imilar pitch to that shown in the woodcut (No . repre sen ting the section of the Thatpyinnyu temple . In a section givenby Forchammer of the. Dukkan te in temple in Mrohaung, the

uppe r chambe r has a semici rcu lar barre l vault, but the re the

wal l s we re of great th ickne ss . I t has al ready been noticedthat the roof of all these square temples was as a rule laidd ire ct on the vaul t ; this was the case with the Lemyet

-hna

temple al ready ment ioned , and in the Bébe temple , both inProme , and al so in the Patothamya temple in the province ofMyingyan ,

the two latte r as cribed to the l oth centu ry. The

form of these vaults and roofs are Shown in Woodcut No . 450.

The two most inte resting temple s of this class are those at

Nan Paya and Nagayon j ust south of Pagan ; the fi rst i s con

s idered to have been bu i l t by King Anaurahta about 1050 and

the second by Kyants ittha in 1064. Accord ing to General de

PLATE XXX IX.

W INDOW OF NAN -PAYA TEM PLE,MYI N I ’AGAN .

[Tofaeepage 3 54 , Vo l . I I .


s idered to have been the prototypes of the Ananda,but

,as has

al ready been pointed out , the temples of Lemye t-hna, Bébé-payaand Patothamya, of sti l l earl ie r date , have all the same plan

,

with in te rnal corridors , from which it fol lows that the re al readyexisted , long before the conque st of ThatOn in 1057 , a typeof templeA which was adopted by King Anaurahta as his mode lfor the Ananda. I t i s , howeve r, from this pe riod that thegreat deve lopmen t took place in Burme se architecture re sul ting in the magn ificen t se rie s of example s not on ly of thesquare temple s but of the pagodas , a deve lopmen t which lastedt i l l the invasion of Pagan by Kublai Khan in 1 284 , the las tbu ild ing of importance e rected during th is pe riod be ing the

pagoda ofMangalache ti , bui l t by Tarak -pyem in about 1 274 A .D .

1

Be fore passing on to a descript ion of the princ ipal templesat Pagan and the Burmese monaste rie s

,the re are two othe r

classes of re l igious structu re s , the The in and the Pitakat-Taik,

which might he re be included .

The The in or ord ination hal l for priests would seem tocorrespond with the Bat of S iam ,

except that they are not

as a ru le found in the temple enc losu re , as in the latte r country ,and the re are ve ry few example s . The Upal i-The in in Pagan ,

dat ing from the 1 3th cen tu ry , i s rectangu lar on plan and i sd ivided into nave and s ide a is les by arcade s the arche s ofwhich are said to be we l l bu il t . The cen tre a is le or nave i sloftie r than the s ide a isles , and in se ction the s tructu re is

s im ilar to that of a Chai tya temple or of a Christian church ,except that the re are no cle re story windows . The summitof the roof i s decorated with te rra-cotta ridge t i le s

,and in

the centre i s an attenuated dagaba. On the top of the naveand ais le wal l s i s a cresting or pierced parape t s imilar tothat which crowns the te rrace wal l s of the pagodas . The

inte rior is said to be decorated with fi ne and bri l l iant fre scoes .The re i s a second The in at Pegu dat ing from 1476 .

The Pitakat -Ta i k or sacred l ibrary at Pagan was bui l t byAnaurahta in 1057 to house the Buddhist scripture s which hebrought away from Thaton . I t was probably bui l t by the

mason s whom he brought ove r from ThatOn,and was pre

sumably a copy of the original l ibrary the re . The plan ofthe structure is square with apparen tly, j udging from the roof,four paral le l corridors round the cen tra l chambe r o r ce l l .The i l lustration (Plate XL .) shows that exte rnal ly the ground

éve il lé les convoitisesen

en

en


forty mile s ’ trave l l ing d is tance north from Martaban .

1 S incei t ceased to be a place of importance , e i the r by the s i l ting upof the rive r o r the e levat ion of the land

,i t is now

, _

no l onge ra port ; but the re can be l i ttle doubt that for some centurie sbe fore and afte r the Christ ian Era i t was the emporium throughwhich a ve ry con s ide rable port ion of the trade be tween Chinaand the weste rn world was carried on . The l ine of passagewas apparen tly across the Bay of Benga l from the de l tas of theKrishna and Godavari and i t was to this trade route that weprobably owe the rise and importan ce of Amaravati t i l l i t wasperhaps supe rseded by the d irect sea-voyage from Gujarat andthe west coast of I nd ia in the 6 th century . The place was

sacked and en t i re ly destroyed , according to S ir A . Phayre ,about A .D . 1050,

by Anaurahta, King of Pegu but l ong be fore

that t ime i t had been dwindl ing, from the growing importanceof Pegu or Hansawati , which was founded about A.D . 6 33

?

The on ly de script ion of i ts ruins i s by S t . Andrew S t. John ,

in the se cond volume of the ‘Phoen ix ’

above re fe rred to ; butthey seem even now to be ve ry extensive

,in Spite of negle ct

and consequen t decay . The wal l s can sti l l be traced for 7 700ft. in one dire ct ion by 4000 ft . in anothe r

,enclosing a regu lar

oblong of more than 700 acre s . In th is enclosure are seve ralold pagodas

,some

,un fortunate ly

,recen t ly repai red

,but all of

a form we have not yet me t with,though we shal l present ly

when we come to speak of Java .

The princ ipal pagoda he re , l ike all the othe rs,i s bui l t of

hewn late ri te . I ts base i s a square,measuring 104 ft. each

way ,and 1 8 ft . high ; the second storey is 70 ft . square and

1 6g ft. high ; the thi rd 48 ft . square and 1 2 ft . high . On thisnow stands a c ircu lar pagoda, mak ing up the whole he ight to85 ft . Mr. S t. John fanc ie s th is ci rcu lar part may be muchmore mode rn than the rest

,but he adds

,

“the whole face of

the pagoda has been carved in patte rns but the most remarkable part i s the se cond storey , to which acce ss i s given by fourfl ights of steps

,one in the cen tre of each face . The whole

was apparently adorned with scu lpture s of the most e laboratecharacte r.”

The re seem to be no data to enable us to fix with ce rta in tythe date of thi s or Of othe r s imi lar pagodas in this place

,and

no photographs to enable us to speak with ce rta inty as to the i rde tai l s , which is to be regre tted , as i t is j ust in such an oldcity as th is that we may expect to fi nd those early forms which

1 R . F . St . John ,

11 . pp . 204 , et segq.

CHAP. I . PROME. 3 5 9

may explain so much that is now un inte l l igible in subsequen texample s . Thaton was coeval with Anuradhapura in Ceylon ,

and i f examined with care ,might do as much for the square

form of temple as the i s land capital may do for the round form .

The i r greatest interest would , howeve r, arise from the l ightthey might throw on the square temple s of Pagan and othe rBurmese c ities

,whose origin i t has hithe rto been imposs ible to

explain . Meanwhi le i t i s a fact worth bearing in mind that wefi nd he re square three - storeyed pagodas, which certain ly we ree rected be fore A .D . 1080,

when the city was de stroyed , and

possibly before the 7 th centu ry , when i t was practica l ly supe rseded by the ri se of the new ci ty and kingdom of Pegu .

PROME .

I f we might trust the Burmese annal s,Prome 1 was founded

by a King Dfi ttabaung as hi s capital as early as the year10 1 of Re l igion

,or afte r the Nirvana of Buddha ? In othe r

words, i t seems to be assumed that B uddhist m iss ionaries fromthe second convocat ion he ld unde r Kalasoka, in the previousyear, e stabl ished themse lve s he re

,and introduced the new

re l igion into the country ? The rea l pol iti ca l capital of thecoun try at that t ime seems to have been Tagaung, hal f-waybetween Ava and Bhamo

,on the Uppe r Irawadi .4 Prome

,

howeve r,seems to have cont inued the re l igious capital t i l l

A.D . 107 , when the two capital s we re amalgamated,unde r the

name of Old Pagan on the northe rn s ite,to be again transfe rred

to New Pagan,be low Ava, about the year Uppe r Pagan

seems to have been visited by Captain Hannay in A.D . 1 83 5 ,and by others subsequen tly

,and the rema in s are described as

extensive,but too much ru ined and obscured by jungle to

admit of scien t ific inve stigat ion .

Many of those at Prome have been photographed by theGovernmen t, and othe r i l l ustrat ions are given in de Bey lié

’

s

book , toge the r with the dates to which they are ascribed,those

of de Bey lié be ing earl ie r than othe rs . Three of the pagodas,

1 This is the European name , i t iscal led Pyi or Pri in Burmese —Phayre ,Zoe ci t . p . 1 0.

2 Crawfurd’

s‘ Embassy to Ava

,

’ vol .i i . p . 277 . The “ year of Rel igion ” orBuddhavarsha

”era, l ike the S inhalese

era, dates from 543 B . C . , but this reckoning appears to be of comparative ly lateorigin , the earl ie r dates be ing reckonedfrom 482 B . C . , so that the date heremen tioned would belong to 382 B . C .

‘ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society , ’

1 909 , pp . 326ff. and 344f. The presen tBurmese Sakkaraj era commences in A . D .

639 , on the sun’s en trance in to Aries .

3 The holding of this convocation 100

years after the death ofBuddha is doubtful,and missionar ies are men t ioned on ly inconnection with the Council held byAsoka 2 1 8 years after the Nirvana, orin 246 B . C .

‘1 Yule , M ission to Ava, ’ p . 30.

5 Loc ci t . p . 32 .

3 60 FURTHER INDIA. BOOK VI I I

the Baubaugyi , Payagyi and Payama, attributed to the 7 th and

8 th centuries , are by de B ey lié put down as 6 th centuryce rta in ly too early ; the square temple at Lemye t

-hna,al so at

Prome , i s ascribed to the 9 th century , that i s to say ,long be fore

the introduction of the southe rn school of Buddhism fromThatOn .

PAGAN .

Practical ly the arch itectural H is tory of Burma begins withthe foundat ion of Pagan in the middle of the 9 th century , andas i t was de stroyed by the Ch inese , or rathe r the Tartar armyof Kublai Khan ,

in i ts glory lasted l i ttle more than fourcenturie s . During that period

,howeve r

,i t was adorned by a

ve ry extensive se rie s of monumen ts , mos t of which st i l l remainin a state Of very tole rable prese rvat ion .

I t wi l l thus be obse rved that the ri se and fal l of Pagan are,

as nearly as may be , coinciden t with that of Polonnaruwa, inCeylon ; but the Burme se c ity seems to have exce l led the

Ceylon ese capital both in the exten t of i ts bu i ld ings and in

the i r magn ificence . The i r d iffe rences,too

,both in form and

de tai l , are ve ry remarkable , but, i f prope rly investigated , wouldthrow l ight on many re l igious and ethnographica l problemsthat are now ve ry obscure .

The ru ins of Pagan extend about 8 miles in length a longthe rive r, with an average breadth of about 2 mile s

,and

within that space Colone l Yule e stimates the re may sti l l bet raced the remain s of 800 or 1000 temples . S eve ral of theseare of great magn ificence , and are kept in a state of repai r ; butthe bulk of them are in ru ins

,and the forms of the greate r part

hard ly d istinguishable .

A

Of these , one of the most remarkable i s the Ananda, bu i l tby Kyants ittha( 1057 As wi l l be seen from the fol lowingplan (Woodcut No . i t i s a square of nearly 200 ft . on eachside

,with project ing porti cos on each face

,so that i t measures

280 ft . across each way . L ike all the great pagodas of the c ity,

it i s seve ral storeys in he ight, the two lowe r ones are squarewith square turre ts at each end

,the three above have seated

l ion s at each angle,as shown in Plate XL I . The plan of these

storeys , as a l so the base of the s ikhara,fol lows that of the latte r

,

be ing se t back at the angle s for reasons which have al ready beensuggested .

‘

The s ikhara i s crowned with the con ica l fin ial andHti . The setting back of each storey one behind the othe rgive s the whole a pyramidal form

,which in th is case r ise s to

the he ight of 1 83 ft .

1 Yule’s Marco Polo , ’ vol . I I . pp . 84 , et segq.

CHAP. I . PAGAN . 36 1

In te rnally, the bui ld ing is extreme ly sol id , be ing intersectedon ly by two narrow paral le l corridors ; but in rear of eachprojecting transept is a n iche art ificial ly l ighted from above

,

in which stands a statue of Buddha more than 30 ft. in he ight .This is the arrangemen t we fi nd in the Chaumukh temple at

Pal i tana and at Ranpur (Woodcut No . both Ja ina temple sof the 1 5 th and 1 7 th cen turie s , and wh i ch i t i s consequent lyrathe r surpris ing to fi nd he re as early as the 1 1 th centu ry(A.D . 1066 ) but the form and the whole of the arrangemen t

Plan 01 Ananda Temple . (From Yule . ) Scale 1 00 ft . to I in .

of these temple s are so un l ike what we find e l sewhe re thatwe must be

'

prepared for any amoun t of anomal ie s .The plan of the Dhammayangyi bui lt at Pagan by Narathu

in 1 1 60 AD i s almost ident ical with the Ananda,but sl ightly

large r, measu ring 29 2 ft . across each way . With the exceptionof a deep recess facing the en tran ce in which the statue ofB uddha i s placed , the inne r corridor has been bricked up . The

othe r three statue s are brought forward in to the ve st ibu le sof the othe r three transepts . Great s im i lari tie s exist a l so inthe des ign ,

the re be ing two range s of windows on the groundstorey

,one above the othe r, as i n the Ananda. The roof con

S i sts of fi ve storeys se t back one behind the other, but be ing all

of the same he ight are very monotonous in e ffect, and are ve ryinfe rior to the Ananda roof

,where the three uppe r storeys of


le ss he ight give scale to the two lowe r ones ; on ly a portion Of

the s ikhara remain s .A

Next in importance to the Ananda i s the Thatpy innyu ,

“the

Omn isc ient,”e rected about the year 1 144 by Alaungsithf1,1 the

grandson of Anaurahta.

It is ve ry S imilar to theAnanda in dimen sion sand plan ,

except that i thas on ly. one great ve stibule instead of four

, and

on ly one corridor on the

ground storey,the centre

portion be ing sol id brickwork . The he ight of thetemple i s 20 1 ft .

,the

highest in Pagan . The

additional he ight in thistemple , as also in that oft h e Ga ud aup a l i n an d

Tsfi laman i (the SembyoKoo of Yule) temples ,both bui l t by Narapat i

2 Plan of That inn (From Yule )Si tha in 1 1 86

-

and 1 19645 '

Scale 1

12; ft A

yt

‘

gl in .

respect Ive ly ,ar i se s from

an important change in

the des ign . The th i rd storey is ra i sed to a he ight almost equalto that of the ground storey , and in the Thatpy innyu temple , asshown in the sect ion (Woodcut No . contains a cen tral ce l land a corridor round . To thi s uppe r s torey there are porcheson each s ide , and on the entrance fron t a ve stibu le as we l l . The

access by fl ights of steps to th is is shown in the section takenfrom Yule , and horizontal te rrace s exist in place of the ogeeroofs of the Ananda and Dhammayangyi temple s . A s imilaraccess by exte rnal fl ights of steps oppos ite the porch existedon one of the s ide s of the Tsfi laman i

,but not in the i l lustra

t ion (Plate whe re the ramps have more the appearance of flying buttre sses . This view sugge sts in i ts e ffect a

re semblan ce to the portal of a French cathedral,and i t give s

some idea of the rich de coration employed . The three planes ,or orders , as they are te chn ica l ly cal led , of the poin ted archre cal l the European subord inat ion of arches

,but the compl icated

assemblage of arched forms above in the gable end,all bu i lt in

brick cove red with stucco,Show how this mate ria l lends itse l f to

CHAP . I . PAGAN . 363

de corat ion of the most debased characte r . The decorat ion ofthe pi laste rs of the ground storey and the frie ze which re ignsthroughout the same are repe tit ions of the ornamen t of theNan Payaand Kyaukku temples al ready de scr ibed . The gene ra l

appearance of the se temple s wil l be unde rstood from the annexedView (Woodcut NO . 4 54) of the Gaudaupalin and the i r gene ra larrangemen t from the section of the Thatpy innyu

1.temple

1 In Pal i Thatpyinnyu is Sabbann t'

i .


(Woodcut No . 4 A de s ign with S l ight modificat ions is shownin Plate XL I I I . , represent ing the Th itsawada temple in Pwa z aw

He re the plan i s of smal le r d imens ion s , but great he ightis obtained by grouping the featu re s close r toge the r ; withoutlooking too close at the de ta i l

,i t i s s ingular how close a

resemblance the se two views bear to a Span ish or I tal ianchurch of the early Renaissance pe r iod . The re is one othe rtemple which should be ment ioned here , viz . , the Mahabaudi

,

bu i l t by Nandaungmya Min in 1 198 A.D . in im itat ion of the

V iew of the Temple of Gaudaupalin . (From Yule . )

BOdh-Gaya temple in Bengal (an te, vol . i . Woodcut No .

The temple i s square,having a lofty ground storey

,with two or

three ranges of windows or n iche s ; in the cen tre , but set backto leave a te rrace round

,i s a l ofty pyramidal towe r in seven

storeys , bearing a close resemblance to those of the Bodh -Gaya,but with smal l dorme r windows in the cent re of each S ide ; thetowe r i s crowned with the usual fin ial and Hti . I t i s the on lyexample of its k ind in Burma

,and doe s not seem to have any

influence on subsequent example s .The fi rst thing that strikes the enqu ire r on examin ing these

temple s i s the i r remarkable d iss imilari ty with anyth ing on the

continen t of India. They are not stfi pas in any sense of thete rm , nor are they viharas . The one bui ld ing we have hithe rtomet with which they in any way re semble i s the seven -storeyedPrasada at Polonnaruwa (Woodcut No . which

,no doubt ,

be longs to the same class . I t was thought that the square

CHAP. I . MONASTER IES . 36 5

pagodas at Thaton,when properly examined

,may contain the

explanat ion we are searching for . They eviden tly we re not

al one,and many othe r example s may sti l l be found when

looked for. On the whole , howeve r, I am incl ined to be l ieve,

improbable as i t may at fi rst s ight appear, that the i r realsynonyms are to be found in Babylon ia,

not in India. The

Birs Nimrfid was,l ike them ,

a seven - storeyed temple , withexte rnal s tai rs , lead ing to a crown ing ce l l or sanctuary. Of

course,during the seven teen cen turie s which e lapsed be tween

the e rection Of the two bu i ld ings , conside rable change s havetaken place . The lowe st s tai rs in Burma have become inte rnalin Babylon ia they we re apparen tly exte rnal . At the head ofthe third fl ight at the B irs , S ir Hen ry Rawl inson found the

rema ins of three rece sses . At Pagan the se had been pushedin to the cen tre of the third storey . The exte rnal fl ights we recon tinued on the uppe r three storeys at both place s ; but inBabylon ia they lead to what seems to have been the realsanctuary

,in Burma to a s imulated one on ly

,but of a form

which,in India

,always contained a ce l l and an image of the

de i ty to whom the temple was dedicated .

I t may be asked,How is i t poss ible that a Babylon ian form

should reach Burma without leaving trace s of its pas sage throughIndia ? I t is hard ly a sufficien t an swe r to say i t must havecome maT ibe t and Central As ia because

,in the pre sen t state

of our knowledge,we do not know of such a route be ing used .

I t is a more probable explanat ion to say that such monumentsmay have existed in the great Gange tic cit ie s , but, l ike theseB urmese example s , in brick and plaster ; and have perished ,as they would be sure to do in that cl imate

,and whe re host i le

race s succeeded the Buddhists . But,howeve r i t may be

eventual ly accoun ted for,i t hardly appears to me doubtful that

the se Burmese seven -storeyed temples are the l ineal descendan tsof the Babylon ian example s

,and that we shal l some day be

able to supply the gaps which exis t in the i r geneal ogy .

Meanwhile one thing must be borne in mind . The earl ie stcapita l of the Burmese was Tagaung in the north

,and the i r

real affin i t ies are with the north . They got the i r re l igion bythe weste rn route from Bengal

,but i t was engrafted on a stem

of which we know ve ry l ittle , and all whose affin i t ies have ye tgot to be traced to the i r source .

MONASTER IES .

As Burma i s a country in which the monastic system ofBuddhism flourishes at the presen t day to the ful le st extent ,i f we had more informat ion regard ing its monaste rie s

,or

ky anng s as they are cal led,i t m ight enable us to understand the


arrangement of the O lde r ones . The trave l lers who have vis itedthe coun try have been si len t on the subject, principal ly becausethe monaste rie s are , in almost all instance s

,less magn ificen t

than the pagodas to wh ich they are attached,and are

,with

scarce ly an exception , bu il t of wood—a pract ice destruct ive ofthe i r archi tectura l characte r, and also depriving them whol lyof that monumental appearance of stabi l i ty which is so essen t ialto true architectura l expre ss ion .

Thi s pecul iarity is not confined to the monaste rie s ; all

res idence s , from that of the poorest peasan t to the palace of theking

,having been con structed from t ime immemorial of th i s

pe rishable mate r ial . The custom has now passed into a law,

45 5 . Burmese Kyaung . (From Col. Symes Embassy to

that no one shal l have the powe r of e recting bui ld ings of stoneor brick

,except it . be the k ing h imse l f, or un le ss the edifice s

be of a pure ly re l igious characte r. Even th i s exception i s notalways taken advan tage of

,for the king ’s palace i tse l f i s as

e ssent ial ly a wooden e rect ion as the dwe l l ing of any of h issubjects . I t is , howeve r, not the le ss magn ificen t on th is accoun t— rathe r, pe rhaps , more so— immense sums be ing spen t on themost e laborate carvings , and the whole be ing lacque red , pain ted ,and gi l t, to an exten t of wh ich we have no concept ion in ourmore sobe r cl ime .

The gene ral appearance of the facade may be real ised fromthe annexed view (Woodcut No . but its real magn ificence


The naked form of these monaste ries— if the express ionmay be used—wi l l be understood from the fol lowing woodcut(No . 457 ) of one e rected at Mandalay. I t i s apparently fivestoreys i n he ight , but as a matte r of fact on ly one storey isoccupied , the first , or piano nobile ”

as we would cal l i t. The

reason for this be ing that the POngy i or prie st would refuse tores ide in a bui ld ing whe re any one

’s fee t we re above his head .

The fi rst storey Of a Kyaung, and th is appl ie s to the exampleat Mandalay

,i s a lways raised about 8 to 10 ft . above the

ground,be ing carried on great t imbe r posts . I t i s surrounded

by a balcony on three sides , access to which is Obtained byfl ights of s teps enclosed be tween balustrades with a pecul iar

Monastery at Mandalay. (From a Photograph . )

curved te rm ination in fron t,shown in the woodcut (No . 45

The steps,the wal l s carrying them and the balustrade s are all

in brick , whils t the re s t of the structure is en tire ly in t imbe r.On the easte rn s ide is a shrine

,in which is a statue of Gandama,

above which is the Pyatthat, a lofty s tructure with three , fi veor seven roofs accord ing to the importan ce of the Kyaung ;thus in the Royal monaste rie s and the King’s Palace the reare seven roofs , as in Woodcut No . 4 56 . The monaste ry at

Mandalay (Woodcut NO . 4 57 ) was no t comple ted when the

photograph was taken ,but not be ing masked by the e laborate

carving as shown in Woodcut No . 4 5 5 , the scheme of itsde s ign i s eas ie r to read . The re are four s toreys of roofs

,the

uppe r one cove rs a lante rn on ly ; the roof be low cove rs the

CHAP . I . MONASTERIES. 369

central hal l which is enclosed with double ai s le s all roundcove red ove r by the two othe r roofs . V irtual ly there i s on lyone room in a B urmese Kyaung

,at the eas t end ; and next to

the Pyatthat i s the POngy i’

s quarte r, where he rece ives vis itors ,teache s in the school and sleeps ; at the west end are the

students ’ quarters and the store-rooms, and the school-room ,

i f i t may be so te rmed , i s in the central hal l . 1These many-storeyed kyaungs , with the tal l seven-storeyed

spire s (shown in Woodcuts NOS . 447 and 45 bring us back tothe many-storeyed temples in Nepal , which are in all e ssentia lre spects so nearly ident ical , that i t can hard ly be doubted theyhad a common origin . We are not yet in a posit ion to poin tout the connecting l inks which wi l l fuse the detached fragmentsof th is s tyle into a homogeneous whole , but i t i s probably inChina that they must be looked for, on ly we know so l ittle ofthe architectural h istory of the we ste rn portion of that greatcoun try, that we must wai t fo r furthe r informat ion before evenven turing on this subje ct .

The fact that all the bui ld ings of Burma are of wood , exceptthe pagodas

,may a lso explain how i t is that India posse sse s

no architectural rema ins ante rior to the age of Asoka. Exceptthe comparat ive ly few mason ry pagodas , none of which existedprior to his era, the re i s noth ing in Burma that a conflagration

of a few hours wou ld not de stroy , or the de se rtion of a few

years ent i re ly obl ite rate . That the same was the practice ofIndia i s almost ce rta in

,from the e ssen tial ly wooden forms st i l l

found prevai l ing in all the earl ie r cave temple s and,i f so

,this

fu l ly accounts for the disappearance of all earl ier monumen ts .We know that wooden architecture was the characte ri st i c of

Media, whe re all the construct ive parts we re formed in th ispe rishable material and from the B ible we learn that Solomon ’sedifice s we re chiefly so constructed . Pe rsepol i s pre sents us

with the earl iest instance remain ing in As ia of thi s woodenarchite cture be ing pe trified

,as i t we re—apparently in

'

conse

quence of the intercourse i ts builde rs maintained with Egyptand with Greece .

In Burma the se wooden types sti l l exist in more comple tene ss than , pe rhaps , in any othe r coun try. Even i f the studentis not prepared to admit the direct e thnographic connectionbe tween the bu i ldings of Burma and Babylon

, he wi l l at anyrate best learn in th is country to apprec iate much in ancien tarchitecture , which without such a l iving i l lus trat ion ,

i t i s hardto unde rstand . Solomon’s House of the Fore st of L ebanon

1 Yule ’s Mission to Ava,

’ pp . 354-35 5 .—Phayre in

‘ Jour. As iat . Soc . Bengal , ’VOL xxhe pp . 346fil

VOL . I I .


i s,with mere d iffe rence of de tai l , reproduced at Ava or

Amarapura ; and the palace s of Pe rsepol is are rende red ‘

infin i te ly more in te l l igible by the study of the se . edifices .Burma is almost equal ly important in enabl ing us to unde rs tand what an act ive , prosperous Buddhist commun i ty mayhave been in India at a t ime when that re l igion flourishedthe re ; 1 and al toge the r, i f mean s we re ava i lable for its ful le l ucidat ion ,

i t would form one of the most in te re st ing chapte rsin the History of Architecture in Asia .

1 For a succinct accoun t of the history Burma including Burma prope r , Peguof Burma to 1 837, the reader may consul t Taungu, Tenasserim , and Arakan .

’

Sir Arthur P . Phayre’

s H istory of

FURTHER INDIA. BOOK VI I I .3 7 2

prepared for publ icat ion by himse l f, and wan t the explanatorytouche s which on ly an author can give to his own work .

Though his me lancholy death prevented M. Mouhot fromobtain ing all the credit he was en t itled to for his discove ry, i thas borne rich frui t as far as the publ ic are conce rned .

The next person who vis ited these ru ins was the verylearned D r. Adolph Bastian ; 1 who wrote a most recondite butve ry unsat isfactory work on the Indo-Chinese nat ions

,in five

volume s .The next vis i t was paid by Mr. J . Thomson , a profe ss ional

photographe r at S ingapore , who at con s iderable expense and

risk carried h is photographic apparatus to the spot,and brought

away a plan of the great temple at Angkor Vat,with some

thirty photographs of i t,besides views of othe r place s in the

ne ighbourhood .

S ince that t ime the French have sent a success ion of we l lequipped expedit ions to the place ; the fi rst

,unde r Captain

B ondart de Lagrée in 1 866 and a second in 1 87 3 . H isun fortunate death on the fron t ie rs of China prevented his eve rworking out his re su l ts to the exten t he no doubt wou ld havedone had he l ived to return home . They we re , howeve r,publ ished as he left them by L ieutenan t T . Garn ie r

,the second

in command , with note s and add ition s Of h is own ?

As they,howeve r

,could not comple te the inve st igat ion

,

a th ird expedit ion was fitted out unde r Captain L . De laporte ,who had taken part in the previous exped it ions . He re turnedto France in 1 874 ,

bringing with him not on ly de tai led plans ofsome of the temple s , but copie s of nume rous inscript ion s and

a large col lect ion of ant iqu it ie s and casts . The se we re at fi rstlocated in the Chateau of Comp i egne , but we re afte rwardsremoved to Paris and arranged in the Trocade ro Museum .

Captain Delaporte’

s work 3 was publ ished in 1 880. He was

fol lowed by othe r trave l le rs who shortly afte r the i r re turnbrought out the re sul ts of the i r inve stigat ion s

,M. T . Moura,4

A . T i ssandie r,5 Fournereau,

6 Captain E . Lune t de Lajonqu iére ,7

1 ‘ Die Volke r der Oestlichen Asien ,

’khmere .

’

410. 1 880.

von D r . A . Bastian . Le ipzig, 1 866 .

4 ‘ Le Royaume de Cambodge .

’2 vols .

He also wrote an account of the ruins in 8vo . 1 883 .

the ‘ Journal of the Royal GeographicalSoc ie ty ’

(vol . and four pape rsin the

‘ Ausland (Nos. 472 Voyage d

’

Exploration en IndoChine , ’ 2 vols. quarto and folio A tlas ofplates . Paris, 1 873 ; also ‘Explorations etM issions : Extraits de ses Manuscripts, ’par M . A . B . Villemereul . Paris 1 883 .

2 ‘Voyage au Cambodge, l’Arch itect'ure

5 ‘Cambodge et Java : Ru ines khmérese t javana ises , 1 893 4 to . 1 896 .

6 ‘ Les Ru ines d ’Angkor.

’

4to . 1 900.

7 ‘ A tlas Archéologique de l’

Indo

Chine : Monumen ts du Champa e t da

Cambodge ,’ fol . 1 901 Inven taire

arche’

ologique et descriptif des Monumen ts du Cambodge .

’

2 vols . Imp.

8vo . 1 902-1 907 .

CHAP . I I . CAMBODIA. 3 73

and E . Aymon ier,

1all of whom were sen t out by the M in i ste r

of Publ ic Instruction and unde r the direct ion of the EcoleFrancais de l’Ex tréme Orien t . The latest write r on the subj ecti s Gene ral L . de Bey lié,

2 whose work incl ude s a description withi l lustrat ions of the monuments of India

,Burma

, Cambodia,S iam ,

Java,and Ceylon .

In addition to these source s of informat ion the re i s a mostinte rest ing accoun t

,written by a Chine se trave l le r

,who spent

two years in the coun try when the kingdom was in i ts mos tflourish ing state between the years 1 29 5 -

97 . He was a

B uddhist, and,l ike h is p rede ce ssors in India, Fah Hian and

Hinen Tsiang, see s things a l ittle too much through Buddhistspectacles ; but , with this s l ight de fect , nothing can be moregraphic than his accoun t of the country and the people .

3

One of the earl ie st tradition s is that fi rst put forward byD r. Bast ian ‘1 re lat ive to the migration of an Indian prince

,and

this i s repeated by T i ssand ie r,

5 who state s that in 443 B .C .

Prea- thong,a Hindu prince

,son of the King of Indraprastha

,

emigrated with a large numbe r o f his fol lowe rs and se ttled at

Choukan (north of Angkor) . The new emigran ts in troducedthe B rahman r ite s which we re engrafted on those of theSe rpent worshippers o f the coun try . A lthough at fi rs t theyse ttled down amicably with the original inhabitan ts

,in course

of t ime trouble s se t in and the Ind ian s,having vanqu ished the i r

opponents,became maste rs Of the country . In 1 2 5 B .C. the

Ch ine se are said to have conque red the Cambod ian s and forcedthem to pay tribute . The re i s also a re cord that in the fi rstcenturies of our era emigrants from Madras made the i r wayin to Cambodia in troducing the B rahman fai th

, the San skri talphabe t, and Indian ri tes and customs .6 The Khme r and

Sanskri t epigraphic texts give de tai l s of a dynasty of sevenk ings who re igned from 435 -680 A.D .

,among whom a ce rtain

Bhavavarman seems to have been a great conqueror ; the last1 Le Cambodge .

’

3 vols . Imp . 8vo .

1 901- 1 907 . The Sanskrit inscriptions

were translated and commen ted by M . M .

A . Barth and Abe l Bergaigne , with atlasof phototypes of the estampages . Paris1 885 and 1 893 .

2 ‘L’Architecture H indoue en Ex tréme

Orien t . ’ 1 907 .

3 The work is translated in ex tenso in

Abe l Remusat’

s‘ Nouveaux Me langes

Asiatiques , ’ vol . 1. pp . 7 8 et seqq.

4 Bastian , too. a t . vol . i . p . 393 .

5 Tissandie r, too. a t . p . 1 7 .

6 From ancien t inscription s we learnthat the Eastern peninsula at an earlydate included six regions

,states or

kingdoms ( 1 ) Yavana-dera in thenorth -east , extending from the gulf ofTongkin westwards nearly to the 99th

me ridian , and including much of the

Laos districts north of 1 7°

I ts

capital was Chudhanagari , now LuangPhrabang on the Me -kong . (2 ) Champadera , correspond ing to Annam and

extending to abou t 1 60 miles westwardsof the Me -kong. (3) Sayam -dera in thenorth -west , in cluding Burma proper andthe northe rn part of modern S iam east ofthe Salwin , of which Haripunyapura , now

Lamphum on the Me -ping, was

—if not

the capital— one of i ts notable cities ,(4) Kambuja

-dera included all Cambodia .


of thi s dynasty was Jayavarman . From his death to the

commencemen t of the 9 th cen tury the re are no records, owingprobably to internal d issens ions

,but in 802 A.D .

1Jayavarman I I .

,

who may have been a de scendan t of the olde r dynasty,formed

a new dynasty of e ighteen sovere igns,a l is t of whom

,with the

dates of the i r acce ss ion s , are given at the head of this chapte r.To this monarch i s attributed the foundation of the Cambodiank ingdom , whose capital was Angkor Thom

,s ituated in the

val ley of the Me -kong about 14 mile s north of the lake knownas Ton le Sap . Jayavarman I I . settled at fi rst at Prah -khannorth of Angkor Vat , and in the tenth year of h is re ign is

supposed to have la id the foundation s of the great c ity ofAngkor Thom ,

as also those of the Royal palace in i ts cen tre ,the pyramid temples of Phiméanakas

,the great temple of Bayon

and othe r structure s . To him,the re fore , according to Aymon ier

,

2

must be ascribed the inaugurat ion of those colossal construc

t ion s which were raised during the fou r cen turies fol lowing and

which con stitute the great Cambodian style . The re are somesmal l earl ie r temples bu i l t towards the end of the 6 th or thecommencemen t of the 7 th centurie s , in which the origin ofthe style may be found , but they are of comparat ive ly smal limportance . I t i s , howeve r, intere sting to note that accord ingto Aymon ier

, Jayavarman may have come in to the countryfrom Java

,and the re fore brought ove r some acqua in tan ce with

the great temple of Boro -Budu r of the 7 th or 8th cen turies , towh ich the re i s a strik ing re semblance ,

so much so that some ofthe sculptu re s of the latte r have been assumed in e rror to bethose of Angkor Vat .

The thi rd k ing,Indravarman

,bes ide s bui ld ing the temples

of Baku and Bakong,comple ted and conse crated the temple

of Bayon in Angkor Thom,the e/tef d

’

cenvre of Cambodianarch ite cture . The e re ction of the great capital , on accoun t ofit s magn itude and the nume rous temple s and othe r structure si t con tained

,would seem to have stre tched ove r a long pe riod ,

as i t was not un t i l the re ign of Yasovarman, the fourth king,

that the Official capital was sh ifted about 900 A .D . fromHariharalaya,

which,s in ce the death Of the fi rs t k ing, had

hithe rto he ld that pos i t ion,to Angkor Thom . To Yasovarman

i s attributed al so the temple of Lole i and the pyramid templeof Phiméanakas in the cen tre of the Palace enclosure . He i ssaid to have been a man of prodigious strength , but in aboutLower Cochin China and S iam as far. An cien ,

’ pt . i . pp . 5off.

north as Uttaradih (Lat . 1 7°

39’ 1 The dates are those taken from the

(5 ) Ramanya-dera

, on the west , com Indian Saka , to which is added 78 : thusprised Pegu and Tenasserim . And (6 ) 724 Saka is 802 A . D .

The Malay pen insula was designated 2 Aymonier, Zoe. et'

t . tome i i i . p . 468 .

Malaya-desa. Fournereau, Le S iam


at Phnom Penh 1 on the Me -kong,the pre sen t capital of what

remains of the great Cambodian kingdom .

TEMPLES .

B roadly speaking, the temple s , the re lat ive posit ion ofwhich is shown in Woodcut No . 4 58 , may be d ivided in to fou rclasse s : fi rstly

,those in which the enclosures

,gene ral ly three

in number, are all more or less on the same leve l,such as in

the temples of Ta Prohm,Kede i , and Pré Rup ; secondly , the

pyramid temple s , which cons is t of a serie s of narrow terrace sris ing one above the othe r as Ph imeanakas and Bapuon ; th ird ly ,those in which the two fi rst classe s wou ld seem to be combined

,

where the enc losures , one within the othe r, are each rai sed from1 5 to 20 ft. above the leve l of that outs ide , so as to give the

whole a pyramidal form ,such as in those of Angkor Vat and

Bayon and fourthly,the smal le r temple s, consist ing of three or

fi ve sanctuarie s placed s ide by S ide,the centre one be ing the

mos t importan t, the whole surrounded by a wal l or moat . The

enclosures cons ist e i the r of a moat with in which may have beensome kind of timbe r pal isade now gone

,or a stone wal l 8 to

10 ft . high,with cresting at the top . In a large numbe r of

temples one or more of the en closures take the form of a gal le ryor corridor

,which i s roofed ove r with horizon ta l cou rse s of stone

corbe l led ove r ti l l they mee t at the top . The natu re of th iscons truction l imits the width of the corridor to 7 , or at the

utmost 10 ft .,so that i f a greate r width is required , an ais le

i s provided on one or both s ide s . An example of this i s shownin Woodcut No . 46 1 , a section of the corridor at Angkor vat .

'

In th is case the support on the le ft cons isted of a sol id wal l,

the roof ove r the ais le be ing at a lowe r leve l than that ove r thecorridor

,but there are instances in which this system of con

struct ion i s employed ove r the ve stibules and hal l s lead ing toa sanctuary

,in which case the oute r supports are wa l ls

, the

inne r ones pie rs,const ituting in plan what m ight be de scribed

as a nave and a is les .The approache s to the temple s acqu i re con s ide rable import

ance , not on ly on accoun t of the i r great length , but because theycons ist of causeways ra i sed from 10 to 1 2 ft . above the ground

,

ne ce ssitated by the fact that from June to Octobe r the val ley ofthe Me -kong

,whe re all the more importan t Cambodian temples

are found,i s flooded , and the ra i sed causeways form the on ly

mean s of commun icat ion be tween the towns and temples : thewhole val ley

,in fact

,i s mapped out with roads arranged at right

angles to one another, along which the caravan s pass .In the approache s to the principal temple s and the great

1 Lat . 1 1°

33’N . , long. 104

°

5 7’

E,

CHAP . I I . CAMBODIA—TEMPLES . 3 7 7

towns,the se causeways have led to featu re s which are confined

to Cambodia, viz .,the cruc iform terraces ( such as that shown

5 .

Map showing the position of the principal Temples .

in Woodcut No . 4 59 , in fron t of the temple of Angkor Vat , andin Woodcut NO . 470 in the foreground of the temple of BengMealea), the borde ring of the causeways with s te les , l ion s , andothe r an imal s

,and

,when cross ing the moats

,to stone bridges

the bal ustrades of wh ich cons isted of se rpents carried by

3 7s FURTHER INDIA. BOOK VI I I .

giants on sculptured pede stal s, the serpen t te rminat ing at the

entrance end by a lofty Naga figure 10 to 1 2 ft. high , withfrom fi ve to seven heads . A s imilar feature te rminate s thebal ustrades of bridge s across rive rs or streams

,an example of

which , the Spean Taon ,i s shown on Plate XL I V . ,

Fig . 2 . In the

latte r case the bridge i s carried on great s tone pie rs corbe l ledout at the top

,the banks be ing widened out so as to give an equal

passage to the torren t as that enj oyed be fore the bridge was

buil t. Across'

the moats which surround the oute r enclosureof the temples

,the bridge i s carried on c i rcular or compound

pie rs,somet imes carrying s ide wa l l s enriched with Naga figure

sculpture .

In fron t of the temples and also in parts of the enclosure are

tanks of wate r known as eras,with stone borders and steps

round. These provide for the se rvices of the temple the re are

some case s in which the se sras are of enormous dimen sion s,

forming rese rvoi rs to supply wate r for agricu l tural and otherpurpose s .1

The principal approach to the temples is , as a rule , from the

east,un less

,as in the case of Angkor Vat

,whe re the re i s some

spec ial reason for the change,the main road from the capital

Angkor Thom be ing on the west s ide Of the forme r,which has

accord ingly a we ste rn en trance . The en trance gateways to theseve ral enclosure s are cal led gopuras 2 and are cruci form on plan

,

owing to proje cting wings thrown out on all four s ides : the s idewings be ing of greate r length than the othe rs , in some cases , asat Angkor vat, having a second

'

entrance on each side . Ove rthe centre of the gopura i s a towe r which in the entrance gateway of Angkor Thom is carved on each S ide with B rahma heads .The gopura i s repeated for the entrance of each enclosure , alwaysbe ing in the cen tre of the east and west fronts , but on the northand south fron ts neare r to the wes t end

,whe re the ma in entran ce

i s on the easte rn s ide , and to the east end i f on the weste rn s ide ;the reason be ing to provide add itiona l space for othe r structure swithin the enclosure s on the entrance S ide

,the axis of the

sanctuary and of the gopura be ing a lways the same .

In the pyramidal temples and in those of the third class , whereeach te rrace or enclosure rise s from 1 5 to 20 ft . , the staircasesare very steep— in some case s the ri se of the steps be ing threet ime s the w idth of the tread . The steps are enclosed betweenprojecting spurs or ramps of stone , which are richly mou lded andcarved , and the width of each fl ight is of le ss d imension as i trise s

,so as to give the appearan ce Of greate r he ight . In some

Of the large temple s— in addition to the towe rs ove r the central1 De Lajonquiere, Inven taire arche 2 Loo. cz

'

t . introd . pp. 30ffg.

ologique ,’ tome i . introd . pp. 43ff.


employed , as remain s have been found of paral le l wal l s of amuch greater width . In the inner enclosure of a temple

,on each

s ide of the central axis , and in front of the sanctuary, two othe rs tructure s are invariably found

,which are assumed to have been

the treasury for the deposit of the sacred vesse l s and othe rprope rt ie s of the temple and the l ibrary for the records ; the i rentrance doors face the Opposite direct ion to those of thesanctuary ; they are l ighted by rectangular window open ingsclosed with bal uste rs such as shown in Plate XLV . ; the s i l l sof the windows of the treasury or l ibrary are always about 6 ft .from the ground

,and the same i s found in othe r bu ild ings

,

which are assumed to have been occupied by the women .

In some of the temple s the re are othe r structures in the rearof the sanctuary ; 1 thus at Phnom Ch isor (Prov. Bat i) 2 are

fi ve bu i ldings of d iffe ren t s izes and S im i lar in gene ral design,

all having doorways facing east which are undoubtedly shrinesfor d ivin i t ies of the same cul t, whethe r S aiva or Vai shnava.

The temple of Phnom Ch isor i s bu i lt on,

an eminence,and i s

approached by long causeways with nume rous fl ights of steps,

the re be ing in fron t of the gopura a fl ight of 392 steps a secondexample exists in the Prah V ihear,3 whe re the temple i s bu il t ona cl iff which in Europe would have been se lected for a stronglyfort ified castle .

The three largest temple s in Cambod ia are those of AngkorVat , Bayon and Beng Mealea of these the fi rst named is thebest pre se rved , though of late r date , the othe r two be ing bu il t ata period when the archi tectural s tyle of Cambodia had reachedperhaps i ts h ighest deve lopment .

TEMPLE OF ANGKOR VAT.

The temple of Angkor Vat,l i te ral ly

“the temple of the ci ty,

i s s i tuated about a mile to the southward of the c ity of AngkorThom itse l f, and be tween i t and the lake Tonlé Sap . AS wil l beseen from the smal l plan (F ig. 2, Woodcut No . 459) i t i s almostan exact square , and measures nearly an Engl ish mile each way .

4

The wa l led enclosure of the temple measures 1080 yds. by1 1 00,

and i s surrounded by a moat 2 1 6 yds . wide . The moati s crossed on the we st by a splendid causeway, carried on pierson e i the r s ide . This leads to the great gateway fi ve storeys in

1 These are analogous to the smal l France obtained from S iam the provincesshrines connected with H ind ii temples, as of Battambang , Siemreap and S isophon .

at Kailas, Elara, at S innar, Dhamnar, etc . These include the temple of Angkor Vat ,2 L . de Lajonquiere ,

‘ Inven taire arche and numerous other examples that bearologique ,

’ tome i . pp . 1 6 -29 . witness to the Splendour of the ancient2 Loo. ci t. tome i i . pp . i 73fl

'

. Cambodian c ivilisation .

4 By the treaty of z 3rd March 1 907 ,

CHAP. I I . TEMPLE OF ANGKOR VAT .

Fe e tL M m A fi —J5 0 0 IOO

Plan of the temple of Angkor Vat . Scale 1 765 ft . to r in .

200


he ight, not un l ike thegopura Of a Dravid iantemple , but extendedby late ra l gal le rie s and

raised causeway, 370

yds . long, leads to a

cruc iform platform infr on t o f t h e t em p l e( shown in F ig. 1

,Wood

cut NO . On e ithe rs ide of this

, about hal fway down ,

i s a de tachedtemple , which anywhe ree l se would be cons ide red

3 of importance,but he re

may be passed ove r.The gene ra l plan of

the temple wil l be un

derstood from the woodcut (No . I t con

s is ts of three enclosures,

one within the othe r,

e ach rai sed from 1 5 ft .to 20 ft . above the leve lo f that outs ide i t

,so as

to give the whole a

pyramida l form . The

outer enclosure measures590 ft . by 700 ft .

, and

cove rs , the re fore , abouts q . ft . Th e

great temple at Karnak(Thebe s) coverssq . ft . The re are threeportal s , adorned withtowe rs on each face

,and

on e i the r s ide of the seare open gal le ries orve randahs

,which

,with

the i r bas- re l iefs,are pro

bably the most remarkable feature s Of thistemple . The i r external

ra

E0L4

E:

Elevati

on

o


intended to secure some such adornmen t,and in one place the

remains of a teakwood ce i l ing beauti fu l ly and e laborate lycarved .

Outside this gal lery, as shown in the WoodcutsNos . 46 1 ,46 2, i s a se cond , supported by shorte r pie rs

,with both base

and capital . This oute r range supports what may becal led

a transve rse t ie -beam ,one end of which i s tenoned into the

462 , View of Exterior of Angkor vat. (From a Photograph by Mr . J. Thomson . )

inne r pie rs just be low the capital . SO beaut iful ly,howeve r

,

i s this fi tted , that M . Mouhot asserts the inne r pie rs are

monol iths, and, l ike the other jo ints of the mason ry,the junction

cannot be de tected even in the photograph un le ss poin ted out .The beauty of this arrangemen t wi l l at once strike any one who

knows how d iffi cult i t i s to keep the sun out and le t in the l ightand air, so indispen sable in that cl imate . The B rit ish have tried

CHAP. I I . TEMPLE OF ANGKOR VAT . 385

to e ffe ct i t in India for 100 years , but neve r hit on anythinge i the r so arti st ic or conven ient as this . I t i s, in fact, thesolution of a problem ove r which we might have puzz led forcenturies , but which the Cambodians re solved inst inctive ly .

The exte rior corn i ce here , as throughout the temple , is composedof infin i te repetit ions of the seven-headed snake .

463 . View of Interior ofCorridor , Angkor vat . (From a Photograph byMr . J . Thomson . )

I‘ he most wonderful parts , howeve r, of the se colonnades ofAngkor Vat are the sculpture s that adorn the i r wa l l s . Theseare distributed in e ight compartments

,one on each s ide of the

four central groups of entrance s , measuring each from 2 50 ft.to 300 ft . in length , with a he ight of about 6%ft . The i r aggregate length is thus at least 2000 ft .

,and assuming the parts

photographed to be a fai r ave rage , the numbe r of men and

VOL . 1 1 . 2 B

3 86 FURTHER INDIA. Boox VI I I ,

an imal s repre sented extends from to The re l iefis so low that in the photograph i t looks at fi rs t s ight as i f in ci sed— z

'

ntag lz°

ato—l ike the Egyptian sculptures ; but th isA

is not the

case . Gene ral ly speak ing , the se re l ie fs repre sen t battle -scene sof the most an imated description ,

taken from the Ramayanaor Mahabharata, which the immigran ts e i the r brought withthem ,

or,as the S iamese annal s say ,

rece ived from India in the4th or sth centu ry ; the se , Pathammasurivong ,

the founde r ofthe c ity

,caused to be tran s lated in to Cambodian

,with con

s iderable variat ions, and he re they are sculptured almost inextenso.

1

One bas-re l ie f, howeve r, i s occupied by a diffe ren t subje ctpopularly supposed to represen t heaven , earth , and he l l . Abovei s a process ion so close ly resembl ing those in Egyptian templesas to be startl ing. The k ing is borne in a palanquin ve ry l ikethose seen in the sculpture s on the banks of the Nile , and

accompan ied by standards and emblems which go far to comple tethe i l l us ion . In the middle row s its a j udge , with a nume rousbody of asses'

sors, ,

and the condemned are thrown down to a

lowe r region,whe re they are represented as tortured in all the

mode s which Eastern ingenu ity has devised . One subje ct alonecan be cal led mythological , and i t wears an old famil iar face ;i t represents the second Avatar of V ishnu

,the world -supporting

tortoise , and the churn ing of the ocean with the great snakeNaga. No legend in Hinda mythology could be moreappropriate for a snake - temple ; but, notwithstanding th is , i ti s out of place , and I cannot he l p fancying that i t was hischoice of this subje ct that gave r ise to the tradit ion that thek ing was affl icted with leprosy because he had deserted the

fai th of hi s fore fathe rs . Thi s re l ie f i s evidently the lastattempted , and sti l l remains unfin i shed .

The on ly othe r temple s that I am aware of whe re sculpturei s used in anything l ike the same profusion are those at BoroBudur in Java and that at Halebid

,described above (vol . i .

p . In the Indian example , howeve r, the principle s on

which it i s employed are diametrical ly opposed to those invogue in Cambodia. The re all the sculptures are in high re l ief,many of the figure s standing free , and all are e ssent ial partsof the archite cture—are

, in fact , the architecture i tse lf. He re ,howeve r , the two arts are kept qui te d ist inct and independent ,each mutual ly a id ing the other, but each pe rfect by itse l f, andseparate in i ts aim . The Gothic archi tects attempted toincorporate the i r sculpture with the architecture in the samemanne r as the Indian archi te cts . The Greeks

,on the cont rary,

1 Bastian , lot . a t . vol . 1. p . 402 .

388FURTHER INDIA. BOOK VI I I .

but if the Greeks we re correct in the i r principle , so ce rtain lywe re the Cambodian s .Leaving the se oute r pe ri style s for the pre sent, and entering

by the we st door, we found ourse lves in an ante -naosmeasuring1 80 ft . by 1 50 ft . , supported by more than 100 pie rs, and

l ighted by four smal l courts open to the sky above . The wholeof this part is arranged most art ist ical ly,so as to obtain the most varied and

picture sque e ffects,

and i s as we l lworthy of study as any part of the

temple . B eyond this , on e i the r hand ,i s a detached temple

,s imilar in plan

to those that stand on e i the r s ide ofthe causeway (F ig. 2

,Woodcut No .

hal f-way be tween the en trance and the

temple .

Ascending from this we ente r themiddle court, in the centre of whichstands what may be cons ide red as the

temple i tse l f. I t measure s 200 ft . by2 1 3 ft . , and i s crowned by five towe rsor spires

,one on each angle , and one ,

tal le r than the othe rs,in the centre ,

r is ing to a he ight of 1 80 ft . The cen traltowe r has fou r ce l l s

,one facing the

cen tra l hal l from each side . The gene ralappearance of these towers may be

gathe red from the e levation (WoodcutNO . and from Woodcut No . 464.

They are ve ry Indian in characte r andoutl ine , but , when looked close ly in to ,are un l ike anything known in thatcountry . The bu i ld ing which resemble s the inne r temple most

,so far as

at pre sen t known,i s that at Ranpur

(Woodcu t No . I ts d imens ion s5 . Pier of PorCh , Angkor va are nearly the same

,200 ft . by 2 2 5 ft . ;by M" l ike this, i t has five spi res s imilarly d is

posed,and four open courts ; and at

Ranpur, as he re , there are a certain number of snake -figures ,which might sugge st a connection be tween the two . But the rethe s im i larity ceases . The extraordinary amount of richness andexuberance of deta i l in the Cambodian temple far surpasses thatof the Indian example ; and the courts at Angkor Vat are not

courts but wate r- tanks . How far the lowe r courts we re al socapable of be ing flooded is not clear, nor whethe r the whole

CHAP. I I . TEMPLE OF ANGKOR VAT . 389

area, 1 100 yds. square,in

which the temple stands,

was not al so capable ofbe ing turned into a lake .

1

I f i t we re , i t is d ifficul t toconce ive a more fa i ry- l ikescene than thi s temple wou ldhave pre sented , ris ing fromthe lake which reflected itsforms in the calm sti l lnessof a tropical sunse t .

One of the most cu riousc i r c u m s t an c e s c o n n e c t e dwith the archite cture of thistemple i s , that all the pie rsare as e ssent ial ly of the

Roman Doric orde r, as thoseof Kashm i r are of the

Grec ian Doric . Even ifthis i s d isputed , one thingat least i s ce rtain , that no

such piers occur anywhe rein India. At Angkor Vatthe re is not a s ingle bracke tcapital nor an Ind ian base?and al though the re are in

tersect ing vaul ts and in

gen ious roofing contrivance sof all sorts , the re i s no

dome,and no hin t that the

architects we re aware of theexistence of such a form .

On the contrary , take sucha pie r as that shown in

Woodcut No . 46 5 : the proportion of diame te r tohe ight ; the proport ion be

tween the uppe r and lowe r

1 Mr . Thomson was informed thatduring the rains the whole was

flooded, in which case the templecould only be reached in boats .

2 Outside the temple the sides ofthe causeways are in places supportedon dwar f columns of circular form .

They seem to simulate a bundle ofe ight reeds, and have tal l capitals. 466 . Lower part of pier . (From a

Photograph by Mr . J . Thomson . )


d iamete r the capital with its abacus the base with its pl inththe arch itrave , e tc . ,

are so l ike the Roman orde r that i t isd ifficul t to conce ive the l i kene ss be ing accidental

But whoeve r gave the de s ign for the se piers—and,accord ing

to M . Mouhot , the re are 1 5 32 of them in th is s ingle bui ld ing-we have abundan t evidence to show that the people for whomit was e re cted we re of Turan ian blood . Without ins i st ing on

othe r facts , the re are in eve ry part of the bu ild ing groups offemale figures in al to-r il ievo . They are some times in n iche s orin pairs , as in the Woodcut No . 466 , attached to pi laste rs , orin groups of four or more . The re are a hundred or more invarious parts of the bui ld ing, and all have the th ick l ips and

the flat nose s of true Tartars, the i r eye s forming an angle withone anothe r l ike those Of the Egyptians , or any othe r of thetrue bui ld ing-races of the world . Unfortunate ly

,no statue s of

men are so attached , though the re are seve ral free -standingfigure s which te l l the same tale . The bas- re l ie fs do not he lpin the enquiry , as the artist has taken pains to d ist inguishcare ful ly the e thnographic pecul iari t ie s of all the nat ions represen ted , and ,

t i l l the in script ion s are read,and we know who are

in tended for Ind ian s or who for Chine se or Cambodian s,we

cann ot use the evidence they supply.

I t is a we l l - known fact that,whe reve r Se rpent - worship

prevai led in any part of the world , i t was the cu stom to devotethe most beautifu l young girl s to the se rvice of the temple , andth is may accoun t for the nume rous female statue s . Thoughthe god is gone , and the Buddhists have taken possess ion of thetemple , eve ry angle of eve ry roof i s adorned with an image ofthe seven -headed snake , and the re are hundreds of them ; everycorn i ce i s composed of snakes’ heads ; every convolution of theroofs

,and the re are thousands , term inate s in a fi ve or seven

headed snake . The bal ustrade s are snake s , and the ridge ofeve ry roof was apparen tly adorned with gi l t dragons . Thesebe ing in me tal , have disappeared , but the hole s into which theywe re fixed can st i l l be seen on every r idge .

This temple , now in French hands , has been taken possess ionof by S iamese bonzes , who have ded icated i t to the worshipof B uddha. They have in troduced image s of him in to the

sanctuaries and othe r places , and , with the usual incuriousne ssof people of the i r class, assert that i t was always so. I f, howeve r,the re is one thing more ce rta in than anothe r in this h is tory, i t i sthat Angkor Vat was not original ly e rected by Buddhists or forBuddhist purpose s . In the fi rst place

,the re i s no S ign of a

dagaba or of a vihara, or of a cha i tya hal l in the whole bui ld ing ,nor anything that can be cal led a remin iscence of any featu reof Buddhis t arch itecture . More than this , there i s no trace


the country the se Indians are reputed to have come from,

and to how late a date that art cont inued to be practisedin the north-west, we are no longe r puzz led to unde rstandthe prevalence of class ical de tai l s in this temple ; but to workout the connect ion in all i ts variat ions i s one of the mostinte resting problems that remain to exe rcise the ingenu ity offuture explore rs .

BAVON .

The great temple of Bayon, within the c i ty wal l s of AngkorThom

,i s supposed to have been founded by the fi rst k ing of the

dynas ty, Jayavarman and consecrated by Yarovarman about

900 A.D . This temple be longs to the third class, whe re , in con

sequence of the he ight of the two great platforms on which i t i sbu i l t and of the cen tral sanctuary, a pyramidal contou r i s given tothe structure . I t i s regarded as the okof d

’

cenore of Cambodianarchitectu re , not on ly on accoun t of the splendour and vigourof its sculptu red decorat ion s, but for the magn ificence of itsplan (Woodcut No . The principal d i ffe rence be tween i tand Angkor Vat i s found in the se cond platform

,and the

great importance given to the sanctuary . Instead of havinga third enclosure , the four angles of the second enclosure are

fi l led with smal ler courts , so as to leave sufficien t space forthe great entran ce porche s on the north

,south and we st S ide s

,

and for the en trance porch ve stibule and two othe r ha l l s preceding the sanctuary on the east s ide . Supplemen tary porchesand hal l s are placed on the diagonal l ines , with a double pe ristyle enclos ing the who le , which must have formed a group ofexceptional magn ificence .

In consequence of the terrible ruin which pe rvades the

whole structure , owing to the forest of tree s which has invadedit

,the re i s no gene ral View of i t to be obtained , and i ts appear

ance can on ly be gathe red by imagin ing the effect of AngkorVat with fifty towe rs in stead of n ine , the whole more ri chly and

e laborate ly ornamented than even that temple ; to this must beadded the increase of the pyramidal composit ion , owing to thec lose r grouping of all the towe rs and the i r decorat ion with thefour great masks of B rahma on each face , masks which , in the i rfi ne mode l l ing and express ion ,

are on ly approached by the greatEgyptian Sphinx . Woodcut No . 468, repre sen t ing one of theinne r towe rs about 50 ft. high , give s some idea of the sti l lgreate r example s—that ove r the sanctuary be ing cal culated as

1 30 ft. high . Hal f way up the towe r we re e ight project ingfron tispieces , each carved with the head of B rahma and givinggreate r importance to the sanctuary towe r.Bayon i s the on ly temple , accord ing to De laporte , which has

CHAP. I I . TEMPLE OF BAYON . 393

LLL-L5 0 O 5 0 I00 I KO

467 . Plan of the Temple of Bayon . (From T issandier'

s Cambodge et


a double enclosure of sculptured corridors,the aggregate length

One of the Towers of the Temple of Bayon in Angkor Thom .

(From a Photograph by Mr . J. Thomson . )

of which has been cal cu lated to be ove r ft . , or nearlytwice that of Angkor Vat .

BENG MEALEA.

The th ird great example i s that of the temp le of BengMéalea (Woodcut NO . about 20 mile s east of AngkorThom . This temple be longs to the fi rst c lass , all the enclosuresbe ing more or le ss on the same leve l . NO in scriptions of anyk ind have been found on the structu re , but accord ing toAymon ier, who judges by the gene ral de s ign and de coration ,

i t probably be longs to the 9 th cen tu ry. The re i s an ex cept ional feature in i t ; in the fi rst enclosure on the south or le fthand s ide are two groups Of bu i ld ings which are assumed to


wate r, forming huge tanks (w as ), but they are too smal l to havese rved for nautical d isplays . The conjectural restorat ion

, as

shown in the bird’s-eye view of Beng Mealea in Wo odcut NO .

470, gives a ve ry good impre ss ion of the arch itectural compos i

470 . Conjectural Restoration of the Temple of Béng Mealea. By M . L . Delaporte .

i (From Le Cambodge tz ome I . le Royaume Actuel par Etienne Aymonier .

t ion of the Cambodian temple s , which , with the i r smal le rcorridors and great hal l s

,seem to be more appropriate as

palace s . All the corridors and hal l s were vau lted in stone , atype of construction which was employed on ly in re l igiousstructures . The wal l s of the corridors he re were not carvedas those of Angkor Vat and Bayon , the decorat ion be ing con

fined to the entrance portals and the towe rs . One of thecruciform terrace s carried on c i rcu lar p ie rs , to which re ferencehas been made , i s shown in this View,

without,however, the

se rpent bal ustrade s or fl ights of steps down to the lowe r leve l ,as found at Angkor Vat .

OTHER TEMPLES.

On the east s ide of Angkor Thom ,distant re spective ly

hal f a mile and a mile from the same , are two temples , TaProhm and Banteai Kede i , which are richly decorated with

CHAP. I I . OTHER TEMPLES. 39 7

fine sculptu re . The two inne r enclosure s are surrounded withcorridors , of which the oute r one cons ists of a cen tral andside ai s le , as at Angkor Vat, the wal l be ing on the inne rs ide . On the gopuras of the four enclosu re s

,the angle s of

the larger inne r enclosure,the san ctuary, and othe r structures ,

the re are said to have been as many as twen ty-e ight towe rs,

n ine of which we re carved with the four face s of B rahma. The

temple of Banteai Kede i i s said to have been original ly dedicated to Buddha, but as the face s of B rahma decorate the

towe rs of the east and west gopuras , th is i s doubtful . The planof the two structures in the inne r enclosure d iffe rs from anyothe r example s

,the large r one—which from its pos ition should

be the sanctuary,cons i sts

,according to Aymon ier

,

1 of a se rie sof four corridors

,runn ing north and south and east and we st,

cross ing one anothe r and carrying corbe l led domes at the i rinte rsection .

In the temple of Phnom Chisor (Prov . Bat i) the corridor ofthe s ingle enclosure i s subdivided by a numbe r of cross wal l sform ing separate compartmen ts , four of whi ch have en trancedoors

,a fl ight of steps leading to the park outs ide

,and to the

inte rnal court . All the rooms are l ighted by baluste r windows,

those on the east or en trance s ide looking outwards,the othe rs

on to the court . The same dispos i t ion of windows is found inthe temple of Prah-khan (Prov. Kompong Svay), but he re the

corridor is not subd ivided by cross wal l s . Parts of that temple,

of~

which two i l lustrat ion s are given , are we l l prese rved (Plateshowing the bal uste r windows and the un iversal door

way , which is found in all the temple s,varying on ly in the

sculptured decoration of the arch itrave and the tympanum ofthe gable . The octagonal shafts which flank the entrancedoors of all the Cambodian temple s are gone in this instanceat Prah-khan , but Woodcut NO . 47 1 , at Bassak , may be takenas a typical example of the usua l doorway.

The course s of mason ry of the temples are always horizon tal,

and those above the doorway are carried far back into the wal l,

so that the octagonal shafts on each s ide are on ly decorat ivefeatures . The architecture above the door i s a lways rich lycarved with varying de signs , the gable be ing enshrined withtwo se rpents with Naga head te rminat ion s, which respond tothe antefix ae of Greek temples ; outs ide the serpen ts ’ bodie s areflames which take the place of crockets

,and the tympana are

carved with figures . The same i l lustrat ion (Plate XLV.) showsthe rectangular windows with balustrades , the pane l decorat ionbe tween them with female figure s repre sent ing the Thevadas or

1 0p . cz'

t. tome ii i . pp . 1 9 -2 1 .


goddesse s , the richly sculptured corn i ce s with cre sting, and theroofs carved in im itation of ti le construct ion

,though all bui l t in

stone in horizontal cou rse s . Some idea may al so be conce ived ,

Carved Lintel of the Temple at Bassak .

as shown in Plate XLV . , of the te rrible ru in which is ove rtak ingall the Cambod ian temples owing to the ove rgrowth of thetrees . The prese rvat ion of this bu i ld ing

,constructed nearly

n ine centu rie s ago ,i s ve ry remarkable

,and th i s is borne out

be tte r in Plate XL IV. , whe re , owing to the magn ificen t cons truction, the towe r st i l l stands e rect

,having lost on ly i ts two

uppe r storeys and lotus cre sting.

PYRAM ID TEMPLES .

The fine st example of the pyramid temples i s that ofBapuon ,

immediate ly south of the palace in Angkor Thom .

I t bears cons ide rable re semblance to the temple of Bayon , butthe he ight of the second and third platforms is much greate rthan in the latte r ; thus whi l s t the fi rs t and second platformsof Bayon are re spect ive ly 10 and 26 ft . in he ight , those ofBapuon are 2 1 and 37 , and the th ird platform i s 48 ft . high .

The B rahmamasks we re not carved on the twen ty-e ight towe rsof Bapuon ,

nor are the wal l s of the corridor en riched with the

bas-re l ie f scu lpture of Bayon and Angkor Vat . The richne ssin beauty of the carving , howeve r, i s qu ite as fine as that ofBayon ,

and the arabesque scrol l s of the architrave at Bassak(Woodcut No . and of the pi laste rs and vertical pane l se l sewhe re bear much resemblance to 1 2th century work FrenchGoth ic . The Chinese trave l le r of the i 3th centu ry a l ready


the palace s of the King and Queen re spective ly,whe reas if the

temple had been bui l t for a palace , they would be found in the

centra l enclosure . On the we st s ide of Phimeanakas, and with in

the palace enclosure of Angkor Thom,are the foundation s of

bu i ld ings, which are supposed to have been the re sidence s ofthe King and h is family ; the women

’s quarte rs occupying thewhole width of the enclosure against the west wal l

,in which there

i s no entran ce gate . At Vat Phu,near Bassak

,on e ithe r s ide

of the causeway leading to the temple,i s a structu re of about

1 50 ft . fron tage with a rectangular court at the back and

surrounded with a corridor vaulted l ike those in the temple s :and those are cons ide red to be palaces

,though they may have

been occupied on ly by the Kings of Bassak,who we re subje ct

to the Cambodian monarch . Aga in at Phnom Ch isor,to which

re fe rence has been made,on the north s ide of the court the

s i l ls of the windows are 6 ft . from the ground,so that the

corridor they l ighted may have been occupied by women .

But in all these cases the accommodation would bare ly be

sufficien t for a hunting box,and for a monarch l ike the King

of Cambodia, whose re tinue consisted of hundreds if not

thousands,the temple s o f Angkor Vat and Beng Mealea, Ta

Prohm and Prah-khan,are the on ly structure s which could

poss ibly hold them . As regard Bayon,s ituated within the

c ity of Angkor Thom and in proxim ity to the palace,that may

have been occupied by the prie sts on ly, but in Angkor vat and

B eng Mealea the se rie s of magn ificen t hal l s which figure in

the enclosure s would seem to have been provided for the needsof a great court this, howeve r, i s a subject which require s furthe rinvestigat ion ,

on which it i s hoped that othe r inscription s found ,when deciphe red , may pe rhaps throw more l ight . The templeand the King’s palace we re the on ly bu ild ings in Cambodiawhe re permanence was obta ined by vaulting them ove r in stone .

As this,accord ing to the Cambodian system of con struction ,

could on ly be e ffected by horizontal course s of s tone corbe l ledout

,the dimensions of the gal le rie s and hal l s we re extreme ly

l im ited in the i r width, and increased accommodation cou ldon ly be met by the i r exten s ion in length— thus the oute rcorridor of Angkor Vat was ft . in length , the cross hal l sin fron t of the second enclosure and those of the latter measure

ft . , and the inne r enclosure , includ ing the passages leadingto the sanctuary , about 900 ft . more , or al toge the r about ft .of corridor

,of which ft . , with the double ais le s, was on ly

about 1 8 ft . wide , and the remainde r 10 ft . wide or less . Hal l sof greate r width must have had roofs of t imbe r cove red withti le s

,which have all disappeared long ago , and can neve r have

had a long existence , as the te rmite s or white ants in Cambodia

CHAP. I I . CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 40 1

rende red timber an epheme ral construction ,teak be ing the on ly

wood they are unable to destroy . One or two has-re l iefs giverepre sentations of smal l structures in front of which are groupsof figure s supposed to represent the King and his family

,and

these in des ign are ident ical with the gopuras which form the

en trances to all the temples .

CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.

The principal remain s exist ing are those of the greatenclosure wal ls and the gates of Angkor Thom the capital

,

founded by Jayavarman I I .,the fi rst k ing

,but not comple ted

or occupied t i l l the re ign of Yasovarman,the fourth king .

The c ity measured close upon ft. from east to west,and ft. from north to south , giving a perimete r of 73 milesto the enclosure wal l s . Those wal ls

,about 22 ft . high

,we re

surrounded by a moat 300 ft . wide and en te red through fivegate s , one on the north , south and we s t s ide s,

‘

and two on the

east, the most importan t, cal led the Gate of V ictory,leading

to the palace . I ts plan , l ike those of the gopuras to whichreference has been made , was cruci form , con sist ing of a centra lgateway 52 ft . square , with recessed angle s and s ide wings .Three towers , the uppe r port ion s of which we re sculptured on

all four s ides with the B rahma mask in stone s im ilar to thosein Woodcut No. 468 , rose above the cen tral gateway and the

s ide wings . On each s ide of the gateway and in the recessedangle s e lephan ts ’ heads and trunks were carved

, and abovethem nume rous figure s of Nagas and othe r subjects . Thisi s probably the en trance gateway de scribed by the Chinesevis i tor in 1 29 5 , as he re fe rs1 to the great heads in stone abovethe gateways which he thought to be those of Buddha, to thefigure s of e lephan ts on each s ide of the en trance gateway

, andto the great bridge ove r the moat in fron t, on each side ofwhich we re fi fty -four statue s in stone of great he ight carryinga se rpent with n ine heads . The trunk of the se rpen t’s bodyin this case formed the balustrade and at the entrance to thebridge we re immense Naga heads s imi lar to those shown in

Plate XL I V .,F ig . 2 . Portions of the se figure s sti l l exis t,as al so

trace s of those in fron t of the othe r gate s . S im i lar parapets haveal so been found at Ban tea i Prah-khan ,

north of Angkor Thom .

The othe r eastern gate led to the temple of Bayon,al ready

refe rred to . The palace enc losu re , s i tuated nearly in thecentre of the city, measured about ft . by 800 ft .

, and was

par M . Abel Remusat .

VOL . I I .


surrounded by a double wal l , with moat be tween . The western,port ion of the enclosure was probably occupied by the Kingand his family, and with the except ion of the pyramida l templeof Phimeanakas, a few towe rs and many stone banks , no architectural remains have been found . In front of the palaceenclosure was a great te rrace ove r 800 ft . long by 4 5 ft . wide ,and 1 5 ft . high , the wal l s of which we re sculptured withe lephants ; no trace s of wal l s of any description have beenfound in front of this terrace , suggest ing that i t formed an

open space whe re reviews took place be fore the King and hiscourtie rs on the te rrace . At the north end of this square i s acruciform structure about 30 ft. wide and 60 ft . long

,r ichly

decorated , with six bands of sculptured figure s,and i t was on

the top of thi s that the French explore rs found the supposedstatue of the leprous king to whom the monumen t was ascribed .

The wal l s of the c it ie s we re al so of ve ry great extent , andof d imensions commensurate with the i r importance . They seemgene ral ly to . have been constructed of a coarse fe rruginousstone in large blocks , and on ly the gates and ornamental partswe re of the fine -grained sandstone of which the temple s and

palaces are bui l t . Wonde rfu l as these temples and palace s are,

the ci rcumstance that , perhaps , afte r all gives the highe st ideaof the civi l isation of the se ancien t Cambodians i s the perfect ion of the i r roads and bridges . One great trunk road seemsto have stre tched for 300 miles acros s the country from Korat

,

in a south-easte rly d i re ction,to the Me -kong rive r. I t was a

rai sed causeway, paved throughout l ike a Roman road,and eve ry

stream that i t crossed was spanned by a bridge , many of whichremain pe rfect to the presen t day . D r. Bastian de scribe s twoof these : one , 400 ft . in length , and 50 ft. in breadth , ri chlyornamented by balustrade s and corn i ce s

,and repre sentat ion s

Of snake s and the Snake k ing .

1 The extraord inary thing is,

that i t i s constructed without radiating arches,but l ike eve ry

structure in the place , by a system of bracke t ing or horizon talarches , and withou t cemen t . Yet i t has withstood

,for five

cen turie s at least, the violence of the tropical torrent which itspans .

Even i f no vestige s of these roads or bridge s rema ined , thesculpture s of Angkor Vat are sufficient to prove the state ofperfe ct ion which the art of tran sport had reached in thi scommun i ty . In these the re are nume rous representat ions ofchariots

,all with whee l s from 3 ft . or 5 ft. in he ight , and with

s ixteen spokes, which must be of me tal , for no London coachmake r at the presen t day could frame anything so de l icate

Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, ’ vol . xxxv . p . 7 5 .


CHAPTER I I I .

S IAM .

CONTENTS .

S truc tures in the temp le enc losures—Temples at Sukhodaya, Phra Pathom,

Sajjanalaya, Ayut h ia, Lophaburi, Sangkalok and Bangkok—Hall ofAud ience at B angkok

ALTHOUGH the archite cture of S iam is much le ss importan tthan that of Burma on the one hand , or Cambodia on the

othe r, i t i s st i l l suffic iently so to preven t i ts be ing passed ove rin a gene ra l summary o f style s . I t s worst featu re , as we now

know it , i s , that it is so extreme ly mode rn . In the l oth cen tu rythe Thai , a people from Sayam -desa on the north

,began to

press southward s aga in st the earl ie r B rahman i ca l s tate ofCambodia, and founded a new k ingdom . Up to the 14th centu rythe capita l of th is country was Sukhotha

’

i’

, or Sukhodaya, a c i tyon the Me -nam ,

2 50 mile s from the sea in a dire ct l ine , ands i tuated close to the hi l l s .1 About the year 1 3 50 the T hai

,

now known as S iamese , we re succe ssfu l in the i r wars withthe Cambodian s , and eventual ly succeeded in capturing the i rcapital , Dwaravati , which , unde r the name of Ayuthia

,became

the capital of the new empire , and practical ly they annexed allthe we ste rn province s of Cambodia to the i r domin ion . Theybrought in Buddhism , which proved fatal to the B rahman i calc ivi l isat ion

,and arch itecture with the othe r arts degene rated .

Having accompl ished this , they moved the i r capital downto Ayuthia, a l i ttle more than 50 miles from the sea ; and

three centurie s afte rwards Bangkok succeeded i t,and i s now

1 This city was visi ted by the late volume appeared after the author’sM . Lucien Fournereau, who was sen t death in 1 906 , and contains plans of theby the French Government in 1 89 1 on older temples at Sangkalok , Phitsanulok ,an archaeological mission to S iam . The Lophaburi and Ayuthia, but unfortunatelyresul ts of h is researches are published in without descriptions. Le S iam Ancientwo quar to volumes with admirably drawn Archéologie - Epig

raphie Géographieplans of numerous temples and photo (

‘Annales du Musee Guimet,’ tome xxvii .

gravures of their remains. The second par t 1 , and xxxi . part 1905 and 1908.

CHAP . I I I . SIAM . 405

the capital . I t i s by no means certain whethe r th i s m igrat ion downwards was caused by pol it i cal even ts and increas ingcommerce , or from the coun try gradual ly becoming drie r andmore fi t for human habitat ion . Judging from what happenedin Bengal in historical t ime s

,I should fancy it was the latte r.

In Ind ia we find civi l ised nation s fi rs t e stabl i shed in the

Panjab and on the wate rshed be tween the Satlaj and the Jamna.

Be tween 2000 and 3000 years B .C. Oudh seems to have becomedry enough for human habitation ,

and Ayodhya ( from whichthe S iamese capital took its name) be came the ch ie f c ity .

Be tween 1000 and 500

B .C. Janakpur on the

north, and Rajagriha on

th e s o u t h,w e r e t h e

capital c i t ie s Of Bengal ;but both be ing s ituatedon the hi l ls

,i t was no t

t i l l Asoka’

s t ime (2 50B .C.) that Patna on the

5 6 11 and Vaisali on the

Ganges , became capital s ; and s ti l l anothe r1 000 ye a r s e l ap s e dbe fore Gaur and Daccabecame importan t , whi leMurshidabad

,H ug l i

,

and Cal cutta, are c it ie so f y e s t e r d ay .

1 Th e

s am e p h e n om e n o nseems to have occurredin S iam ,

and,what i s of

st il l more in te rest,as we

shal l present ly see,in

Cambodia .

As Ayuthiawas fort h r e e c e n t u r i e s th e

flourishing capital ofone of the great bu i ld ing

47 2 .

race s of the world , weshou ld

,of course

,look for cons ide rable magn ificence having

been displayed in i ts architecture . From the accounts of theearly Portugue se and Dutch trave l le rs who vis ited i t in the

Ruins of a Pagoda at Ayu thia.

1 For the particulars of this desiccation of the Val ley of the Ganges, see the‘ Journal of the Geological Socie ty , ’ April , 1 863 .


days of its glory,i t seems to have me ri ted the ti tle they

bes towed upon i t of the “ Ven i ce of the East,”

and the remainsj usti fy the i r eulogiums . Some of the bu ild ings , howeve r, seemto have been constructed of brick and wood ; and as the ci tyhas now been pract ical ly deserted for more than a centu ry, thewild fig

-trees have eve rywhere inse rted the i r roots into the

masonry,and de cay has progre ssed rapid ly among the wooden

e rections . As described by re cen t v is itors , nothing can be morewildly picturesque than th i s once splendid city , now overgrownwith j ungle ; but such a stage of decay is

,of all condi tions ,

the least favourable to the re searches of the ant iquary . Fournereau , howeve r, was able not on ly to measure and work outthe plans of some twenty temples , which are i l l ustrated in hiswork al ready refe rred to, but to class ify and describe the variousconstruct ions found in the enclosu re s of the temple , givingthem the local names

,and thus throwing an ent i re ly new l ight

on S iamese archite cture .

Vat i s the name given to the oute r en closure of a temple ,wh i ch was a lways re ctangular, and general ly of greater length

Transverse section of the Bot of var Ja'

i‘

, Sukhodaya.

than width . The enclosure wal l s were as a ru le about 3 ft . thick ,and from 1 2 to 14 ft. high . The most important bu ild ing in theVat was the Bot—the sacred temple—and usual ly the fi rst bu ilt .This would seem to correspond with the Burmese Tnez

'

n,or

ord inat ion hal l for priests ,1 but in S iam it was always includedin the temple enclosure s, whe re i t stood oppos ite the princ ipal

1 Sanskrit , (zoosatfzd-

gdm , or Upast/zana-sci la .—Ante, vol . i . pp . 2 13 , 242 .

PLATE XLVI .

I’HRA - CHED I AND PHRA - I’RAVG .

[Tof aee pag e 407 ,Vo l . I I .


entrance . In Burma i t seems some times to have been bui l t ina separate enc losure of its own . The Bot was rectangu lar onplan ,

and was d ivided in to central and s ide ai s le s by columnsin stone , carrying open t imbe r roofs covered with glazed t i lesin bright colours . The i l lustration of the Bot of the Vat Ja

'

i'

at Sukhodaya (Woodcut NO . 47 3) shows that in sect ion i tre sembled that of an early Christian church with nave and s ideai s les . The roofs ove r the s ide ai s les were at a lowe r leve l thanthat of the central ais le

,leaving space for a clerestory, which

cons isted of pierced te rra-cotta s labs . S im ilar pe rforated screenswe re bu i l t in be tween the oute r col umns of the a is le s . I n

importan t temples the Bot had double ai s les on each side . The

system of tenon ing beams into the column s i s s imi lar to thatwhich is found in Chinese temple s and hal ls , but he re in S iamthe columns are some t ime s c rowned with capital s carved withlotus leaves

,the main beams and plates resting on the top of the

capita l s,the transve rse beams across the ais les

,and the beams

carrying the cle restory be ing tenoned in to the columns .The principal feature in the Bot , admission to which was

confined to the priests , was the great al tar carrying a gi ldedstatue of B uddha

,which was always placed in the cen tral

a i s le,in the last bay but one . The Bot, which was always

preceded by a porch,as a ru le stood opposite the east en trance

of the enclosure .

In i ts rear was the principal Phra, or stapa, of the temple ,of which the re we re two types of des ign (Plate the

Phra-Prang and the Phra-Chedi . The forme r i s of a typepecu l iar to S iam ; about hal f-way up i s the ce l l , with its en trancedoor on the easte rn s ide , acce ss to which was obtained by a

steep fl ight of steps , and re ce ssed n i che s on the three othe rs ides the form which it take s d i ffe rs in many e ssent ial respectsfrom those we find e i the r in India or Burma. The top , or uppe rpart (Woodcut NO . has a domical shape , which we can

easi ly fancy to be de rived from the stfipa, but the upright partlooks more l ike the S ikhara of a Hinda temple than anyth ingBuddhist .

The Phra-Ched i i s based apparently on the stfipas of India,the ce l l conta in ing the re l i cs of Buddha , howeve r, be ing placedunde rground

, and reached in the large r example s by se cre tpassages in the th ickne ss of the wal ls . The re i s al so somet ime s one characte ris t i c S iame se feature not found in Ind iaor Cambodia

,in the lowe r storey Of the annule t spire , round

which a se rie s of de tached columns or pie rs are bui l t , givingthe aspect of a class ic pe ri style ; th is exists in one of the PhraChed is of Vat Ja

‘

i'

,at Sukhodaya, and in the great example at

Phra Pathom . The enormous structure now existing of the


Pathom Ched i is the second enclosure or enve lope of theoriginal Chedi , and ri ses to the he ight of 344 ft . I t Is su rrounded by a triple gal le ry with nume rous pavilionsf

‘

the roofsof which we re in the last rebu i ld ing of 1 862 Copied from thoseof Angkor Vat in Cambodia.

Among othe r bu i ld ings cited by Fournereau are the Vihans

(Viharas) and Kamburiens , s im i lar in design to the Bot , butof smal le r d imensions , where the people assembled to offe rup praye rs and l isten to sermons .

Of the exceptional bu i ld ings found on ly in the Royal templesare the Chattamukk 1

and the Mondob (Mandapa) or Mora-dob .

The forme r, cruciform in plan,was original ly bu i l t to she l te r a

statue of the four- faced B rahma thi s has been destroyed,and i ts

place taken by four n i che s , placed back to back , each with a

statue of Buddha fac ing the cardinal po ints . The fine st examplei s found in the VarMondob S i Naat Sajjanalaya, whe re the plani s that of a Greek cross , nearly 100 ft . in i ts extreme d imens ion s

,

with cen tral and s ide a i s les to each arm . The Mondob i s usual lya rectangular bu i ld ing, contain ing a statue Of Buddha. In the

Vat S i Jum at Sukhodaya, i t measu red 57 ft . wide by 70 ft .deep

,and she l te red an immense statue of Buddha

,nearly 50 ft.

high,which was constructed in brick

,coated with stucco and

gi lded . The wal l s of the Mondob we re also bu i l t in brick,and

they carried a lofty roof or towe r of the same mate rial ; at a

he ight of 32 ft . from the ground the brick cou rse s commencedto project one in fron t of the othe r

,ti l l they me t at the top , thus

forming in section an inverted pyramid . Both exte rnal ly and

inte rnal ly , the brick wal l s and roof we re coated with stucco .

The roof has now fal len in,but the structure when bui l t was

probably ove r 100 ft. high . Smal le r Mondobs or pavi l ions we rebui l t to hold the Buddhapada, the mythical representat ion ofthe sacred foot of Buddha ? Two othe r bui ld ings are quotedby Fournereau, the Ho

’

Rakhang, or be l fry , and the Ho ’ Tra i ,or sacred l ibrary , the latte r found on ly in the Royal temple s .The sacred tank in the enclosure s was known as the S a ,

equ ivalen t to the Cambodian Sm .

Of some of these structu res many examples would be foundin the same enclosure

,thu s in the Vat Ja

’

t at Sukhodaya, the

most importan t temple i l lustrated by Fournereau,the re was

one great Phra-Ched i and i ts annexes, two Bots, s ix Vihans ,three Kamburiens , one Mondob

,ten smal l pavi l ions , fi ve Phra

Prang,and ove r a hundred Phra-Ched i , most of these be ing

Pkrabat. Alabaster,Law ,

’ pp . 283fl'

g. and

famous Phrabat in S iamChaturvaktra—having four heads. from Lophaburi .


e rected by private pe rson s as’ fune ral monuments and memorial s—al toge the r nearly two hundred structure s , all of which are

shown on Fourne reau ’

s plan ; the photographs publ i shed in hiswork show the great exten t of the remains s ti l l ex ist ing ofthe Vat Ja

'

i'

at Sukhodaya . The princ ipal Phra diffe rs sl ight lyin des ign from those al ready de scribed—the uppe r part be ingpartly Chedi and partly Prang

,i t i s ra i sed on a platform and

surrounded by e ight smal le r towe rs,cons ist ing of a lowe r storey ,

with n i che on each s ide contain ing a statue of Buddha, witha supe rstructure re cal l ing the entrance doorways of Cambodiaand Java

,though the scu lpture i s ve ry infe rior. Above the

architrave , carried by rectangular piers with moulded capital s ,i s a pedimen t enclosed with richly carved mould ing , withdragon s ’ heads on each S ide , and in the tympanum , whichforms a n iche

,i s a figure of Buddha in the Nirvana postu re ,

with othe r figures much muti lated be low. Above the re i s a

second storey with a repet i t ion of the pedimen t and n i che toa smal le r scale , and there may have been a th ird storey, ri s ingabout 25 fee t in he ight , the great Phra in the centre be ing80 to 90 ft. high . Three towers of a s im i lar k ind , placed sideby side , exist in the Vat S isavai , a l so at Sukhodaya (Plate

whe re they take the place of the Phra. Above a

pla in ground storey,with three angle proje ct ion s , are othe r

storeys,of which six sti l l exist in the we ste rn towe r on the

right,and on each face i s a n iche with tre fo i l head and Naga

terminat ion s enclos ing a statue and,on the angle project ions ,

antefixm carved with heads of Garudas and othe r de i t ies . The

uppe r storeys are on ly sl ightly set back one behind the othe r,so that they may be the prototypes of the Phra-Prang al readydescribed .

No de scription i s given by Fournereau of the temples inAyuthia and Lophaburi , nor are the re any views of the ru ins ,but h is plan s sugge st a close resemblance to those of Cambodia.

Thus in the Vat Tha Sao,at Ayuthia

,the - cen tral cou rt, with

the great Phra in the centre , i s more or less ident ical with those ofBeng Mealea and Angkor Vat . The gal le ries round it and thetowe rs at the angles and in the centre of each fron t are eviden tlyde rived from Cambodia

,and may have been carried out by

Cambod ian archite cts . The plan of the Phra-Prang in the

centre i s s im ilar to that of the Cambodian and Javane se temples ,with long fl ights of steps to the ent ran ce porch , and the threesmal l ce l l s or re cesse s on the three othe r s ide s , instead of theone steep fl ight, as in S iam . The Bot in th is temple measure s228 ft. long by 49 ft . wide , and i s one of the largest example s inS iam . In the Vat Phu Tai

,also at Ayuth ia, the inne r court has

gal leries round i t, the entrance to the same be ing flanked by


The Great Tower of the Pagoda Vat-ching at Bangkok . (From Mouhot. )

PLATE XLVI I I .

PLAN OF T HE VAT NA PHRA-THAT , LOPHABUR I .

[To/face page 4 1 1 ,

Vol . I I .

CHAP. I I I . SIAM . 4 1 I

two Vihans , one on e i the r S ide,the Bot be ing here transfe rred to

the rear, or the west s ide , with a weste rn entrance .

1 In the

Vet na Phra-That at Lophaburi (Plate the plan i smore compl icated , the re be ing an oute r and inne r gal le riedcourt, un i ted by the Bo t, in fron t of which i s a porch of unusuald imens ions , preceded by what seemed to be a triumphal entrancegate . Nume rous Phras and othe r st ructures are shown in theoute r gal le ried court

,such as exist in all the plan s drawn by

Fournereau . A view of the central temple i s given in P. A .

Thompson’s Lotus Land (p . i ts towe r bears cons ide rableresemblance to one of the Vat S isavai towe rs (PlateThe gal lery i s shown also on the plans of two temp le s at

Sangkalok and in the Vat Xang Phuek at Sajjanalaya. Anexcept ional Vihan i s found in the vat Phra-nan , al so at

Sajjanalaya, whe re t he roof i s carried by s ixteen square piers ,four rows of pie rs with four in each row.

The influence of Cambod ia i s shown al so in the Vat PhraPrang Sam YOt at Lophaburi, which cons ists of three sanctuaries ,c ruciform on plan , s ide by s ide , with corridors be tween them .

Above each of these sanctuarie s i s a lofty towe r with fivereceding storeys

,en riched with sculptured features , s imi lar to

those of the vat S isavai at Sukhodaya (PlateThe design of the Phra-Prang is found in the crown ing

members of the pagodas o f Bangkok , but they are cove red withan e laborat ion of de tai l and exuberance of coloured ornamen tthat has se ldom been su rpassed , nor i s i t des i rable i t should be ,for i t i s here carried to an exten t truly barbarous (Woodcut No.

474)Notwithstanding the bad taste which they display, these

Bangkok pagodas are inte rest ing in the history of arch itectureas exempl ifying the instinct ive mode in which some race s bu i ld ,and the innate and i rrepress ible love of architecture they display .

But i t al so shows how easi ly the se highe r aspi rat ions degene rateinto some th ing ve ry l ike vulgari ty , when exe rc i sed by a peoplein so low a stage of civi l isat ion as the mode rn S iamese .

The same remarks apply to the i r c ivic bu i ld ings palaces andporticos, and even dwe l l ing-houses , are all as ri ch as carv ing andgi ld ing and paint ing can make them but

,as in the pagodas , i t

i s overdone and fai l s to please , because i t verge s on vulgarity.

The typical des ign of all these hal l s and m inor bu i ld ings wil lbe unde rstood from the fo l lowing woodcut (No . represen ting the Hal l of Audience at Bangkok . L i ke all the othe rs , i t


has two roofs in te rsecting one another at right angles , and a


CHAPTER IV

CONTENTS .

History—Boro-Budur—Temples at Mendut- On the D ieng PlateauAt Jabang—Prambanan—Suku—N ear Me lang, and at Panataran .

THERE i s no chapter in the whole history of Easte rn art so ful lof apparent anomal ies, or which so complete ly upsets our preconce ived ideas of things as they ought to be

,as that which

treats of the architectural h istory of the i s land of Java. In

the Introduction , i t was stated that the lead ing phenomenonin the history of India was the con tinued influx of race afte rrace across the Indus into her fe rt i le plain ,

but that no reflexwave had eve r returned to redre ss the balance .

1 This seemsabsolute ly true as regards the west

,and practical ly so in

refe rence to the north,or the ne ighbouring countrie s on the

east. T ibe t and Burma rece ived the i r re l igion from India,

not, howeve r, e i the r by conque st or col on i sat ion ,but by

miss ionar ie s sen t to instruct and convert. This al so i s true ofCeylon ,

and partial ly so at least of Cambodia. These countrie sbe ing all eas i ly acce ssible by land , or a very short sea passage ,i t i s the re that we might look for migrat ions , i f any eve r tookplace , but it i s not so . The one coun try to which they overflowed was Java, and the re they colon i sed to such an extent asfor nearly 1000 years to obl iterate the nat ive arts and civi l isat ion ,

and supplan t i t by the i r own . What is st i l l more s ingulari s

,that certain of the tradit ions asse rt that i t was not from the

nearest shore s of India that these emigran ts departed , but fromthe weste rn coast . We have a lways been led to be l ieve that theInd ian s hated the sea, and dreaded long sea voyages , ye t i tseems not improbable that the colon ists of Java came not fromthe val ley of the Gange s, but from that of the Indus, and passed

should be deemed—Art ian , ‘ Indica, ’

CHAP. IV . JAVA. 4 1 5

round Ceylon in thousands and tens of thousands on the i r wayto the i r d i stant sea-girt home . The solution of th is d ifficu l tymay perhaps be found in the suggest ion that the colon is ts werenot Ind ians afte r all

,in the sense in which we usual ly understand

the te rm,but nat ions from the north-west— the inhabitan ts in

fact of Gandhara and Kamboja,

1 who,finding no room for new

se ttlements in Ind ian Prope r, turn ing to the i r right , passeddown the Indus

, and sought a distan t home on th is Pearl ofI slands .Whoeve r they were

,they carried with them the bad habi t of

all the i r cognate races,of writing nothing, so that we have

practical ly no authen tic written record of the se ttlement and ofi ts subsequen t h istory, and we re i t not that they made up forthis defic iency to a great exten t by the i r innate love Of bui ld ing ,we should hard ly know of the i r existence in the i s land . Theydid

,howeve r, build and carve

,with an energy and to an exten t

nowhe re surpassed in the i r native lands,and have dign ified the i r

new home with impe ri shable records of the i r art and civi l isat ion—records that wi l l be eas i ly read and understood , now that thecare fu l survey of the antiqu ities has been undertaken by the

Dutch Government unde r the direction of a highly qual ifiedCommission .

I t has been said , and not without reason,that the Engl ish

did more for the e lucidat ion of the arts and history of Javaduring the five years they he ld the i s land ( 1 8 1 1 to 1 8 1 6 ) thanthe Dutch had done during the previous two cen tu rie s they hadpract ical ly been in possess ion . The work of the governor

, S ir

S tamford Raffles, i s a mode l of zealous ene rgy and criticalacumen

,such as i s rare ly to be found of i ts class in the Engl ish

language , and i s the storehouse from which the bulk of ourknowledge of the subje ct t i l l qu ite late ly had to

_

be de rived .

His e fforts in this d irection were we l l seconded by two S cotsmen,

who took up the cause with almost equal zeal . One of these ,John Crawfurd , noted down eve rything he came across withpatien t industry, and accumulated vast s tore s of informat ionbut he could not draw,

and knew nothing of archite ctu re or theothe r arts , with which he had no sympathy . The othe r

, Col inMackenz ie—afte rwards Surveyor-Gene ral of India —drew eve rything he found of any architectural importance

,and was the

most industrious and success fu l col le ctor of d rawings and

manuscripts that India has eve r known ; but he cou ld not

1 The Kambojas raphia Indica, ’ vol . I I .

people inhabiting the mbay Gazettee r , ’ vol . i .are mentioned in the


write . The few e ssays he attempted are meagre in the

extreme , and n ine -tenths of h is knowledge pe rished with him .

Had these two men been able to work toge the r .to the end,

they would have le ft l i ttle for futu re invest igat ion . There was,

howeve r, st i l l a fourth laboure r in the fi e ld—D r. John Leydenwho

,had his l i fe been spared , cou ld have eas i ly ass imilated the

work of his col leagues , and with h is own marve l lous gen iu s foracqu iring language s and knowledge of all sorts

,would ce rtain ly

have l ifted the ve i l that shrouded so much of Javan history indarkness

,and le ft ve ry l ittle to be de s i red in th is re spect . He

d ied,howeve r

,almost be fore his work was begun

,and the t ime

was too short , and the task too new , for the others to do all thatwith more le i su re and bette r preparat ion they might haveaccompl ished .

During the last n inety years the Dutch have done a gooddeal to redeem the neglect of the previous centuries, but, as hashappened in the s iste r i s land of Ceylon , i t was for long withoutsystem

,and no maste r m ind appeared to give un i ty to the whole

,

or to extract from what i s done the e ssence,which is all the

publ ic care to possess . The Dutch Gove rnment,howeve r,

publ ished in 1 874 , in four great fol io volumes, 400 plate s , fromMr.Wilsen’

s drawings , of the arch ite cture and sculpture s ofBoroBudur and the Batavian Society of Arts and S ciences publ ishedS ixty - five photographic plate s of the same monumen t ; and

as D r Leemans of Le iden added a volume of text,historical

and de scriptive , the re i s no monumen t in the East so ful lyand so we l l i l lustrated as this one

,and probably none that

be tter deserve s the pains that have been be stowed upon i t .The same Socie ty publ ished al so 333 photographs of othe rJavan an t iqu it ie s and temples, but, unfortunate ly, for the mostpart without any accompanying text . A thoroughly we l lqual ified an t iquary, Hee r B rumund

,was employed to vis it the

local it ies , and write descriptions , but un fortunate ly he d iedbefore his task was hal f complete . A fragmen t of his work ispubl ished in the 33rd volume of the

‘Transactions ’ of theSociety, but it is on ly a fragmen t, and j ust sufl‘i cient to make us

long for more . At the same t ime an Or iental scholar,D r.

R . H . Th . Friederich , was employed by Gove rnment to trans latethe numerous inscript ions that abound in the i sland

,which

wou ld probably explain away all the difficu l tie s in the h istoryof the i s land and i ts monuments, but none have appeared s incesome of these were publ ished in the 26th volume of the

Verhandelingeri in 1 8 56 .

Within the last twen ty years , howeve r, many works havebeen publ ished , which add cons ide rably to our knowledge , one

4 1 8 FURTHER INDIA. Boox VI I I .

H ISTORY.

Amidst the confus ion of the i r annal s, i t i s rathe r for tunate thatthe Javan s make no cla im to more remote pol i tica l h istory thanthe fabled arrival in the i s land of Adi S aka

,the founde r of the

S aka era,in A. .D I t i s true that i n the 8th or 9th century

they obtained an abridged tran slation of the Mahabharata,and

,

under the t it le of the ‘ B rata Yuddha,

’

adopted it as a part ofthe i r own history , assign ing s ites on the i s land for all the

principal scene s of that ce lebrated struggle which took placei n the n e ighbourhood of De lh i and Hast inapura, adding on lythe i r own favourite Gendara Desa (Gandhara) , to which theyass igned a local i ty on the north of the i s land .

2 I t is thus,

unfortunate ly,that h istory is written in the East

,and because

i t i s so written,the Javan s next thought i t ne ce ssary to bring

Salivahana,the founde r of the S aka era

,to the i r island al so .

Having adopted his era, the i r ch ild i sh van i ty required hispre sen ce there , but as i t i s ce rtain he neve r saw the i sland ,his vis i t i s fabled to have resu l ted in fai lu re

,and said to have

le ft no t races of his pre sence .

Leaving the se fabulous ages , we come to a tradition thatseems to re st on a sure r foundat ion .

“ In the year 5 2 5 (A.D .

603 or i t be ing fore told to a king of Kuj’

rat,or Gujarat

,

that his country would de cay and go to ru in,he re solved to send

his son to Java.

3 He embarked with about 5000 fol lowe rs in s ixlarge and about 100 smal l vesse l s

,and afte r a voyage of four

mon ths,reached an i s land they supposed to be Java ; but

finding themse lves m istaken ,re -embarked

,and final ly settled

at Matarem,in the cen tre of the i s land they were seek ing .

“ The prince now found that men alone we re wan ting to makea great and flourish ing state he accord ingly appl ied to Gujaratfor ass istance , when his fathe r, de l ighted at his succe ss

,sen t

him a re inforcemen t of 2000 people .

” “ From this pe riod ,adds the chron ic le , “ Java was known and ce lebrated as a

k ingdom ; an extens ive commerce was carried on with Gujaratand othe r countrie s , and the bay of Matarem was fi l led withadventu re rs from all parts .

During the sove re ign ty of this prince and his two immediatesucce ssors

,

“the country advanced in fame and prospe rity. The

ci ty of Mendang Kamu lan ,s ince cal led Prambanan

,increased

1 In Java this era dates from A. D . 75 ,3 Lassen rejects the statemen t that the

but i t may have been al te red at a late emigrants came from Gujarat or Wes terndate .

—W. von Humboldt , Ueber d ie India, in favour of another , perhapsKawi sprache aufJava , ’ Bd . i . S . I O, note. earl ier , tradition that they came from

9 Sir S . Raffles’ H istory of Java, ’ pl . ,

Kal inga . Indische Alterythumskunde ,

’

24 ; text, vol . i . p . 465 , 8vo. edition . Bd . ii . (2nd. ed. Ss. 1 066 and 1 085 , note.

CHAP. IV. HISTORY . 4 1 9

in s ize and splendour : artists , particu larly in stone and me tal s,

arrived from distan t countr ies, and temple s , the ru ins of whichare sti l l extan t, we re constructed both at th is place and at

Boro - Budur , in Kedu , during this pe riod by artists invitedfrom India.

” 1

This i s supported by an inscription found at Menankabu,

in Sumatra, whe re in a king, who style s h imse l f MaharajaAdi raja Ad ityadharma King of Prathama— the fi rst or greatestJava—boasts of his conque sts and prowess

,and he proclaims

h imse l f a Buddhist , a worshipper of the five Dhyan i Buddhas ,and record s his having e rected a great seven - storeyed viharain honour of Buddha.

2 This inscript ion i s dated fifty yearslate r

,or in A .D . 6 56 , but its whole tone i s so complete ly con

fi rmatory of the trad itions just quoted from S ir S . Raffle s,that

there seems l ittle doubt the two re fe r to events occu rring abou tthe same t ime .

The on ly other even t of importance in these early t ime sbearing on our subje ct i s Fah Hian ’s vis it to the i s land in A.D .

4 14, on his way from Ceylon to China by sea. I t might perhapsbe supposed that Java the Less, or S umatra , was real ly the

i s land he visited . I t ce rtain ly was the Iabadios,or Yavadwipa,

of Ptolemy, and j ust poss ibly the Java the Less of the Arabgeographe rs and of Marco Polo ; 3 but the c ircumstance s of thevoyage afford no de tai l s to point rathe r to this i s land thanto Java prope r . “ In this coun try ,

”he says

,

“ He ret ics and

B rahmans flourish ; but the Law of Buddha i s not muchknown .

” 4 As he re s ided the re five mon ths,and had been

fourteen years in Ind ia, he knew pe rfect ly what he was speakingabout

That there we re B rahman s in the se i s lands be fore the adven tof the B uddhist emigran ts in the 7 th centu ry seems more thanprobable from the tradition s about the B rahman Tritresta orTritastri , col lected by S ir S . Raffles 5 and othe rs ; but, i f so ,they were Aryan B rahmans, be longing to some of the non

bu i ld ing races , who may have gone the re as miss ionarie sseek ing converts , but hard ly as colon i sts or conque rors . Indeedall ove r the i s land ci rcle s of stone are found

,e i the r whol ly un

fashioned or carved into rude representat ions of Hindt‘i de i t ies

1 Sir S . Raffles’ History of Java, ’ vol .

i i . 8vo . edition ,pp . 87 at seqq. Lassen ’

s ,

Indische Alterthumskunde ,’Bd . ii

(2 Ss . 1059 at segq.

2 I am perfectly aware that this is not

borne out by the translation of this inscription given by D r . Friederich in vol .xxvi . of the Verhandelingen but beingdissat isfied with i ts unmean ingness, I

took i t to my friend , Professor Eggeling,and he fully confirms my view as aboveexpressed .

3 Yule ’s Marco Polo, ’ 2nd . ed . vol . i i .pp . 266 at sq .

4 Beal’s translation , p . 1 69 , BuddhistRecords, ’ vol . 1. p. lxxxi .5 Raffles

, vol. i i . pp . 77 et 5 5 99 . butsee Lassen , ut sup" pp. 1063 et segq.

420 FURTHER INDIA. Boox VI I I .

—so rude that even Ganesa can hard ly somet ime s be recogn isedand i t frequen tly require s an almost H indu trustfulne ss tobe l ieve that these rude stone s some t ime s repre sen t even S ivaand V ishnu and othe r gods of the Hindfi Pan theon .

1 I t seemsas i f the early B rahmans tried to teach the i r nat ive conve rtsto fashion gods for themse lve s

,but

,having no artist i c knowledge

of the i r own to commun i cate,fa i led miserably in the attempt.

The Buddhists , on the con trary,we re artists

,and came in such

numbe rs that they we re able to d ispense with nat ive ass istance ,nearly , i f not a l togethe r .

The next recorded even t that seems to bear on our inve st igat ions i s the mission of the chi ldren of Deva Kasfima to Kl ing orInd ia, in orde r that they might be educated in the B rahman icalre l igion ? This event took place in A .D . 9 14 , and seems to poin tto a t ime when the Buddhist re l igion

,as evidenced by the

e rection of Boro - B udur, had died out, and the quasi-Hindutemple s of Prambanan and S ingasar i had superseded those ofthe Buddhists . Those at Prambanan are said to have beencomple ted in A.D . 1097 , which seems an extreme ly probabledate for the Chandi Sewu or “

1000 temple s .” From thatpe riod t i l l the beginn ing of the 1 sth cen tury, the se rie s ofmonuments — many of them with date s upon them 3— are

tole rably comple te , and there wil l be no diffi cul ty in class ifyingthem wheneve r the task i s fa i rly unde rtaken .

At th i s time we fi nd the i sland divided in to two k ingdoms ;one

,having its capital at Pajajaram ,

about 40 mile s east ofBatavia

,occupied the whole of the weste rn or Sunda part of

the i s land . The Sundas , howeve r, we re not a bu ild ing race,

and the portion occupied by them need not be again re fe rredto he re . I t con ta ins no bui ld ings except the rude Hinduremains above re fe rred to .

The easte rn portion of the i s land was occup ied by the

k ingdom of Majapahit , founded , apparen tly, about the year1 300. I t soon rose to a highe r pitch of powe r and splendourthan any of the preced ing k ingdoms , and the capital wasadorned with edifice s of su rpass ing magn ificence , but mostlyin brick

,so that now they are l ittle more than a mass of

indist inguishable ru ins . When , howeve r, i t had lasted l ittlemore than a century, Muhammadan missionaries appeared on

1 About hal f of the earl ier photographs photographs of the Batavian Socie ty use

of the Batavian Society are fi l led with 5 3 instead of 78 or 79 as the factor forrepresen tations of these rude de i ties , convert ing Saka dates in to those of thewhich resemble more the images of Christian Era . As , however , Brumund

,

Easter I s land than anything Indian . Leemans , and all the best modern authors2 Raffles, History of Java, ’ vol . i i . use the Indian Index , i t is here adheredp . 93 . to throughout .3 The compilers of the catalogue of the


resumed the i r sway, and art van ished from the land, neve r

,

probably , again to reappear.

BORO-BUDUR .

The re may be olde r monumen ts in the i s land of Java thanBoro-Budur, but, i f so, they have not yet been brought to l ight .The rude stone monumen ts of the western or Sunda end of thei s land may , of course , be olde r, though I doubt i t ; but they are

not architectural , and of real nat ive art we know nothing.

When S ir S . Raffles and J . Crawfurd wrote the i r works,no

mean s ex isted of ve ri fying dates by comparison of style s, and

i t i s , the refore , l i ttle to be wonde red at i f the fi rst give sA.D . and the second A .D . 1 344

2as the date of this

bu i ld ing . The forme r , howeve r, was not dece ived by this date ,inasmuch as at page 67 he says , The edifices at S ingasari nearMalang we re probably executed in the 8th or 9th century .

They nearly resemble those of Prambanan and Boro-Budur.I t is probable the whole we re constructed about the sameperiod , or within the same cen tury ; at any rate , be tween the

7 th and 9th century of the Christ ian Era .

”This

,perhaps , e rrs

a l ittle the othe r way . Hee r Brumund,on historical grounds

,

place s Boro-Budur “ in the 9 th, pe rhaps even in the 8th centu ryof the Christian Era.

” 3 On arch itectural grounds I wouldalmost unhe s itat ingly place i t a cen tury earl ie r . The style and

characte r of i ts sculpture s are so nearly ident ical with those ofthe latest cave s at Ajan ta (No . 26

,for instance), and in the

we ste rn Ghats,that they look as i f they we re executed by the

same art ists,and i t is d ifficu l t to conce ive any great inte rval of

time e laps ing be tween the execut ion of the two . I f I am

correct in plac ing the cave s in the first hal f of the 7 th century,we can hard ly be far wrong in ass ign ing the commencement, atleast

,of the Javan monumen t to the second hal f of that cen tury .

This be ing so,I am ve ry much incl ined to be l ieve that Boro

B udp r may be the iden t ical seven- storeyed vihara,ment ioned

by Aditya-dharma in his in scription at Menankabu,

4 I ts be ingfound in Sumatra doe s not appear to me to m il itate against th isview . Asoka’s inscription s are found in Gandhara, Saurashtra,Mysore , and Ori ssa,

but no t in B ihar . At home he was knownbut i t may be that he desi red to place a permanen t record of h isgreatne ss in the remote portion s of his domin ions . The date

1 History of Java, ’ vol . 1 1 . p . 85 . p .

2 D ict ionary of Indian Archipelago , ’ 4 An te, p. 4 19 . A lso ‘Verhandeli ngen,’

p. 66 . etc . ,

vol . xxvi . pp. 3 1 at $599 . One of h i s3 ‘Boro -Boudour, ’ par Dr . C. Leemans . inscriptions—the fourth—was found in

Leyden , 1 874, p . 506 (French translation, Java proper .

CHAP . IV. BORO -BUDUR


of the inscript ion ,A .D . 6 56 , accords so exactly with the age I

would ass ign to i t from othe r sources,that i t may at least stand

for the pre sen t. Of course , i t was not completed at once , orin a few years . The whole group

,with Chand i Pawon and

Mendut, may probably extend ove r a cen tu ry and a hal f— down,

say ,to A.D . 800, or ove r the whole golden age of Buddhism in

the i s land .

I t ce rtain ly i s fortunate for the studen t of Buddhist art in

India that Boro-Budur (Woodcuts Nos . 477 and 47 8) has

attracted so much atten t ion ; for, even now,the four fol io

volume s of plate s re cen t ly devoted to its i l lustrat ion do no t

con tain one figure too many for the purpose of rendering itspecu l iarit ies avai lable for scient ific purpose s : the fact be ingthat this monumen t was e re cted j ust at the t ime when the

479 . Section of one of the smaller 480. Elevation of principal Dome at BoroDomes at Bore -Budur . Budur. (From S ir S . Raffles

’

History of

Buddhist system attained its greate st deve lopmen t, and justbe fore i ts fal l . I t thus con tain s within i tse l f a complete epitomeof all we learn from othe r sources , and a pe rfect i l lustrat ion ofall we know of Buddhist art or ri tual . The thousand yearswere complete , and the story that opened upon us at Bharaut

close s pract ical ly at Boro -Budur.The fundamental format ive idea of the Boro-Budur monu

men t i s that of a dagaba with five proce ss ion-paths . The se,

howeve r, have become square in plan instead of circu lar ; andin stead of one great domical bu i ld ing in the cen tre we havehe re seven ty-two smal le r one s , each contain ing the statue ofa B uddha (Woodcut No . vis ible through an open cage - l ikelatt i ce -work and one large r one in the centre

,which was quite

sol id exte rnal ly (Woodcut No . but had a ce l l in i ts cen tre,

which may have contained a re l i c or some precious object .The re i s, howeve r, no record of anything be ing found in i t wheni t was broken into . All this is, of course , an immense deve lopment beyond anything we have hi the rto me t with , and a sort

4 26 FURTHER INDIA. Boox VI I I .

l i ttle historical importance . The fi rst enclosed—or, as the

Dutch cal l i t, the second—gal le ry is , of all the five , the mostin te resting historical ly . On i t s inne r wal l the who le l i fe ofSakyamun i i s portrayed in 1 20 bas- re l ie fs of the most e laboratecharacte r. The fi rs t twen ty-four of these are occupied withscene s in the Tusita heavens , or events that took place beforethe birth . In the twenty-fi fth we have Maya’s dream

,depicted

exactly as i t i s at Bharaut or Sanch i, 800 or 900 years earl ie r .In the fol lowing sculptu re s i t i s easy to re cogn i se all the famil iarscene s of his l i fe , his marriage , and dome sti c happiness, t i l l hemee ts the four predict ive s igns h is subsequen t departure fromhome , and assumption of the asce t i c garb h is l i fe in the fore sth i s preaching in the Dee r-garden at Benares—the whole Lal itaV istara, in short, portrayed with ve ry few variat ions from the

pictures we al ready possess from Gandhara to Amaravati,with

th is s ingular except ion : in all Ind ian example s the birth and

the N irvana are more frequen tly repeated than any othe r eventsfor some reason

,not eas i ly guessed , they are omitted he re ,

though all the even ts that preceded and fol lowed them are

minute ly de tai led .

1 B e low these bas- re l ie fs depict ing the l ifeof Buddha i s an equal ly extens ive series of 1 20 bas-re l iefs ofsubjects taken from the Jataka

,all of which may be eas i ly

iden t ified .

In the three gal le rie s above this B uddhism is repre sentedas a re l igion . Groups of B uddhas— three , five , or n ine—are

repeated over and ove r again,mixed with Bodh isattwas and

saints of all sorts . Among these,the five Dhyan i , Buddhas

are conspicuous in all,pe rhaps more than all

,the varie ty of

man i fe stat ions wh ich are known in Nepal and T ibe t, which ,as Lassen points out , almost inevitably leads to the conclusionthat th is form of fai th was in troduced from Nepal o r We sternT ibet ?Whe the r this i s exactly so or not

,no one probably who

i s famil iar with Buddhist art in i ts late st age on the we ste rns ide of India wil l probably doubt that i t was from these partsthat the bu i lde rs of Boro-Budur m igrated . The characte r ofthe scu lpture s , and the de ta i l s of the ornamentat ion in Cave 26

at Ajan ta, and 1 7 at Nas ik,and more e spec ial ly in the late r

caves at Kanheri in Sal sette , at Kondivté, Magathana, and othe rplaces in that ne ighbourhood , are so nearly iden t ical with what i sfound in the Javan monumen t , that the ident ity of the workman

1 A l l these , or d’

Archéologie Boudd

identifi ed by de I’Ecole Frangai se

tom . ix . 1909 , pp. I fl'

.

rthumskunde ,’ vol . iv .

CHAP . IV. BORO-BUDUR. 4 2 7

sh ip i s unmistakable . I t i s true we have no monument inthat part of India to which we can poin t that at all re semble sBoro-Budur in des ign

,but then i t must be borne in mind that

the re i s not a s ingle structural Buddhist bui ld ing now existingwithin the l im its of the cave region . of Western India. I t seemsabsurd , howeve r, to suppose that so vast a commun i ty confinedthemse lve s to caves

,and cave s on ly . They must have had

structu ral bu ild ings of some sort in the i r towns and e l sewhe re ,but scarce ly a fragment of any such now exists

,and we are

forced to go to Gandhara, in the extreme north-west,for our

nearest example s . As al ready poin ted out, the re are manypoin ts of s imilari ty between Jamalgarh i , and more e special lybe tween Takht- i -Bahai and Boro-Budur ; and i f any architect ,who was accustomed to such work , would care ful ly draw and

re store these northe rn monaste rie s, many more might becomeapparent .1 We know enough even now to render this moral lyce rtain

,though hardly suffic ien t to prove i t in the face of much

that may be brought forward by those who care to doubt it .Meanwhile

,my impression i s , that i f we knew as much of these

Gandhara monasterie s as we know of Boro -Budur, we couldte l l the inte rval of t ime that separated them ,

probably withinhal f a century at least .

S tre tch ing such evidence as we at pre sen t have,as far as

i t wi l l bear, we can hardly bring the Takht-i -Bahai monasterywithin one century of Boro-Budur . I t may be two— and

Jamalgarh i i s st il l one or two centurie s more distan t in t ime .

But,

on the other hand , i f we had not these Gandharamonaste rie s to re fe r to , i t would be difficult to be l ieve thatthe northe rn system of B uddhism could have been so comple te lydeve loped , even in the 8th century , as we fi nd i t at Boro-Budur.I t is this wonderfu l progress that has hithe rto made the moremode rn date of that monumen t probable—it looks so much inadvance of anything we know of in Indian B uddhism . But

all this we must now revise by the l ight these Javan monumen tsthrow on the subject .

Be ing nearly a pyramid,s i tuated on the summit of a hi l l

,

the re we re no construct ive difficul t ies encoun te red in the e rectionof Boro-Budur, and i t i s consequently no wonder that i t nowrema in s so en ti re

,in spite of its be ing

,l ike all Javan bui ld

ings, e rected whol ly without mortar. I t i s cu rious to observe ,howeve r, how faithful ly its architects adhe red to the Indiansupe rst it ion regard ing arche s . They did not even th ink i tnecessary to cut off the angle s of the corbe l -stones, so as to

1 General Cunn ingham ’

s drawings are not enough for any one who is a strangerto the subject .

4 28 FURTHER INDIA. Boox VI I I .

s imulate an arch , though us ing the pointed -arched forms ofthe old chai tya caves of the we st . The two systems are we l lexempl ified in the fol lowing woodcut (No . but i t runs

48 1 . View of Central Entrance and Stairs at Bore -Budur . (From a Lithographic Plate .

throughout . All the n iches are surmoun ted by arch forms—c ircu lar, e l l ipt i cal , or pointed — but all are constructedhorizontal ly, and i t may be added that, in n ine cases out of


bui l t be tween A.D . 7 50 and A.D . 800. I t shows , too, a progress indesign at a t ime when Buddhist art in India was marked bydecay and i t exhibits such progre ss in mythology

,that though

the re can be no doubt as to the purity of the B uddhism of BoroB udur, any one might fa i rly argue that th is temple be l ongede i ther to that re l igion or to H indu ism . I t i s in fact one ofthose compromises that in India might be cal led Ja ina ; inothe r words

, one of those trans it ional examples of which wehave many in Java, but the wan t of which leave s such a gapin our history of architecture in India.

1

Close to Chandi Mendut i s anothe r smal l temple of s imilardes ign known as Chand i Pawon ; 2 i t i s ra ised on a platform28 ft. square and 5 ft . 6 in . high . The plan of the temple i scruciform

,be ing 1 7 ft . in i ts extreme d imens ion ,

and whenpe rfect was probably about 30 ft. high . I t was apparentlysurmoun ted by two storeys with e ight min iatu re dagabas abovethe ground storey and a large dagaba forming the summit.

D IENG PLATEAU .

About 3 5 miles to the north of Boro-Budur i s a group oftemples on the table land at the foot of Moun t Prahu . Theycons ist on ly of s imple sanctuaries and are no t remarkable forthe beauty of the i r deta i l s when compared with those of thebuild ings we have j ust been de scribing : but they are in te rest ingto the Indian ant iquary

,because they are Indian temples pure

and s imple and dedicated to Indian gods . So far, we fee l athome again ; but what these temples te l l u s furthe r is , that i fJava got her Buddhism from Gujarat and the mouth s of theIndus

,she got her Hindfi ism from Te lingana and the mouths

of the Krishna. The se D ieng temples do not show a trace ofthe curved - l ined s ikharas of Orissa or of the Indo-Aryan style .

Had the H indfi s gone to Java from the val ley of the Gange s ,i t i s almost imposs ible they should not have carried with themsome example s of th is favourite form . I t i s found in Burmaand S iam ,

but no trace of i t i s found anywhe re in Java.

Nor are these temples D ravid ian in any prope r sense ofthe word . They are in storeys

,but not with ce l l s , nor any

remin i scences of such ; bu t they are Chalukyan ,in a clear and

d irect mean ing of the term . The bu i ld ing most l i ke the seJavan temple s i l lustrated in the preced ing pages is that at

Buchhanapalli (Woodcut No . 2 which might pass withoutremark in Java i f deprived of its peristylar portico . I t , howeve r,1 Rapporten van de Commissie Neder Kersjes en C . Den Hamer (with 22

landsch - Indie 1 903 , p . 64 , and plates 46 plates ), 1 903 .

5 8 ;‘ De Tjandi Mendoet , ’ door B .

2 M id . pp . 73ff. and plates 59 -6 1 .

PLATE XLIX .

CHAN n i BHIMA .

[ To/ace page 43 1 , Vo l . I I .


What i s mos t remarkable in th is temple o f Bhima i s i tsclass i c characte r . The ogee mould ings and the i r decorat ion

,

the corbe l bed-mould of the principal corn i ce and the swagsunderneath and the egg and tongue mould ings round the n iches

,

are all di re ct tran scripts from class ic source s , such as those ofGandhara . That which

,howeve r

,i s not in accordan ce with

classic des ign i s the cutt ing of the doorway through the

mouldings of the podium ; th is in a more recent example,

the Chand i Arj una (Plate i s avoided , the doorway be ingreached by a short fl ight of steps be low

,and curved stone

rai l s te rm inated with ris ing Naga heads .I t i s a remarkable fact that in the temple s of Java the re

is not a s ingle example of a pie r or co lumn . When we think ofthe thousands that we re employed by the D ravid ians in the

south of Ind ia, and the Jains in the north-we st, i t i s curiousthey e scaped be ing introduced he re . The early style of Orissa,as men t ioned above , i s n early as tylar ; but in the Java templethi s is absolute ly so , and , so far as I know

,i s the on ly im

portan t s tyle in the world of which this can be predicated .

What is not so curious , but is al so in te resting, i s , that the rei s no t a true arch in the whole i s land . In the previous pages ,the Hindu horror of an arch has often been al luded to ; butthen they frequen tly got out of the difficulty by the use ofwood or i ron . The se mate rial s

,howeve r

,do not seem to have

been used in any Javanese temple , though the wooden originof many of the decorat ive fe atu re s can clearly be t raced inthem . Thus the pi laste r strips which flank the doorwaysand the dwarf p i laste rs d ivid ing the sculptured pane l s of thetemple pod ium or platform are all en riched with bold lymoulded capital s , bases , and cen tral bands , eviden tly de rivedfrom wooden piers or columns . The bas -re l ie fs a l so at BoroBudur (Plate L I .) and e l sewhe re abound in representationsof pagodas and smal l house s , in which both the pie r and

column are clearly shown carrying wooden supe rstructu res ,and in some cases an uppe r storey with timbe r roof

,carried

aloft on a se rie s of moulded pie rs or columns . A l though,

the re fore , in the temple s of Java all the architectu re i s ins tone the decorat ive feature s are large ly derived from secularbu i ld ings in t imbe r.I t may al so be mentioned he re , whi le de scribing the negat ive

characte rist ics of Javan art , that no mortar i s eve r used as a

cemen t in these temples . I t i s not that they we re ignoran tof the use of l ime , for many of the i r bu i ld ings are plaste redand pain ted on the plaste r, but i t was neve r employed to givestrength to construction . I t i s owing to th is that so many ofthe i r bu ild ings are in so ru inous a state . In an i s land whe re

PLATE L .

CHAND I ARJUNA .

PLATE LI I .

CHAN D I JABANG .

[Taj ace f age 433 , Vol . I I .


each s ide , three of which are subsid iary ce l l s and the fourth an

entrance porch to the central ce l l , the whole be in raised on

a podium about 4 ft. high with te rrace round an projectingbays fol lowing the cruciform plan of the temple and approachedby fl ights of steps in the centre of each s ide . The s ides of thepodium are enriched with fine figure sculpture

,as also the pl inth ,

of the temple,the uppe r port ion of which above the l inte l of

the chie f doorway is gone . The fi ve othe r temples , thoughsmal le r, are of s imilar des ign , and they would all have seemedat one t ime to have had statues in them represent ing B rahma

,

Vishnu,S iva

,and othe rs

,two of them

, S fi rya and Chandra,be ing raised on bases carried by bul l s . Midway be tween the

two oute r temple s are what would seem to be tanks,cruciform

on plan,con s ist ing of parape ts about 3 ft . high , which are

scu lptured on the in side . The 1 56 temple s in the oute renclosure are all s imi lar in des ign

,cons ist ing of a square ce l l

with porch always facing outwards . The whole group may be

of the age“of Deva Kasfima

,or the beginn ing of the 10th

cen tury,and are poss ibly not the earl iest H indu temples he re .

The most important example of the Prambanan temple si s that s ituated about one -third of a mile north of LoroJ onggrang

,and known as the Chand i Sewu or “ thousand

temples,

” which is,or was when comple te

,on ly second to Boro

B udur in inte re st. The general characte r of Chand i Sewu wil lbe unde rstood from the plan (Woodcut No . which showsi t to have cons isted of a cen tral temple of large s ize surroundedby a great number of smal l detached ce l l s , each of which con

tained statues , of which twen ty- two remain sti l l in s z’

tu ? The

cen tra l ce l l of the temple measure s 45 ft . square , and with thefour attached ce l l s , one of which served as the entrance porchto the cen tral ce l la, i t formed a cross 85 ft . each way , the wholebe ing raised on a richly ornamented square podium or base .

This bu i ld ing is richly and e laborate ly ornamen ted with carving ,but with a s ingular absence of figure -sculpture

,which rende rs

its dedicat ion not easy to be made out ; but the most remarkable feature of the whole group is the multi tude of smal le rtemple s which surround the central one

,240

’

in numbe r.I mmediate ly outs ide the square te rrace which supports thecen tral temple stand twenty-e ight of the se—a square of e ighton each s ide , coun t ing the angular ones both ways . Beyondthese , at a distance of 3 5 ft . , i s the second square , forty-four innumber ; be tween this and the next row are wide space s of7 2 ft . on the east and we st and 102 ft. on the north and souths ides . The two oute r rows of temple s are s ituated close to

1 Shown on the plan by black dots.

CHAP. IV. PRAMBANAN . 43 5

one anothe r, back to back , they are 1 68 in numbe r, and forma rectangle measuring 525 ft . by 467 ft. All these 240 temple sare s imi lar to one anothe r

,about 1 2 ft . square at the base , and

22 ft . high,all ri chly carved and ornamen ted , and in eve ry

one i s a smal l square ce l l , in which was original ly placed a

cross- legged figure .

When looked a l i ttle c lose ly in to , i t i s eviden t that the

0

Plan of the Chandi Sewu , Prambanan . Scale 1 50 ft . to I in .

Chandi Sewu is ne i the r more nor le ss than Boro-Budur takento p ieces

,and spread out , with such modification s as we re

nece ssary to adapt it to the pos ition .

In stead of a central dagaba,with its seventy- two subord inate

ones , and i ts fi ve process ion -paths,with the i r 436 n iche s con

ta in ing figures of Buddha, we have he re a central ce l l,with

en trance porch and three subordinate one s,each con tain ing no

doubt s imilar image s,and surrounding these

,240 ce l ls contain

ing image s arranged in four rows, with paths be tween ,but not

FURTHER INDIA. Boox VI I I .

jo ined toge ther with sculpture -bearing screens, as in the earl ierexamples , nor j oined s ide by side with the sculpture on the i rfron ts

,or in side , as was invariably the case in s imilar temple s

in Gujarat of the same age .

S ir S tamford Raffle s give s A.D . 1 098 for the comple tion ofthis temple , which , from the inte rnal evidence , I fancy cannotbe far from the truth . I t would , howeve r, be extreme lyin te re sting if i t could be fixed with ce rtainty

,as these Javan

monuments wi l l probably be found to be the on ly means wehave of bridging ove r the dark age s in India.

Meanwhi le in the last ten years othe r example s in the

d istri ct have been measured and i l l ustrated . M idway be tweenSewu and Loro Jonggrang is asmal le r group

, Chandi Lumbang(Woodcut No . 484) ,with a cen traltemple surrounded by s ixteence l ls

,each of which is supposed

to have con ta ined an imageBuddha—or S iva, accord ing tothe dedicat ion of the central ce l l .

Three quarters of a m i leeas t of Chandi Sewu is anothe rremarkable temple known as

Chand i Plaosan ,which cons ists

of four enclosure s s ide by side,

measuring 328 ft . deep , from484 . Chand i Lumbang , near Prambanan .

baCk to front In the cen tre(From a Dra-Wl ng at the l nd la Offi ce-l enclosure are two smal le r one sNo scale . W i th a tri ple ce l l temple i n each

,

62 ft . wide by 36 ft . deep , with central porch fac ing eas t,project

ing 1 3 ft . and surrounded with a triple row of 1 80 ce l l s , the twoouter rows circu lar on plan ,

the inne r row and those at the angle sbe ing square . This centra l enclosure measure s 4 50 ft . wide .

The second enclosu re on the le ft (south side ) i s 200 ft . wide ,with sixty-e ight ce l ls

,all c ircular on plan ,

triple rows back and

fron t, and s ingle rows on the s ides ; in the centre i s a platform,

68 ft . square ,with traces of a portico or ve randah round .

Nothing has been found in the third enclosure on the north orright hand s ide , but in the one beyond is a square platform in

centre,with triple row of forty-e ight ci rcular ce l l s at the back

and s ide s and a double row of s ixteen square ce l ls in front . In

the temple are many fi ne statue s of Dhyan i Buddhas in almostperfect preservation ,

e ight of which are publ ished in Ij z erman’

s

work al ready re fe rred to .

1

1 ‘ Beschri j ving der Oudheden nabi j de Soerakarta en Djogdjakarta,’ pp . 93-107,

and plates G.~K.

CHAP. IV. PRAMBANAN . 43 7

Anothe r triple ce l l structure about a mile south -we st ofPrambanan i s that of Chand i Sari , which from its des ign and

decorat ion S ir T. S tamfordRaffle s conce ived to be a palace ;othe r writers consider it to havebeen the monastery of a templeha l f a mile south

,known as

Chandi Kal i Ben ing, n e a rKalasan . E i ther way , as wil lbe seen from the i l lustrations(Plate L I I I . and Woodcut No .

i t i s a very remarkablebui ld ing of two storeys and

an att ic . The t imbe r floorswe re carried on the stonecorbe l l ing, shown in section

,

be ing reached probably bywooden stai rcase s now gone .

The most inte re sting portionin the e levation i s the att i cstorey with the dorme r w indows

,the earl ie st examples of

that feature . The structuremeasure s 54 ft. frontage by 3 1ft. deep ; the ground storeywas about 1 2 ft . 6 in . high and

the uppe r storey 9 ft . , the

whole be ing rai sed on a basemen t 7 ft . 7 in . high , the totalhe ight to the top of the originals tone roof be ing about 40 ft .There we re two windows on

each storey of the s ide e levat ion

,

'

the examples in the rearbe ing deep sunk n iche s on ly,and three dormers and on the

485 . Plan and section of Chandi Sar i .

back or we st fron t : the windows of the ground storey we re all

closed with sol id masonry .

As i t has re ta ined its stone roof with sufficient remain s ofits r ich decorat ion to a l low of the conje ctura l re storat ion in

Ij z erman’

s work , Chandi Kal i -Ben ing is probably the best preserved temple in Java. Its plan i s cruc iform l ike those ofLoro Jonggrang and Sewu , with central ce l l and porch and

three othe r ce l ls , the en trance width each way be ing 66 ft .The he ight to the top of the principal corn ice which runs at

the same leve l round porch , centra l square , and s ide ce l l s is 33 ft .,


includ ing a pl inth 6 ft . high . I t is surmounted by three storeysset back one behind the othe r, the lowe r one 1 1 ft . 5 in .

, the

At Chandi Kali-Ben ing , near Kalasan . (From a Photograph . )

next 14 ft. 9 in .,and the upper one 1 3 ft. , these we re probably

crowned with a dagaba about 22 ft. high , giving a total he ightof about 7 2 ft . The general de sign of the l owe r port ion of thebuild ing is shown in the i l l ustration of the porch (Platethe uppe r storeys we re decorated with rich canopied n i che s

,

each con tain ing a statue of Buddha l ike those flank ing the

central doorway , with twen ty- fou r m in iatu re dagabas surmoun ting the fi rst storey , s ixteen the se cond storey and e ight the th i rdstorey, and the se grouped round the great centra l dagaba musthave produced an exceptional e ffect . The gorgon head ove rthe s ide doorways is shown in Woodcu t No . 486 .

About 1 50 yards south of Kal i -Ben ing S ir T. S tamfordRaffles came across the remains of an ancient bu i ld ing

,of which

he gives the plan it cons isted of a central hal l surrounded by a

port ico or verandah , the whole carried by thirty-s ix square

CHAP. IV. SUKU . 439

pie rs of the same s ize . The extreme dimens ion s were 7 3 ft .east and west by 53 ft . north and south

,and i t was ra i sed on a

platform with three steps . S ir T . S tamford Raffles came tothe conclus ion that th is bu i ld ing might have been a Ha l l ofS tate , in which case i t is almost the on ly example of a secularbui ld ing of which the plan sti l l remains .

SUKU .

At a place cal led Suku , not far from Mount Lawu , near thecen tre of the I s land , there i s a group of temple s , which , whenprope rly i l lustrated , promise s to be of great importance to thehistory of architecture in Java .

1 They are among the mostmode rn examples of the style , having dates upon them of A .D .

1 435 and A.D . or less than forty years be fore the destruct ion of Majapahit and the abol ition of the Hindu re l igion ofJava. So far as can be made out, they are coarse r and morevulgar in execution than any of those hithe rto described , and

be longed to a degraded form of the Va ishnava re l igion . Garudai s the most prominen t figure among the sculpture s but the rei s a lso the tortoise

,the boar

,and othe r figure s that be long to

that re l igion .

The principal temple , of which an i l lustration i s givenin S ir T. S tamford Raffles

’ work,

3 consists of a truncatedpyramid raised on the top of three success ive te rraces . I tsbase i s 43 ft . 6 in . square which , as i t ri se s , decreases in s ize toabout 22 ft . , and i t i s constructed of horizon tal stone course sforming steps to the he ight of 19 ft . ; on the top is a bold lymoulded podium or platform 4 ft . 9 in . high

,with a projecting

wing in the centre on the we ste rn s ide,in front of whi ch is a

narrow fl ight of steps down the s ide of the pyramid enclosedbe tween stone curbs . On the top of the wing are two se rpen ts .but othe rwise the whole bu i ld ing is plain and unornamen tedwith sacred emblems .

The most inte re sting featu re connected with the remain s atSuku , i s the i r extraord inary l ikeness to the contemporaryedifice s in Yucatan and Mexico . I t may be on ly acc iden tal ,but i t i s unmistakable . No one

,probably

,who is at all famil iar

with the remain s found in the two province s,can fai l to obse rve

i t,though no one has yet suggested any hypothes is to accoun t

for it . When we l ook at the vast expanse of ocean thatstre tches be tween Java and Cen tral Ame rica

,i t seems impossible

to conce ive that any migrat ion can have taken place eastward

1 Sir S . Ratfles’

H istory of Java,

’ plates 3 1 and 6 1 , vol 11. pp . 49 at reqq.

2 Crawfurd,‘D ict . Indian Archipe lago

,

’

sub van .

3 H istory of Java, ’ Plate XXX I .


say afte r the 10th centu ry—that could have influenced the artsof the Ame ri cans ; or, i f i t had taken place , that the Javanswould not have taught them the use of alphabe tical wri ting ,and of many arts they cult ivated , but of which the Ame ri canswe re ignoran t when d iscovered by the Span iards . I t seemsequal ly improbable or imposs ible that any colon i sts from Americacould have plan ted themse lves in Java so as to influence the

arts of the people . But there i s a th ird suppos it ion that maybe possible

,and

,i f so

,may accoun t for the obse rved facts . I t

i s poss ible that the bu i ld ing race s of Central America were of thesame family as the nat ive inhabitants of Java. Many circumstances lead to the be l ie f that the inhabitants of Easte r I slandbe long to the same stock

,and, i f th is i s so , i t is eviden t that

d i stance i s no bar to the connection . I f this hypothesis may be

adm itted , the history of the connection would be th is —TheJavans we re first taught to bui ld monumen tal edifice s byimmigran ts from India

, and we know that the i r first we re the i rfinest

,and al so the most pure ly Indian . During the next fi ve

cen tu ries (A.D . 6 50- 1 1 50) we can watch the Ind ian influencedying out ; and during the next three (A.D . 1 1 50- 14 50) a nativel ocal s tyle deve loping itse l f

,which resu lted at last in the quas i

Ameri can examples at Suku . I t may have been that i t wasthe blood and the old fai th and fee l ings of these two longd isseve red branches of one original race that came again to thesurface

,and produced l ike e ffects in far distant lands . I f t hi s or

someth ing l ike i t we re not the cause of the s imi lari ty, i t musthave been accidenta l

,and , i f so , i s almost the on ly instance of

its c lass known to exis t anywhe re ; and, strange ly enough,the

on ly othe r example that occurs i s in re spect to the l ikeness thati s unmistakable be tween ce rtain Peruvian bui ld ings and the

Pe lasgic remain s of I taly and Greece . These,howeve r, are even

more remote in date and local i ty,so the subje ct must remain

in i ts present unce rtainty ti l l some fresh d iscove ry throws newl ight upon i t .

Passing now towards the east end of the i s land beyondKediri : in the ne ighbourhood ofMe lang

,are three or four temple s ,

two of which, Chandi Jago near Tumpang and Chand i S inga

sari are we l l i l lustrated in the Dutch survey . The plan s of theplatforms of these temples diffe r from those in the centre ofthe i s land ; the stai rcases leading to the platforms are at

one end on ly. In the case of Chand i Jago (Woodcut No .

at the we s t end are two fl ights be tween stone curb s on eachs ide of a port ion of the lowe r platform which projects 8 ft . infront of the main platform ,

and i s I 7 ft . wide . The re i s a s imi larprojection to the second plat form , 7 ft . wide and 4 ft . deep, with a


30 ft . high above the platform ,the central towe r ove r the ce l l i s

50 ft . high, with triple storey and baluste rs,l ike those on the

porche s , but of increased dimens ions , and all the ve rtical planesurface s are e laborate ly carved with griffons

,birds and fol iage

,

triangular ve rtical pendan ts be tween the bal usters and an tefi x ae at the angle s with sculpture somewhat Greek in characte r.The crown ing featu re of all these towe rs re semble s that whichforms the summit of the i l lu strat ion in Plate LV I I . F ig . 1 , at

B l i tar. The structure i tse l f would seem to have been e rected asa memorial of some k ind as with two others of d ifferen t design ,

but all placed s ide by s ide i t i s ra i sed on a platform about 3 ft .high with a fl ight of steps in fron t. What i s remarkable in th isi l lu strat ion i s the almost ent i re absence of any carved mou ld ings—a se rie s of square fi l lets receding or projecting constitutes thelead ing characte rist ic of its design . The platform on whichthe temple at S ingasar i rests i s 5 ft . 6 in . high , and 43 ft . 6 in .

square , and on the we ste rn s ide i s an additional platform l ikethose at Chand i Jago 1 3 ft . wide and projecting 1 6 ft . 8 in . The

two fl ights of steps to the platform rise on each s ide between thetwo platforms . With the exception of the gorgon heads on thedoorway of each porch the re i s no other scu lptu re .

Re turn ing now westward , about 6 mi le s east of Kediri ,accord ing to S ir T. S tamford Raffles

,i s a sol id mass ive

structure at Sentu l , without any in ternal chambe r, afford ing on

i ts summit an extens ive platform with steps of ascent on the

we st s ide , the s ide s and the curb wal ls of the steps be ingen riched with scu lpture . E ight m i les south-we st of Sen tu l i sChand i Prudung, constructed en t ire ly in brick

,but with a plan

s imilar to the temple s al ready de scribed at Prambanan and

S ingasari , viz .,with central ce l l and porch and three othe r

ce l l s .The most remarkable temple s in the vic in i ty of Kediri are the

two example s at Panataran,of which the annexed views (Plates

LV . and LV I . ) i l lustrate the most importan t . From the plan ,

Woodcut No . 488 , and the views, i t wi l l be seen that it is virtual lya three - storeyed pyramid

,with flat platform at the top . The

lowe r platform is 80 ft . square,with bastions on each s ide 35 ft .

wide,one on the fron t or we ste rn face projecting 2 5 ft . , and the

othe r three 1 0 ft . on ly . On each s ide of the we ste rn projectioni s a fl ight of fourteen steps leading up to the fi rst platform ;the second platform is 6 5 ft . square , with three recesses insteadof projections

,and on the weste rn s ide a central fl ight of ten

s teps leading to the second platform,and in con t inuat ion from

s teps ris ing to the upper platform,which is 34 ft . 6 in . square .

The podium of the lowe r platform is ornamen ted with numerousbas- re l ie fs on pane l s

,represen t ing subjects , taken principal ly

PLATE LVI .

CHAN D I PANATARAN .

[Tof arc j mge 443 , Vo l . I I .

CHAP. IV.PANATARAN . 443

from the Ramayana, but many a l so from local legends . Eachof the se i s separated from that next it, by a pane l , with a ci rcu larmedal l ion ,

contain ing a convent ional an imal , or a fol iagedornamen t. The bas- re l ie fs ofthe second storey are bette rexecuted , and

,from the i r

extent , more interest ing ; the i rsubjects

,howeve r, seem to be

all taken from local legendsnot yet ident ified . The th irdi s ornamented by pane l s , withwinged figure s, griffons , Garudas

,and flying monste rs

,more

spirited and bette r exe cutedthan any s imilar figure s are

in any examples of H indfiart I am acqua inted with .

In the centre of the uppe rplatform

,but not shown on

the plan ,i s a we l l hole which

may have se rved in the

temple s at Prambanan for the 488 . Chandi Panataran , plan of terraces .

depos it of re l ics or of theashe s of deceased priests . This has been dug out and in creasedin d imen s ion s be low by treasu re seeke rs . Whe the r at any t imeove r th is uppe r platform the re was a superstructure of any k indis not known ; S ir S tamford Raffles speaks of the remains ofvarious foundations . On these wood columns m ight have restedcarrying a roof

,but in any case the open ing was probably closed

ove r,and formed a secre t chambe r, on which may have been

e rected an al tar. The sculptu red pane ls of the lowe r platformare large ly i l lustrated in the Dutch su rvey, and are in fe rior to thoseof Boro-Budur ; the bas - re l iefs of the second platform seem tobe of fine r execution ,

j udging by Kinsbergen’

s photographs,but

the re are no i l lustrat ions given of them or of the winged figure sand Garudas which decorate the pod ium of the uppe r platform

,

or of the remarkable cre st ing round , which seems to have se rvedthe purpose of a balustrade .

There is a second temple at Panataran ,which might from

its decorat ion be cal led a se rpen t temple . The Batavian Socie tyhave devoted twen ty-two photographs to the i l lustrat ion of itsscu lptures , but have given no plan and no description . The rei s not even a general view from which its outl ine might begathe red , and no figure i s in troduced from which a scale mightbe guessed . I ts date appears to be probably previous to A.D .

14 16 . The figure s,howeve r

,from which this i s inferred are

444 FURTHER i NDIA. Boox VI I I .

not on the temple i tse l f, but on a bath or tank attached to i t,though

,from the characte r o f its sculptures

,i t i s probably

coeval . 1The reason why it i s cal led a Serpent temple i s

,that the

whole of the basement mould ing is made up of e ight greatse rpents , two on each face , whose upra i sed heads in the centreform the s ide pieces of the steps that lead up to the centralbui ld ing (Plate LV I ., F ig. whateve r that was . These se rpen tsare not

,howeve r, ou r famil iar seven -headed Nagas that we mee t

with everywhere in India and Cambodia,but more l ike the

fierce cre sted se rpents of Cen tral Ame rica. The seven-headedserpen t doe s occu r ve ry frequently among the sculptures at BoroBudur—neve r independently, howeve r, nor as an object to beworshipped , but as adorn ing the heads of a Naga people whocome to worship Buddha or to take a part in the various scene srepresented the re . Even then they are ve ry un l ike the IndianNaga whose hood is unmistakably that of an expanded cobra.

Those at Boro Budur and Panataran are crested snake s , l ikethat represented i n the Japanese woodcut in Tree and Se rpentWorsh ip,

’ page 56 .

The sculptures on these monuments are not all of a re l igiousor mythological characte r, but e i the r h istorical o r domestic .

What they repre sen t may easi ly be asce rtained,for above each

scene i s a short descript ive inscription ,qu ite perfect

,and in a

characte r so mode rn that I fancy any scholar on the spot mighteas i ly read them .

Meanwhile i t i s curious to obse rve that we know of on ly twomonuments in our whole h istory which are so treated , and the sethe earl iest and the last of the great school that at Bharaut, sooften al luded to above , e rected two centu rie s be fore Christ and

this one attributed to the 14th centu ry, while the struggle withthe Muhammadan re l igion was gathering around i t that strengthwhich

,within hal f a centu ry from that t ime , final ly extingu ished

the re l igion to which i t be longed .

There i s one othe r temple of thi s class,at a place cal led

Machanpont ih , described by He rr B rumund as partly of brick ,partly of stone , but s ingularly rich in ornamen tat ion .

“ The

sub-basement ,”he says

,

“ i s composed of a torto ise and twose rpents ; the heads of these three an imal s un i te on the westface and form the entrance .

” 2

The above i s,i t must be confessed

,on ly a meagre outl ine of

what might be made one of the most inte resting and important

Onderz oek, Bd . i i .

P 433

CHAP. Iv . ARCHITECTURE OF JAVA 445

chapte rs in the History of Ind ian Architecture . To do i t j ustice ,howeve r

,i t wou ld require at least 100 i l lustrat ion s and 200 page s

of text, which would swe l l this work beyond the dimens ionswithin which it seems at pre sent expedien t to re strict i t. We

know all we wan t,or are eve r l ike ly to know,

about BoroBudur and one or two othe r monuments , but with regard tomany of the others ou r informat ion i s as yet fragmen tary ,and in respect to some

,deficien t . Any qual ified pe rson might,

by a s ix mon ths’ tour in the is land,so co-ord inate all thi s as to

supply the deficiencies to such an exten t as to be able to write a

fu l l and sat i sfactory H istory of Archite cture in Java. The

Dutch have,however

,far outstripped our colon ial authorit ie s ,

not on ly in the care of the i r monuments , but in the exten t towhich they have publ ished them

,and in late years many works

have appeared which are fi l l ing up the gaps, so much so thatthe survey ske tched out by S ir S tamford Raffle s is now be ingaccompl ished ; the appointmen t, al so , in 1 90 1 of an Archaeo

logical Survey unde r the d irection of a highly qual ified commiss ion of expe rts

,i s at presen t advancing our informat ion

in eve ry direction by publ icat ions that are mode l s of exhaust iveand accurate surveys .

B O O K I X .

CH INA AND JAPAN .

C H A P T E R I .

CH I NA .

INTRODUCTORY.

CHRONOLOGY .

Period of Hia B . C. 2205 - 1 766

Wu Wong period of Chen orChaw

Confucius diedCh i -hoang-ti bui l t Great Wal l

abou t 240

S i-Han dynasty 201 (or 206)-A. D . 9

Ho-t i,seventeen th king ; Buddh

ism in troduced cz'

r . A. D . 90

Si -Ts in dynasty 265 -3 1 6

Wu-tai dynasty ; China dividedin to two kingdoms

ONE of the great d ifficu l ties exper ienced in any descript ionof Chinese architectu re i s the absence of plan s of e i the rtemples , palaces, monaste ries or dwe l l ings . Within the lastfew years the photographic camera has len t i ts aid in the

i l lustrat ion of the great palace s at Pekin within the wal l s ofthe Forbidden C i ty , and of the Impe rial Temples north ofthe c ity , and an e laborate work has been publ ished with Ove rone hundred photographs taken afte r the siege

,

1accompan ied

by a short de script ion , giving on ly the names of the build ings,

and without a s ingle plan or d iagram to show the i r j uxtapos it ion . In some cases v iews of the inte rior on ly are given

1 K . Ogawa. Photographs of the palace buildings in Pekin .

’

Nan -

pe-chao dynasties ; China

d ivided in to two kingdoms, cz'

r . A .D .439China reun ited , capital Honan 589 or 5 8 1Thang dynasty 6 1 8-

907Wu-tai dynasties 907 -960Pe -sung dynasty 960 1 1 27Northern China captured byMongols 1 234Kublai Khan , Yuen dynasty 1 28 1

M ing dynasty ; Mongol expel led 1 368Ta- t’ing or Man chu Tartardynasty ; now on the throne

448 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK ix .

early attained a certain stage of c ivi l isation, and maintained

i t without change o r progress during the whole period of the i rexistence . The syl labic symbols of the Chinese '

are the exactcounterpart of the h ieroglyphic writ ing of the Egyptians

, as

c lumsy and as un l i ke that of any other contemporary nat ion ,

and as symbol ic of the i r exclus ive segregat ion from the rest ofmank ind . In both countries the re was always the same calmcontemplation of death , the same des ire for an honourablefune ral and a splendid tomb, and the same reverence for thedead . In these and fifty othe r particu lars

, the manners andcustoms of the two peoples seem ident i cal , and the perfectparal le l i sm on ly breaks down when we come to speak of the i rbu i ld ings . There are no tombs in China to be compared withthe Pyramids, and no temples that approach those of Thebesin d imens ion s or in splendour.I f the Chinese we re as close ly al l ied to the Tartar or

Mongol ian tribe s on the i r north-easte rn front ie r as i s gene ral lysupposed; th is d i fference cou ld hardly have existed . When theinne r country has been more care ful ly examined

,i t i s probable

that we may see cause to modify our Opin ion as to the architectural characte r of the Chinese people .

This wi l l be e spec ial ly the case i f,as i s h ighly probable , the

so-cal led Indo-Chine se inhabitants of Cambodia are ve ry muchmore c lose ly al l ied in blood to the Chinese than they are toany of the race s inhabit ing India ; s ince by the e rect ion of thebui ld ings described in a previous d ivision of this work

, the

Cambodian s have nobly vindicated the i r ti tle to be cons ide redas one of the great bui lding races of the world . Cons ideringthe short t ime of the i r existence , and the l im ited area theyoccupied

,they may in fact lay c laim to having surpassed even

the Egyptians in this re spect .I t wi l l be strange i f in Ho -nan and Kwang-s i we do not

eventual ly fi nd the l inks which wil l confi rm the connection ofthe two races of Cambodia and China, and explain what atpresen t can on ly be regarded as one of the unsolved problemsof architectural history .

A l i ttle we l l-directed industry on the spot would ve ry soonclear all thi s doubt away . Meanwhi le the re are othe r minorcause s which may have contributed to the absence of monumen tal bu i ldings in China, and which i t may be as we l l toal l ude to be fore proceed ing furthe r. In the fi rst place , theChine se neve r had e i ther a dominan t priesthood or a he red itarynobi l i ty. The absence of the forme r class is a ve ry importan tcons ide rat ion ,

be cause in all coun trie s whe re architecture hasbe en carr ied to anything l ike pe rfe ct ion , i t i s to sacred art

that i t has owed its highe st inspirat ion , and sacred art i s never

CHAP. I . INTRODUCTORY . 449

so strongly deve loped as unde r the influence of a powe rfu l andsplendid hierarchy. Again , re l igious and sectarian zeal i s oftena strong stimulus to sacred architecture , and this i s ent i re lywant ing in thi s remarkable people . Though the Chinese are

bigoted to a greate r extent than we can we l l conce ive in all

pol it ical matte rs, they are more toleran t than any othe r nationwe know of in all that concern s re l igion . At the presen tmoment three great re l igious sects d ivide the empire nearlyequal ly between them . For though Buddhism is the nominalre l igion of the re ign ing family, and perhaps numbe rs morefol lowers than e i the r of the othe r two , sti l l the fol lowe rs ofthe doctrine s of Confucius— the con temporary and rival ofSakya-S inha—are a more pure ly Chinese se ct than the othe r,and hold an equal place in publ ic e st imation ; while , at the

present t ime , the sect of Lao-tse , or the Doctors of Reason ,

i s more fashionable,and ce rtain ly more progre ss ive

,than the

othe rs . 1 Christ ian i ty too , might at one time have encroachedlarge ly on e i the r of these , and become a ve ry prevalen t re l igionin this tole rant empire

,had the Jesu its and Domin i cans unde r

stood that the condition of re l igious tole rance here . i s a totalabst inence from inte rfe rence in pol it ical matte rs . This

,how

eve r,the Roman Cathol ic priesthood neve r cou ld be brought

to understand hen ce the i r expuls ion from the realm,and the

forme r proscript ion of the i r fai th which othe rwise would not on lyhave been tole rated l ike all othe rs , but bid fa i r to find moreextens ive favour than any . Such tole rat ion i s highly laudable inone poin t of view but the wan t of fe rvou r and ene rgy from whichit ari se s is fatal to any great exe rt ion s for the honour of re l igion .

In the same manne r the wan t of an he red itary nobi l ity,and

indeed of any strong family pride , i s equal ly un favou rable todomestic architecture of a durable de scription . At a man ’sdeath h is property i s gene ral ly d ivided equal ly among hi schi ldren . Con sequen tly the weal thie st men do not bu i ldre s idence s calculated to last longer than the i r own l ive s . The

royal pa lace s are me re ly somewhat large r and more splendidthan those of the mandarins , but the same in characte r, ande rected with the same ends .

The re i s no coun try whe re prope rty has hitherto been con

s idered so secure as China . Private feuds and private wars we re

1 The'population of the Chinese probably not err great ly on the s ide of

empire is estimated at 400 millions of under - est imating them ,making 200

souls . I f we estimate the Buddhists in mill ions the total number of followersChina at 1 50 mill ions of souls and put of this re ligion in the whole world

,or

down 50 mill ions for the Buddhist about one -e ighth of the human racepopulation of Tibe t , Man churia, Burma, not the exaggerated numbers at whichS iam , Cambodia, and Ceylon , we shal l they are usually estimated .

VOL . I I .

450 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX .

t i l l late ly unknown fore ign invas ion was practical ly imposs ible,

and l i ttle dreaded . Hence they have none of those fortal i ce s,

or fortified mans ions, which by the i r mass and s ol id ity givesuch a marked characte r to a ce rtain class of domestic edifice sin the we stern world . Equal i ty , peace , and tole rat ion . are

bless ings whose val ue i t would be d iffi cul t to ove r-e st imate buton the dead though pleasing leve l whe re they exist

,i t is in

vain to look for the rugged subl im ity of the mountain,or the

te rrific grandeur of the storm . The Chinese have chosen the

humble r path of l ife,and with s ingular succe ss . There i s not

perhaps a more industrious or,

. t i l l the late wars,happie r

people on the face of the globe ; but they are at the samet ime s ingularly deficient in every e lemen t of greatness , e ithe rpol it ical or artist ic .Notwithstanding all this

,i t ce rtain ly is curious to fi nd the

oldest c ivi l i sed people now existing on the face of the globealmost whol ly without monuments to record the past

,or any

des i re to convey to poste rity a worthy idea of the i r presentgreatness . I t i s no less remarkable to find the most populousof nat ions, a nation in which m i l l ions are always seekingemployment, neve r th ink ing of any of those highe r mode s ofexpress ion which would se rve as a means of multiplyingoccupat ion ,

and which e levate wh i le feed ing the masses ; andsti l l more startl ing to find weal th , such as the Chinese possess ,neve r invested in se l f-glorifi cat ion , by individual s e rect ing forthemse lve s monuments which shal l aston i sh the i r contempor

aries , and hand down the i r name s to poste rity .

From the se causes it may be that Chinese arch itectu re hasnot attracted much atten t ion . In one re spect , howeve r, i t isinstructive , s ince the Chinese are the on ly people who now

employ polychromy as an e ssential part o f the i r architecture :

indeed , with them ,co lour is far more e ssent ial than form ; and

ce rtain ly the re su lt i s so far pleas ing and sat isfactory, that forthe l owe r grade s of art i t i s hardly doubtfu l that i t shouldalways be so . For the highe r grade s

,however

,i t i s hard ly

less ce rtain that co lou r, though most valuable as an accessory,

i s incapable of that lofty powe r of express ion which formconveys to the human mind .

45 2 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX .

concave form of roof, as general ly refe rred to by write rs on

the subject as a remin i scence of the tent of the Tartars,who

are supposed to have introduced it . The authors of this theory,

howeve r, forgot that the Chinese have been longe r out of tents ,and know less of them , than any othe r people now on the faceof the globe . The Tartar conquest

,l ike our Norman .one

,has

long been a fus ion rathe r than a subjection,and does not

seem to have produced any visible e ffect on the manne rs orcustoms of the original inhabitan ts of China. I t may al so beobse rved that the typical form of the roof of a Tartar ten t wasand i s domical , l i ke those represented in the Assyrian sculpture s ,and se l dom

,i f eve r, constructed with a hol low cu rve so that

the argument te l l s the othe r way . Be thi s as i t “

may , the formof roof in quest ion arose from a construct ive exigence

,which

others would do we l lt o im i ta t e . I n a

coun try l ike China,

wh e r e ve ry h e avyrains fal l at one sea

son o f the year,t i led

roofs,such as they

a l m o s t u n i v e r sa l l yuse

,require a high

pitch to carry off the

wate r ; but the glari n g s u n s h i n e o fanothe r season ren

Diagram of Chinese Construction .de rs Shade to wal l sand windows abso

lute ly necessary . I f (as on the left of the diagram No . 489 )the slope of the roof is cont inued so far out as to be effe ct ivefor the last purpose , the uppe r windows are too much darkened ,and i t i s imposs ible to see out of them . To remedy this defect

,

the Chinese carry out the i r eave s a lmost horizontal ly from the

face of the wal ls , whe re a leak become s of s l ight importance ;and then ,

to break the awkward angle caused by the mee tingof these two slope s , they ease i t o ff with a hol low curve whichanswe rs most e ffectual ly the double purpose of the roof. Theseprojecting eave s have the furthe r advan tage of protecting thewal l s which—con structed in t imbe r on ly—would decay rapid ly i ffrequently de luged with rain . The protection given to the fron tand back wal l s of the house was equal ly requi red for the s ide s

,

so that the projecting eaves are carried round these ; this, howeve r

,sti l l left exposed the gable ends , in orde r to protect which

a smal l pen t roof of sl ight project ion was bui l t in unde r thegable . The on ly part of su ch a roof that admitted of decora

CHAP . I I . TEMPLES AND OTHER STRUCTURES. 45 3

t ion was the central ridge , the hipped ridge created by the

inte rse ct ion of the main roof, and the proje cting eaves at the

s ides , unde r the se we re added furthe r deve lopments in the i rorigin of a con structional nature , but which , in course of time ,be came more or le ss pure ly decorat ive forms . The i l lustrat ion ,

Woodcut No . 490, which is based upon a drawing by a nat ivearti st

,wil l explain the typical form of roof just descr ibed . In

orde r to accentuate and give more importance to the roof, theridge was raised much highe r, and in some cases surmounted

Chinese Roof, with I ’rimoya Gables .

by ve rtical p ie rced te rra cotta slabs,which formed a lofty

c re sting, and the ends of the ridge we re decorated with headsof dragons or fish . On each S ide of the main roof

,but se t

back about a foot from the verge , a heavy rib of ti les wascarried down the roof to about two or three fee t be low the hip ,probably to we ight the roof ; out of this r ib the hip ridge grew,

be ing turned up at the extreme angle . The t i les employed tocove r the roof we re of two k inds : flat t i les with each sideturned up, and cove ring ti le s

,the lowe r end of both be ing

stopped with some decorat ive device,constituting in the latte r

a kind of antefix a.

The great project ion of the eaves required , howeve r, someadded support ; with a l ight roof this cou ld be obta ined by a

corbe l bracke t, such as i s shown in Woodcut No . 489 , carryingthe plate on which the rafte rs rested . In roofs of greate r s izean assemblage was requ ired , cons ist ing of two to five bracke ts ,

454 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. Boon IX.

one unde r the othe r ; the se bracke ts could on ly be attachedprope rly to the columns carrying the roof (gene ral ly 6 ft. apart,and some times more) , so that addi tional bracke ts we re requ iredon each side to give furthe r support to the horizontal beam orplates carrying the rafte rs . This led to a construction of whichWoodcut No . 49 1 wi l l give some be tte r conception thi s i l lustrat ion i s from the Temple at NikkO in Japan , but as the re i sscarce ly any patte rn in the latte r country which has not beenborrowed from China i t i s equal ly representat ive of e i the r .Anothe r pecul iarity which al so give s a local characte r to all

this architecture is the me thod of framing a roof so un l ike thatof othe r people . In e arly t imes , and in the i r domest ic workdown the present day , the t imbe r most avai lable for this pur

pose was e i the rthe bambu or a

smal l p ine ,which ,l ike most endogen s

,i s soft and

spongy in the in

s ide , while the

o u t e r r i ng s o fwood are closeg ra i n e d

,h a r d

,

and strong : i t i sthus practical ly a

hol low woodencyl inde r

,which

,

i f squared to forma framing as we

Bracket emup .

do,would fal l to

piece s ; but me re lyc leaned and used whole , i t i s a ve ry strong and durable bui ld ingmate rial , though one which requ ire s all a Chinaman ’s ingenu ityand neatness to frame toge the r with suffi c ient r igid ity for thepurpose s of a roof.

The roof i s usual ly con structed (as shown in WoodcutNo . 489) by us ing three or four transve rse piece s or t ie -beams,one ove r the othe r, the ends of each beam be ing supported on

that be low it by means of a framed piece of a d iffe ren t class ofwood . By thi s me thod , though to us i t may look unscient ific ,they make up a framing that resists the strongest winds un

injured .

Of course the theory here put forward refe rs more particularlyto houses in which the employmen t of bambu and the smal lpine st i l l obtains, but drawings in the National L ibrary in Parisshow that in the 5 th and 4th cen tury B .C .,

the i r temple s and


No . 494) i s of the I’

rimoya type , s imilar to that shown in

Woodcut No . 490.

T imbe r and brick are the chie f material s employed in nearlyall Chinese build ings , stone be ing employed on ly fort he foundat ion pie rs on which the columns rest . B rick wal l s are buil t inbetween the wooden columns—be ing carried up on ly to thefi rst beams in other words they are employed on ly as a fi llingin, and not as a support for the roof. Chine se pagodas

,on the

othe r hand , are bui l t ent ire ly in brick with occas ional ly,as in

the porce lain pagoda at Nanking (now destroyed) , a cove ring ofporce lain t i le s ; the re are al so two hal ls of Buddha

,lofty two

storey build ings,which are bui l t in brick with te rra-cotta glazed

plaques outs ide . The p‘a z

’

lus,p

‘a z

’

f angs , or memorial gateways- the analogues of the I ndian Tom nas—when bu i l t in stone are

somet imes copie s of wooden structure s the beams of which are

tenoned in to the columns or pie rs ; in those of a more monumental characte r which form the chief entrance gateways tosome of the i r temples—as in that e re cted to Confucius in Pekin(Woodcut No . they are somet ime s in marble with archedopen ings

,showing that the Chinese we re we l l acquainted with

the principle s of the arch and the vault . The re are also someexamples known as beam less temples attributed to the 1 1 th

century,1 which we re roofed with barre l vaults, and probablyse rved to store arch ives and re l ics on accoun t of the i r incombustible nature .

The wal l s which enclose the i r cit ies are bui l t in brick,and

the i r bridge s in stone with marble cas ing and bal ustrades .The rai sed platforms fo r al tars

,some of the i r temples

,and

gene ral ly the Imperia l Hal l s , are all buil t in marble ; otherwiseall Chine se con structions are in t imbe r

,the roofs be ing cove red

with glazed ti le s, ye l low,i f I mpe rial s tructure s, and green ,

b lueor purple for others ; the r idge and hip rol ls with the dragonsand fishes wh ich surmoun t the i r roofs are all in glazed te rracotta. Great importance i s attached to the orien tat ion oftemples , which as a ru le face the south . This

,howeve r, i s

dete rmined by geomance rs who have to take in to account theconfigurat ion of the ground , magne t ic curren ts , the proximity ofsprings

,and ris ing vapours in the i r vic in i ty : to these influences

is given the t it le of Fong -sfiuz’

e—mean ing l i te ral ly “ wind and

wate r -and no structure of any k ind , whe the r temple , palace ,or house

,i s eve r bu i l t un less in accordance with fang -Mme. In

orde r to give more importance to the impe rial st ructures,

whe the r temple s or reception hal ls, they are ra ised on platformsw i th t riple te rraces and balustrade s round , and three fl ights of

1 Journal , ’ 1 894-95 , 3rd series, vol . i i . p . 45 .

CHAP. I I . MATERIALS EMPLOYED . 45 7

steps on the south front the fl ight in the middle i s subd ividedinto three , the central portion forming an incl ined slope whichis covered with dragons and clouds in re l ief, in some case s thetreads of the steps on each s ide are al so carved with dragons inre l ie f ; the te rraces , bal ustrade s and steps be ing all in whitemarble . The same descript ion appl ies to the north and southa ltars of the Temple of Heaven ,

and to those of the Temple of

Agriculture .

460 CHIN ESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX .

columns,as also the l owe r storey . The construction ins ide i s

of a ve ry extraordinary kind ; at the leve l of the uppe r partof the second roof carved beams are tenoned into the fourcolumns

,ove r which

,between each are provided two othe r

columns,forming a sort of att i c storey , to Support the roof

and the in te rnal dome . Though not ind icated in the woodcut,

the four great columns,which rise to the roof

,are vis ible out

s ide , be tween them and at the back o f the att ic columns theoute r case of the drum is constructed with curved timbe rs

,and

the re are no windows as shown . As the horizon tal beams,or

plates , are on ly tenoned into the columns, and the we ight theyhave to carry is greate r than such beams could carry

,i t

has been found necessary to provide othe r beams unde rneath,

on which they re st,and these beams are sunk in to othe rs

crossing from the four great columns to four of those of theais le or clere story— an arrangemen t of a most compl icatedcharacte r. The in terior of the dome i s horizon tal ly subd ividedin to three parts

,the lowe r decorated with an assemblage

of bracke ts'

form ing a frieze,the middle part pane l led and

the cen tre sunk with a deep coffe r ; all the woodwork isgi lded , the uppe r part of the columns with patte rns in im itat ion of damask work . The Temple of Heaven i s said to havebeen e rected about the year 1420 A.D . ,

and original ly the

roof of the uppe r storey was cove red with blue t i les,that

of the middle one with ye l low ti le s,and of the lowe r one

green,but the Emperor Kien - lung ( 1 7 36 - 1 796 ) changed them

all to one colour of a deep ultramarine blue . As th i s templei s said to have been burn t down in 1 860, i t i s probable thatthe exist ing bui ld ing is on ly a copy. A second c ircular templein the enclosure of the Temple of Heaven ,

the Huang-Chiangyen ,

has one roof on ly , and the dome ins ide carried on e ightcolumns i s s imilarly de corated with two beaded friezes , and

pane l led above with a circular plaque in the cen tre . The rei s a thi rd example of a c ircu lar dome in the Ch

'

ung-ho - t’ien ,

the Hal l of Central Peace , in which the dome i s decoratedin the same way ,

but i s much finer in de sign and decorationthan the othe r two

,and a fourth in the Temple of Agricu lture

of wh ich an exce l len t l i thograph is publ ished in vol . xvi i .of the Transactions

,1 866 The bracke t frieze

found in the se c i rcular temple s exists al so in the rectangularone s ; in both cases the i r origin can be traced to the constructiveforms evolved in the support of the wide ly projecting eaves ,they are employed also in the deeply coffe red ce i l ings ofsome of the hal l s of the Imperial Palace such as those ofthe Chio - tai Chung - ching

, and othe r hal l s of reception and

aud ience .

CHAP . I I I . BUDDHIST TEMPLES. 46 1

With the exception of the examples j ust de scribed , and

a few othe rs , all the temple s in China, whether Confucian ,

Taoist or Buddhist,are based on the T

’ing type,d iffe ring on ly

in the i r d imen s ions . Gene ral ly speaking, the temple of a

Buddhist monaste ry i s enclosed by a wal l,with a monumental

gateway or P’

a i - lu at the en trance and a serie s of threede tached bui ld ings beyond , placed one behind the othe r

,

on a cen tral axis,with courts be tween ,

and commun icat ingone

,

with the othe r by mean s of cove red corridors . The fi rstbui ld ing is the ex -voto hal l with statue s ; the second i s theprincipal temple , in which are the three image s of the Buddhisttriad

,and the al tar with the sacred ve sse l s in fron t ; the build

ing in the rear con tains somet ime s a min iature dagaba in

marble,in which are enclosed supposed re l ics of Buddha.

To the right and left of the enclosure,and placed symmetrical ly

,

are other isolated structure s,such as the be l l -towe r

,the l ibrary

,

the pagoda, and the monks’ dwe l l ings .

BUDDH IST TEMPLES .

The on ly Buddhist temple in China of which any planshave been made , or which I have myse l f had an opportun i tyof inspect ing, i s that of Ho -nan

, oppos ite Can ton . Unfortun

ate ly i t i s comparat ive ly mode rn ,and by no means monumental .

I t i s a paral le logram enclosed by a high wal l , measuring 306 ft.by 1 74 ft . In the shorte r fron t facing the rive r is a gatewayof some preten s ion . This lead s to a se rie s of balls open ingin to each othe r, and occupying the whole of the longe r axisof the in te rnal court. The first and second of the se are porche sor an te - chape ls . The central one i s the large st

,and practical ly

the choi r of the bui ld ing . I t con tains the a l tar,adorned by

gi lt image s of the three preciou s Buddhas, with stal l s for themonks and all arrangemen ts necessary for the dai ly se rvice .

Behind this , in the next compartmen t, i s a dagaba,and in i ts

rear anothe r apartment devoted to the godde ss Kuan -

y in ,

principal ly worshipped by women—in fact, the Lady Chape lof the church . Around the court are arranged the ce l l s of themonks

,the i r k itchen , re fectory , and all the nece ssary offices

of the monaste ry . These are gene ral ly placed against theoute r wal l , and open into the court.At Pek in the re are several lamasaries or Buddhis t monas

teries , of a much more monumental characte r than that ofHo -nan , but i t i s ve ry d ifficul t indeed to guess at the i rarrangemen t from mere verbal de script ions without d imens ions .The gateway of one , represen ted in Woodcut No . 493 , givesa fai r idea of the usual mode of construct ing gateways in China.

46 : CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK Ix .

. I t has three open ings of pleasing proportions,and i s as

we l l designed as any to be found in China. Behind it i s tobe seen the dagaba, to which it leads : a tal l form

,with a

reve rse slope , and an exagge rated Ht i,so a l tered from those

we are accustomed to in the earl ie r days of Indian arch itecture,

Monumental Gateway of Buddh ist Monastery , Pekin . (From a Photographby Beato . )

that i t requires some famil iarity with the in te rmediate formsin Nepal and Burma to fee l sure that i t i s the di rect l inealdescendan t of the topes at sanchi or Man ikyala. The dagabais square on plan , with an octagonal m inaret at each angle

,

464 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX.

i s very s imple , rectangu lar on p lan , with five bays in the front,which always face s the south ; and three at the s ide ; with a

ve randah and fl ight of steps in the centre of the south frontleading to the cen tral doorway . Except ions to the ord inarytype are found in two temples , one of which

, T’s iang Cha,

the Buddhist temple of the sleeping Buddha in the Summe rPalace near Pek in (Woodcut No . 494 and Plate LV I I I .) i spe rhaps the fines t architectural achievemen t in China. Thebui ld ing cons is ts of two lofty storeys , bui lt in brick and facedwith glazed te rra-cotta in bright colours

,im itat ing the t imbe r

framed con struction of the usual T’ing Temple . The space sbe tween the te rra-cotta column s are decorated with an immensese ries of min iature n i che s

,one above the othe r

,and s ide by

side,each occupied by a cross- legged figure of Buddha . This

temple i s e rected on an eminence , form ing a conspicuousfeature in the landscape , and has pe rhaps the ri chest ridgecre sting to be found in China ; the re are three fin ials in the

cen tre , d ragon s at each end and othe rs be tween ; the roofbe longs to the I ’rimoya type , and has heavy hip rol l s te rminating in dragon s . What i s most unusual in th i s temple i sthe range of ci rcular-headed windows to each floor (WoodcutNo . in the ord inary temple there are no cle restorywindows

,all the l ight to the inte rior is suppl ied through the

doorway and the windows at the back of the ve randah . Thistemple and a smal l bronze pagoda near i t we re the on lybu i ld ings pre se rved in the Summe r Palace on i ts de structionin 1 860,

the forme r on accoun t of i ts beauty, and the latte rits inde struct ibi l ity . The re i s a second B uddha’s hal l nearPekin of the same type of design , with a double eaves-courseand bal cony, which has destroyed i ts s impl ic ity. In this latte r

,

bu i l t in the Shao-hu- t’ien grounds , the c i rcular columns and

squared beams of its t imbe r prototype have been reproducedin glazed terra-cotta, the se features be ing pure ly decorat ive as

they are carried on the brick wa l l be low.

Anothe r type of temple , dat ing from the 1 5 th cen tu ry, andknown as the Wut’a-s i near Pekin , cons ists of a l ofty squarepedestal , which recal l s the lowe r portion of the ce lebratedtemple at Bodh-Gaya (Woodcut No . The pedestal i ssubd ivided into fi ve storeys by string-courses

,each storey

enri ched with arcaded n iche s con tain ing statue s of Buddha,

the whole crowned with fi ve square dagabas , the centre one

with thi rteen proj ecting eaves , and the angle towe rs with e levenproje ct ing eaves l ike the Pa- l i Chwang Pagoda (Plate L IX) ,1 5 mile s east of Pek in .

466 CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. Boox ix.

When the tomb is s i tuated , as i s gene ral ly the case , on a hi l ls ide ,th is arrangemen t i s not on ly appropriate

,but e legant (Woodcut

No . When the same th ing is im itated on a plain ,i t i s

s ingularly misplaced and un inte l l igible . Many of the'

tombs arebuil t of gran i te , fine ly pol ished , and carved with a profusionof labour that make s us regre t that the people who can employthe most durable mate rial s with such faci l i ty shou ld have sogreat a predi lection for ephemeral wooden structure s .When the rock i s suitable for the purpose

,which

,howeve r

,

Plan of the Tomb of Yung-lo .

4 00

seems to be rare ly the

c a s e in Ch in a, t h e i rtombs are cut in the

rock,as in Etruria and

e l sewhere ; and tombs ofthe class j ust describedseem to be a device forconve rt ing an ord inaryh i l l s ide in to a substi tutefor the more appropriates ituation .

One of the finest example s of the tumu lu stype is the tomb o unglo of the Ming dynastynear Pek in 142 5

(Woodcut No .

th is cons ists of an earthmound about 6 50 ft . indiame te r, with a re taining wal l c rene l lated andabout 20 ft . h igh round it .This i s pre ceded by a

square towe r (E) in threestoreys

,each set sl ightly

beh ind the one beneathi t in fron t of this i s ane nclosure 500 ft . wideand 1 1 50 ft . long, withan en trance gateway (A)in front and subd ividedby cross wal ls into twocourts with a secondga t eway (C ) b e t we e nthem . In the fu rthe r

court is the al tar (D) , and in the fi rst or principal court the greatAncestral Hal l (B ), which is one of the finest example s ofChine se

CHAP. I I I . TOMBS 46 7

architecture . I t be longs to the T’ing type al ready described

,

but is pe rhaps the large st example in China, be ing 220 ft. inlength and

’

9 2 ft . deep . The re are n ine bays in front andfive on the sides- the entrance i s in the cen tre of the longfront which faces the south

,and the re i s no ve randah . The

hal l in which the ance stral table t of Yung- lo i s placed , cons istsof nave and ais les of the same he ight and oute r ai s le s all roundroofed ove r at a lower leve l corresponding with that which inthe temples forms a ve randah , similar to that shown on plan in

Woodcut No . 504 where , howeve r, there are seven teen bays .The main roof is supported by thirty- two columns

, 37 in . indiamete r and 36 ft . high , the pane l led ce i l ing of both nave andai s le s be ing at the same leve l . The twen ty-e ight co lumns carrying the ve randah and chambers at the back are 2 1 ft . high .

498 . Group of Tombs near Pekin . (From a Photograph by Beato . )


subd ivided into three , of which the middle part has a graduals lope carved with dragon s and clouds in re l ie f. In the furthe rcorne r is the great al tar with the five sacred ve sse l s .

Occasional ly, howeve r, the Chinese do e rect tombs,which

,

though ornamental , are far from be ing in such good taste as the

two forms just quoted . A tumulus is con s ide red appropriatefor this purpose all the world ove r, and so i s the horseshoe formunder the c ircumstances in which the Chine se employ it ; butwhat can be said in favour of such an array of objects as thoseshown in the pre ceding Woodcut No . 498 ? Judged by the

standard of taste which prevai l s in China at the present day ,

they may be conside red by the natives as both e legan t and

ornamen tal , but i t would be d ifficul t to conce ive anything whichspoke less of the sepulchre , even from a Chinaman ’s poin t o fview ; while, on the othe r hand

,the i r d imensions are such as

to deprive them of all d ign i ty as architectural objects .

T’AIS OR PAGODAS.

The objects of Chinese architecture with which the Europeaneye i s most famil iar are the f a ir or pagodas . In the souththey gene ral ly have n ine storeys

,but not always

, and in the

north they range from three to th irteen . I t has usual ly beenassumed that they owe the i r origin to the re l igion of F0 orBuddha, be ing nothing more than exagge rated dagabas

,but

the re are two ancient Chine se drawings in the National L ibrary,

Paris,reproduced in Paleologue 1 which repre sen t the toms or t’a z

’

s

of the Impe rial Palace at Pekin , one of them shows a squaretowe r in three storeys , each receding behind the othe r, so as toleave a te rrace round and a pavi l ion

,or shrine , at the top the

othe r has a circular towe r in fi ve storeys , dimin i sh ing in diamete ras i t rise s with a spira l pathway round , which recal l s that of thez iggurat at Khorsabad . Accord ing to Te rrien de Lacouperie ,2 inh is

' “

work on the weste rn origin of early Chinese c ivi l isat ion , the

re lation s of Chaldea and China date back to the 23rd centuryB .C . ,when the Bak tribe s migrated east from E lam and Babylon ia

in to China, bringing with them the custom of bu i ld ing in brick,

the e rect ion of lofty towe rs for astronomical purposes , the

cutting of canal s, embank ing of rive rs , and othe r e lemen ts ofthe i r western c ivi l isat ion . Of late r date , but showing how the

traditional form of these towers was handed down in the East,at Samara on the T igris

,60 mile s north of Baghdad and

1 L’Art Chinois, ’ pp . 101 and 103 .

2 Terrien de Lacouperie , Western Origin of Chinese Civil isat ion, ’ 1894.

4 7° CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK ix .

be deducted for the i ron spi re that surmoun ted it,leaving

l ittle more than 200 ft . for e levation of the bui lding,or

about the he ight of theMonumen t of London .

From the summit of thespi re e ight chain s weresuspended , to each ofwhich we re attachedn ine be l ls

,and a be l l

was also attached toeach angle of the l owe rroofs, mak ing 144 be l l sin all

, which , whent inkl ing in harmony tothe even ing breeze

,must

have produced an e ffectas s ingular as pleas ing.

I t was not,howeve r

,

e i the r to its d imens ionsor i ts be l l s that the

towe r owed i ts ce lebrity,

but to the coating ofporce la in which clothedi ts brick wal l s

,as we l l

as the uppe r and unde rs ides of the projectingroofs , which mark the

d ivis ion of each storey .

The porce lain produced499 . Porcelain Tower , Nankin .

a bri l l ian cy Of effectwhich i s total ly lost in all the repre sen tat ions of it

Oye t

publ ished,but which was

,in fact

,that on which the

.

arch i tecta lmost whol ly re l ied for producing the effect he des i red

, and

without which his de s ign i s a me re ske le ton .

Anothe r ce lebrated pagoda i s that known as“ Second Bar

Pagoda,

”on the Can ton R ive r. I t i s a pi l lar of victory , e rected

to commemorate a naval battle which the Chine se claim to havegained near the spot . I t i s

,in de sign

,nearly iden t ical with that

of Nankin,but of smal le r d imensions , and i s now fast fal l ing

to ru in .

The se two are of the usual and most typical form ,and so

l ike hundreds of others , that i t i s imposs ible to deduce anysequence from them with such represen tat ions as we now

posse ss . Though pleasing and purpose l ike , as we l l as original ,they are somewhat monotonous in de sign . A towe r d iv idedinto n ine equal and s imi lar storeys is a very inferior design

CHAP. I I I . T’

AIS OR PAGODAS. 4 7 1

to that of the minars of the Muhammadan s,or the ordinary

spire s of Christian churche s ; and,i f all we re l ike these

, we

should be forced to deny the Chinese the faculty of inventionin architecture . In the north, howeve r, the forms seem much

500. Pagoda in Summer Palace , Pekin . (From a Photograph by Beato . )

more various . One in the Summe r Palace ' (Woodcut No . 500)is divided into three s toreys

,with add itional projecting eave s

unde r the balcon ie s . Four of the s ides of the octagon are

longe r than the othe r four , and a l toge the r the re i s a play ofl igh t and shade , and a varie ty about the ornamen ts in thistowe r, which is extreme ly pleasing. I t i s much more l ike an

Indian des ign than any othe r known in China, and with the


circle of pi l lars round its base , and the lat or S tambha,which

usual ly accompany these objects furthe r west,i t recal led the

original forms as comp le te ly as any othe r object in this coun try .

In d irect contrast to th is i s the Pa-l i-Chwang Pagoda(Plate about 1 5 miles east of Pekin . I ts th irteenstoreys are a lmost more monotonous than those of the Nankintowe r

,bu t they are mere ly proj ecting eaves

,which take the

place of string-courses . A l though of sl ight projection,the eave s

are supported by groups of brackets which take the place of afrieze . The ground storey is of greate r importance than usual

,

i t i s pierced wi th arched doorways and windows on al te rnateface s

,and i s rai sed on a lofty pede stal enriched with mould ings

and carvings,a l toge ther constituting an imposing arch itectu ral

structure l ike the Orissan temples , to which i t bears somere semblance . The inte rior i s l ighted by smal l open ings betweenthe bracke t c lusters . In contrast with this i s the Su-chawpagoda

,with n ine storeys , of great he ight but devoid of any

architectural d es ign,the uptu rned corne rs of the eaves be ing

extreme ly ugly .

I t i s extreme ly d ifficult to form a correct e stimate of theartisti c me rits of the se towe rs . Ed ifi ces so original and sonat ional must be inte re sting from that c i rcumstance alone

,and

i t seems almost impossible to bui ld anything in a towe r- l i keform of great he ight

,whethe r as a steeple , a minar, or a pagoda,

which shal l not form a pleasing object from its sal ience and

aspi ring characte r alone , even without any real artist ic me ri tin i tse lf. Bes ides these qual ifications , I cannot but think thatthe tape ring octagonal form ,

the bold ly marked divis ions,the

domical roof,and gene ral consistence in de sign and ornamen t

of these towers , entit le them to rank tole rably high among thetowe r-l ike bu i ldings of the world .

P‘AI -LUS .

The P‘ai-lus or P‘

ai-fangs , some t imes u ti l i sed as entrancegateways to temple s and tombs

,are anothe r class o f monument

a lmost as frequen tly met with in Chinese scene ry as the n inestoreyed pagodas, and consequen tly nearly as famil iar to theEuropean eye . The i r origin i s as dist inctly Ind ian as the othe r

,

though,from the i r nature

,be ing eas i ly ove rthrown

,but few

example s can be found . in a country that has so long ceasedto be Buddhist . Fortunate ly

,howeve r, we sti l l posse ss in the

gateway of Sanch i (Woodcut No . 1 2) the typical example of thewhole class ; and we find them afte rwards represented in hasre l ie fs and in fre scoes in a manne r to leave no doubt of thefrequency of the i r appl ication ,

CHAP. I I I . P‘AI-LUS. 4 73

In China they seem almost un ive rsal ly to be emp loyed as

honorifi c monuments of deceased pe rsons—e ither men of dist inction ,

or widows whohave not married again

,

or vi rgins who have d iedunmarried . Frequentlythey are st i l l constructedin wood

,and when stone

i s used they re tain tothis hour the forms andde ta i l s of wooden con

struction . Whateve r themate rial , they cons ist ofe i ther two , four, or s ixpos ts

,set e ithe r on the

ground,so as to al l ow a

passage through , or on

a platform ,as in Wood

cut No . 50 1 , though th isi s quite an except ionalform

,the i r more usual

pOSItIOI‘

I be ing in fron t 501 . P‘

ai-ln near Canton . (From a Sketch by Mr .of some temple or tomb , Fergusson ' )

as in Woodcut No . 49 3 , or of an avenue leading to a tomb,as in

the case of that leading to the Ming tombs in which there are

fi ve open ings . Occasional ly they span a stree t, as in thatshown in Woodcut N o . 503 at Amoy .

The posts or pie rs always carry a ra i l or frieze bearing aninscription ,

which is in fact the object for which the monumen twas e rected . The most s ingular feature s about them are the

t i le roofs at various leve l s , with which they are surmounted,

probably for protection , but which , form ing heavy masse swide ly project ing on each s ide , are exposed to se r ious inj u ryfrom tempests . In Woodcut No . 502, represen t ing a gatewayat Pekin ,

i t wil l be noticed that the se roofs are carried (by a

se ries of supe rposed bracke ts in groups Copied from those whichsupport the eaves-roofs of the temples . Be tween the bracke tgroups which apparen tly re st on ly on the top of the wal ls

,the re

are open ings which give to the latte r the appearance of be inglate r addit ions . The P

‘a i-lu serving as the portal of the

cenotaph in white marble (Woodcut No . though bui l t instone , i s a direct copy of timbe r construction

,the cross-beams

be ing tenoned into the pie rs and having bracke ts unde r them tole ssen the bearing, here the bracke t groups are all in stone , butnot pie rced between . In the P

‘ai- lu s e rected in fron t of the

Hal l of Buddha in the Summer Palace (Plate and


of the Temple of Confuc ius in Pekin (Woodcut No .


the Christian Era, we fi nd them used as gateways to a s imulatedtomb . In India both the tumulus and the P‘

ai -lu had -

at thatt ime passed away from the i r original sepulchral mean ing ;the one had become a re l ic - shrine

,the othe r an i conostas is.

Two thousand years afterwards in China we find them bothst i l l used for the purposes for which they we re original lydes igned .

PALACES AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.

From what has been al ready said,i t wi l l be unde rstood that

the re i s vi rtual ly no diffe rence in the architectu ral de s ign ofthe temple s and palace s ; in both cases the hal l s and palace scons ist of a numbe r of pavi l ions rathe r than of nume rous suitesof apartmen ts and hal l s

,as i s usual ly the case in Europe

,

and consequently they neve r attain the magn i tude e ssent ialto architectural d ign i ty . The resemblance of temple and palacei s furthe r accen tuated by the fact that in fron t of the greathal l o f the palace in the Forbidden Ci ty are s im ilar platformswith the triple te rrace

,balustrade

,and fl ights of steps, which

have been de scribed in the Temple of Heaven and the tombof YUng- l o . Un fortunate ly

,the absence of plans make s i t

imposs ible to connect the various bu i ld ings one with the other.From a bird ’s -eye view of the Forbidden Ci ty (Tz u-chin-ch’eng)i t would seem that the build ings there in contained are all ofone storey , and surmoun ted with the same type of roof as thatemployed in the temples ; and as the main fron ts of the bui ld ingall face south

,the re i s a gene ral monotony of appearance , varied

on ly by the he ight of the seve ral structure s , according to the i rimportance . The three principal hal ls are the Tai-ho - t’ien

,or

Hal l o f H ighest Peace (bui lt 1 602 where levies are he ldon special occasions

, the Chung-ho - t’ien ,or Hal l of Central

Peace , and the Pao -ho-t’ien,or Hal l o f Secure Peace . The

fi rs t named is the most important,and i t i s preceded by what

i s cal led a gateway, which exte rnal ly is s imilar to the Tai-hot’ien in des ign ,

but has n ine bays in stead of e leven on the mainfron t ; i t i s also ra i sed on a platform with a triple terrace

,

balustrade , and fl ights of steps .The plan of the Tai -ho -t ’ien wi l l be be st unde rstood by

re fe rence to Woodcut No . 504, which i s the type of all the

large r temple s and hal l s . The principal front faces the south ,and the hal l i s raised on a lofty platform with three te rraces(A, A,

A), ris ing one above the othe r and enclosed by balu stradesthree fl ights of steps (B ,

B,B ), give acce ss to the uppe r te rrace ,

a port ion‘ of the cen tral fl ight,having in the middle , instead of

steps,an incl ined slope (C) with dragon s and clouds carved

thereon in bas-re l ie f ; the treads of the steps: are al so carved ,

CHAP. I I I . PALACES AND DOMEST IC ARCHITECTURE. 4 7 7

but in lowe r re l ie f. In fron t of the hal l , wh ich cons ists of e levenbays , i s the open ve randah (D ,

D ) , and the hal l beyond is d ividedlongitudinal ly in to central and s ide a i s les

,the forme r be ing of

the same width as the cen tral bay of the ma in front . V irtual ly,the refore , the plan i s s imi lar to that of a European church ,with nave and a is le s runn ing east and we st, and a centralt ransept with the principa l entrance (E) at its south end, and

the I mpe rial dai s (F) in the north t ransept . The on ly l ight

m mM 0 to 1 0 30 4 0 so

The Tai-ho Hall , Pekin .

admitted is that which en te rs through the entrance door, theglazed screens in the rear of the ve randah , and three othe rson the north s ide . All the s ide bays and the remain ing e ighton the north s ide are fi l led in with wal ls in brick

,which are

plaste red ove r on the ins ide and outs ide,and ri se to the soffi t of

the lowest transverse beam . External ly these wal l s have a ve ryugly effe ct , espec ial ly as the beams and groups of bracke ts aboveare all richly painted in var ious colours and in part gi lded . The

roof Of the hal l i s carried on forty column s about 30 ft . high , andof which the diamete r is 3 ft . 5 in . ; the coffe red ce i l ing i s carriedon great beams at two diffe ren t leve l s with bracket ing betweenthem and round the ha l l . The four cent ral column s are gi ldedwith tapestry or damask des igns in re l ief

,the others are painted

red, and the beams and ce i l ing gi lded and painted in brightcolours . The columns o f the ve randah , the east and we st narrowbays and the store-room and central reces s in the rear

‘

are 20 ft .high

,and carry a lowe r roof with bracketed eave s , and this with

the eave s of the principal roof ove r the hal l g ives the appearance


to which refe rence has been made of a double -caved roof. The

north bay of the hal l i s roofed at the same leve l as the ve randah ,and in the section (Woodcut No . 505 ) i t wi l l be seen that thefi lling

-in of the main wal l s of the whole hal l, and agains t whichthe ve randah roof rests, cons ists of a se ries of beams one abovethe othe r, tenoned into the great columns , the space s betweenthem be ing treated as friezes and decorated with various des ign s .With the except ion of the ancest ral temple of Yung- lo , the

Tai-ho Hal l i s pe rhaps the largest in China, but in i ts des ign

The Tai-ho Hall , Pekin .

i t con ta ins the e lementary con struct ion of all the templesand hal l s ; somet imes the ve randah is carried along the eastand west ends , but on the north s ide i t is included in the hal l ,be ing cove red ove r with a roof at a lowe r leve l . The eastand west bays are used for various purpose s connected withthe structure , whethe r temple , hal l , or . palace

,and in the

latte r somet imes u ti l i sed as bedrooms or boudoirs . As a ru lethe hal l s are ce i led above the t ie-beam ; the ce i l ing be ingd ivided into coffe rs ; more importance i s given to the centralbay , which i s sunk in to deep coffe rs with bracket friezesround them . Some of the hal l s are cove red with an opent imbe r roof, in which the unwrought rafters cove ring the roofcon trast with the e laborate painting and gi ld ing of the columnsand the heavy superposed beams of the roof. The re does notseem to be any rule regulat ing the east and west ends of themain roof ; somet imes the se are hipped

,as in the Tai-ho Hal l

and the Hal l of the Class i cs, some t ime s the I’

rimoya prevai ls,


views and add to the beauty of the landscape . The sameremark appl ie s equal ly to portion s of the Summe r Palace thoseparts of the palace which faced the lake we re symme tri ca l lyarranged round an immense court, but on each s ide the pavi l ion sand te rrace s we re planned to obta in picture sque e ffects e i the r

506 . Pavilion in the Summer Palace ,Pekin . (From a Photograph by Beato . )

overlooking the lake , or when in the rear whe re the groundrise s rapidly , to emphas ise the various eminences

o

WoodcutNo

. 506 i s a good example of one of these pav i l ions i n the

Summe r Palace , which , when in te rspersed with tree s and waterand rocky scenery, aid in mak ing up a very fai ry-l ike landscape ,

CHAP. I I I . DOMEST IC ARCHITECTURE. 48 1

but can scarce ly be cons ide red as an object o f d ign ifiedarchitecture .

I t is not so much on i ts forms that Chinese architecturedepends as on i ts colours

, and those in the roofs of the palacesin Pek in cove red with ye llow glazed ti les—a colour restrictedto roya l structures—have an exceptiona l magn ificence

,as al so

the ul tramarine blue t i le s of the Temple of Heaven . The rei s al so a great variety of colour in the crested ridge s and thetermination s of the covering ti le s , which goes far to redeem the

exaggerat ion of the i r curved eaves—the columns are usual lypainted red , the

' frieze s and openwork green . B lue marks thefloors and stronge r l ines

,and gild ing is used profuse ly eve ry

whe re . Whe the r th is would improve a fine r or more sol id styleof art may admit of doubt ; but i t i s ce rtain ly remarkablypleas ing in China, and s ingularly appropriate to the architecturewe have been describing ; and grouped as these bui ld ingsusual ly are around garden

‘

courts , fi l led with the gayest flowe rs ,and adorned with rock-work and fountains more fan tast ic thanthe bui ld ings themse lves

,the fancy may eas i ly be charmed with

the resu lt, though taste forbids us to approve of the de tai l s .Occas ional ly

,howeve r

,the Chinese attempted something

more monumen tal , but without much success . Whe re glass isnot ava i lable of suffi cient s ize and in sufficien t quan t it ie s toglaze the windows , the re is a d ifficu lty in so arranging themthat the room shal l not be utte rly dark when the shutte rs areclosed

,and that the ra in shal l not pene trate when they are open .

In wooden construct ion the se d iffi cultie s are much more easi lyavoided ; deep projecting eaves , and l ight screen s , open at the

top , obviate most of them : at least,so the Chinese always

thought,and they

,consequent ly, have had very

'

little practicein the con struction of sol id architecture . I t i s s ingular there forethat in the Buddhist temple in the S umme r Palace near Pekin(Woodcut No . 494 and Plate LV I I I . ) they should have beenable to produce a structure which is remarkable for its e leganceand good design .

The i r most successfu l e fforts in th is d irection,howeve r

,we re

when they combined a sol id basement of masonry with a l ightsuperstructure of wood , as in the Winte r Palace at Pekin(Woodcut No . In this instance the he ight and sol id ity ofthe basemen t give suffic ien t d ign i ty to the mass , and the l ightsuperstructure i s an appropriate terminat ion upwards .

This last i l lustrat ion i s interesting, because i t enables us toreal ise to a ce rtain extent what may have been the generale ffe ct of the palaces of N ineveh and Khorsabad in the days of

the i r splendou r. L ike th is palace , they were raised on a sol idbasement crowned with battlements

,the superstructure , howeve r,

VOL . I I . 2 H


exte rnal ly at all even ts,be ing of a more sol id nature , with flat

te rraced roofs in stead of those cove red with t i les as in Pekin .

The resemblance , howeve r, i s curious , and as there are

nume rous example s throughout the empire in which , instead ofthe plain beams as shown in Woodcut No . 505 , are circu lar and

View in the Winter Palace , Pekin . (From a Photograph . )

pointed arched open ings , they may be taken as some evidenceof the origin of Chinese arch itecture a l ready men tioned (p .

showing that in these great arched gateways they we re con tinuing the tradition of the earl ie r example s in the Great Wal l ofChina, which bear the closest resemblance , both in des ign and

construct ion ,to the entrance gateways of the Assyrian palaces .

The enginee ring works of the Chinese have been muchextol led by some write rs , but have le ss cla im to pra i se as worksof science than the i r bu i ld ings have as works of art . The i rcanal s

,i t i s true

,are extens ive ; but with of

inhabitan ts this i s smal l prai se , and the i r construct ion i s mostunscient ific . The i r bridge s , too, are somet imes of great length ,but gene ral ly made up of a se ries of smal l , arches constructedon the horizontal -bracke t principle , as n ine - ten ths of the bridgesin China are , and consequen tly narrow and unstable .

To these , howeve r, the re are many notable exceptions,in

which the princ iple of arched and vaulted constructions,as in

the marble bridge with seven teen arches in the Summer Palacenear Pek in , with sumptuous balustrades , all in white marble a


Howeve r admirable and ingen ious the mode rn Ch inesemay be , i t i s in the minor arts—such as carving in wood and

Archway in the Nan-kau Pass . (From a Photograph. )

ivory,the manufacture of vesse l s of porce lain and bronze ,

and all that re late s to s i lk and cotton manufactures . In thesethey ce rtain ly exce l , and reached a high degree of perfect ion while Europe was s t i l l barbarous , but in all the highe rbranches of art they take a ve ry low pos it ion ,

and seem utte rlyunprogre ss ive .

The i r scu lpture i s more carving than anything we know bythe highe r name , and a l though in the i r pain ting they wouldseem ,

at one t ime , to have been far in advance of that foundin Europe , both in the comple te maturi ty of the art and in

the maste ry of the brush , within the last 300 years the re hasbeen a se rious decl ine , so that i t now scarce ly rises above the

leve l o f decorat ion . The i r arch itecture al so stands on the same

CHAP. I I I . DOMEST IC ARCHITECTURE.

low leve l as the i r othe r arts,i t i s rich

,ornamen tal , and appro

priate for domest i c purpose s , but epheme ral and total ly wan tingin d ign i ty and grandeur of conception . S t i l l i t i s pleas ing,because truthful ; but afte r all, i ts great me ri t in the eye s ofthe student of architecture wil l probably turn out to re st onthe l ight i t throws on the earl ie r style s

,and on the ethno

graphic re lat ion s o f China to the surrounding nations ofEastern As ia.

486 JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK

CHAPTER IV.

JAPAN .

INTRODUCTORY .

CHRONOLOGY—OR IGI NAL SOURCES, ETC .

Accession of the first M ikado B . C . 660

Conquest of Korea by the

Empress Jin -

go A. D . 201

Buddhism in troduced from A D . 1 603 - 1 868Korea

KiO-to made the capital A-D I 640

The Shogunate establ ishedat Kama-kura by Yori -tomo A .D . 1 1 92

Ashi-kaga dynasty ofShOguns 1 338 1 5 73

-

A D . 1 85 7 - 1 859

THE architecture of Japan owe s i ts origin to Chinese source s ,the earl ie st example s remain ing be ing those which we re bu i l tby carpen te rs sen t ove r from Korea . The Japanese temple s ,whe the r Buddhis t or ShintO, are all of the Chinese T’ing type

,and

the roofs cove ring them of I ’rimoya de sign , as shown in WoodcutNo. 489 . In Japan as in China the late r deve lopments haveas a ru le re sulted on ly in furthe r en richmen ts

,the e laborate

carving in the Japane se Buddhist temples be ing carried toexcess . In the ShintO temple

,on the othe r hand , the greate st

s impl ic ity prevai l s , more importance be ing attached to the

qual i ty of the wood employed, and to i ts structural execution ,

than to any d i splay of d iagram work or carving . The pagodain Japan st i l l re tains the anc ien t design and t imbe r constructionof the earl ie st example remain ing, at HOriuj i (HOriuz i), whichwas bu i l t by Korean carpen te rs in A.D . 607 , and may be looked

Yedo (now TOkio ) foundedby I eyasu 1 5 90

H ide yoshi invadesKorea A . D . 1 592- 1 598

Toku-gawa dynasty ofShoguns

Japan closed to all fore igners by IemitsuF i rst treat ies with European powers

The Shogunate abolishedand theM ikado restoredA. D . 1 868

I

488 JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX .

centuries to deve lop, but of which the sou rces are gone in con

sequence of the ann ih i lat ion of all the early architecture ofChina. The earl iest rema ins in the latte r country _

are those ofthe t

’

ai or pagoda, which are almost un iversal ly octagonal onplan ,

and are bui l t in stone or brick,whe reas the example at

HOriuj i i s square on plan,and constructed ent i re ly in t imbe r.

This wou ld lead us at once to doubt the origin so far as Chinai s conce rned

,especial ly as in the early records of the Chinese

Empire the t’a i s are de scribed as be ing usual ly square , somet ime s of great he ight and always bui l t in stone to se rve as

watch towers , t reasurie s , or store -rooms .I f, on account of the i r d iffe rence s in plan and the mate rial

of the i r construction,the re i s any doubt as to the origin of the

Japanese pagoda,the re can be none as regards that of the

temple at HOriuj i , which repre sents the s imple r type of theTVeg de s ign with l

’

r z'

moy a s ide gables iden t ical with those ofthe temples , palaces , and great hal l s al ready described in China.

I t i s,howeve r

,not on ly in the main des ign but in the i r construe

t ive and decorat ive de tai l s that the gene ral resemblance i sShown ; the groups of bracke ts which support the eaves of theHOriuj i temple and pagoda are found in all the Ch ine se templesand hal ls

,and in the late r example s the employmen t of the

bracke t-groups as the decorat ion in the i r friezes is found bothin Japan and China, so that i t would be imposs ible , except forothe r reason s

,to d istinguish between those of the temple at

N ikkO and the temples and hal l s in the Forbidden Ci ty ofPekin .

In Japan, as in China, where the ste reotyped form of roofand i ts supports seems to have been fixed for all t ime , the on lyvariety the architect wou ld seem to have been al lowed to in troduce into h is des ign was it s ove r-e laborat ion with painting and

carving,and this during the last two cen turies has in a measure

destroyed the simpl ic i ty of the i r earl ie r work . The framing ofthe Japanese roofs , however, i s , as a ru le

,superior to that of the

Chine se,and in the des igns for those of the smal le r structures ,

such as the Skfirfi or be l fry and the Karo” or drum towe r in

the i r temple enclosures , and the entrance doorways,fence s ,

and screens of the i r dome st ic archite cture , they d isplay a

fert i l i ty of invent ion and a remarkable execution in the framingwhich places them in the fi rst rank as carpente rs ; l ike the

Chinese , howeve r, they have neve r unde rstood how to truss the i rt imbers

,so that in the i r roofs the re i s the same ponde rous con

struct ion with immense beams one above the othe r s imilar tothose found in China.

As al ready stated , the Chinese temple s and balls have no

cle restory windows , the l ight be ing admitted on ly through the

CHAP. IV. INTRODUCTORY . 89

doorways and the windows in the rear of the verandah , but inthe more ancien t temples at HOriuj i and Nara in Japan , the

de s igns of which were introduced from China through Korea,the re are large open ings above the verandah roof and betweenthe columns and beams which carry the main roof ; theseopen ings were probably closed with paper or some othe rtransparent mate rial

,and to give faci l i tie s to keep th is in prope r

repa i r,narrow bal con ie s are carried round as shown in Plate LX .

Al ready al so at a ve ry early period the column ve randah wasdispensed with in the majori ty of the temple s , its place be ingtaken by a bal cony carried on corbe l s or brackets tenoned intothe columns of the main hal l , th is bal cony be ing always carriedround on three s ides and somet imes in the rear.Suffi cient protection from the weathe r was given to this

bal cony by the wide projection of the eave s of the main roof,and consequently the double eave s of the Chinese temple we renot requ ired .

Next to the main temple the most importan t st ructure i sthe entrance gateway in China the chie f en trance was througha p

‘ai-lu

,which was some t imes isolated and at a long distance

from the temple . In Japan i t forms the entrance to eachenclosure

,and i s gene ral ly in two storeys ; one of the earl iest

examples is that shown in Plate LX . be tween the temple and

the pagoda at HOriuj i : i f th is i s compared with the YO-me i-mon

Gate at N ikkO bui l t unde r the Toku-gawa ShOguns , Plate LX Igreat decadence which has taken place in the style wil l beeasi ly recogn i sed in the ove r-e laborat ion of the more modernstructure

,whe re dragons and un icorn s are carved in every

poss ible p osit ion,and in which the s imple curves of the I ’rimoya

roof have been changed for those of a more complex natu re .

490 JAPANESE

1 . En trance gateway (YO- Inei-mon ) .2 . Ex-voto Hall (Ema-dO).3 . Belfry (ShOrO) .4. Main temple (Hondo) .

ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX.

509 . B ird's-eye View of the Buddhist Temple of

5 . Founder ’s Ha ll (Soshi-dO).6 . Rel iquary (TahO-tO) .7 . Library (Rin z O) .8 . Priest ’s rooms (HOjO) .

49 2 JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX.

CHAPTER V .

Japanese Temples at HOrlq , Nara, and N ikka—Pagodas—PalacesDomes t ic Arch i tec ture .

THE Japanese temple s, l ike those in China, cons is t of a numberof i solated structure s s ituated gene ral ly within three enclosures

,

the number of the se stru cture s and the i r d imens ions varyingaccord ing to the importance of the temple and i ts requ irements

,

some of them not be ing found in those temple s bu i l t for theShintO re l igion ; the arch itectu re of the latte r i s also muchs imple r, and plain white Keyak i wood posts are employed tocarry the roofs which , in the earl ie r example s and sti l l intemples of smal l importance , are cove red with thatch on ly ;the Buddhist temples , on the othe r hand

,are not on ly richly

painted,lacquered and gilded , but are en ri ched with carving

of the most e laborate de script ion .

In the se lection of the s ite s for the i r temples,ascending

ground , often the s ide of a hi l l,would seem to be preferred

,

not on ly to obta in a greate r eminence for the main shrineHondo (Hondo i f Buddhist, Honden i f in a ShintO temple) ,but to give more dign i ty to the approach Up wide fl ightsof steps , between avenues of tree s al te rnat ing wi th stoneor bronze memorial lan te rns . Gene ral ly speaking

,the oute r

enclosure cons ists on ly of a l ow wal l with wood fence ; thesecond was of more importan ce , the enclosure somet imes takingthe form of a cove red promenade for the prie sts , and i t wasente red through a magn ificen t gateway ( Yo

"- 7nez

°

- 7non ) in twostoreys, the uppe r one used as a mun imen t room . The thirdenclosure in which the temple was placed cons isted of a

lofty screen wal l pane l led and enriched with pierced screense laborate ly carved and cove red with a t i le roof with projectingeave s on both s ides ; in th is case the en trance gateway mightcons ist of a porch on ly (Kara -neon ) with extreme ly rich decorations . In all case s the gateways are preceded by fl ights ofsteps varying in numbe r accord ing to the slope of the s ite .

This was the usual arrangement in the plans o f both ShintOand B uddhist temple s , but i t was some t imes departed fromin case s whe re the i rregularity of the s i te cal led for a morepicturesque grouping of the

,

several structure s of which the

Japanese art is t neve r fai led to avai l h imse l f. This grouping i sshown in the woodcut No . 509 , a reproduct ion of one of the

494 JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX.

pe riod was furthe r accen tuated by the rais ing of the roof in thecentre ; some times , however, the port i co i s covered by a gableroof cutting into the main roof, th is gable having a double curve—be ing convex at the top and concave near the

"

eaves . Theintroduction of this inte rsecting gable would seem to date fromthe 1 7 th cen tu ry, and probably owes its origin to Europeansources . The rais ing of the roof eave s in the centre of the mainfron t i s often found in case s whe re the re i s no porch

,probably in

orde r to give more importance to the en trance door unde rneath,

consequent ly i t i s almost invariably found in the en trance gateways

,and i s the principal

,i f not almost the on ly

,deve lopment

introduced in late r t imes .The de s ign of the Japane se roof is so nearly ident ical with

that in China that no furthe r descr ipt ion i s nece ssary, except

that in the place of the bright ye l low ,blue and green glazed

ti le s found in China, those in Japan of the pre sen t day are e i therblack or smoke -burn t

,even in some of the more important

temple s the t i le work has been replaced by wooden t i le s and

te rm inal s c’ove red separate ly wi th thick coppe r plates . This,

howeve r,has not the fi ne decorat ive e ffect of the glazed ti le s

,

but the we ight ove r the roof must in con sequence be conside rably d im in ished .

As in China, the r idge at i ts terminat ion and the heavy rol lsdescend ing at each end are all more or less accen tuated by the i rd imens ions , and by grotesque representat ions of dragons ; thee laborat ion of the bracke ts under the eave s is carried sti l l furthe rby carving the more projecting port ion s in the shape of d ragons

,

and thi s fabulous an imal i s virtual ly al lowed to run wild on the

porches of both entrance gateways and temple s , so that in themore mode rn examples , whe re the wal l su rface s and columns areal so e ither carved or pain ted , the re i s absolute ly no repose .

Pass ing to the in te rnal des ign of the temple s ; in the earl ierexample s the roof wou ld seem to be of that description whichi s known to us as an open t imbe r roof, showing the rafte rswh ich carry the t i le s . The ent i re absence of truss ing has

al ready been re fe rred to in speak ing of Chinese roofs,and

the example of Sangatsu-do at Todaij i Nara (Woodcut No. 5 1 0)dat ing from the 8th century, i s in te re sting as i t shows that atth is early date roof t imbe rs of cons ide rable s ize we re employed ,and that the beams we re cambe red or curved upwards in the

cen tre to provide against sagging. I t i s , howeve r, strangethat the Japane se carpente rs whose work as regards executionand fin ish i s of the highe st orde r, should have remained ignoran tof the val ue of the truss ing of t imbe r, and of the employment ofd iagonal bracing : to the absence of th is knowledge , and in somemeasure to the weakne ss of the foundat ions cons ist ing on ly of

CHAP . V . JAPANESE TEMPLES. 49 5

square pie rs of stone sunk in the earth on which the columnsre st , must be ascribed the comple te wreck ing which at t ime sthe i r temple s and houses have unde rgone through earthquake s .

Roof of Sangatsu-do , Todaij i , Nara . From Baltzer .

I t would be d ifficu lt, in fact , to conce ive a worse system ofsupport than that found in the Japanese temples , instead ofhaving con t inuous wal l s be low the ground , such as exist in all

European structures , in to which the pie rs carrying the column sshould be buil t and

,s inking the bases of the column s into the se

pie rs , they re st on the top on ly,the resul t be ing that with any

osci l lat ion of the ground through earthquakes , the column s areshaken off, and in consequence of the immense we ight of the roofcomplete ru in takes place . The prese rvat ion of the pagoda at

HOriuj i i s probably due to the fact that i t was e rected on a

con cre te foundat ion,and in more recen t t ime s the bri ck and

stone wal l s e rected in the European manne r have stood whil stthe t imbe r structure s have succumbed . The ce i l ings of theJapanese temple s are comparat ive ly low ; they are as a ru lehorizontal

,be ing divided by ribs s ingle or coupled into square

pane l s ; a fluted cove i s carr ied round the hal l , and be l ow iti s the bracke ted frie ze , which constitute s so importan t a

decorat ive feature in Chine se architecture ; the Space betweenthe bracke ts i s in Japan fi l led with ri ch carvings of birds and

496 JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX.

an imal s real and fabulous,and flowe rs of which the chrysan

themum and the peony are the favourites . The columnssupport ing the ce i l ing and roof are e i the r ci rcular or square withthe edge s rounded off as in China, and in both case s thehorizon ta l beams rest ing on bracke ts are tenoned in to the

column—the re be ing no capital of any de scription the wal l s inthe rear of the hal l are pane l led and

,on the outs ide towards the

loggia or gal lery , one i s le ft open between the columns for theadmiss ion of l ight which is , howeve r, subdued by bl inds in ri chcas ing. The brick wal l s which in China are bui l t in be tween thewood column s are not found in Japan ,

probably on accoun t ofthe dange r in case of earthquake s the i r place as a rule i s takenby timbe r pane l l ing which is protected by projecting eaves .Some t ime s unde r the bracke t frieze i s a second deep band whichi s carved in pane l s of the same type as that re fe rred to betweenthe bracke ts and

,i f open ing in to the loggia or unde r the eave s

,

i s p ie rced . The column s of the in te rior are gene ral ly lacquered,

the uppe r port ions be ing painted with pattern s in d iape rreproduced from embroide rie s

,or carpe ts

,and s im ilar to that

which i s found in the Chine se temple s . In the sanctuary beyondthe main ‘hal l the se patte rns are all d iape red in gold as also themain port ion of the beams and ce i l ing above

,and the great al tar

p iece s and shrine s of the ShOguns are all gilded . The mostimportan t d isplay of these carved pane l s i s that which is foundin the immediate enclosure of the temple whe re the uppe r rangewi l l be carved with birds and flowe rs, the middle range withclouds and flying storks

,and the lowe r range with geometrical

device s .An example of this type of decoration i s shown in Plate LXI .

represent ing the great entrance gateway of the temple at

N ikkO, the work of the Toku -gawa dynasty . He re also wil l benoticed the ove rloading of the structure with en riched ornamen t,where the ends of the bracke ts are carved wi th dragon heads

,

un icorns be ing employed to emphas ise what in the earl ie r temple swas on ly a constructive detai l , viz . , the projecting tenons of thehorizontal beams which we re thus secured to the column s . The

curved gables in the centre of the princ ipal and s ide faeadeswith the i r heavy ridge crestings have quite destroyed the s implerde sign as shown in the Temple at HOriuj i . As a contrast to thegorgeous ostentat ion of the Buddhist temples and mausolea, andmore especial ly those bui lt during the Toku -gawa dynasty, theShintc

‘

) temple s are some t ime s of the greatest s impl ic i ty , and thewood employed a kind of nat ive e lm cal led Key aki , i s left plain ,

trusting to the grain for i ts effect, the on ly decorat ive work be ingthe brass mounts of various k inds , includ ing those enclos ing thebase of the columns employed to prese rve the work when

PLATE LX I I .

THE PAGODA ,HOR I UJ I .

[Tofaee page 497 , Vol . I I .

JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX .

be found all the features of theJapane se style such as sti l lform the leading characte ristics of the later temples andothe r structure s .

The pagoda at HOriuJi hasfive storeys

,each one set back

s l ightly be low the one be low.

All have wide ly projectingeaves, carried on brackets andan exte rnal gal le ry. I t i sraised on a stone base 4 to5 ft . high , with te rrace and

verandah round . The crowning feature i s a lofty fin ialwith metal rings round , OII

which be l ls are hung,and

through this fin ial and fromits summit is suspended an

immense beam . In the olde rexample s the foot of th is beamrests on the stone floor of thepagoda

,as i t does at HOriuj i,

but in more mode rn examplesthe re i s a space le ft in orde rto a l low of the shrinkage ofthe t imbe rs of the seve ralstoreys

,the object of thi s

beam be ing to t ie toge the rthe framing of these storeys .These beams are kept in pos it ion by framework roundthem at interval s , but are

attached on ly to the fi n ials .

The cen tral beam at HOriuj ii s 100 ft. long, 3 ft . square at

the bottom and 9 in . at the

top . In orde r to support thet imbe r plate s carrying the

wide ly projecting eaves , and

more e spec ial ly at the angles ,flying t imbe rs s imi lar to theframing inside are carrieddown , and the ends of theseare left as decorative feature son which be l l s are suspended .

PLATE LX I I I .

THE BELFRY AT KAVYA-SAK I .From J . Bal tze r .] [Tofacepage 499 , Vol. I I .

PLATE LX IV .

BELFRY IN THE IE-YASU TEM P LE AT N IKKO

From J . Baltz er. J [Tofaee page 499 , Vo l . I I .

CHAP . V . PALACES. 499

Of about the same date a second pagoda exists at Hokujo nearNara with three storeys . At Yakushij i was e re cted in 680 A.D .

a third example with three storeys,and proj ecting balcon ies with

eave s cove ring the two upper storeys,which de stroys the rhythm

of the earl ier example s,and was fortunate ly not repeated in

late r structure s . In the exceptional octagona l pagoda at Bessho,

there are four storeys, the on ly example exist ing . The date

of the famous Tenno -J i five - storied pagoda at Osaka i s not

known,but the e laborate carving of the bracke ts and other

constructional feature s with dragons and un i corns sugge sts a

complete restorat ion ,i f not the actual rebui ld ing, of the same .

The othe r temple structu res in the temple grounds cons istof the be l fry (seems), the drum towe r various secondaryshrines

,a dancing stage (Kagnm the revolving l ibrary

(R ingo) often constructed in the Shape of a pagoda of twostoreys . Prie sts’ rooms and monastic dwe l l ings

, the latte r ofs imple construction not d iffe ring from dome stic work . The

be l fry i s cove red with the usual type of roof with I ’rimoya

gable s and wide ly projecting eaves ; i t is carried by fourcolumn s rai sed on a platform about 10 ft . high . I t i s probablethat on accoun t of the great we ight of the be l l , the platformwas bui l t in stone original ly , which would accoun t for the pecu l iarconcave batte r of the wal l s , provided to withstand the earthquake s

,such as in the example at Kawa-sak i (P late LXI I I .) near

TOkio . Now these platforms outside the wooden cage carryingthe structu re have an external cas ing of timbe r, which fol lowsthe batte r of the tradit ional stone pede stal . This shown on

Plate LX I V . in the Ieyasu temple at NikkO and al so in the

temple enclosure at I ke -gami (Fig. 5 , Woodcut No. All

the older structure s in the i r design and con struction are repet it ions of temple bui ld ings to a smal le r scale with the sametendency in late r examples to ove r-e laboration of ornament andcarving.

PALACES .

The palace s of Japan which original ly were s imple , unostentatious bui ld ings without de fences have , s ince the mi l itarydominat ion of the 1 6 th centu ry, been bui l t within fortifieden closures surrounded by moats . The wal l s from 20 to 2 5 ft.high are bui lt with a concave batte r

,the mason ry of the quoins

d ipping down in orde r apparen tly to run le ss risk of be ing ove rthrown by earthquakes , as in the event of an upheaval the stoneswould fal l back by the i r own we ight into the i r original posit ion(Plate represen ting the wal ls of the inner castle at Yedo(TOkio), gives some idea of the i r construction ; the masonry ofthe main wal l i s e i the r bu il t in horizontal courses , as here shown ,

soo JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. BOOK IX .

or with that gene ral ly known as polygonal masonry, in which

blocks of irregular Shape are close ly fitted to one anothe r. Towe rsbu i lt at the angle s are used for m il itary store s

, and anc ien tp rin ts show that original ly stout t imber pal i sade s (Fr. noam’

s)surmoun ted the wal l be tween the towe rs , behind which we refrequently the soldie rs ’ barracks as at Nagoya . The palaces

,

l i ke the temple s,are all of one storey on ly

,the floor be ing

rai sed from 4 to 8 ft. above the ground , and exte rnal ly,in the i r

des ign , be long to the T’

z'

ng type with l’

r z'

nz oy a gables l ike thosein the temples . In plan they cons ist of a numbe r of blocks putin commun i cat ion one with the othe r by cove red corridors

, not

arranged symmetri cal ly l ike those in the Forbidden C ity ofPek in

,but d isposed so as to ove rlook gardens and smal l lake s .

The principal d i ffe rence exte rnal ly, when compared with the

temples,l ies in the less he ight and much flatte r pitch given to

the roof, so much so that they are not concave in section, the

roofs having general ly one un i form slope . A l though external lythe blocks

’

have the appearance of const i tuting a s ingle hal l ,they are usual ly subd ivided by sl id ing screens into seve ralrooms ; thus the re s iden tial block of the Impe rial Palace at

KiO- to,measuring about 100 ft . by 60 ft. , i s d ivided by partit ions

into fourteen rooms , the centre one of which l ighted on lythrough the oute r rooms , const ituted the M ikado’s sleepingapartmen t . The three rooms on one s ide of this block form a

su ite in which the floors are rai sed s l ightly one above the othe r,the furthe r and highest room furn i shed with a ra ised dai sind icat ing the posit ion of the Imperial Throne . Acce ss to allthe rooms in a subd ivided block is obtained by the exte rnalve randah which consti tute s the principal featu re in all Japane sehouses . A l though in the great reception rooms the floorscons ist of pol ished boards , in the res iden tial portions they arecove red with mats (Ken ) about 3 in . thick , 6 ft . by 3 ft. inord inary houses , and 7 ft . by 3 ft . 6 in . in the Imperial Palace ,and the d imen s ions of each room is noted by the numbe r ofmats cove ring it . In one of the blocks of the palace used forenj oying the cool bree ze s afte r the summe r rain ,

the largest ofthe four rooms into which i t i s subd ivided has on ly four mats ,and i s about 14 ft. by 1 1 ft.—a smal l room for a palace . Whilstthe sl id ing screens which d ivide the rooms are about 7 ft. high , therooms are about twice that he ight, cove red with coffe red ce i l ingsand coves round . The decorat ions in the M ikado ’s palacecontrast s trongly with those in the temples, which are alwaysrichly lacque red , pain ted , and gilded , whereas in the palacep lain white wood with gi l t bronze mounts i s employed , thewal ls be ing painted with flowe rs and othe r decorat ions by thegreat artists o f Japan . The palaces of the ShOguns or mil itary

CHAP. V . DOMEST IC ARCHITECTURE. 5 0 1

Regents fol low much on the same l ines as those of the Mi kado,

but the i r construction i s much more sol id,and the i r decorat ion

much bolde r in characte r. The fortified enclosures round themare increased in numbe r, those of the castle at Kunamoto now

destroyed , which was bu i l t by Kato KyOmasa towards the end

of the 1 6 th century, resembl ing somewhat the castles of theMiddle Age s with two or three oute r courts and a keep withinthe inne r enclosure .

DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE .

I f in the palace s of the M ikado and the Daimyos architecturei s reduced to its s implest express ion ,

in the Japanese houses iti s non-existent, so that the aspect of the streets in the greatc it ies presents a dul l and monotonous appearance . The entrancedoorway is the on ly exte rnal feature in which there i s somevariety, but even in the most importan t houses i t i s on ly a

s impl ified ve rs ion of those found in the more ordinary temples,

there be ing s imilar street regulat ions against d isplay as in

China. The houses have rare ly an uppe r storey,and the des ign

cons ists of a square or rectangular block cove red with ‘

a t i ledroof, the inte rior be ing subdivided into rooms by sl id ing screens(fns znna ) about 6 ft . high . In the be tte r houses the re maysomet ime s be in te rnal courts with bu ild ings on all s ides or allround . The chie f feature of the Japane se house i s the ve randahwhich face s the gardens

,and se rve s as a passage to all the

rooms . The floor of the house i s raised about 10 in . abovethe ground

,the re be ing no basement of any kind , and the

importance of the room depends on the numbe r of mats whichcove r the floor ; those mats measure 6 ft . by 3 ft . each . In

a middle -class dwe l l ing the ch ie f recept ion room may havefifteen or s ixteen mats

,the smal ler rooms four to e ight or ten

by pushing as ide the screens the whole house can be thrownin to one room , and, as a rule , the s ide facing the south i s thrownopen during the day to ven t i late the house . The de sign of theverandahs i s of the greatest s impl ic ity, with none of the e laborat ion found in China, and the decorat ion of the in te rior isconfined to the uppe r part of the wal l s above the screens . In

the chie f reception room is always a recess or al cove in whichhanging pictures known as leakemonos are suspended , butneve r more than three in number

,and a vase of flowe rs . The

treasures of the house are always stored away in a fireproofstorehouse made with wal l s of mud or clay, and known as a

I t i s not yet poss ible to foresee what the throwing open ofJapan i s l ike ly to evolve in the deve lopment of the i r c ivi l and

5 02 JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE BOOK IX .

domestic architecture . The i r temples , whethe r Buddhist orSh intO, with the numerous other structu res in the sacredenclosures , wil l probably st i l l be bui l t in the old t imbe r styleas be ing most in conform ity with the i r customs and re l igiousrites, but al ready within the last thi rty years a large numberof bu i ld ings

,such as palaces , col lege s, hospital s , banks , and

other commerc ial structure s,as al so a few private houses , have

been e rected in brick or stone which are more or less copie sof s im ilar work in Europe and the Un i ted S tates . In the i rmans ion s and private house s the Japanese dress

,st i l l worn

throughout the coun try,require s that the l iving rooms should

be in accordance with nat ive customs , and th is has led to a

compromise , whereby in the large r mans ion s a wing has beenadded in which the re ception rooms are all bui l t in what i sknown as the “We stern style .

” Hitherto in the i r domest icbui ld ings extreme s impl ici ty and an avo idance of osten tat ionhas always been the ru le

,extend ing even to the royal palaces ,

so that no evolut ions of archite ctural style may be expectedin that d irect ion . In the i r c ivi l work this ru le has not beenobse rved

,i f we may judge by the few repre sen tat ion s which

have been publ ished . I f,howeve r, the new stee l ske leton

structu res which,starting in the Un i ted S tates , have now been

gene ral ly adopted in European town s,are found to be capable

of res i st ing the shocks of earthquakes,the i r employmen t in

Japan might lead to a new deve lopmen t of archite ctural style ,see ing that

,in anothe r branch of construct ion

,that of carpentry,

the worke rs occupy a ve ry high pos it ion.

504 INDEX .

An imals on pillar bases, i . 2 1 5Ankai , Jaina caves at, i i. 1 9Annigeri , Jaina temples at, i i . 23Anuradhapura, ancien t capital of Ceylon ,

i . 228 ; presen t state of the city , 228229 Topes or Dagabas, e tc. , 229242 ; The sacred Bo tree MahaVihara,243

° Great B razen Monastery , 238239 ; pillars, 239Arab invasion , i i . 1 86 1 87Arakan pagoda, near Mandalay,Arch , objection of Hindus to , i . 3 1 0 ;Indian examples, 3 1 1 ° In Burma, i i .353 , 354 , 35 7 . See Gateways .

Architecture , Buddhist, i . 5 1 Stambhas

or lats, 56-6 1 ; Stfipas, 62-66 Topes

,

66 101 Rai ls, 102 1 24 Chai tyahalls , caves, 1 25 - 1 69 Vihara cavesor monasteries , 1 70 207 Gandharamonasteries, 209-223 ; Ceylon , 224250

Chalukyan , i . 420 temples, 423

China, 1 1. 446 -

485 ; Japan, 486

Civi l ; D ravidian , i . 4 1 1 -4 1 9Northern or Indo-Aryan , i i . 1 64- 1 85domesti c : in China, 11 . 476 -482D ravidian , i . 302 ; H indf‘i con

struction : arches , 3 10 ; domes and

roofing , 3 12 ; plans, 3 19 ; sikharas,

322° Rock cut temples

, 327 349 ;Mamal lapuram raths, 327 339 ; Kailas ,Elfira

, 342 Temples, 350 4 10 ;Palaces , 4 1 1 -4 1 9Fur ther Ind ia : Burma

,i i . 339

370 ; Cambodia, 37 1 -403 ; S iam , 404

4 1 3 ; Java. 4 14-444in the H imalayas, i. 25 1

Kashmir i temples, 255 -272 in Nepal ,273

-286 ; Wooden temples, 286 -288,i i . 333 -335 ; in Tibet and Sikhim,

290-296

Indian Saracen ic, i i. 1 86 ;Ghazni , 1 9 1 - 195 Pathan , 1 96 ; De lhi,1 98 Ajmir, 2 10-2 1 4 ; later Pathan ,2 14 2- 2 1

°

Jaunpur, 222 228 ° Gujarat ,229 245 ; Malwa, 246 - 25 2 ; Bengal253-2

°6 1 Ku lbarga,262 267 ; B ijapur

268 - 279 S indh , 280-282 ; Mughal283

-

323 ; Wooden. 333-335Indo-Aryan or Northern , 11. 84

Temples, 89 - 1 16 ; Brahman ical rockcut. temples, 1 1 7 1 3 1 temples in

Cen tral and Northern India, 1 32-1 63Cenotaphs, palaces, ghats and dams

,

1 64- 1 85,Jaina, 11. 3 Arches , i . 3 1 1

3 1 3° domes and roofing

,“3 1 3

-

3 18

plans, 3 19 322 ; Caves, i i . 9 -22

Northern temples, 24 5 7 ° Towers, 5 76 1 ; Modern temples, 62 - 68 ; con

verted to mosques, 68 ° SouthernIndian temples, 23 , 24, 70-8 1 ; Colossalstatues , 7 1 ° Bastis, 74 ; Tombs, 79Stambhas

,80

Ardhanarira, form of S iva, i . 42Arjuna

’

s rath at Mamal lapuram,i . 33 1

Penance ’sculpture , 34 1

Arjuna temple (Chandi ),) Java,Aryans or Aryas

,their migrat ion in to

India and posi tion,1. 9 - 1 5 , 28 ; The

dominan t race before the r ise ofBuddhism , 47 , 53 ; Aryavarta, 85 , 87

Asam monoliths, 1 .Asoka , Empe ror ( B . C . 263 patronof Buddhism

,i . 1 9 ; h is edicts, 32 ,

33, 5 6 , i i . 3 1 ; h is connection withIndian architecture , i . 5 1 , 5 6, 59 ;his connection with sanchi , 67 , 68, 7 5 ,77 . 86 . I oz , 1 09 , I I 7. I 29 . 1 30. I 32.1 33 , 148 ; h is missionaries to Ceylon ,

243 , to Nepal , chaityas i n

Nepal, 277 ; Lats , i . 56 -59 , i i . 82 ;missionaries to Burma , 35 7 , 39 1A tala Masj id , Jaunpur, i i . 226thara Nalabridge , Orissa, i i . 1 1 3Aurangabad Buddhist caves

,i . 203 , 205

Tomb of Rabia Daurani,i i . 1 90, 322

Aurangz ib or ’Alamgi r, i i . 1 87 , 269h is buildings

, 320 323° destroyed

Hindfi shrines at Benares and Mathura,32 1 Mosque at Lahor , 32 1 his wife’stomb , and h is own , 322Austin or Augustin de Bordeaux , 11 .

306 note

Avadaiyar KOVil, corn ice at, i . 396Avalokitesvara, figure at Kanheri, i . 200

Avantipur, temples at, i . 264 ; fragmen tof pi llar at , 265Ayodhya, i . 9, 405Ayuthia or Dwaravati , old capital ofS iam , I i 404. 405 . 409

BABAR, Mughal emperor, i . 2 1 9, i i .1 75 , 1 76, 1 97 3 his works, 285

Babylon ia, archi tectural synonyms in

Burma, i i . 365 , 369adami , B ijapur district : B rahman icalcaves at

,i i . 1 20- 1 25

plan and sect ion , 1 27 , 1 28 °

sculptures ,i . 340 ; Malegitti temple, 3 56 ; Jainacave, i i . 9 , 1 8, 73

Bagh , caves at , i . 1 29 ; Great Vihara, 1 82,1 97 1 99 , i i . 1 9

° plan , i . 1 98° Paint

ings, 1 98Bahman i dynasty, style of, i i . 1 89Bahularatemple, near Bankura,Baijnath or Kiragrama temples, i . 297 301Bakariyakund bui ldings, i i . 87 -88, 2 16,227

Bakheng pyramidal temple , south ofAngkor Thom , i i . 399

INDEX .

Baktria , kingdom of, i . 29, 37 , 52, 86 ,

Balagamve or Balagami in Mysorestambha, i . 348 ; temples, 44 1 -442

Banavasi, or Vanavasi , i . 19 , 303 note

Bands or Dams, i i . 1 83Bangkok , Great Tower , i i . 4 10, 4 1 1Hall of Audience , 4 1 1 , 4 12

Bankura, Hindfi temple near, i . 1 5 .

Ban teai Kede i temple, Cambodia , 11 .

Baolis or step-wel ls, i i . 1 83 , 239Bapuon , temple in Angkor Thom , i i .Barabar, near Gaya, caves at, i . 1 30, 1 76Bara-Dewal or Vimana, i i . 93 , 99 , 109Baramfi la, temple at , i . 262Barbat i fort destroyed

,i i . 95

Bardisanes, i . 42Barikot Tope (Uttarasena S tfipa), i . 93Baroli, temples at , i i . 1 33 view and

plan , 1 34 ; ornamen ted pillar , 1 35Bassak temple , i i . 397 , 398 , 400Bastian , Dr . Adolph , Cambodian explorations of, i i . 372

Bastis or Basadis, Jaina temples, i i . 7 1 , 74Batwa, tomb at , 11 . 240Baubaugyi

-paya, pagoda at Prome , i i . 342 ,360

Bayley, E . C. , sculptures brought fromJamalgarh i , i . 209

Bayon temple in Angkor Thom , i i . 374 ,376. 379. 380. 392

-

394 ; plan . 393 ;tower. 394 ; 396 . 398-49 0

Bébé temple at Prome , i i . 354, 356Bedsa, chai tya cave , i . 1 38 ; plan , 1 38

and capital of pillar, 1 39 ; view on

verandah , 140, 1 68 ; Vihara, 1 79 , 186

Begam Kothi , Lucknow , i i . 326 ; view ,

327Belfir, in Mysore, great temple at, i .428 , 437 , 439 ; plan , 439 ; view ofporch , 440 ; View of pavil ion , 44 1 ii .1 28

Benares, view and diagram of temples at ,i i . 90, 1 5 2 ; Visveswar temple at, 1 5 1 ,1 5 3 , 32 1 ; View of balcony at the

observatory , 1 78 ; Ghusla Ghat, 1 8 1 ,1 82

Bengal : Caves, i . 1 7 5 ; I ts architectureand local individual i ty of its style , i i .1 89 , 253 ; Form of roofing, 1 59 , 1 69 ;example , 1 6 1 type , 254

Beng Méalea temple,i i . 377 , 380, 394

396 ; plan . 395 ; view. 396 ; 49 9

Besnagar caves, 1 . 1 29Bessho , Japan , octagonal pagoda at, 11.

497 , 499Bettas, h i l l sacred places of the Jams,i i . 7 1

Bhaja, chai tya cave plan , i . 1 34 ; facade ,1 35 ; Emblems in , 1 36 ; Dagaba, 1 37 ,

Smal l early cave at, 1 77°

Capital , 1 78, Surya ,Bhagavat Gi ta,Bhamti or close corridor , 11. 30, 43 , 47Bhangarh temples, i i . 5 5Bhan iyar or Buniar temple , near Nau

shahra, i . 266 ; View of court, 266Bharatpur Raja’s cenotaph , i i . 169Bharaut, stfipa, i . 20, 36 Rai l at , 7 , 102109 , 1 1 3, 1 1 7 , 1 19, 123

° Round templeand part of a palace , 1 58, 1 59Sculptures , note, note ;

square and oblong ce lls from a rel ief at ,1 73 ; Torana, 259 note, 11 1 36, 426, 444

Bharoch , mosque at , i i . 24 1Bhatgaon

,Nepal : 1. 273 , 276 ° Bhawan i

temple at, 280 ; Palace doorway , 282,285

° i i . 483Bhat tiprolu stupa, i . 34, 83Bhaumajo or Bumaz a cave , 1.

note

Bhikshugrihas, monks’ cells, 11. 9Bhilsa topes, 1. 66-68Bhima’s Rath , Mamallapuram , i . 33 1 , 332Bhima temple (Chandi) on D ieng Plateau ,

Java , i i . 43 1 , 432, 44 1Bhimakesava temple , i . 268 note

Bhimesvara temple , Mukhalinga, ii . 1 14Bhoga mandir , refectory , i i . 93 , 99 , 109Bhojpur, topes at , i . 7 1Bhutesa temples atWaniyat, i . 267Bhuvaneswar temple , 1. 325 , i i . 92 ;Great or Lingaraja temple at , 99plan , 99 °

View of, 100 ; Great Tower ,102 ; Rajaran i , temple at

,1 03

° doorway ih , 104

° Principal temples, 1 16 ,

B idar , Bahmani capital , I i . 189 , 266

buildings at , 267B ihar caves, i . 1 30-1 33B iJ .anagar See VijayanagarB ijapt

‘

i r, 1 90 ; its architecture ,268 ; Jami’ Masj id at, 269 plan

,270 ;

sections, 27 1 Tomb of Ibrahim ,2 72

OfMuhammad , 273 ; penden t ives, 274section , 275 Audience Hal l, 278

Mihtari Mahal l, 278 , 279Bimeran , tope at, i . 9 1B intenne

,rel ic and dagaba, i . 63

B irs Nimri’

id , i i . 365Bi r-Singh -deva Bundela, i i . 1 75 , 321B l i tar

,tomb at, Java, i i . 442

Bodh Gaya temple , rail at, i .102 - 1 04, 1 09 , 1 1 7 ,Burmese inscript ions, 7 7 ; Bas rel ie ffrom

, 1 34 ; Temple or S tfipa, 76 -79 ,1 70, 295 . 322 , 325 , ii . 1 19 ,

.353 note,

362 note, 364° Sacred tree , i . 243

Bodhi t- ree , i . 7 7 , 109 ; in Ceylon , 1 03,229 , 240, 242 243

Bodhisattwas , i . 22 1 , i i . 426, 428, 44 1Bodhnath temple , Nepal , 1.

5 06 INDEX .

Boro-Budur , Java, i i . 374 , 383 , 386 ,

39 1 , 4 1 6 , 4 1 7 ; erection , 420, 422 ;plan , e levation , and section, 423

°

sections of domes, 424 ° view of centralen trance and stairs , 429

Bot, in S iam , the temple proper , ii . 406 ,B racket construct ion in China and Japan ,

i i . 454. 495B rahma faces on Cambodian temples ,11. 378 392, 397 : 398 401 , 408

B rahman caste, i . 1 1

Brahman ical rock temples , i i . 1 20B rahman ism ,

i . 308B rindaban, i i . 1 5 5 ; plan of Govindadeva temple at , 1 56 ; view , 1 5 7

°

bal cony i n temple , 1 5 8 ; Plan of templeof Juga l Kishor at , 1 58, 1 76

Buchhanapalli temple , i . 435 ° view of,436

Buddha, i . 9 ; per iod of his l ife , 1 6 , 1 7 ;previous Buddhas , 4 1 apportionmen tofhis remains, 62-64 ; Rel ic at B intenne ,63 , 64 ; Images of, 22 1 , 222 ; Footprints , 223 Colossal figures of, 245 andnote

, 263note, 272 note Nirvana figures,248 ; h is tooth , its sanctity

, shrines ,and migrat ions , 63 , 64 ; h is beggingpot

, 64, 65 ; Rel ics at Rangoon,63 ,

i i . 347 Previous Buddhas, i . 4 1 , 63 ,l b 347

Buddhaghosha, monk , i . 1 62

Buddhavarsha era, or of the rel igion ,11 .

35 9 note

Buddhism,its founder , i . 1 6

,1 7 ; i ts

history , 1 7 -20 ; missions, 1 9 , 4 1 , 5 2 ,i i. 35 7 ; in Southern India, 307 ; inCambodia, i i . 37 5

Buddhist architecture , earliest traceabledate , i . 5 1 ; style, 5 3 ; monuments inSouthern India, 33 ; Classification , 54rai l pat terns, 1 36 , 146 ; Buddhist rai lin Ceylon , 242 ; Monasteries in Tibe t ,293 ; Vihara at Dambal , 43 1 , 432 ;Temples in China, i i . 46 1 -464 Monastery in Pekin , 462 . See Arch itecture

Bukhara, i i . 1 87 , 1 96Bumaz u temple , Kashmir , 1. 268, 272 noteBundi palace , i i . 1 73Buniar or Bhan iyar temple, i . 266Bu-paya, pagoda at Pagan , ii . 34 1Burma, archi tecture i n , i i . 339 ; Chai tyas

and circular pagodas, 34 1 ° Squaretemples, 35 2 ; Thatt’mor Thahtun, 35 7 °

Prome , 359 ; Pagan , 360 ; Monasteries,36 5 369

Byzant ine domes, i . 3 16

CAMBAY or Kambhat, Jami’ MasJid and

tomb at,i i . 24 1

Cambodia (ancien t Kambuja), relationswi th Ceylon , i . 246 ; Archi tecture in ,

i i . 37 1 French , German and Engl ishresearches in , 372 ; t rad itions, immigran ts, history, 373 375 ; Temples,376 ; temple of Angkor Vat , 380

temple of Bayon , 392 temple of BengMealea, 394 ; other temples, 396Pyramid temples, 398 ; palaces, 399Civi larchitecture , 401 Causeways, 402remarkable evidences of mechan icalskil l and civil isation , 402 , 403

Can ton, P ‘ai -ln near , i i . 473

river, ‘ Second Bar Pagoda ’on

the , ii . 470Capitals and columns , Tirhut and Sankisa,i . 58 ; Karlé, 60 ; Bedsa, 1 39 ; Kan

her i , 164 ; Bhaja, 1 78 ; Nasik , 1 88Patna, 207 Ajan ta, 208 ; Jamalgarhi ,2 14 ; Perso -Indian , 2 1 5 ; Anuradhapura, 235 , 236 Kashmir, 257 HinduCorinthian , 299 Gupta, 301

Caves , i . 20, 1 25 ; numbers , 1 28 ; geo

graphical distribut ion , 1 29 ; Ajanta,1 48 , 1 54 , 1 80 ; Badami , i i . 1 2 1 , 1 27 ;Bagh , i . 1 82 , 1 97 ; Barabar , 1 30 ;Bedsa, 1 38 ; Bengal , 1 75 - 1 7 7 ; B ihar,1 30 ; Bhaja, 1 34 - 1 37 ; Dhamnar, 164 ,1 79 , 200 ; Elfi ra, 1 59 , 201 , 342 , i i .1 9 , 1 20 ; Gun tupalle , i . 1 28, 1 5 5 , 1 67Junagadh , 1 8 1 , i i . 3 1 ; Junnar, 1 5 5 ,1 68 ; Kalugumalai , 22 ; Kanheri , i .162

, 1 76 , 1 82 ; Karhad, i i . 1 24 ;Karla, i . 142, 1 6 1 ; Kholvi , 1 29 , 1 66 ,200 ; Kondané, 1 34 , 148, 1 79 ; Kon

d ivté, 1 3 1 , 1 99 ; Orissa, i i . 9 ; Pitalkhora, i . 1 34 , 1 37 , 1 48, 169 ; sanaandTalaja, 1 79 Mode of ornamentat ion ,I 7o

Cenotaphs, 11 . 1 64- 1 69Ceylon ,

Buddhist rel ics in , i . 63Chronology, 224 ; I ts ancien t arch itecture , 226-250. See Anuradhapura

Chai tyas, i . 5 5 ; Chaitya halls, Buddhisttemples, 1 24

- 1 29 ; at sanchi , 1 26 at

Tér, 1 26 ; at Che z arla, 1 27 ; windows ,2 16 , 2 1 7 ; Nepal , 277 ; Burma

,i i .

34 1 . See CavesC/z a z

'

ty fingana or pradakshina , i . 295hakdarra, S tfipa at, i . 93 , 2 1 7 notehakpat stfi pa, i . 9 1 , 92 , 97hal is S itfin at Allahabad , i i . 298Chalukya, Western dynasty, i . 26, 27 ,

34 ; architecture , 420-

450 ; kingdom ,

i i . 22. See ArchitectureChamba, wooden temples in , i . 286, 287Champanir Jami’ Masj id , i i . 242Champadesa, Annam , i i . 373 noteChampas of Cochin China, i i . 375Chandragiri palace , i . 4 1 7 , 4 1 8Chandragupta Maurya (B . C . 320

Sandrokottos of the Greeks, i . 8, 1 8 ,109

Chandragupta I . (cz'

r . A.D . i . 23

5 08 INDEX .

Delhi, Old—(con tinued )2 10 ; I ron pillar, 207 Interior of tomb,209 view of tomb , 2 1 7 ; Pendent ivefrom mosque, 220Depung monastery, Tibe t , i . 294Devanampiya Tissa, S inhalese king (B C247 1. 63 , 224 note, 235 , 238

Dhamek stfipa at sarnath , 1. 7 1 -75Dhammayangyi temple at Pagan , 1 1 .

36 1 -362

Dhammayaz ika pagoda, i i . 342 note

Dhamnar, caves at, i . 1 64- 1 66 , 1 79 , 200,204, i i . 2 1

° rock temple at, 1 29- 1 30

Dhanyakataka , early Andhra capital , i .22 , 294Dhar , Jami’ MasJid , i i . 20 1 , 246 I ronpillar at the Lat MasJid, 247

Dharasinva, Jaina caves at , i . 1 82 , I i . 1 9Dharmachakra

, Whee l of the Law ,

’ i . 7 5Dharmadhatu-Mandala

,i . 280

Dharmaraja, rath at Mamal lapuram , i .1 72 , 3323 35

Dharmasala at Mandfi , i i . 250Dharwar , temples, 1. 352-

35 7, 424, ii .92, 1 1 7 ; Dipdans, i . 347Dholkamosques

,i i . 243

Dhundiya, Jaina sect , i i . 27 notet ajastambhas at Kai las, i . 346 -348

Dhyani , Buddhas , i . 230 and note, 245 ,277 . 279 . i i 436D ieng plateau in Java

,group of temples

011 , 11° 4 1 7 1 430“

433 1 44 IDig , garden palace at, i i . 1 69 , 1 78 ; Hal l ,1 79 ; View from cent ral pavil ion , 1 80D igambara Jains, i i . 3 , 4 , 7 ° Caves, 2 1D iguva Ahobalam, unfin ished mantapam

at, i . 404D ikpalas, sculptures of, i . 428D imapur , monoliths at, i .

D ipawansa, S inhalese chron icle , i . 7 , 8 ,224

D ipdan pillars , at.Dharwar, 1 . 347 -348 ;

in South India, I i . 8 1Domes , H indu, i . 3 12 3 19 , I i .

Indian Saracen ic , 27 1° construct ive

d iagram , 276 ; Boro Budur , 424Domest ic arch itecture Chinese , i i . 476 ;Japanese, 501

Don -Thal or Dukhya garh , a Buddhistvihara, Elura, i . 203Doorways, 1. 428 ; SIOping jambs, 2 1 7note Nepal

,282 Hanamkonda

temple, 423 ; Bhuvaneswar, i i . 104 ;Fathpur Sikri mosque, 297Doric pillars, in Kashmir , 1 . 2561 29

Draupadi rath , Mamallapuram ,i . 330Dravida desa, i i . 84

Dravida Munda race , i . 46Dravidian people , 1. 3 1 33 , 42 ,

45 -49 , 5 2° S tyle , its exten t , 302 ;

historical notice, 303 -

307 Religions,

307 ; Rock temples, 327

° Temples,3 -50 4 10

° Civil architecture , 4 1 1 -4 19Drz

é

vidian and Indo-Aryan temples,i i 9

B abeka , I I . 35 7Dukkante in temple , Mrohaung, i i . 354Dumar Lena, Elura rock-cut temple , 11 .

1 24 , 1 27° Plan , 1 28

Durga,goddess , in Nepal , 277

Dutthagamini , S inhalese king (B . C . 100

i . 63 . 224 , 230. 238. 243 note

EKLAKHI MaSJid at Gaur , 11 . 259Eklinga temples, i i . 148Elala Sohona mound , Anuradhapura, i .229

Elapura temple (Elura) , excavated byKrishna I . Rashtrakuta, 1 . 348

E lephan ta cave -ternple , I i . 124, 1 27 1 29El l iot , Sir Wal ter , note

Elura, Buddhist caves at,1. 1 59

° Visva

karma cave , 1 59° Viharas , 20 1 2- 05 ;Kailas, 303 , 342-

346 ; Jaina caves , i i .1 9 24

° Brahman ical caves, 1 20 1 24°

Dumar Lenacave , 1 27 , 1 28Epigraphy

,i . Epigraphia Carnatica,

’

33 note

Eran ,boar at , i . 24 ; Lat, 60 ; pillars, 301 ,

348 Remains at , i i . 1 32Etruscan tombs, i . 3 1 2, i i . 465European tombs at Lucknow and Surat ,i . 330

FACADES , B ihar , ii . 1 3 1 , 1 35 Burma,i i . 367

Fah H ian , Chinese pilgrim , i . 23 , 80,-373 . 39 1 .4 I 9

Fathpur -S ikri, i i . 1 77 , 1 90, 293 ; carvedpillars in , 294

° Mosque at, 295 , 320 ;southern gateway , 296F i rozabad , ruins of, i i . 1 98F iroz Shah , lat re-erected by, i . 5 6Fouche r, M . Alf. , M ission of, to report onBuddhist remains, i . 89 and note, 93 ,2 1 0 note, 2 1 3 , 223

GABLETS on stiipas, i . 2 1 6 , 25 8Gadag temples,Gajabahu I . S inhalese king (A. D . 1 73

Galaganath temple in Dharwar ,i i . 89Galpota or stone book , Polonnaruwa, 1.

Gal Vihara sculptures , Ceylon , i . 244, 248Gandan Monastery , T ibet , i . 294Gandhaku ti temple , 1 . 75Gandhara art , i . 37 note ; Topes , 84 89Monasteries, 209 223

° Sculptures, 2092 1 1 , 2 1 8 ; gablets, 2 1 6 , 258 ; inscriptions, 22 1 , 25 7 Vihara roofs, 269 ;i i . 41 5 , 425 , 427

INDEX.

Ganesa caves at Junnar , i . 1 59 and note

0

cave , Udayagiri , i i . 1 2 - 1 5 ; pi llarIn , 1 3 sculpture , 14rath , Mamal lapuram ,

i . 333 , 337Ganges , the , and its Ghats , i i . 1 8 1Garuda, winged bearer of Vishnu, i . 282,

11 ° 1 1 1 1 409 1 443Gate -pyramid or Gopuram , at Kumbakonam

,i . 395

Gateways and Torans, i . 1 14 ; sanch i,1 1 5 ; Vijayanagar, 3 1 1 ; Jhinjhuwada,3 12 Worangal, 434 ; Vadnagar , i i .1 36 ; Nagda, 1 49 ; Jaunpur, 224 ;Fathpur -S ikri , 296 Pekin , 462, 474 ;Japan .

Gaudama or Gautama, the Buddha, i .63 1 11° 347 3 image , 352

Gaudaupalin temple at Pagan ,i i . 363, 364

Gauhat i , ruins of, i . 290Gaur, i i . 1 89, 223 , 25 3 ; pecul iar formof roof in

,25 3, 254 ; Mosques , 256 ;

the i r de fects, 2 59 ; M inar, 259 ; Gateways , 260

Gautamiputra Satakarni , Andhra king(ctr . A. D . i . 22 , 30, 1 1 3 , 1 85cave , Nasik , rail at , i . 1 1 3 ; cave ,

1 59 , 1 64 ; pillar , 1 85Gautamiswamin or GOmata, images of, i i .28 n ote

Gaya, i . 7 3 dh -Gaya.

Ge lugpa, yel low -cap Buddhists in Tibet ,1 ° 2934 94

Ghan tasala, ruined stfipa, i . 34, 83 , 84Ghats or landing -places, i i . 1 8 1 Ghusla,Benares, 1 82

Ghazni , style of architecture , i i . 1 88,

189 ; Buildings of Mahmfi d and his

nobles, 19 1 Minar at , 192 , 206

Ornamen ts from the tomb of Mahmfid

at, I 93GhuslaGhat, Benares , i i . 1 82GlIyasu

-d -din Tughlak , i . 276G i l l (Maj or copies of Ajantapain tings by, i . 196 note

Girnar H i l l Sti’i pa , i . 101 note, 11 . 3 1 ;shrine of the Jains, 5 , 30 ; Templeof Neminath , i . 262, i i . 32 ; Vastupala’s temple , 34

Go-ku-

pea tower at Tashi -lhun -

po, i . 294Golkonda tombs , i i. 1 89 , 279 , 280GOmata, Gomatervara or Dorbali, Jainaimage , i i . 2 1 , 72 , 73

Gondophernés or Guduphara , king inGandhara (ctr . 45 i . 30, 22 1 , 222

Gopal -ganj , temple at , i i . 1 6 1

Gopura, i . 309 , 330-346 ; atKumbaconam ,

395 ; of Cambodian temples, i i . 379Govardhan , temple of Harideva at, ii .1 59 cenotaphs, 1 69

Graeco -Baktrians,i . 37

G reek art in Gandhara sculpture, i . 37 ,2 19

-22 1 , 25 7

5 09

Griffons , i i . 1 37 , 443Gudivada ruined Stfipa, i . 34, 83Guduphara . S ee Gondophernes

Gujarat, Saracen ic archi tecture , i i. 1 88

H istorical accoun t, 229-246Guntupalle rock - temples, i . 34, 1 28,1 29 , 1 5 5 , 1 58 note, 1 67 - 169

Gupta dynasty (320-540 A . D . ), II . 1 1 , 23 ,24, 30 ; Cap ital , 300, 301 ; i i . 1 14 ,1 36

Gurkhas, i . 276Guruvayankeri dhwajastambha, i . 348,ii . 8 1 ° pavil ion at, 79Gwaliar, Jaina rock images,temples, 1 37 ° Chaturbhuj temple, 1 37 ,140 ; set s . Bahu, 1 37 , 1 38 ; Tel i kaMandir , 1 39, 140 Temple or dargahof Sind ia’s mothe r, 1 5 3 ; view, 1 54Man S ingh’s palace, 1 75

° Tomb ofMuhammad Ghaus, 29 1 ° view, 292

Gyan tse , Tibe t , golden temple at, i . 294

Gyaraspur , temple at, ii . 54, 5 5

ITABAor H IDDA, stupas at, i . 89Haibatgram stupa in Top -darra,Halebid in Mysore, temple at, i . 35 ,24 1 , 384

° Kedaresvara temple , 442View , 443 Hoysalesvara temple , plan ,444 ; restored view of the temple ,445 ; i ts varied design , 446 ; view ofcen tral pavilion, 447 ; succession ofan imal friezes

, 448 i i . 386Hanamkonda orAnamkond , great templeof

,i . 432 °

View of doorway, 433

Haramukh shrine, Kashmir,Harsha - S iladitya, king , i . 25 ,it 1 2 1

Hash tnagar inscription , i . 222Hathi-gumpha inscription of Kharavela,ii . 10, 1 1

Hemadpanti temples, 11 . 148 and note

Heta -Da-

ge Vihara at Polonnaruwa, i .248

Hiddaor Hada tope , i ..

89 , 9 1 noteH imalaya, Buddhist m issions to , i . 68,86 ; Architecture, 25 1 301

H indu fi ve re l igious sects, i . 1 78 note

temple at Bankura,History of India, i . 6 -

9H inen Tsiang, Chinese pilgrim , i . 25 ,

58, 1 03 ; at Amaravati , 1 23 ;i n South India

,

i n Asam , 289 ; 292, 308 ,

3 19 , 35 7 , 42 1 , i i . 1 1 note, 3 1 , 1 2 1R okujo temple , near Nara, Japan , i i. 499Ho nan Ch ina, Buddhist temple , i i . 46 1Honeysuckle ornament, i . 5 7 , 5 8Hariuj i temple, Japan , i i . 486 -

489 , 493 ,

496 ; plan of pagoda, 497 ; section ,

498

Hoysala Ballala k ings , i . 35

5 1 0 INDEX .

H ti or “ Tee of stfipas, i . 66 , 70 and

i i. 347.352.360. 394Huchchhimalligudi temple, at Aihole , i i .1 19

Humayfin Shah , tomb of, at Old Delhi ,i i . 290

Hanas , Ephthal i tes, i . 24 , 3 1 , 222Hushkapur vihara, i . 263 note

Huvishka, Kushan king , 1. 77 , 93

I BRAH IM ’AD1L SHAH , mosque and tomb

of, at B ijapfir, i i . 272

Ike -gami temple , near Takio , Japan , 11 .499

Images, worsh ip of, i . 222Imambara, at Lucknow , i i . 328, 329Immigrations , 1. 27-3 1India, inducemen ts to the study of itsarchitecture, i . 3 -6 ; its history, 6 -

3 1

sculpture , 35 ; mythology, 38 ; s tatistics,45

Southern , unsatisfactory records, i .

Western , i ts architecture , 11 . 1 1 7

Cen tral and Northern , i i . 1 32

Further, Burma, i i . 339 370 ;Cambodia, 37 1 -403 ; S iam , 404

-

4 1 3 ;Java. 4 I 4-

445Indian Saracen ic styles, i i . 1 86 ; divisionsof styles and the ir boundaries, 1 88- 190.

See Architectureearly school of art, i . 222

Indo -Aryan or Northern style , 11. 84 ;reasons for the term , 85 . See Arch itecture

Indra Sabhacave , Elfi ra, 11 . 1 8-2 1

Inlaid marble (pietra dam ) work , 11 .

306. 307 . 3 1 6

I on ic pillar from SlIahdheri , i . 2 18 ; orde r ,it 129

I’r z

’

nzoy a roofs in China, i i . 455 , 456,

464. 478. 486 . 488. 500

I ron pillar at Meharauli , Old Delhi , 11.

107 , 1 99, 207-209 at Dhar , 247 iron

beams at Kanarak , 107I shpola tope, i . 92I surumuniya rock - temple , Anuradha

pura, i . 242 , 248I’

timadu-d-daulah’s tomb , Agra, i i . 305

30?I ttagi , Saiva temple at , I . 424, 425

JABANG (Chandi) temple , Java, 11 . 433Jaga -Mohan or Mandapa, i i . 93 , 99 ,Jagannath temple , i . 64, i i . 94, 108

1 10 ; tower , 1 10, 1 1 5Jaggayyape ta stfi pa, i . 34 , 82 , 83Jago temple (Chandi ) , Java, 11. 440 ;plan

, 441 , 443

Jahangir , emperor, i i . 1 76 ; h i s bui ld ings

at Lahor , 303 ; desecrat ion of histomb : 304 : 305

Jaina architecture , i i . 3 ; al l ied toBuddhist, 6 ; region dominated by thestyle, 7 . See Architectureremains in Kalinga and Orissa, i .

84 StfipaatMathura, 102 Jaina templein Ceylon , 229 d iagram ofJaina porch ,3 1 7 ; temple at Pattadakal, 35 5 ; at

Aihole, 356 at Tiruppadikunram , 362 ;

Jaina caves, 1 79 , 1 80, 1 8 1 note, 1 82,i i . 9 symbols, 1 1 temples in Dharwarand B ijapfir districts , 23 ; at Pal itana,24 ; G irnar, 30 ; Moun t Abu, 36 ;Ranpur temple , 45 ; Jaina images at

Gwaliar, 48 ; temples at Khajuraho ,49 ; tower at Chitor , 58, 5 9 ; modernstyle , 62 ; Jains in Southern India, 70 ;temples at Nagda, 1 50 ; at Kundalpur,1 6 1 note

Jains, i . 25 , 4 1 . 42. 46. 3 , 44Jaj pur , in Or issa, i i . 95 ; pillar at , i .348, i i . 1 1 1 ; bridge , 1 1 3

Jakanacharya, reputed architect , i . 442Jalalabad topes, i . 89 , 9 1Jamadagn i temple at Baijnath, i . 298Jamalgarhi sculptures , i . 1 23 ; monastery ,

209 , 2 10 ; plan , 2 1 2 ; Corin thiancapitals from ,

2 14 cel l facades, 2 16, 24 1Jambukesvara temple , Tr ichinopoly , i .373 ) 374 720k , 394

Jami’ mosque , Jaunpur , 11 . 224 ; Ahmadabad, 230 ; plan and e levation , 23 1 ;Champanir, plan , 242 ; Manda, plan ,

248 courtyard , 249 Kulbarga , 263 ;plan , 264 ; e levat ion section and view ,

265 ; B ijapfir, 269 ; plan , 270 ; sectionof dome, 27 1 ; Fathpur S ikri , 294 ;plan, 275 ; Delhi , 3 1 8 ; view , 3 1 9

Japan,architecture of, i i . 486 ; temples,

490 ; roofs. 494 ; palaces, 499Jarasandha~ka-baithak at Rajgir, i . 75 at

Giriyek , 76

Jaunpur,s tyle adopted at, ii . 1 88, 190,

222 ; plan and view of the Jami’Masj Id , 224 ; La] Darwaza mosque ,225 ; Atala Masj id , 226 Tombs and

shrines, 228Java, i i . 4 14 ; h istory , 4 1 8 ; BoroBudur , 422-428 ; Mendut , 428 ; D iengplateau, 430 ; Bhima, 43 1 ; Jabang,433 ; Prambanan. 433 ; Sewu. 435 ;Lumbang, 436 ; Sar i , 437 ; Kal iBen ing

. 438 ; Suku. 439 ; Jago, 44 1 ;Panataran , 442

Jaya-stambhas, pillars of victory, 11. 194,206 , 209 , 260

Jayavijaya cave at Udayagir i, i i . 1 5Jayesh tha temple , Kashmir, i . 267Je tawanarama dagaba, Anuradhapura, i .230, 232 ; temple, Polonnaruwa, 245

Jhalrapattan ,remains at, i . 1 64

5 1 2 INDEX .

or Gorgon face , 11. 250, 35 5Kirtti-stambhas, at Worangal, i . 434 ,

435 ; at Baroli, i i . 1 36 ; Galaganath ,Pathari , Eran, Mudhera, etc. , 1 36 ,1 37 at Rajnagar , 1 84 note

Koil , m inar at , i i . 260Kolhapur, re l ic box found at , i . 100Konagamana or Kanakamun i , in BurmeseGaunagon ,

.

the second Buddha beforeGautama, ii . 347

Kondane chai tya cave , i . 1 34, 1 37 , 148 ,149 , 1 5 8 ; Vihara, 1 79 , 1 80

Kondivté, in Salsette , Buddh ist caves,chai tya, i . 1 3 1 note, 1 99

Koravangula temple , Mysore , i . 441

note, 442

Korea, i i . 487 , 497Kosthakar, Nepalese, i. 279 -280

Kota, mausoleum at, i i . 1 69Kotila tomb , De lhi , i i . 2 1 7Krishna, Andhra king, inscription of, incave at Nasik , i . 1 85 - 1 86temple, at Patan , i . 282 -283

Kshatrapas of-.Kath iawad and Malwa, i .23, 30Kublai Khan’s invasion of Pagan , 11 .

Kuda, Buddhist caves, Konkan ,Kujjatissarama dagaba, Anuradhapura,i 237Kukkunur, temples at , i . 426Kulbarga

,i i . 1 89 , 262 ; mosque , 263 ;

plan , 264 ; hal f e levation and view,265

° Bazar , etc . , 266

Kn lz éas , cel ls, i i . 42Kumbakonam , i . 394 ; Gopuram orgate pyramid at, 395

Kunamoto, Castle at, Japan , 11 . 501Kundalpur, Jaina temples at, ii . 64 note,

16 1 note

Kunkumahadevi , bui l t Buddhist templeat Lakshmesvar, ii . 70 note

Kurugodu temple, i . 407Kuruvatti temple , 1 . 429 43 1Kushan kings , 1 . 30Kusinara, where sakya s inha died , i . 1 7Kuthodaw or thousand and one

pagodas, i i . 35 2Kyaukku temple , i i . 35 5 , 363Kyauk-taugyi temple at Amarapura, 11.

Kyaung or Burmese Monastery , i i . 35 7 ,365 -366

LABRANG monastery , Lhasa, i . 292Lahor , Jahangir’s bui ld ings at, i i . 303 ;Badshahi mosque, 304, 32 1

Lajji Tissa, S inhalese king (59 49 B . c .

i . 237Lakkundi , temple d oorway, i . 428 429 °

Jaina temple at,i i . 24

Lakshmesvar temples,

Lakshmi or S ri goddess of fortune, i . 50,i i . 428Lal Darwaza mosque , Jaunpur , 11. 225Lalitaditya

-Muktapida, king of Kashmir(7 25 -760 i . 26 , 263 -264, 267 ,

Lamasaries in Tibet , i . 292Lankarama dagaba

,Anuradhapura

,i .

233-237 ; capital , 236

Lankesvara temple at Kai las, Elfira,pillar in , 11. 1 26

Lats, or Buddhist in script ion pil lars, i .54 ; examples, 56-60

LauriyaNavandgarh lat, i . 5 7 5 8Lemye t

-hna temple at Prome, 11. 352,

Lena : cave , i i . 9 note

Lhasa, i . 290 monastery of Potalaat, 292Lingaraja or Great Temple at Bhuvanesvar, i i . 99- 1 05 , 109Lion pillar at Karla, i . 147oha Mahapaya monastery, Anuradhapura, i . 238-239

Lokananda pagoda, Pagan , 11 . 343Lomas R ishi cave , B ihar, i . 1 3 1facade , 1 3 1 plan , 1 32 ; 1 33 , 148, 169Lonar Hemadpanti temple , i i . 148Lophaburi , temples at, S iam , i i . 4 1 1Loro -Jonggrang temples,Java, i i . 433 , 436Lucknow archi tecture , ii . 324 ; The

Mart in iere , 325 Begam Kothi , 326 ;v iew, 327 ; Imambara at, 328 ; plan,3 29Lumbang temple , Java, 11 . 436

MACHANPONTIH, Serpen t temple at, 11 .

444Mackenzie , Col . Col in , Indian researchesand drawings by, i i. 4 1 5Madan Mohan temple at B rindaban, 11 .

1 5 7 , 1 6 1 note

Madras , prevail ing style in the presidency,i . 4 1 8-4 1 9Madura

,i . 34 ; conquest of, 305

Perumal temple at, 338-339 ; H istory,

385 ; plan of Tirumalai Nayyak’

s

chaultri , 387 pillar in , 387 ; view inthe hal l , 389 Plan of the great temple ,39 1 palace , 4 1 2 ; plan , 4 1 3 hal l inpalace , 4 14Mahabharata, i . 10- 1 2 , 39Mahabodhi temple , i . 78 ; imitations,280 (Mahabaudi ) , 11 . 364Mahad caves, i . 206Mahadeva temple at Patan , Nepal , i .

Maharashtra, the Maratha country, 11. 1 1 7Maha-sati or Necropolis, i i . 1 64 ; at

Udaypur, 165Mahasena

’s pavil ion ,Anuradhapura, i . 24 1Mahaseya stfipa at M ihintale , i . 238Malia-Vihara of the Bo -tree , i . 243

INDEX .

Mahavi ra, last Jaina Tirthankara, i . 4 1 ,1 30, i i. 5

Mahawansa, or Buddhist history ofCeylon , i . 7 , 224 accounts ofstructures in it

,63, 229 , 238, 239, ii .

39Maheswar, ghat at, i i . 1 82

Mahinda and Sanghamitta, missionariesto Ceylon , i . 67 , 1 1 3 , 238 , 243

Mahipala , inscription of, at sarnath , i . 7 5Mahishasura, a d emon, i i . 1 25Mahmfi d of Ghazn i , Somnath templedestroyed by, i i . 35 Sacked Mathura,1 9 1 Tomb

,1 93 , 1 94

Mahmfidabad, Tomb ofMubarak Sayyid ,near , i i . 243 , 244Majapahit , ancien t city in Java , i i . 439Makunda Deva’s palace at Katak , i i .H 2

Malabar, snake -worship in ,i . 43 note.

Malay pen insula , ancien t Malaya-desa,i i . 374 note

Malot . See MalotMalwa, architecture of, i i . 1 88, 246 -252Mamallapuramor

‘Seven Pagodas, ’ i . 34 ;

Raths at, 1 24 note, 1 7 1- 1 72 , 2 1 7 , 248,

327 -338 ; Shore temple , 36 1 , 362 , ii .1 1 1 note ; Bas - rel ief

,i . 34 1 , i i . 1 25 ;

Pavil ion and stambha at , 79 Roof,moMana-stambha at S ravana Belgola, i i . 7 5Mandalay , monastery at, 11 . 368Mandapas, Mandapams, i . 309Mandapeswar B rahman ical caves, i . 1 99Manda, capital of Malwa, its arch itecture , i i . 1 88

, 246 ; Jami’ Masj id , 248 ;Palaces, 250

Mangalacheti pagoda, Burma, 11 . 356Manikyala topes , i . 88, 90, 94-99 , 25 7 ;Re l ic caske t , 99

Manjfi sri , a Bodhisattwa, i . 1 75Manmoda chaitya cave , i . 1 56 - 1 5 7Mansingh I I . , ch ief of Ambe r, i i . 1 77Markat Kesari , Orissan king, i i . 1 1 2Martand , temple of, i . 254 , 25 5 , 259 -264 ,269 , i i . 106 Plan , i . 259 view , 260 ;central ce l l of court, 26 1 date , 262263 ; Niche with figure , 263 Sofii t ofarch , 264Martiniere, the, at Lucknow, 11. 324-326View , 325Mashita (Mschatta), Palace of KhosruParviz at , ii . 1 98Masson , Mr . C . , explorat ion of the

Jalalabad topes, by, i . 899 1

Mathiaor LauriyaNavandgarh Lat, i . 5 7Mathura, Jaina stfipa and ra i l at , i . 1 1 0Sculptures, 1 1 8, i i . 6 Krishna worship,seat of, i i . 1 08 ; Sacked by Mahmadof Ghazni, 19 1 Temple destroyed byAurangz ib , 32 1

Matris, images of, at Jaj pur , 11 . 1 1 1VOL . I I .

5 1 3

Maurya dynasty (320- 1 80 B . i . 1 8 2 1Mechan ical skill of the Cambodians, i i .433Media, wooden architecture of, i i . 369Megasthenes, ambassador of Seleukos toChandragupta Maurya, i . 1 9

Meharauli iron pillar, Old Delhi, i . 60,i i . 207 , 208 and note

Mendang Kamfi lan, now Prambanan ,Java, i i . 433Mendu t temple , Java, 11. 429, 430Meru, Moun t , i i . 29 , 349M ih in tale , Ceylon , dagabas at , i. 238Mih irakula, Hfina king, i . 24 , 222 , 272M ihrabs or Qiblas in mosques, i i . 1 97 ,etpassive

Mihtari Mahal l , gateway , Bijapfir , ii . 2782 79M inars and minare ts Surkh and Chakrinear Kabu l , i . 6 1 Ghazn i , i i . 1 92 ,1 94 ; Qutb, 205 Ofmosques , 205 , 2 1 4 ,220,

225 , 237 Gaur , 259 ; Samara, 469Mingfi n , circular pagoda at , ii . 349 ;view , 350 ; Mingfin -paya, 35 1 , 425

Mirisaveti dagaba, Anuradhapura, i . 230note, 23 1

-232Modhera, Sun temple at , 11 . 5 7 , 106,1 36 , 1 82 , 230

Moggalana or Maudgalyayana, rel ics of,i . 68, 7 1 , 1 1 7 .

Monasteries or Viharas , i . 1 70 Gandhara,209 ; T ibe t , 29 1 Burma, 11 . 365 -369 ;view, 368 ; Pekin , 462

Monol iths at D imapur, i . 288Moonstones, ard/zae/z ana

’m thres

holds, i . 240, 24 1 note ; 430Mori palace ofRatnasingh , at Chitorgadh ,

11 . 1 70Mortar , non -users of, 11. 432Mosques : Adinah , ii . 2 5 7 ; Agra, 3 1 7Ahmadabad , 230 ; Ajm ir, 2 1 0

Bharoch , 24 1 B ijapfi r, 269 ; Cambay ,24 1 Champani r, 242 ; Delhi , 3 1 8

Dhar , 246 ; Dholka, 244 ; FathpurS ikri , 295 ; Gaur , 25 7 ; Jaunpur , 224 ;Kalan Masj id , 2 1 9 ; Kashmir, 333Kulbarga, 264 ; Manda, 248 ; M irzapur ,Ahmadabad , 232 Muhaflz Khan ’

s ,

236 ; Qutb , 200 ; Sarkhej , 233Moti Masj id , Agra, ii . 3 1 7 , 320 ; Viewin courtyard , 3 18

Motisah temple , Satrunjaya, 11 . 30Mouhot, M . ,

Researches in Cambodia, ii .37 I

Mfidabidri , Jaina temples at, 11 . 75 -77Pil lars , i . 289 , i i . 78 , 82 ; Tombs, 80Mughal architecture , i i . 283 Original ityof the bu ildings , 284 Works of SherShah , 286 ; Akbar , 288 -

302 ; Jahangit , 302-307 ; Shah Jahan , 307 -320 ;’Alamgi r , 320-

323 Mysore and Oudh ,

INDEX .

Muhammad Ghaus, tomb of, at Gwaliar,ii . 29 1Muhammadan , population , i . 46 , 48

Architecture , styles of, 1 88, 1 89Qiblas in Jaina temples, i i . 28

Destruction of temples , i i . 87 , 88 , 32 1Mukandwara, pillars at, i i . 5 5 3 Chawadi ,remains of, 1 32Mukhal ingam ,

temples at, 11 . 1 14Mukhtagiri, Jaina temples at, i i . 45 , 62,64

Mukteswara temple of, at Bhuvaneswar,i i . 9 7 -98, 105Malot, in the Sal t range , temple at , i . 270Mycenae , tomb at, i . 265 Treasury,3 12 ' 3 1 3a 325

Mylassa, tomb at, 1 . 3 1 3 , 3 14 , 11 . 1 67Mysore , H inda temples, i . 437-

450 ;Architecture , i i . 1 90, 323Mythology of the H indus, i . 35 , 38-

45

AGA, people i . ( I , 43, Snakediv

'

nities, 4 49 , 64 , 1 22, 1 80, i i. 12 ,

1041

; In Ceylon , i . 227 , 242, 247 ;Kashmir , 272 ; Naga-raja, 1 56 , 34 1 ,

355 ; Nagas associa ed with Buddhaand

gi

ghnu, i i . 124; In Cambodia,9 397 , 401 Java, 444

Nagarahara s tupa, 1 . 90 note

Nagarakatakam , ancien t capital , 11 . 1 14agarangana Vihara, i . 235

Nagarjuna, Buddhist reformer , i . 23, 87 ,I 7 3

Nagarjuni , hill and caves in B ihar , i . 1 32 ,I 7 7

Nagayan temple, near Pagan, 11 . 354,

35 5Nagda (Nagahrad ), temples at, 11 . 148

Nagoya, Japan , soldiers’ barracks at, 11.

500

Nahapana, king , i . 1 58 ; Cave at Nasik ,1 64 , 1 85 - 1 86 ; Pi l lar in , 1 85

Nakhon Thom (the Great C ity)Cambodia,i i . 380 ; Nakhon vat , 382 .

Angkor Thom and Angkor VatNalanda, Buddhist monastery , i . 1 70 note,

I 73 ' 1 74, 293ander , S ikh Dehra at, 11 . 1 63

Nandisvara-dwipa temple at Satrunjaya,i i . 29

Nan -Gangi , colossal statue , i i . 5 5 , 72Nan -kau pass , archway in , near the

Great Wal l of China, i . 282 , i i . 483484Nankin , porce lain tower at , 11 . 469-470Nan Paya temple , i i. 354-35 5 , 363Narasingh I

‘ king of Orissa, 11 . 105 - 106Nasik , Buddhist caves, i . 14 , 22

Chaitya cave at , 140- 142 ; 1 48, 1 50,

1 5 5 , 1 56 , 1 84 ; V iharas, 1 5 8, 1 59 , 1 80,1 83

- 1 88, 1 93 ; Capital , 42 1Nata-mandir, or dancing hal l, a Sabha

mandap , at Bhuvaneswar, 11 . 93 , 99 ,102, 103 , 1 09

Nathlaung-gyaung temple , 11 . 353Nathukottai Chettis, the ir injuries totemples, i . 376 , 380

Nava

6graha sculpture at Kanarak

, 11 . 95 ,1 0

ayyak dynasty at Madura, i . 386ayyars of Malabar, i . 276 note

Negapattam, Buddhist tower at, i . 33 note,206 -207 , 307 , 308

Neminath temple , on Girnar, i . 262 ,i i . 32-

33epal , i . 273 ; I ts architecture, 274 -275H istory, 27 5 -277 ; S tfipas or chai tyas,277 ; Kosthakar, 280 ; Temples, 280285 , i i . 369 ; Imagined connectionwith Kanara, i . 286 , i i . 76 -77 , 83Ngakwe Nadaung

-paya in Myingyanprovince , i i . 342

N igliva Lat, i . 59Nikka, en trance gateway of temple , 11 .

489 , 496 ; Mausoleum of I eyasu, 497temple at, 499ing

-

po, seven -storeyed tower at, 11 . 469irvana of Buddha, i . 62 date of, 224Nish i Hongwanj i temple , Japan , i i . 493N issanka -Mal la, S inhalese king ( 1 1 87

1 1 96 i . 246 , 247 , 248Nfir Jahan , her tomb , i i . 305Nyagrodha or Sudama, B ihar cave, i .1 30

OBSERVATORY at Benares, 11 . 1 77 - 1 78Old Delhi , ruins at, i i . z ootf.O rders, Class ical , misapplied , 11 . 324-

329Orissa, fragmen t of a column from a

temple in , i . 301 Jaina caves, i i . 9H istory , 94 ; Temples, 97 - 1 10, 1 1 6 ;B ridges, 1 1 3

Ornamen t , honeysuckle , at Allahabad , i .5 7 From the tomb of Mahmad at

Ghazn i , i i . 1 93Osia, temples at, 11 . 56Otantapuri Buddhist monastery , i . 293

and note

Oudh , architecture in ,11 . 1 90, 323 325

Oxenden’s tomb at Surat , i i . 329 -330

PADMANABHA, a name of Vishnu, 11. 1 37Paestum ,

Doric order at, i . 256Pagan , Burma, ru ins of, i i . 35 5 , 356 ,359 , 360 ; Ananda temple , 36 1

Thatpyinnyu, plan , 362 section , 363Gaudaupalin , 363 and Tsfi lamani ,

362 view , 364Pagodas

,H inda, i . 322 Burmese payas ,

i i . 34 1 35 2 ; S iamese , 405 4 1 1 ;

Chinese , 468 -472 , 474 ; Japanese, 497P ‘ai - lus or P ‘

ai - fangs, Honoraryportals ’ of the Chinese , i . 105 , 1 1 8 ,

i i . 45 6 , 472 ; Near Canton , 473 ; A t

5 1 6 INDEX .

Pi llars (continued)i i . 43 ; De lhi , 207 Elephanta, 1 29 ;Elfi ra, 1 26 ; Eran , i . 301 ; FathpurS ikri , i i . 294 ; Hanumkonda, i . 435and note ; Jaj pur, i i. 1 1 1 ; Katak , i .304 ; Kashmir, 256 ; Madura, 387Mamal lapuram , 332 Nasik , 1 85 ,1 88 ; Perfi r, 399 S rinagar , 25 7Tanj or , 366 ; Vellor, 399

Piprahwa stfipa, i . 79Pitakat-Taik , or l ibrary, Pagan, 11. 356 ,35 7

PitalkhoraChai tya cave, i . 1 34, 1 37 -1 38,148, 1 49 ; Sphinx capitals, 1 69 , 250

Polonnaruwa, Ceylon , i . 228, 244 Exten tand epoch of i ts temples, 244

-245Examples, 245 -249

Poona, Saiva rock-temple near , 11. 1 30Porches : Amwa, i i . 5 6 ; Chidambaram ,

i .

376 ; De lhi , i i . 67 ; Jaina, i . 3 1 7 , 3 18Potala monastery, Lhasa, i . 292Pradaksl n

'

na, circumambulatory passagein a temple, i . 237 , 322, 427 , i i . 50,54 1 I SO

Prah -khan temple ,Cambodia, 11. 374 375 ,379 , 397 , 400

Prah Vihear, temple of, i i . 380Prambanan temples, Java, i i . 33 , 1 29 ,

4 18-420. 433

Prasat temples of Cambodia, i . 246Priéné capitals , i . 220Prome, Pyi or Pri , early capital of Burma,

359Propylons, 1 1. 225 -227Prudung , Java, brick temples at , i i . 442Pulastipura, old name of Polonnaruwa,i . 244

Pulikesin I . and I I . , Chalukya kings, i .42 1

Puliyan-kulama, ru ins of, near Anuradha

pura, i . 229 note

Pulumavi , Andhra king , i . 147Pundarika, Jaina temples of, i i . 28Purana l i terature , i . 8

KilaMasjid , Old Delhi , 11. 286Pa rt, a shr ine, i . 298Puri , i i . 94-95 , 1 05

- 106 ; Plan of Jagannath temple at, 1 08 ; View of tower ,1 10

Pyatthat, spire of a Burmese pagoda, i i .

QADAM -I -RASfJL mosque at Gaur , 11 . 256Qaisar Bagh , Lucknow , i i . 326Queen’

smosque in M irzapur ,Ahmadabad ,IL 232Qutb M inar , De lhi , 11 . 1 98 , 1 99 , 205 -207Mosque , 68, 1 98-204, 283

sham dynasty, i i . 1 89 ; Qutbu-d

Din Ibak , 1 96, 205

RADHIA or Laur iya-Araraj Lat, i . 5 7

Raffles, Sir S tamford , governor of Java,4 1 5 . 4 19 , 422. 438 , 439 . 442. 445

Rails, Buddhist , i . 5 5 , 102 ; Amaravati ,1 12 , 1 1 9-1 2 1 ; Bharaut, 103 , 104-1 09Bodh-Gaya, 1 03

- 104 Kanheri, 163Mathura, 1 1 0 Nasik, 1 1 3 sanchi

,

102 , 1 1 1- 1 1 2 , 1 1 3

Rajagriha caves , B ihar, i . 1 29Rajarani temple , Bhuvaneswar, 11 . 95 ,99 ,

Rajasamudra, band of lake , 11. 1 83, 184 ;Kirtti-stambhas on , 1 37

Rajatarangini , the native history ofKashmir , i . 8, 27 1

Rama, de ified hero, i . 42 Ramayana,the exploi ts of, 1 0, 1 1amanya-desa, coun try , 11 . 374 note

Ramesvara cave at Elfira, i i . 1 2 1 , 1 29Ramesvara temple at Gadag, i . 427 note

Ramesvaram , great temple of, i . 380 ;Plan , 38 1 I ts dimensions, 382Corridors , 383 View of cen tralcorridor , 383 ; 384-385 , 388, 11 . 383

Ramnagar, temple at , i . 254 , i i . 1 5 5amoche temple at Lhasa, i . 292ampurwaLat, i . 59

Ranaditya, Kashmirian king (ez'

r . 6th

cent . i . 25 5 , 263 note, 272 note

Rangoon , Shwe Dagon at, i . 63 , 68, i i .342 , 346 -

347 ; Pagoda at, 348Ran i-gumphacave , the , i i . 1 3Ran i-ka-naur cave , Udayagiri , i i . 8, 1 2I S

Ranj it S ingh of the Panjab, i . 1 63Rankot dagaba, at Polonnaruwa, i . 230note, 245anpurJaina temple , 11 . 45 -48 Plan

, 45View in , 46 ; 1 50, 232, 388

Ranpur Jhat ial , Jogini temple at, 11 . 5 1Rashtrakfi ta dynasty and kingdom

,i . 27 ,

303 , iL 22

Raths at Mamal lapuram , i . 1 72, 2 1 7 ,

atnasingh’s palace at Ch i torgadh, 11 .

1 70

Ravana-ka-khai Cave at Elfira, i i . 1 2 1Rayana tree, sacred to Adinath , i i . 28,47 note

Red Palace at Lhasa, i . 292el ic worship , Buddhist origin of, i . 62,65 , 88 ; D istribut ion and deposi toriesof the rel ics, 63 , 64, 68, 73 , 1 05 , 230,238 In Tibe t , 293 Not among Jains,i i . 3 ; D iscoveries of, i i . 347

Reservoirs, scope for arch i tectural d isplayin ,i i . 1 83

Rewa, Kirtti -stambha at, 11 . 137Rhotasgarh , i i . 288 note

R iver - goddesses, temple of the , i . 345346

Roads and bridges of the Cambodians,i i . 402

INDEX .

Rock-cut temples,11 . 1 20- 1 3 1

Roman domes and arches, i . 3 1 3, 3 16Roofat Chandravat i

,i i . 1 33 ; At Mamalla

puram , Te l i ka Mandir , etc . , 140 ;Roofing d iagrams , i . 3 1 3 -3 1 5 ; Bengalcurved style, i i . 254 Chinese , 45 1 4 5 3

.

Rude -stone monumen ts, i . 42 , 4 1 1Rudradaman , Kshatrapa king , i i . 3 1Rummindei Lat , i . 59Ruwanveli dagaba

,i . 230-232, 240

SABUKTEGiN or Subaktagin (977 -

99 7A . D . ), founder of the Ghaz nawi dynasty ,11 . 1 9 1

Safdar Jang, tomb of, near the Qutb , 11.3233 24

Sahadeva and Nakula Rath , Mamalla

puram , i . 336Sahsaram , tomb of Sher Shah at , 11 .

S t S tephens,Walbrook , resemblance to

H indfi plans, i . 3 1 8St Thomas, the apostle , i . 30, 222Saisunaga dynasty (650-

320 i . 1 51 6 , 1 8

Saiva worship , i . 42 , i i . 108 ; Temple at

Polonnaruwa, 1 . 248 In Nepal , 277 ;Panchayatana, i i . 144 note

Sajjanalaya, in S iam , temples at , 11 . 408 ,4 1 1

Sakas, Skythian invaders, i . 3 1sakya monastery in Tibe t , i . 293-294sakyamun i , the Buddha, i . 1 6 - 1 7 , 275 ,280 ; Re l ics of, 64-65 , 79 80 ; Image ,292. 293. i i 3

Sal imgarh , Delhi , 11 . 288Salset te caves , i . 1 99 -200

saluvankuppam, t ige r cave at, i . 333 , 34 1342

8ama Jataka, i . 2 1 3Samara on the Tigris, m inaret at, 11 . 468

469Samarkand bui ldings, i i . 286Same t S ikhar or Parasnath hil l , 11 . 44Samosaranas , Samosan s , Jaina stfipas, i .54 note, 1 30, i i . 28, 29 , 33 , 34 note, 37

Samudragupta, king (cz'

r . 370-

380i . 23 , 24, 306 ; Inscription , 5 7

Sam-

yas monastery , Tibe t, i . 293sanacaves, in Kathiawar, i . 1 79 and notesanchi -Kanakheda, great stfipa at , i . 2224 , 59 , 66 70 ; View, plan and section

,

69 ; Rails at, 90, 1 02,1 1 1 - 1 1 9 , 250 ;

Gateways , 37 , 104- 1 10, i i . 1 36 ; Smal lstfipa, i . 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 ; Torans, 1 14 , 1 1 5 ;Sculptures, 1 23 , 222 ; Lats, 5 9 ; Inscrip tions, 1 1 3 note, 1 14 ; Chaitya, 320

Sangamesvara temple at Pattadakal, i i . 89Sangatsudo , temple at Todaij i, Nara, i i .494

Sanghami tta, Sister of Mahinda, i . 1 1 3 ,243

Sangharama or monastery, i .Sangram S ingh, cenotaph of, at Udaypur ,i i . 165 - 1 66

Sangkalok , S iam , temples at , 11 . 4 1 1Sankarapura, temples at , i . 265Sankaravarma, king of Kashmi r (883 -

902

i . 265Sankisa, capital of a Lat, i . 58Sapada, pagoda at , i i . 346Saracen ic arch itecture of India, 11 . 1 86

324 ; D ivisions of style , 1 88 - 190

sari -dewal , at Bhuvaneswar, i i . 98Sar i temple (Chandi ) near Prambanan ,

11 .

437sariputra, re l ic casket of, i . 68 , 7 1Sarkhej , tombs and mosque at , ii . 233 ;Pavil ion , 235

Sarnath , Lat found at, i . 59 Stiipa, 7 1

7 5 , 90. 1 75 . 207. ii 1 5 2. I S3 ; Capital .1 . 207 note

Sarpa cave , Udayagiri , 11 . 1 2sas-bahfi temples at Gwaliar, 11 . 1 37 -1 38at Nagda, 148- 149

Satakarni or Satavahana , the Andhradynasty, i . 2 1 ; Satakarni I . (ez

'

r . 1 5 51 14 , i i . 1 1 , 3 1

Satdhara stfipas , i . 7 1Sati , burning place at Pampati, i . 282 , 284831 Mahal l Prasada at Polonnaruwa, i .245 -248, ii . 364

Satrunjaya Jaina temples near Palitana,11 . 24

-

30

Sayam -desa, S iam ,

11 . 373 note, 404Sculptures, Indian , i . 35 -38 ; In Gandhara monasteries , 2 1 8-2 1 9

Se innyet Pagoda, i i . 343, 344Selachaitiya or Kujjatissarama dagaba ,

1 . 237Sentul , Java, structure at, 11. 442Sera monastery, Tibet , i . 294Serbistan ,

i i . 35 2Serpen t worship, i . 43 , 11 . 7 1 , 390 ;Temples. 443. 444

Sewu, or “ thousand temples ,” Java, 11 .434 ; Plan . 435

Shadipur , Kashmir , capital from , i . 256Shahdara, tomb of Jahangir at, i i . 304305

Shahdheri, plan of Ion ic monastery at, i .2 1 8 I on ic pillar , 2 1 8

Shah Hamadan , mosque of, S rinagar, 11.333

Shah Jahan, i . 265 , 11. 1 76 ; H is works ,

Shahjahanabad , modern De lhi , 11. 199Shah M i r of Kashmir , i . 272Shahr -i -Bahlol , excavations at , i . 2 10Shal imar garden s , Kashmir , i . 262 -265 ,i i . 304 ; De lh i, 1 99

Sharqi architecture at Jaunpur , i i . 1 88She r Shah , i i . 284-287 ; His tomb, 2 1 7 ,2 1 8

,287 -288, 292

5 1 8

Shihabu-d -D in ibn sam, i i . 1 94, 1 96Shinta temples in Japan

,i i . 486 , 497 , 502

Shagun palaces, Japan , ii . 500Shore

é

or A leva temple,at Mamallapuram,

1 . 3 1 .

Shwe -Dagan pagoda, at Rangoon , 11. 342 ,344. 346

-

347Shwe -daik at Amarapura, i i . 35 7Shwe -Hmaudau pagoda, Pegu, i i . 343 ,344. 346 ; Plan. 343

Shwe-Tshandau pagoda,11 . 349

Shwe-zigon pagoda,near Pagan , 11 . 349

S iam , early and presen t capitals, i i . 404 ;Sukhodaya and Ayuthia, 404 , 405Bangkok , 4 10

Siddhanath temple , Kangra, 1 . 301S idhpur, Gujarat, temples at, 11. 230Sikandar Shah , Bhfitsh ikan, king ofKashmir ( 1 393 14 1 6 i . 253 ,263-265 , 267 , 272

S ikandara, tomb of Akbar at, i i . 298 -

30 1

S ikharas or spires, vimanas, i . 322-326S ikh im , temples in , i . 295S iladitya, Harshavardhana, king , i . 25S imharotsika temple , Kashmir, i . 25 5 ,262, 263 note

Sinbyume or S inphu-Mibaya, pagoda at

M ingan , i i . 349S ingasari

,Java, temple at , 11 . 440, 44 1 ,

442

S ingbin i , goddess or demon , i . 280 note

S inhalese sculpture , i . 226 , 227Si ta-marh i cave , B ihar , i . 1 33S iva, ear l iest representations , i . 42, 44

note ; S ivalayas, 344 , 358 , i i . 1 29Skandagupta, king (ez

’

r . 465 i . 23 ,11 . 3 1

S luices, architectural ly treated , 11 . 1 85note, 24 1

Snake -sculptures, i i . 443 , 444Somesvar temple , at Gadak

,i . 427 ; A t

Mukhal ingam , i i. 1 14Somnath temple , Gujarat , i . 27 , i i . 34 ;plan . 35 ; 1 9 1 . 1 93

Somnathpur , Mysore , Kesava temple at,

i . 437 ; view , 438

Sompalle , stambha at, i . 348Sonagarh , Bundelkhand , Jaina temples

at , i i . 62Sonari topes or stfipas , i . 72Sonbhandar cave , Rajgir , i . 1 30, 1 75 , 1 76Soparaor SupataS tfipa, i . 87 note, 100Spean Ta-on ,

Naga head from , i i . 378S ras or tanks , in Cambodia, i i . 378 , 408S ravana B elgola , i . 303 ; colossal Jaina

statue at, i i . 72 temples, 74 view , 7 5S rawaks , Jaina lai ty , i i . 3S ri or Gaja Lakshmi, goddess of for tune ,i . 50, 1 1 6

,1 23 , 1 56, 429 , i i . 1 1 , 1 5 ,

28 note

S ri A llata tower at Chitor, i i . 5 7 ; view ,

58

INDEX .

TAAS or t ’a z’s of the Chinese , 11 . 467 ,

468-

472

Tadpatri , temples at, i . 403 ; Views ofGopuram , 405 , 406

Tagaung , ear ly capital of Burma, i i . 359 ,36

Tab -khanas , ce llars , i i . 25 1Taj Mahal l , compar ison with the

Parthenon ,11. 284 ; archi tect , 306 note ;

the monumen t, 3 1 3 view, 3 14 ; plan

S rinagar , Kashmir , i . 256 pillar at , 25 7Jami’ Masj id at, i i . 333 Hamadanmosque at

, 333 ; view , 334S rirangam or Seringam , pillared hall at,i . 368 ; plan , 369 ; view of temple , 37 1

S ri Sailam temple , i . 1 7 1 note, 408 plan ,

409Sron -btsan -sgam

-

po, Tibetan king (ctr .

630 in troduced Buddhism in toTibet , i . 292

Stambhas, i . 54, 56 6 1 A t H indatemples, 368 ; Jaina, i i . 2 1 , 8 1 A tGuruvayankeri, 8 1 A t Puri , 106

S tatistics, i . 45 -49S tatues at Saeseruwa and Ankana , i . 245

note Gwaliar,i i . 48 Nan Gangi ,

5 5 , 72 ; S ravana Be lgola, 72 Karkala ,72 ; Yenfir , 73

Ste in ,D r . M. A . ,

his translation of theRajatarangini ,

’ i . 8 note

Stfipas or Topes, i . 20, 54 , 62-75 ; S tfipa

worship, 66 Stfipas or Chai tyas inNepal , 277

Subrahmanya temple , Tanj or , i . 365Sudama cave, Barabar , i . 1 30, 1 32 , 1 33Sukhodaya, early capital of S iam , i i . 404 ,

uku , Java, group of temples , 11 . 439The ir resemblance to edifices in Yucatanand Mexico , 439

Sul tanganj , near Mongir, vihara at , i . 1 75Sul tanpur , tope at , i . 9 1 ; smal l mode lfound in the tope , 1 52 , 1 5 3

Sumatra ,i i . 409

Sun worship, i i . 106

Sunga dynasty (ctr . 1 80-70 i . 2 1Suparsva, Jaina stfipa of, at Mathura, i .

1 10

Saraj Mal l of Bharatpur , i i . 1 78

Sarkh M inar , Kabul , i . 6 1 Tope , 90Sfirya, the Sun god, figures of, i . 1 78 ,

301 i i . 1 6 , 434Narayan ,

i . 262 , 11 . 106Sfiryopasakas , Sun worshippers, i . 1 78Suvarnabhfimi , in Lower Burma, i . 1 9 ,

1h 35 7Swat , discoveries in , i . 89 , 93 , 2 10Swayambhfinath , temple of, Nepal, i . 275 ,278-279

Swetambara Jains , i i . 3 , 4 , 7Syala or leogriff emblem , i . 442

5 20 INDEX .

Tombs (continuedGujarat , 238 , 244 ; Junagadh , 33 1 ;Mfidabidri, 80 ; S ikandara, 298 ; Sarkhej , 234 ; S ipr i, near Gwaliar, 2 1 6 ;Surat, 339 ; Taj Mahal l , 3 1 3 ; Tatta,28 1 Udaypur , 1 65

Tooth of Buddha, its sanctity, shrines,

migrat ions, etc . , i . 63 , 64 , 235Topes or S tfipas of the Buddhists : thei rform and purpose, i . 54, 62 ; Bhilsagroup , 66 ; Example at san chi , 68Accompan imen ts of these structures70 ; sarnath and B ihar , 7 1 -7 5 ; Jarasandha-ka baithak , 7 5 -76 Bodh-Gaya76 80 ; Amaravati , Gandhara

,

84 89 ; Jalalabad group , 89 ° B imaran,

90 ; Sii ltanpur, 9 1 ; Chakpat and’A l i

Masj id , 92 ; Ahin Posh , 93 ; Man ikyala, 94-

99 ; Bhattiprolu , 34 ; Jaggayyapeta, 34, 82 ; Thal Rukhan

,

1 00

Torans,i . 1 1 5 . See Gateways

Tori i , gateway before Shinto temples inJapan . 1 1 1 8 i i

Towers : Chitor , i i . 5 7 , 59 ; AngkorThom , 394 ; Bangkok , 4 1 1 Nankin ,470

Tree and Serpen t Worship , 20, 43 ,

44° Tree Worship , 105 , 108, i i . 7 1

’

l refoiled arches, i . 258Trikfi tesvar temple, at Gadag , i . 427 -428Triratna symbol , i . 49 ; at sanchi, 1 1 6

Amaravati , 1 23- 1 24 ; Bhaja, 1 36Tsedz

' or Zea’z ', a chai tya ,i i . 34 1

Tsfi laman i (Chfi laman i ) temple , Burma,i i 354 . 362. 363

Tughlaqabad , at Old Delh i , 11 . 1 98 tombat ,

Tulja Lena, caves at Junnar , 1 . 1 5 6Tupayon or Stuparama, pagoda nearSagaing, i i. 345

Turner’s Embassy to Tibet , i . 2 1 3

UDAYAGI RI , Katak , caves at, i . 180 ; 1 1

Udayapur , Gwaliar, temple at, 11 . 147 ;view , 146

Udaypur , Mewar, Mahasati near, i i . 1 65palace , 1 72Ujjain kingdom , i . 24, 67 ; Ghats at , 11 .

1 82

U-k’ong , Chinese pilgrim , i . 270 and

note, 272

Umar Khe l tope , i . 90Umbrel las on stfipas or chai tyas , i . 70,

I SZUpal i The in , at Pagan ,

11 . 35 6

Upasraya, a Jaina monastery , i i . 27 note

Upasthanasala or Uposathagara, Buddhistmee ting hall , i . 2 1 3 , 242, i i . 406 n ote

Ut cha, Bunde lkhand , palace at, i i . 1 74

VADNAGAR , Gujarat , Ki rtti -stambhas at ,i i . 1 36

vahlikas, Baktrians , 11 . 209Vaidyanatha temple , at Kiragrama, i .297 -301

Vaikun thanath temple , at ConJivaram, i .34. 1L 359

Vaisali , in Tirbat , i . 1 8, 1 30, 276, 1 1 . 3 ,

405Vaishnava Avataras, i . 4 1 , 42 ; Vaishnavatemples in Nepal , 277

Vajradhatu Mandala, i . 280Valabh i dynasty (Cir . 600 i . 23 , 24,26-28

Vangath or Waniyat, Kashmir , templesat , i . 267

Vastupala’s temple , Girnar, i i . 33

Vasubandhu,Buddhist Patriarch , i .

2 76

Vat , the ou ter enclosure of a Cambodiantemple , i i . 406Phu temple , i i . 375Sisavai , temple at Sukhodaya, 11.

Vaul t 353. 354. 35 7Ved z

'

, a Hindaal tar, 11 . 1 23Vedic worship , i . 39 4 1Vellor, view of portico of temple ,397 ; Compound pil lar , 399

Ven tura, General , topes opened by , i .94. 97

Vidyadevis, Jaina goddesses of knowledge , i i . 42

Vidyadharapuram ,chai tya remains, i .

1 28

Vigne’s Travels i n Kashmir , 1 . 252Viharas , or monaster ies , i . 5 5 , 1 70 ;D iagram , 1 72 ; Nalanda, 1 73 ° Sul tanganj , 1 7 5

° sarnath , 1 75° Western

Caves , 1 77 1 82 ; Nasik , 1 83 1 88

Ajan ta, 1 88 196 ; Bagh , 1 97 , 198 ;Elura, 20 1 205

° Vijayarama, 242 ;Otantapuri and Vikramasi la

,293

Vijayanagar : View of c1ty gateway , 1 3 1 1 ,400

° Destroyed by the Muhamadans

in 1 565 , 40 1 Plan of the temple ofV1tthalaswam in , 402 view of porch ,403 ; Palaces , 4 1 2 ; Garden pavil ion at ,

4 1 6 , 4 1 7 bazar , i i . 266Vijayarama monastery , Ceylon , i . 230

note ; Vihara, 242Vikramasi la monastery (near Kolgaon ),i . 293 note

Vimala’s temple , Moun t Abu , i i . 36 40.

Vimanas or shrines and S ikharas , i .309 , 322 325 , 330 note

Vipasyi Buddha, 1. 275Viramgam talav or tank , 11 . 1 82

Virinj ipuram ,temple at , i . 407

Vishnu ,iden t ified with Surya, i . 262 ,

263 ; second Avatara at Angkor vat ,i i . 386 ; Vishnu-devala, Ceylon , i . 248

INDEX .

Visvakarma, Buddhist cave , Elfira, i .

1 59- 162 , i i . 1 2 1

Visvantara Jataka, i . 2 1 3Virvesvar temple

,Benares, ii . 1 5 1 View ,

l 5 2, 1 5 5Vyaghrini , guardian demon , i . 280 note

Vyalis, conven tional figures of l ions , i .332. 359 . 369 . 388. 396 . 398 . 401 .

436 note 442

WALL, Great , of China, 11 . 483waniyat, temples at , i . 267VVata-da-

ge temple , Polonnaruwa, i .247

wavs or step-we l ls, 11 . 239 , 240 note

Wessan tara , now Besnagar, i .Jataka

, 1 1 6 , 2 1 3Western Chai tya halls, i . 1 33- 169Window at Ahmadabad , 11 . 237 at Nan

paya’ Burma ) 35 5Wooden architecture , i . 5 1 Woodenverandahs , 1 76 Temples, s imilarityto the wooden archi tecture of Swedenand Norway

,286 288 Kashmir

,

6 7 ;

mosques at S rinagar, ii . 333 -335 ;

In Burma, 369Worangal or Orangal, i . 432 ; kirtti

stambhas at , 434

YAKSHA, a demon guardian , i . 142

Yakush ij i , pagoda at , i i. 499Yajna S ri cave , Nasik , i . 1 87 Pi l lar in ,

1 88

Yavana-desa, 11 . 373 note

Yayati Kesari , legendary king of Orissa,11 . 94

Yedo (Takio ), cast le , 11. 499Yenfi r, colossal Jaina s tatue at , 11 . 73Yue -chi tribe , invaded Baktria, i . 29 , 86Yucatan architecture and early Javanese ,“0 439

Yung-lo,tomb of, 11 . 466 -468

ZAi NU-L-’AB 1D i N

’

s tomb at S rinagar , i .253 1 254 , 272

Zeionises satrap , coin of, found at Man i ~kyala, i . 95

Ziarats or shr ines of Mosl im P irs , i . 272

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