A CONTENT ANALYSIS A THESIS - USD Repository

CURRENT TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE

RESEARCH: A CONTENT ANALYSIS

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree

in English Language Studies

by

Tusthi Sahajani

166332021

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2019

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

i

CURRENT TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE


A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.) Degree

In English Language Studies

by

Tusthi Sahajani

166332021

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2019


A Tlresis on

CURR.ENT TRE]I{DS IN,SPEI ffAIiF COMPETENCE


Tusthi

ved by

r)+Yogyakarta, May 8s, 201 g

Dr. J. Bismoko

Advisor

ii


A Thesis on

CURRE1YT TRENDS IN SPEAI{TNG COMPETENCE

RESEARCH: A CONTE}YT ANALYSIS

Presented by

Tusthi Sahajani

Student Number. 166332A21

Was Defended belore the Thesis Comnrittee

and lJeclared Acceptable

T'HESIS COMMITTEE

Chairperson: Dr. B.B. Dwijatlnoko, M.A.

Secretary: L)r. J. Bismoko

Member: F.X. fulukarto. Ph.D.

Mernber: Dr. E. Sunarto. M.Hurn.

fr r>4t

Yogy-akarta, May 24th, 20 1 9

uate Pro grar-ir Di rector

University

{

lll

Bud{ Subanar, SJ.

tr,#E


iv

MOTTO

“Education is not the learning of facts, but the

training of the mind to think.” - Albert Einstein


STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that unless indicated otherwise, all ideas, phrases, sentences are

the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. I understand the full

consequences, including degree cancellation, for taking someone else's ideas,

phrases, or sentences without proper references.

B'h,2ol9

Tusthi Sahajani

ogyakarta, May

qvlb'*Y


LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI

KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama: Tusthi Sahajani

Nomor Mahasiswa : I 66332021

Demi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah yang berjudul:

CURRI,NTS TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE RESEARCH: A

CONTENT ANALYSIS

Beserta perangkat yang drperlukan. Dengan demikian saya memberikan hak

kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan

dalam media lain, nrengelolanya clalam bentul< pangkalan data,

mendistribusikannya secara terbatas, dan rnempublil<asikannya di internet atau

media lain untuk 1<epentingan akadernis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya

maupun memberil<an royalti kepada saya selarna tetap mencantumkan saya

sebagai penulis.

Demikran pcrnyataan ini saya buat dcngan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di: Yog,val<arta

Pada tanggal: 8 N'lei 201 9

Yang menyatakan,

L$M--Tusthi Sahajani

vi


vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the

almighty God for blessing me with abundant love and for giving me the strength

to finish my postgraduate study and to eventually complete my thesis.

I take pride in acknowledging my thesis advisor, Dr. J. Bismoko for guiding

me throughout the process of my thesis completion, without his guidance this

thesis project would have been a little success. I also convey my sincere gratitude

to Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. as the chairperson of my thesis defense for his time

and effective feedbacks. My sincere appreciation also goes to F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D.

and Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum. as my thesis examiners for their fruitful suggestions.

I would also like to express my special thanks of gratitude to Dr. G. Budi Subanar,

SJ. as the Graduate Program Director for his wisdom, hard work and commitment

to ensure the success of the program. My appreciation also goes to P. Sarwoto,

Ph.D. as the head of ELS program for always enlightening all students with his

insights. My special thanks also go Dra. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons), Ph.D.,

Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, Dr. Francis Borgias Alip, M.Pd., M.A., Dr.

Albertus Budi Susanto, SJ., and Dr. J. Haryatmoko, SJ for sharing their wisdom

and knowledge. My special thanks also go to my classmates, the 2016 batch for

the remarkable experience during our exciting study time.

Finally, I deeply thank my parents for always giving me the utmost support

through the ups and downs of my thesis completion. My sincere appreciation also

goes to my supportive best friends for always believing in me.

Tusthi Sahajani


viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL PAGE .............................................................................................. ii

THESIS DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE .......................................................... iii

MOTTO ................................................................................................................ iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY .................................................................... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH

UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS .............................................................. vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................ vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................... viii

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................. xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................ xv

LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................... xvi

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... xvii

ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... xviii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................... 1

B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ........................................................................ 4

C. PROBLEM LIMITATION ................................................................................ 5


ix

D. PROBLEM FORMULATION .......................................................................... 6

E. RESEARCH GOAL ........................................................................................... 6

F. RESEARCH BENEFITS ................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW ............................................................................... 8

1. Speaking ....................................................................................................... 8

a. Concept Clarification of Speaking ........................................................... 8

b. The Nature of Speaking ......................................................................... 10

c. The Functions of Speaking .................................................................... 14

d. The Components of Speaking ............................................................... 15

e. The Process of Speaking ........................................................................ 18

2. Competence ................................................................................................ 21

a. The Domains of Learning ...................................................................... 21

b. Conceptualizing Competence ................................................................ 24

3. Speaking Competence ................................................................................ 26

4. Speaking Competence Investigation .......................................................... 28

a. Knowledge ............................................................................................. 28

b. Skills ...................................................................................................... 29

c. Attitude .................................................................................................. 30

5. Former Trends in the Learning and Teaching of Speaking ........................ 31


x

6. English Educational Research .................................................................... 33

7. Area Classification of English ................................................................... 36

8. Content Analysis ........................................................................................ 38

a. Defining Content Analysis .................................................................... 38

b. Purposes of Content Analysis ............................................................... 40

c. Procedure of Content Analysis .............................................................. 41

B. RELATED STUDIES ...................................................................................... 44

C. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................... 46

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. RESEARCH METHOD .................................................................................. 49

B. NATURE AND SOURCE OF DATA ............................................................. 50

C. INSTRUMENTS.............................................................................................. 51

D. DATA GATHERING ...................................................................................... 51

E. DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ................................................. 53

F. TRUSTWORTHINESS.................................................................................... 54

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULTS

A. TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE RESEARCH ............................... 57

1. Origin and Interest in Research from 2008 to 2018 ................................... 58

2. Investigated Topic ...................................................................................... 62


xi

3. Concept Clarification ................................................................................. 69

4. Related Topic ............................................................................................. 72

5. Research Goals ........................................................................................... 74

7. Research Design and Method .................................................................... 78

8. Data Gathering Instruments ....................................................................... 80

9. Data Analysis Technique ........................................................................... 82

10. Sample of the Research Reports .............................................................. 84

11. Sample Sizes ............................................................................................ 86

12. Sampling Technique ................................................................................ 88

12. Validity and Reliability ............................................................................ 90

13. Research Result ........................................................................................ 94

B. THE DISCOVERY OF ANOMALIES ......................................................... 100

1. True Experimental Method ...................................................................... 100

2. Cronbach’s Alpha .................................................................................... 101

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

A. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................... 103

B. IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................... 105

C. RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................... 106


xii

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 109

APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 117


xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Data Source Identity ................................................................................. 52

Table 3.2 Manifest Content ...................................................................................... 53

Table 4.1 Publication Year ....................................................................................... 60

Table 4.2 Investigated Competence .......................................................................... 63

Table 4.3 Investigated Skills .................................................................................... 65

Table 4.4 Investigated Attitude ................................................................................ 66

Table 4.5 Investigated Knowledge ........................................................................... 68

Table 4.6 Concept Clarification of Speaking ............................................................ 70

Table 4.7 Related Topic ............................................................................................ 73

Table 4.8 Research Goals ......................................................................................... 75

Table 4.9 Research Design and Method ................................................................... 78

Table 4.10 Data Gathering Instruments .................................................................... 80

Table 4.11 Data Analysis Technique ........................................................................ 82

Table 4.12 Sample of the Research Reports ............................................................. 84

Table 4.13 Sample Sizes ........................................................................................... 87

Table 4.14 Sampling Technique ............................................................................... 88

Table 4.15 Validity ................................................................................................... 90

Table 4.16 Reliability ............................................................................................... 92

Table 4.17 Research Result ...................................................................................... 94


xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Communication Process (Cheney, 2011) ............................................... 19

Figure 2.2 Domains of Learning (Hoque, 2016) ...................................................... 21

Figure 2.3 Components of Competence (Samian, 2014) .......................................... 25

Figure 2.4 Framework for Content Analysis (as cited from Krippendorff, 2004) ... 41

Figure 2.5 Framework of Pre-understanding ............................................................ 48

Figure 4.1 Data Origin .............................................................................................. 58

Figure 4.2 Detected, Current Research Reports throughout the Years..................... 61

Figure 4.3 Characteristics of the Current Trends ..................................................... 97


xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journal

OATD: Open Access Theses and Dissertations

ID: Indonesia

IC: Inner-Circle Countries

OC: Outer-Circle Countries

EC: Expanding-Circle Countries

L2: Second Language Learning

IV: Independent Variable

DV: Dependent Variable

DGI: Data Gathering Instruments


xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Data Source Identity .......................................................................... 118

Appendix 2. Manifest Content (Part A) .................................................................. 125

Appendix 3. Manifest Content (Part B) .................................................................. 160


xvii

ABSTRACT

Sahajani, Tusthi. 2019. Current Trends in Speaking Competence Research: A

Content Analysis. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma

University.

Research on speaking competence has been extensively conducted over

years. Various issues have been addressed to improve efficiency within the

learning and teaching of speaking. Thus, there is a possibility of overlapping

topics, methodology and outcomes. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the

current trends in speaking competence research to see which topics, methodology

and outcomes have been extensively researched. This research thus intends to

answer the formulated question: What are the current trends in speaking

competence research?

Through stratified random sampling, the data were 100 recent research

reports on speaking competence in the form of educational research reports from

2008 to 2018. They came from World Englishes circle countries and retrieved

from reputable open sources on the Internet. Content analysis was implemented,

and the nature of this research is direct observation utilizing the manifest content

tables. The research trends include trends in data origins and publication years,

investigated and related topics, concept clarifications of speaking, research goals

and results, and research methodology including research designs and methods,

Data Gathering Instruments (DGI), analysis techniques, sample, sample sizes,

sampling techniques, as well as research validity and reliability. The analysis

results were presented using descriptive statistics followed by interpretation.

The results revealed that most research on speaking competence came from

Indonesia (29%). Most research in speaking were the ones published in 2015

(18%) and 2017 (18%). Performance (accuracy and fluency) (62%) became the

most investigated topic. Techniques/strategies predominated the related topics

(78%). Most research did not clarify the concept of speaking (59%). Most

research aimed to investigate if independent variable(s) has significant effect on

performance (55%). The trends in methodology showed that most research was

quantitative (84%) with quasi-experimental method (35%). Pre-test and post-test

items (38%) predominated the DGI. Descriptive statistics (46%) often followed by

t-test (23%) predominated data analysis techniques. Most reports took university

students (36%) as their sample. Sample size from 31 to 100 (61%) was mostly

chosen. Purposive sampling (30%) predominated the sampling techniques. Most

research did not report the validity findings (74%), but many reported inter-rater

reliability (35%). Two anomalies were found, which where the implementation of

true experimental design, and the use of Cronbach’s Alpha to estimate reliability.

The findings of the current trends inform future researchers about the topics,

methodology and results that have been overlapping, as well as anomalies found

within the research reports. Researchers may choose the more efficient topics and

methodology that can produce the more efficient outcomes to increase the

optimum development of speaking science, which will lead to the better

acquisition of speaking competence.

Keywords: speaking competence research, speaking research, research trends,

content analysis


xviii

ABSTRAK

Sahajani, Tusthi. 2019. Current Trends in Speaking Competence Research: A

Content Analysis. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pascasarjana

Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Riset mengenai kompetensi berbicara banyak dilakukan dalam beberapa

tahun terakhir. Berbagai isu mengenai berbicara telah banyak diatasi untuk

meningkatkan efisiensi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran berbicara. Topik –

topik, metodologi dan hasil - hasil yang tumpang tindih mungkin terjadi. Meneliti

tren – tren terkini mengenai riset kompetensi berbicara menjadi penting, untuk

melihat topik – topik, metodologi dan hasil – hasil mana yang tumpang tindih.

Riset ini bertujuan untuk menjawab pertanyaan rumusan: Apakah tren-tren

penelitian kompetensi berbicara saat ini?

Melalui teknik stratified random sampling, data diambil dari 100 riset

terkini tentang kompetensi berbicara dalam bentuk laporan penelitian pendidikan,

dari tahun 2008 hingga 2018. Data diambil dari negara – negara lingkaran World

Englishes dari sumber-sumber terbuka di Internet. Metode riset adalah analisi isi.

Sifat penelitian ini adalah pengamatan langsung dengan tabel manifest content

berisi informasi mengenai asal-usul data, tahun publikasi, topik utama dan terkait,

klarifikasi konsep berbicara, tujuan dan hasil, serta metodologi yang mencakup

desain dan metode, instrumen pengumpulan data, teknik analisis data, sampel,

ukuran dan teknik sampel, serta validitas dan realibilitas. Hasil analisis disajikan

menggunakan statistik deskriptif diikuti dengan interpretasi.

Hasil riset menunjukan bahwa mayoritas riset berbicara berasal dari

Indonesia (29%). Mayoritas riset berbicara diterbitkan di tahun 2015 (18%) dan

2017 (18%). Performa berbicara (55%) menjadi topik utama yang paling banyak

diteliti. Teknik/strategi (62%) adalah topik terkait tertinggi. Mayoritas riset tidak

menjelaskan konsep berbicara (59%). Mayoritas riset ingin meneliti apakah

variabel independen berimbas signifikan terhadap berbicara (55%), diikuti

dengan hasil yang signifikan (54%). Tren-tren pada metodologi menunjukan

bahwa mayoritas riset adalah quantitatif (84%) yang banyak diikuti dengan

metode quasi-eksperimental (35%) menggunakan soal – soal pre-test dan post-test

(38%). Statistik deskriptif (46%) yang sering diikuti dengan t-test (23%) adalah

teknik analisis tertinggi. Mayoritas sampel adalah mahasiswa (36%). Mayoritas

ukuran sampel adalah 31 hingga 100 (61%). Teknik purposive sampling (32%)

paling diminati. Mayoritas riset tidak melaporkan validitas (74%), namun

melaporkan reliabilitas inter-rater (35%). Anomali-anomali yang ditemukan

berupa penerapan desain true-experimental dalam riset pendidikan, dan

penggunaan Alpha Cronbach untuk mengestimasi realibilitas.

Hasil riset diharapkan memberi informasi kepada para peneliti yang akan

datang mengenai topik – topik, metodologi dan hasil – hasil apa yang tumpang

tindih, serta anomali – anomali apa yang ditemukan. Para peneliti dapat memilih

topik – topik dan metodologi yang lebih efisien, yang dapat menghasilkan hasil –

hasil riset yang juga efisien untuk lebih mengoptimalkan pengetahuan dalam ilmu

berbicara, sehingga menghasilkan akuisisi kompetensi berbicara yang lebih baik.

Kata Kunci: riset kompetensi berbicara, riset berbicara, tren-ten riset, analisis isi


1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The first chapter provides the apprehensible background information of

the research. There are four parts presented in this chapter, namely the

background of the research, problem identification, problem limitation,

problem formulation, as well as research goal and research benefits. The main

goal of this chapter is to ensure that the research is justified.

A. BACKGROUND

English is inevitably the most important and the most widely spoken global

language. Albeit it remains the number three of the world most spoken languages

after Chinese and Spanish, it is in fact more widely spoken that those two

languages that rely on the numbers of native speakers. Crystal (2003) claims that

the reason for a language to become a global language has nothing to do with

number of people who speak it but is more related with who the speakers are.

English is therefore a global language due to the economic and political

power dominated by the English native speakers because of the British imperial

and industrial revolution back in 18th and 19th century. As a result, English today

acts as a lingua franca in the globalization era that bridges communication barriers

between people from different places of the world. It is now the language of

business, education, science, technology, travel, tourism, and international

relations.

Furthermore, as we are now entering the fourth industrial revolution or is

often called Industry 4.0 within this globalization era, the utilization of technology

including the Internet, emails, voice and video calls, mobile applications, the


2

social media, multimedia learnings, and the augmented reality – break the

boundaries among nations, people and culture. Chareonwongsak (2002) argues

“globalization and technology share a causal relationship, each gaining from and

building on the other” (p. 191). In embracing this rapid change, the global citizens

need to have a good control of the English language particularly spoken English,

considering the high demand of competent English speaker, either for work or

business purposes, pursuing higher educations, traveling, or simply engaging with

people from different nationalities.

Ur (1996) believes that among reading, listening and writing, speaking

seems intuitively the most important, that people who know a language are

considered as the speakers of that language. This means that the main motivation

for people to learn English language is to gain ability to converse with speakers of

that language, hence the interest in mastering speaking is the highest among other

macro skills. Unfortunately, many global citizens especially in countries where

English is not the first or official language, people still do not possess good

speaking competence consisting of knowledge, skills, and attitude, hence the

effective teaching and learning of it is always conducted both in formal or non-

formal education. There are various issues regarding speaking appear everywhere

regarding the lack of one or more of the components above.

Speaking itself is defined by Chaney (1998) as "the process of building and

sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of

contexts" (p. 13). Speaking is important in the way that the ability to transform

ideas or thoughts into spoken words in English is the main indicator of mastery in

English. However, speaking is also considered to be the very challenging, as


3

Brown and Yule (1983 in Tuan et al., 2015) believe that spoken language

production is often considered one of the most difficult aspects of language

learning. Especially for those who learn oral English as their foreign language,

problems often arise during the learning of speaking.

One of the main problems of speaking as described by Ur (1996), is that

speaking happens in real-time and there is a degree of exposure to the hearer. This

can cause psychological issues such as anxiety, low self-esteem and low

confidence. Approaches in addressing these issues also vary, including

implementing different strategies and techniques, such as group work, suggest an

interesting topics and tasks, and so forth. The complexity of speaking also rises

another problem, as how Johnson (as cited in Burns, 2017) describes that

complexity requires the ability to do various things at the same time. This means

that speaking requires not only a set of linguistic knowledge but also

sociolinguistic competence to apply the knowledge in different context

accordingly.

Due the importance of speaking and the fact that many people across the

world still find speaking challenging or even difficult, research on speaking is

consistently and continuously conducted in different parts of the world. As there

have been various research on speaking coming different countries in the past

decade, it becomes important to determine the trends of those research. This is

done to see what issues or topics on speaking that have been widely addressed,

which methodology that has been selected, and whether efficiency in speaking is

improved. Determining the trends of speaking research reports in the last decade


4

is also important to see which issues or topics that might also be important yet

receives less attention and therefore need further investigation.

B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Researching speaking is not new in the English educational studies, as it has

been widely conducted for the past several decades. However, numerous research

reports on speaking seem to focus on addressing various overlapping issues by

implementing long-existing methods, techniques or strategies which produce

similar results, in which speaking efficiency is always claimed to improve.

Research in speaking often focuses on as assessing learners’ speaking through

various long-existing methods or techniques such as Task-Based Language

Teaching (TBLT), evaluative feedback, paired and group activities, and so forth.

Those techniques are also the most common topics in speaking research that

extensively to address similar issue. Other topics include helping learners to cope

with negative attitudes during speaking such as anxiety, lack of confidence and

motivation, low self-esteem and so forth. Many research reports also focus on

improving accuracy and fluency as the indicators of speaking through

implementing long-existing techniques and strategies. Other research focus on

relation between speaking and listening, reading and writing.

Furthermore, the success in speaking might be mostly measured

quantitatively through speaking tests rather than, for instance, prolonged

observation, that is mostly harder to do because of the time, place or access

constrains. Those research reports also mostly implemented similar

methodologies that produced similar outcomes or results, meaning the repeated

results are predictable and their effectiveness in improving efficiency could not


5

further progress and might reduce the optimum development of speaking science.

Henceforth, through investigating the current trends of speaking research reports,

the recent development of those research reports over the last years can be

determined. There might be other areas or issues of speaking that have not yet

received further attention or have not yet been explored extensively to improve

efficiency, or emphatic understanding if the issues are related to marginalized

speaking learners.

C. PROBLEM LIMITATION

There are some limitations of this research due to time and access constrains.

The first limitation is regarding the topic of the research reports, where the topics

only concentrate on speaking competence which include knowledge, skills, and

attitude, with or without relation to other variables. The second limitation is the

number of the reports taken as data to be examined, which are only 100

educational research reports, followed by the third limitation which is on

publication years from 2008 to 2018. It should also be noted that due to time

constrain, the research reports retrieved in 2018 is only up to middle of the year.

The fourth limitation is on the countries of origin, which are divided into

Kachru (1985)’s World’s Englishes circle countries namely the inner circle, outer

circle, and expanding circle. However, this research takes the liberty to put

Indonesia into a separate fourth category as the research itself is conducted in

Indonesia and therefore the target audience is mostly likely Indonesian readers

and researchers. It is also important to see the trends of research on speaking

competence in Indonesia to determine whether it has become the interest within

the educational research or not.


6

D. PROBLEM FORMULATION

This research aims to investigate the current trends of English-speaking

competence research reports from 2008 to 2018. Hence, problem is formulated in

one research question: what are the current trends in speaking competence

research?

E. RESEARCH GOAL

The main purpose of this research is to discover the current trends in

English-speaking competence research from 2008 to 2018 to answer the

formulated question. Discovering the research trends means discovering the trends

of the elements within the research reports, including data origin and the interest

of research or the publication year from 2008 to 2018, investigated and related

topic, the concept clarification of speaking, related topic, research goal, research

result, and the methodology including research design and method, data gathering

instrument, analysis technique, sample, sampling size, sampling technique, and

research validity. The crucial information above determine the research trends in

speaking competence to see its development.

F. RESEARCH BENEFITS

There are two benefits within this research, the first is the theoretical benefit

and the second is the practical benefit. The theoretical benefit is that this research

is expected to increase the optimum development of speaking science by

providing parsimonious description regarding the current trends in speaking

competence research from 2008 to 2018. The trends regarding data origin, year of

publication, concept clarification of speaking, the research topics, research goals

and results, as well as research methodology, constitute current research trends.


7

The practical benefit is for other researchers to become aware in selecting the

most effective and efficient research topics and methodology in researching

speaking competence. Hence, they will not only focus on topics and methodology

that have been overlapping, hence produce a less efficient research that can reduce

the optimum development of speaking science.


8

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

The second chapter is the clarification of concepts underlying key terms in

order to discover the logical truth. The basic conception elaborates the literary

reference of speaking. There are three parts of this section, namely theoretical

review, related studies and theoretical framework.

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW

This section aims at building better understanding on the important terms

underlying the reserach throughout the concept clarification. The review of each

term does not merely contain quotations and relevant theories, but it also tries to

associate one theory ot another in order to obtain a theoretical framework as the

logical answer to the research question.

1. Speaking

The theory and topic about speaking have been extensively discussed and

researched within English educational context. It is therefore crucial to clarify the

concept of speaking to grasp a better understanding of it before discussing about

other elements of it.

a. Concept Clarification of Speaking

Concept clarification of speaking includes elaborating its definition as well

as its nature proposed by different scholars. Firstly, Wilson (1983) refers to

speaking as “development of the relationship between speaker and listener” (p. 5),

which means speaking plays an important role in building rapport between the

speaker and hearer, in the way that the better the meanings are expressed in a

good sequence, the better they will be perceived and the better the relationship


9

between the speaker and the hearer will be. Cameron (2001) also believes that

speaking centers upon “making people understand speaker’s feeling and ideas by

doing an act of communication using language” (p. 40). Hence, the emphasis is

more on the idea that the hearer can understand what the speaker is

communicating using language. If ideas and feelings are not understood, it means

that the speaker does not communicate them well, and this might be caused by

speaker does not have a good control over the language that constitutes as the

medium of communication.

Byrne (1997) defines speaking as “a two-way process between speaker and

listener and involves the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of

understanding" (p. 8). Hence, the term ‘understanding’ is the key, in the sense that

the message should not only get across to the hearer, but that it must be

understood well. The emphasis is also on the speaking as a process. Kayi (2006)

further argues that speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning

through the use of verbal and non-verbal in variety of context” (p. 1), which

shows that non-verbal communication, such as the use of gesture, facial

expression, eye contact, or the use of symbols are used along with verbal

communication to deliver meanings to the hearer.

Nunan (2003) further emphasizes that speaking happens in real time and

cannot be revised as in writing. Henceforth, speaking is difficult in the way that

speaker needs to think quickly of what to say and how to say it properly so that

the messages can be understood well by the hearer and does not lead to confusion.

More advanced English learners therefore get into the habit of thinking in English,


10

rather than trying to translate from the mother language into English which might

take longer time.

In the context of language learning, speaking is a part of meaning-focused

output strand as suggested by Nation (2007), that “the meaning-focused output

strand involves learning through speaking and writing – using language

productively” (p. 2). It means that producing language is an essential part of

language learning. This means that once language learner has received input in

the target language through reading and listening, the next step is to actually

produce the language through speaking and writing. By producing the language,

learners can demonstrate the language knowledge they have received through

the input such as exposure from watching video or reading a story.

In terms of its relationship with other macro skills, namely listening,

reading, and writing, Morrow et al. (2016) state that oral and written language are

interactive that they have reciprocal relationship. Speaking and listening as oral

language inform reading and writing as written language, and vice versa, where

written language influence oral language. The example of this, is when children

produce a sentence orally, using terminology that they read in children’s books to

describe what they are doing.

b. The Nature of Speaking

In grasping a more profound understanding about speaking, there are

several natures of speaking proposed by Nunan (1999) that should be

comprehended. First, is regarding communicative competence, which is defined

by Nunan (1999) as the ability to function in a truly communicative setting

which enables dynamic exchange and that linguistic competence adjust itself to


11

informational input. Therefore, communicative competence enables learners to

attempt speaking in a real-world situation where various information inputs help

them to engage in conversation more naturally. Nunan (1999) further claims that

communicative competence includes linguistic competence and a range of other

sociolinguistic and conversational skills. Hence, the context of where the

language is spoken is very crucial as speaker needs to adjust what to speak and

how to speak in different contexts.

Communicative competence consists of various knowledge. First,

knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language which are

fundamental in oral language learning. Second is knowledge of rules of

speaking, including knowing how to begin and end conversations, what topics

can be talked about in different types of speech events, and which address forms

should be used with different persons one speaks to and in different situations.

The third is knowledge on how to use and respond to different types of speech

acts such as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations. The fourth and last is

knowledge on how to use language appropriately.

The second nature of speaking is regarding the discourse vs dialogue.

Nunan (1999) states that content of discourse happens in most conversations as

and there is a conversation about the conversation which is referred as met-

discourse. Meta-discourse hence become the media for interlocuters to negotiate

meaning and ensure the conversation is well-managed. On the other hand,

dialogue concern on whether the speaking is planned or spontaneous, that each

situation has its own utterances and routines to say. In relation to this nature,

there are two types of speaking according to Nunan (2003), namely monologues


12

and dialogues. The former is a speech given by a single person that allows only

one-way communication, such as in drama, movie and public speaking, whilst

the latter is a speech where there are two or more people engaging in a

conversation and thus allow two-way communication.

The third nature is regarding accuracy and fluency which constitute as the

indicators of speaking. Nunan (2003) defines accuracy as “the extent to which

students’ speech matches what people actually say when they use the target

language” (p. 55). It means that to acquire accuracy, learners must have the

communicative competence knowledge as explained earlier. Housen and Kuiken

(2009) define accuracy as “the extent to which an L2 performance deviates from

a norm” (p. 4), which basically learners need to acquire accuracy by using words

and phrases outside the range of normally allowed selections and not afraid to

make mistakes. As for fluency, Segalowitz (2003) refers to it as “an ability in the

second language to produce or comprehend utterances smoothly, rapidly, and

accurately” (p. 384). Accuracy and fluency are therefore knit together, as to be

fluent also means to be accurate. Skehan (2009) also defines fluency as the

capacity to produce speech at normal rate and without interruption.

Following accuracy and fluency, there is a relatively new dimension called

‘complexity’ as a part of Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency (CAF) framework

introduced by Skehan (1988) and began to emerge in the 1990’s. CAF

constitutes as three principal proficiency dimensions, where it is used as

performance indicators for speaking performance. Ellis (2008) defines

complexity as the ability to use more advanced language, whilst Skehan (2009)

claims that complexity is challenging. This shows that complexity is rather


13

difficult to learn as learners need to acquire both accuracy and fluency first

before their speech can be complex and advanced. Wolfe-Quintero et al. (1998)

define complexity more specifically as s “a wide variety of both basic and

sophisticated structures and words are available to the learner” (p. 69). This shows

that learners need to have a good knowledge of grammar and vocabulary and

pronunciation first prior to acquiring complexity.

However, the Complexity, Accuracy, Fluency (CAF) framework remains

controversial due to the issues of its construct validity and of how it should be

defined. Hence, accuracy and fluency are the indicators of speaking that learners

and researchers should focus on. Richard (2003) also believes that accuracy and

fluency with a greater tolerance of errors are the primary goals in the teaching of

speaking. Thus, complexity indicator is not as crucial, especially for non-

advanced learners. Complexity should be acquired when learners become more

advanced and have gained a good control of both accuracy and fluency.

The next nature of speaking is regarding the negotation of meaning, which

according to Nunan (2003) deals with how learners make progress by

communicating in the target language trying to understand and make yourself

understood. In speaking, learners are the producer of utterances in the target

language as well as receptor who should in return, understand the utterances in

the target language spoken by others. This nature is important in the way that

different person might make different meaning out of the same utterance, hence

meaning negotiation is very crucial for an effective oral communication between

the speaker and the hearer. The last nature of speaking has to do with functions

of it, which is further elaborated in the next section.


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c. The Functions of Speaking

There are basically two functions of speaking according to Nunan (2003),

namely interactional and transactional function. The former is about

communicating for social purposes whilst the latter is about communicating to

get something else, such as exchange of goods or services. The former is also

more about engaging in speaking for social purposes and small talks, such as

greeting, talking about the weather, holiday, school and so forth, whilst the latter

is more about exchanging information in a more formal situations such as

business meeting, giving details in police station, job interview and so forth. It is

also believed that interactional speech is much more fluid and upredictable than

transactional speech.

Richard (2008) further develops the functions of speaking into talk as

interaction, talk as transaction, and talk as performance. The two functions of

interaction and transaction share the same concept with Nunan, however, within

the last term which is talk as performance, is rather different, which deals with

transmitting information in front of an audience, that includes activities such as

speeches or public announcement. This function of speaking is also monologue

in nature.

In addition, the functions of speaking can also be analysed in terms of

routines, in which Bygate (1987) explains that there are two types of routines,

namely information and interaction routines. The former includes activities such

as telling story, describing something, giving a set of instructions, making a

comparison. The latter includes activities such as service encounters, including

job interview, social functions, dinner party, lunch and coffee break and so forth.


15

The functions of speaking are often referred as speech act. Finegan (2004)

defines it as “actions that are carried out through language” (p. 296). He breaks

down the functions of speaking into six categories. The first speech act is

representatives, which function is to make statement, to describe and to suggest.

Hence the characteristic of this function can be categorized as true and false. The

second speech act is commissive, which aims to commit to a course of an action,

such as making promises, vowing, threating, or pledging.

The third speech act is directiveness, which aims to get something by

performing an action, such as commanding, requesting, inviting, challenging and

so forth. The fourth is declarations, which aim to prompt a situation, such as

hiring, blessing, firing, marrying, and so forth. The fifth function is expressive,

which aims to indicate the attitude or psychological state, such as greeting,

congratulating, apologizing, and so forth. The last act is verdictives, which aim to

assess or to judge, which involves activities such as assessing, appraising, ranking,

and so forth.

d. The Components of Speaking

The components of speaking are sometimes referred as the properties of a

spoken language. There are four fundamental properties of spoken language,

namely the phonological system, the stress system, the tone melodies and

phonotactic rules (American TESOL Institute, 2015). This is in a line with

Harmer (2007) who states that the components of speaking are about the ability

to pronounce phonemes correctly, to use appropriate stress and intonation

patterns, to speak in connected speech. In addition, there are two additional


16

elements, which are the ability to speak in in different genres and situation, and

the ability to apply conversational strategies.

Morrow et al. (2016) further describe the components of speaking in terms

of five language areas. The first is semantics, where speaker develops meaning

for the words they hear and say in the conversations. The second is syntax or

also known as grammar, where speaker learns the rules of how words are linked

together. The third is morphology, which is about knowing how to manipulate

the smallest units of meaning called morpheme. The third is phonology, where

speaker understands the sound structure of language, and the last is pragmatic,

where speaker understands the social uses of the language.

As there are several experts who propose different speaking components,

they basically refer to the same components. Harmer (2007) sums up the

components of speaking into six properties, namely vocabulary, grammar,

pronunciation, fluency and comprehension. All these components when

integrated will lead to learners having a good control of the spoken language.

The first element is vocabulary, in which Moeller et al. (2009) describe that

vocabulary is about how word knowledge itself is powerful that it constitutes as

building blocks to learning. There are several types of vocabularies introduced

by Pikulski and Templeton (2004), namely meaning or oral vocabulary which

refers to the combination of listening and speaking vocabulary, and literate

vocabulary which refers to the combination of reading and writing vocabulary.

The second component is grammar, which defined by Harmer (2007) as “a

knowledge of what words can go where and what form these words should take”

(p. 32). In the same respect, Debata (2013) argues that grammar might be


17

perceived differently by different people. For instance, among the general

population, grammar is simply about the correctness of the language being spoken,

whilst for students it means an analytical and logical study of sentences. The third

component is pronunciation which is defined by Lado (1964) as the utilization of

sound system in speaking and listening. How the speaker pronounces English

words and utterances accordingly therefore affects how the listener understands

them, meaning that mispronunciation can cause confusion in the listener’s part.

The fourth component is fluency, which according to Hedge (2000) refers to

“the ability to link units of speech together with facility and without strain or

inappropriate slowness, or undue hesitation” (p. 7). According to Hughes (2002),

fluency is the learners’ ability to speak in understandable way in order not to

break down communication because listeners may lose their interest. Furthermore,

Fillmore (1979) clarifies fluency in several concepts. The first is the ability to fill

time with talk, where quantity of talk is more important than the quality. The

second is the ability to talk in coherent, logical and dense sentences. The third is

the ability to say appropriate things in a variety of contexts. The fourth is the

ability to be creative in the use of language.

The last component is comprehension, of which Durkin (1993) states that it

deals with constructing meaning from text. Comprehension therefore relies on the

cognitive ability as it aims to comprehend new information or knowledge about

speaking and tries to interpret it. Rudner and Lunner (2014) state that apart from

auditory ability, cognitive ability is also necessary for speech comprehension to

access and retrieve the knowledge stored in the semantic long-term memory.

Without cognitive ability, the knowledge that language learners have been


18

accumulated during their process of learning cannot be used. Morrow et al. (2016)

also argue that oral language comprehension is about knowing how to combine

linguistic information in different language areas to produce meaningful talk.

Hence, learners must firstly possess and restore the knowledge of semantic, syntax,

morphology, phonily and pragmatic, as well how to combine them to produce

meaningful talk.

e. The Process of Speaking

There are three types of communication according to Thitthongkam et al.

(2010), namely mass communication, wireless communication, written

communication, spoken communication, and nonverbal communication.

Speaking mainly falls into the spoken communication, albeit it also uses

nonverbal symbols including body language, gestures and other paralinguistic

features such as eye contact, tone and touch.

Communication can also be conducted in two ways, which are in oral and

written form, with the latter often referred as speech. Byrne (1980) however

explains that the one functions as natural means of communication between

members of community is speech, not writing. In the same respect, Widiati and

Cahyono (2006) describe how writing is a means of recording speech that it has

its own function as a means of communication. Therefore, both oral and written

communication are equally important and have their own function.

The process of speaking is derived from the key aspects of spoken

language proposed by Bailey (2003), where spoken language is described as

auditory, temporary, prosody that needs immediate feedback, planning and

editing limited by channel. Auditory refers to listening, showing that speaking


19

process involves listening and the listener acts as the receiver of the message.

Temporary means speaking happens instantly and cannot be revised, whilst

prosody concerns with the rhythm, stress and intonation.

The concept of clarification of speaking therefore sheds three important

aspects of speaking; it constitutes as a process and as an act of communication,

as well as it emphasizes on the understanding between the speaker and the

hearer. The process of speaking is thus derived from the process of

communication itself. Keyton’s study (as cited in Lunenburg, 2010) supports the

belief that communication is the process of transmitting information and

common understanding from one person to another. The information itself can

be about ideas, opinions, feelings, aspirations, comments on things, and so forth.

Cheney (2011) illustrates the process of speaking shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Communication Process (Cheney, 2011)

The process of communication involves several elements, including sender,

medium, message, noise, and feedback. It begins with the sender who encodes

ideas through by selecting words of the message. In another way, the sender is

the one who initiates the communication. Then, the message as the outcome of


20

idea encoding, travels through the medium. In the case of dialogue, it could be a

face-to-face conversation, or a phone or a video call. Noise here refers to

anything that distorts the transmitting message, such as language barriers. The

receiver or the hearer then receives the message, then tries to decode or

comprehend what the message means. Feedback is then given by the receiver

once the message is decoded. In addition to the illustration, there should be a

context of communication, such as where it happens, the topics, the persons

involved in the talk, and the appropriateness of the message.

Ondondo (2015) further explains the process of communication by

emphasizing the integration between language, thought and brain as follows:

“Words constitute language, which is a code that can only be

understood if both parties give the same meaning to the symbols that

are used. Language is stored in the brain of human beings in form of

lexical items and rules that determine how these items structure and

function. To produce real speech these items are retrieved from the

brain and structured according to language specific rules. In this way,

language, thought and the brain are interrelated because they have to

work together as a system in the production of speech or writing” (p.

1324)

Producing effective spoken language therefore requires several components to

work together and be integrated with one another. When one of these

components malfunctions or is unable to integrate with the others, it hinders the

process of effective communication. For instance, when one learns to speak in

English and has a limited linguistic knowledge stored in the brain, this

individual might have difficulties in attempting effective communication, as this

means one of the elements above, which is thought, is still unable to construct

about how to say things according to language specific rules.


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2. Competence

Prior to gaining a more profound understanding regarding speaking

competence, it is necessary to conceptualize competence starting from its core

concept, which is the domains of learning, and relate it with the construction of

competence concept.

a. The Domains of Learning

The process to acquire competence cannot be separated from the domains

of learning. Learning itself is rather a continuous process, as there are always

new knowledge need to be comprehended with positive attitude that enable

people to acquire and perform new skills. The domains of learning are derived

from Bloom’s taxonomy back in 1956 that had been revised along the way. The

three domains are cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Hoque (2016) modifies

the learning domains proposed by Harrow (1975) in Figure 2.2 below.

Figure 2.2 Domains of Learning (Hoque, 2016)

The cognitive domain according to Hoque (2016) involves “the

development of our mental skills and the acquisition of knowledge” (p. 47). The

cognitive domain is therefore the process where a language learner processes

new knowledge with their cognitive ability to eventually judge the value of a

knowledge. In this domain, there is a hierarchy of skills consisting of six levels


22

which is a revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy proposed by Krathwohl (2002).

It begins with knowledge and ends with evaluation. The sequence of the

hierarchy within this domain is explained below.

At the lowest level of the cognitive domains is knowledge. It begins with

the ability to remember new information without having to understand or absorb

it. This includes activities such as collecting, identifying, and memorizing. Once

knowledge is remembered, it moves up to comprehension, meaning the ability to

understand or comprehend the knowledge and interpret it, which includes

activities such as discussing, explaining, illustrating and predicting. The third

level is application, which concerns with how learners apply the new knowledge

that has been comprehended in a real situation.

The fourth level is analysis, meaning the ability to break down the

knowledge into components, such as examining, categorizing, and comparing. It

goes up to fifth level, which is synthesis, meaning the ability to put different

concepts or elements together, such as arranging, combining, constructing,

designing and developing. The highest level of this domain is evaluation, where

learners can judge the value or the importance of the knowledge. The activities

include appraising, arguing, deciding, grading, convincing and concluding.

However, cognitive domain itself in its application needs to be integrated

with affective domain, for a more efficient learning. Hoque (2016) states that

this domain is about “the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such

as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes” (p. 49).

There are five levels of hierarchy within affective domain. It begins with

receiving and ends with characterization.


23

At the bottom of the cognitive domain hierarchy is receiving, which refers

to the awareness of feelings and emotions and the ability to respond to it. The

example is listening attentively or watching a movie. At the second level is the

responding, meaning the state where a learner actively participates by

responding to the feelings and emotion. The activities include discussion,

conversation, or giving a presentation. The third level of this domain is valuing,

meaning the ability to see the value of something and express it. This level

according to Hoque (2016) ranges from simple acceptance to a more complex

level of commitment. The example of the former is a desire to improve the

performance of a team, and the example of the latter is taking responsibility of

the entire team regarding their performance.

The fourth level is organization, meaning the ability to prioritize what is

more important by creating unique value. This includes the activity such as

student who choose to spend more time studying than going out with friends.

The fifth and highest level within this domain is characterization, meaning the

ability to incorporate value and let it control the learner’s behaviors. The

example of this is how a woman decides to finally get married because she is

ready, not because of social pressure.

The third and last domain is the psychomotor domain, which concerns

with psychical activity. Hoque (2016) refers to this domain as “natural,

autonomic responses or reflexes” (p. 50). The two other domains combined with

this domain lead to learning competence. There are seven levels of hierarchy

within this domain, starting with imitation and ends with naturalization (Dave,

1975, as cited in Hoque, 2016).


24

At the bottom of the domain hierarchy is imitation, which involves

observing and imitating someone else. The example of this is how language

learners imitate words spoken by native speakers. The next level is manipulation,

involving activities such as performing skill under guided instruction. This is

when learners perform the word through memorization or under the directions of

the teachers.

On the third level is precision, which deals with performing the skill to be

more precise, such as learners begin to be more precise in how they produce

speech sounds. The fourth level is articulation, meaning combining two or more

skills to be performed consistently. The example is when learners can combine

several skills together, such as speaking and listening skill that enable them to

engage in a conversation. At the highest level of the hierarchy is naturalization,

where learners have the higher level of performance though turning actions into

their second nature.

The framework of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain were

originally derived from Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy, which introduces the

concept of Knowledge, Skills and Attitude (KSA) in language learning. Laird

(1985) proposes that cognitive domain represent knowledge, psychomotor

domain represents skills, and affective domain represents attitude. The three

concepts of knowledge-cognitive, skills-psychomotor, and attitude-affective,

construct competence.

b. Conceptualizing Competence

There have been debates and confusions among scholars regarding the

definition of the term competence, as it cannot accommodate and reconcile the


25

different ways the term is used (Elleström, 1997; Robotham and Jubb, 1996, as

cited in Winterton et al., 2006). The term competency is instead widely used

instead of competence. Hartle (as cited in Winterton et al., 2006) describes

competence as a characteristic of a person who shows superior job performance is

combining visible competencies of knowledge, skills traits and motives. In

addition, the term that is widely used is in occupational context are described by

Woodruffle (as cited in Winterton et al., 2006) as ‘being competent’, which means

meeting the occupational demands, or ‘having competencies’ meaning having the

necessary trait to perform competently.

There are several components of competence proposed by Samian (2014)

that is based on the domains of learning concept. The illustration of the

components of competence is shown through Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Components of Competence (Samian, 2014)

The application for this concept in learning experience is how cognitive

domain enables learners to comprehend knowledge of English speaking, how

affective domain raises awareness of learners on how their feelings and

emotions have effect in how they comprehend knowledge, and how

Affective values and attitudes

Psychomotor Skills

Cognitive Knowledge


26

psychomotor domain ensures that the knowledge being learnt with certain

attitude can be performed in real world situation. Therefore, the domains of

learning are summarized into knowledge, skill and attitude.

Competence itself is broken down into three components, namely

conceptual, procedural and performance competence (Gelman & Greeno, 1989;

Greeno et al., 1984; Sophian, 1997, as cited in Winterton et al., 2006).

Conceptual competence is basically an abstract or conceptual knowledge about

an entire domain, whilst procedural competence has to do with skills to actualize

the knowledge. Performance competence has to do with selecting strategies to

assess problems, which falls into the affective domain.

Mansfield (2004) describes the three uses of competence, namely outcomes,

tasks, and people’s characteristics. Outcomes refer to what people need to be able

to do, tasks refer to what currently happens, and personal traits describes people’s

characteristics. The description of the three uses of competence are very closely

related to the three domains of learning, where knowledge or cognitive ability is

closely matched with outcomes as it answers to what people need to be able to do.

Skill or psychomotor is closely related to task, as it is required to have the skill to

complete a task, and personal traits which falls into attitude or affective domain.

3. Speaking Competence

Based on the conceptual truth regarding the domains of learning, speaking

competence has adopted this taxonomy. Speaking competence therefore

combines several aspects, with Johnson (as cited in Burns 2012, p. 167) refers to

speaking as a “combinatorial skill” that “involves doing various things at the

same time”. Burns (2012) proposes three components of speaking competence,


27

namely the knowledge of language and discourse, the core speaking skills, and

communication strategies. Knowledge is related to cognitive domain, skills are

related to psychomotor domain, and communication strategies is related to

affective domain or attitude. The combination of these three components leads to

a more fluent and more accurate production of the spoken language in a socially

appropriate way.

Adapting from Bloom’s Taxonomy, Brown (2004) proposes five levels of

hierarchy regarding speaking competence. Learners of speaking should be able

to begin the process of learning, starting from the bottom or the lowest level of

the hierarchy. Speaking competence begins with imitative and ends with

extensive. At the lowest level is imitative, which is the ability to imitate

utterances, where it is a word, a phrase, or a sentence. This level albeit seems

basic, but does include several language properties such as lexical and

grammatical knowledge. The second level is intensive, which refers to ability to

produce shorts stretches of oral language in a limited band of grammatical,

phrasal, lexical knowledge, such as intonation, stress, rhythm. Intensive is thus

frequently used in a speaking assessment. Moving up from intensive is

responsive, which refers to ability to perform tasks but in a limited level. This

includes engaging in small talks, greetings, simple requests and so forth.

The fifth level within the hierarchy is interactive, which is basically

similar with responsive, but the difference is in the length and complexity, that

the speaking is done in a longer duration and the complexity increases. There are

two forms of interactive, which also serve as the nature of speaking, namely

transactional and interpersonal. The former aims to exchange specific


28

information whilst the latter aims to maintain social relations. Within the

interpersonal,l the speaker sometimes needs to use humor or slang, meaning this

talk is pragmatically complex.

The highest level within the speaking hierarchy is extensive, which is often

referred as dialogue. This level needs extensive speaking tasks such as speeches,

storytelling, and oral presentation. The involvement from the listener is also

very limited, such as when listener has the chance to ask question. The style for

this speaking is usually formal and it has been planned rather than spontaneous,

albeit speakers might intentionally or unintentionally use casual speech.

4. Speaking Competence Investigation

There are three domains of speaking competence namely knowledge, skills

and attitude, which are derived from the three domains of language learning.

Knowledge represents the cognitive domain, skills represents the psychomotor

domain, and attitude represents the affective domain. The speaking research

reports chosen are therefore the ones that discuss any of the following domains,

including speaking skills, knowledge in speaking or known as speech knowledge,

and attitude in speaking.

a. Knowledge

Knowledge is defined by Winterton et al. (2006) as the result of an

interaction between intelligence (capacity to learn) and situation (opportunity to

learn). Knowledge therefore relies on the cognitive ability to absorb it, after it is

gained mostly through experience of doing certain things or tasks. Weinert (1999)

categorizes knowledge into general world knowledge and more arbitrary


29

specialized knowledge. The former can be measured by vocabulary tests as a part

of intelligence measurement, and the latter is more of a demand specific.

Burns (2012) believes that the knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and

communication strategies can compensate limitation in language knowledge.

Hence, the lack of those knowledge can contribute to difficulties when learning

the language. As for grammar, Gerot and Wignell (1994) define it as the study of

wording, of how words are put together and how they work. The knowledge of

grammar therefore enables learners to perform speaking accurately. Vocabulary

constitutes as the third aspect of knowledge. Nation (2001) explains that

vocabulary knowledge and language use, have a reciprocal relationship. This

means that the knowledge in vocabulary helps learners to perform speaking better,

and by performing speaking, learners obtain more vocabularies.

As for pronunciation, Harmer (2007) further emphasizes that pronunciation

has a degree and is related to attitude. This means that albeit learners want to be

exposed to the native speaker’s pronunciation, the degree of their pronunciation

depends on their attitude, of how they speak and how they hear. Moreover, the

lack of one or more of these knowledge components above can lead to difficulties

when performing speaking. It is therefore important to include research reports

that discuss the knowledge in speaking or speech knowledge.

b. Skills

Skills are very much related to performance, as what Winterton et al. (2006)

state that the term ‘skills’ is used to refer to performance level measured through

accuracy and fluency in performing tasks. Skills is therefore closely related to

psychomotor domain, as it is the psychical action of transfer knowledge into


30

performance. Hemerka (as cited in Astuti, 2013) argues that performance signifies

the production of utterances as the result of certain mental processes. The skills

that are investigated within this research are therefore about speaking performance

and its indicators, namely accuracy and fluency. Hedge (2000) expresses that

fluency is the ability to answer coherently by connecting the words and phrases,

pronouncing the sounds clearly, and using stress and intonation. On the other hand,

it has been explained earlier that complexity can also be the indicator of speaking

performance. However, since it is considered as an advanced skill, complexity is

not as crucial as accuracy and fluency.

There might be research reports that focus on investigating performance in

general, meaning fluency and accuracy are also included, but there might be other

reports that focus only on investigating one of the indicators. Speaking skills

concern with the ability of speakers to process speech quickly so that fluency,

including speech rate, chunking, pausing can be increased. In addition, this core

requires speakers to negotiate speech and manage its flow.

c. Attitude

Attitude falls into the affective domain, meaning it has to do with how

people perceive and embrace feelings and emotions. Latchanna and Daagnew

(2009) claim that attitude serves as a concept of understanding human behavior

and is generally defined as mental state about beliefs and feelings. Pickens (2005)

clarifies attitude as “a complex combination of things we tend to call personality,

beliefs, values, behaviors and motivations” (p. 44). To put into perspective,

attitude does play a significant role in language learning, as learners’ positive

attitude leads to positive learning experience, and the otherwise.


31

Burns (2012) believes that in the language learning, learners may need

support related to affective factors when performing speaking, such as anxiety,

nervousness, or embarrassment. This means that attitude and performance in

speaking are closely related to each other. Anxiety as a negative attitude for

instance, is defined by Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) as a fear or apprehension

when performing in target language. Anxiety is therefore often experienced by

learners and it can affect how they perform speaking, especially because speaking

itself is challenging and happens in real time. To overcome all the negative

attitudes, learners can apply learning strategies. O’Malley and Chamot (as cited in

Hardan, 2013), define learning strategies as the thoughts and behaviors that enable

learners to comprehend, learn, or retain information. To sum up, the investigated

attitude within the research reports are belief, perception, motivation, confidence,

self-efficacy, learning strategies, anxiety and several other related attitudes.

5. Former Trends in the Learning and Teaching of Speaking

Proni (as cited in Rech, 2011) states that trends are past event characteristics

that are related to one another and believed to be present in future events in the

same way or to undergo changes. This concept of trends also applies in

discovering the trends of research. Trends can determine the tendency of the past

and current research, as well predicting future research tendency. Falkingham and

Revees (1998) believe that it is important to update research trends using content

analysis to provide an additional method in the field for research community.

Looking back at the educational reports conducted over the years for instance, the

characteristics of those research reports, such as the issues or areas addressed, the

methodology and the outcomes, are all related and thus become the trends of those


32

research. The trends might remain the same in the future or they might also

undergo changes.

Richard (2013) further elaborates that the trends in the learning and teaching

of speaking have undergone a major shift in the recent years. This is true when

looking at the trends from 1970’s up to 1990’s. In the early 70’s, speaking focused

on Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism, meaning learners are

more passive, and the learning relies heavily on teachers’ role. Shrum and Glisan

(as cited in Richard, 2013) describe that during those years, speaking was more

about repeating after the teacher, memorizing dialogue and responding to

mechanical drill.

Richard (2013) explains that in the 1980’s, the shift changes into the

emergence of communicative competence. This leaded to various communicative

syllabuses as well as task-based and text-based approaches. Fluency thus became

the goal through various tasks, such as information gap that required learners to

attempt actual communication regardless of limited proficiency. Various

communication strategies which require learners to engage in negotiation of

meaning were implemented. This shift hence was positive as learners transform

the experience in learning speaking passively into a more active learning.

Richard (2013) further describes that in the 1990’s, the trends shift into

proficiency-oriented teaching. This means that the learning and teaching of

speaking more focused on practicing speaking in different contexts using different

functions. Rather than focusing on fluency back in the 80’s, the focus emphasized

on building accuracy. During these years, responsive instruction, evaluative

feedback, and cultural understanding were more promoted. As for early 2000’s,


33

Richard (2013) describes that the trends shifted from communicative competence

into intercultural competence. This leaded to the emergence of conversation

analysis and corpus analysis of real speech, revealing things such as

conversational routines, turn-taking, feedback, topic management, interactional

and transactional talk, pair and group activities, and so forth. During those years,

both accuracy and fluency with greater tolerance become the main goal of the

learning of speaking.

Based on the major shifts from 1970’s to early 2000’s, the current research

reports on speaking are supposed to focus on addressing new issues that are

different from the all previous issues. However, many research or studies still

focus on issues or areas that have become the focus in the past, such as how

research in late 2000’s still focus on paired and group activities which became the

interest in the early 2000’s. This might show that past strategies might still found

to be effective in the learning and teaching of speaking.

6. English Educational Research

A research is conducted to discover the truth about the world reality of an

object, or an event or a phenomenon. A research on object means that the research

itself should be able to improve higher efficiency. This principle is derived from

positivist paradigm, which according to Gray (2004), its basic belief is that “the

world is external and objective” (p. 25). This means that a research on a

phenomenon should be objective, meaning everyone has the same idea about the

object. On the other hand, research on an event means that the research itself

should be able to improve emphatic understanding of those who are marginalized.

This principle is derived from phenomenological paradigm, of which Gray (2004)


34

argues that the basic belief is on the idea that “the world is socially constructed

and subjective” (p. 25). This also means that research on an event or a

phenomenon tends to subjective, that everyone might have a different idea about it.

In English educational context, research has also been consistently and

continuously conducted to address various issues, both of objects or events.

Cresswell (2012) proposes three goals of educational research, which are: (1) to

add to our knowledge; (2) to improve practice, and (3) to inform policy debates.

‘Adding to knowledge’ means that the discovery within English research report

can inform educators and learners regarding the truth of an object or a

phenomenon within English educational setting. ‘Improving practice’ should lead

to improved efficiency for learning teaching process, as well emphatic

understanding. ‘Informing policy’ makers during the research and debate of

educational topics.

English educational research reports are therefore an important source of

knowledge to improve efficiency. According to Creswell (2012) “research is a

process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our

understanding of a topic or issue” (p. 3). This shows how research is a step by step

process. The writing of the research reports should thus follow certain procedures

that is systematic and effective. Thomas and Hodges (2010) also believe that

research reports should be “well-organized, readable and presented in formats

consistent with generally accepted practice” (p. 1). There are different kinds of

research reports, that each should follow different formats according to its own

guidelines. As this research collects data from journal articles as well as these and


35

dissertations, each of them should meet the acceptable guideline according the

generally accepted practice.

Thomas and Hodges (2010) define journal article as “a research report

presented in a form suitable for publication in an academic or scientific journal”

(p. 2). Therefore, journal article serves as a succinct form of knowledge or data

on a topic aiming to contribute to academic community by increasing the

knowledge base in the field. Journal article is also a good way to communicate

with people from across the world who study the same thing. It is always seen as

credible as it is more of a fact-based than opinion-based. The writing of journal

article should also follow the guideline of journal publishers. It should not go into

extensive details of the research project but rather provide the crucial key aspects

of the research.

A thesis or a dissertation is rather different than a journal article. Thomas

and Hodges (2010) believe that it should provide detailed descriptions of the

design, methods and results. It must also include review of the previous or related

studies to position the research project on how it is different from those previous

studies. The process of writing is also under the supervision of a lecturer or an

academic supervisor to ensure that it is written according to the guidelines and

that its content is relevant. In the educational field, a thesis for instance, might aim

to make a tangible product out of research such as a book, and therefore student

and supervisor should ensure that the product is efficient.

According to Creswell (2012), the process of research covers six steps. It

begins with identifying a research problem, reviewing the literature, specifying

the purpose, collecting the data, analyzing and interpreting the data, and ends with


36

reporting and evaluating. The data gathering instrument is therefore one of the

main important aspects within any research, as it is the instrument for data

collection step. Therefore, this research employs content analysis that is useful to

search for trends, and therefore adapts the Paper Classification Form (PCF), which

was developed by Gul and Sozbilir (2015) to determine trends in research.

However, this research has modified the PCF into a more suitable classification

form for this research.

Gul and Sozbilir (2015) divide PCF into seven sections: (1) descriptive

information for the paper identity; (2) topics; (3) subject matter; (4) method; (5)

data collection tools, (6) sample, (7) sample sizes; (8) data analysis methods.

Those parts containing the content of a research paper is considered to provide

enough information for a research paper, in which researchers can draw inferences

from the results of descriptive statistics. This research has adapted the PCF to

accommodate the purpose of this research. There are few sections added to the

original PCF, and hence the structure of the PCF becomes 14 sections: (1) data

origin; (2) year of publication; (3) concept clarification of speaking; (4)

investigated topic; (5) related topic; (6) research goals; (7) research design and

method; (8) sample; (9) sample size; (10) sampling techniques; (11) validity and

reliability; (12) data gathering instruments (DGI); (13) data analysis technique;

(14) research result.

7. Area Classification of English

The source of data for this research is retrieved form research reports

originated from different parts of the world. Kachru (1985) states that the spread

of English is divided into three concentric circles, namely the inner circle, the


37

outer circle, and the expanding circles. However, the status of World Englishes

had been a heated debate once, which Kilickaya (2009) points out how Quirk

(1985, 1990) and Kachru (1985, 1991) disagreed over the World Englishes, that

Quirk proposed a single common standard of English to be regulated in different

contexts. However, Kachru (1985) believes that such standard was not relevant as

the members of the outer circle countries also use English.

Despite there are only three circle countries within Kachru’s model, this

research takes the liberty to put Indonesia into a separate fourth category as to see

whether there have been many research reports on speaking within the country

compared to other circle countries, and to see its development. Hence the

classification is adjusted into four categories.

The first category is Indonesia. English in Indonesia is learnt as a foreign

language. It is however learnt mostly in formal education context, but due to the

high global demand as well as the increase of international contacts, the learning

and teaching of English in this country has been increasingly done in non-formal

education. Kirkpatrick (2010) explains how the Indonesian government require

English to be learnt in all secondary level schools as well as other private schools,

beginning from primary to tertiary level of education and higher degree. In fact,

some private institutions ensure that English is compulsory to be learnt from

primary level, and is even used as the instructional language in all subjects.

Despite the fact the above, Widiati and Cahyono (2006) argue that the use of

English as a medium of instruction is still a failure. The main reason for is

because a unified national system of English education has not been established

(Huda, 1997).


38

The second category is the inner circle countries consisting of countries

where English serves as the first language, where for the speakers, they require it

as their mother tongue. This circle consists of countries such as the United States

(US), United Kingdom (UK), Ireland, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South

Africa.

The third category is the outer circle constitutes countries in where English

serves as lingua franca. In addition, English also commonly serves as the official

language in these countries. These countries are mostly the former British

colonies, such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, the

Philippines, Ghana, Kenya, Jamaica, and Zambia.

The fourth category is the expanding circle countries, where English serves

as a foreign language. This category consists of the rest of the world outside the

inner and outer circle. In Asia, countries such as Japan, China, North and South

Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Saudi Arabia, Palestine, Israel, Iran,

Jordan and so forth. In Europe, countries such Turkey, Italy, Spain, France,

Croatia, Germany, Greece and so forth.

8. Content Analysis

This section provides the description regarding content analysis as the

chosen method for this research. It begins with conceptualizing content

analysis itself, then describing its purposes and elaborating its procedure.

a. Defining Content Analysis

Content analysis has been around for decades and has been implemented in

various fields of study. Prasad (2008) simply clarifies that “content denotes what

is contained and content analysis is the analysis of what is contained in a message”


39

(p. 2). However, as there might too many information contained in a message, it

important to understand this method in a more specific meaning. According to

Cohen et al. (2007), content analysis is “the process of summarizing and reporting

written data – the main contents of data and their messages” (p. 475). The main or

manifest content of research reports on speaking hence serves as the written data

and is summarized and reported accordingly. On the other hand, the messages or

meanings of why the quantitative findings are elaborated, of why the data are like

that, are also elaborated hrough logical reasoning supported by theories.

In the same respect with Cohen et al., Lac (2016) defines content analysis as

“a research method for classifying, evaluating, and studying recorded

communications objectively and systematically” (p. 1). Hence the emphasis is on

content analysis as an objective and systematic method. This method should be

conducted in such as systematic way and is free from bias. Krippendorff (2004)

further defines content analysis more specifically as “a research technique for

making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to

the contexts of their use (p. 18)”. This shows that as a valid and reliable technique,

content analysis should be able to make inferences from the texts, and therefore

the inferences should be made from the manifest content of speaking research

reports.

Prasad (2008) further highlights that content analysis relies on three basic

principle, which are objectivity, systematic, and generalizability. Objectivity

means that content analysis is conducted according to explicit rules that ensure

different researchers can generate the same results when analyzing the same

documents. Systematic deals with how the analysis of the content is done


40

systematically according to its rule system. Generalizability ensures that the

results of the analysis can be transferred or applied to other contexts.

b. Purposes of Content Analysis

Content analysis falls into both quantitative and qualitative paradigm. It is

quantitative in the way that it aims to summarize details of text information and

quantify them (Krippendorff, 2004; Neuendorf, 2002, as cited in Bengtsson, 2016).

Through summarizing rather reporting the entire information and then quantifying

them, content analysis deals with counting the number occurrences of the contents

within the speaking research reports. Content analysis is also qualitative in the

way that it also aims to analyze the latent content (Guest et al., 2012; White &

Marsh, 2006, as cited in Gavora, 2015). Hence, unlike manifest content, latent

content is rather more difficult to analyze, as researchers need to interpret the

possible reason behind the manifest content findings. This is in a line with

Lasswell (as cited in Ahuvia, 2000) who defines latent content as an

“interpretation”. The interpretation thus needs to have a theoretical ground that

researchers not only interpret from evidence and reasoning, but also able to

support their interpretation with related theories.

Prasad (2008) argues that content analysis aims to describe content

characteristics and to determine the causes and effects of the content. For

describing content characteristics, it can include describing content trends or

sources’ characteristics through text analysis. The cause of content can be about

analyzing individuals’ traits or even aspects of culture. Effect of content can be

done through the analysis of the information flow.


41

To put into perspective, manifest content is the observable and countable

elements of a text, and latent content is the underlying meaning that may lie

behind the manifest content (Rose et al., 2015). For its application, Ary et al.

(2010) state that there are various types of documents that can be analyzed

through content analysis, including textbooks, movies, themes, and so forth.

c. Procedure of Content Analysis

There are several procedures of content analysis proposed by different

scholars. One of the renowned content analysis theories is the one proposed by

Krippendorff (2004). He proposes a framework of content analysis that serves as a

set of succinct procedures. It begins with text and ends with validating evidence.

Figure 2.4 shows the framework for the content analysis used as the procedure in

conducting this research.

Figure 2.4 Framework for Content Analysis (as cited from

Krippendorff, 2004)

The framework of content analysis starts with data, where in this research is

research texts on speaking. These research texts are intended for wide target


42

audiences and not the ones intended to merely become the unit of analysis for

other research. The next step is formulating research question. This part is very

crucial as it sets what the research intends to discover, as research itself is about

truth discovery. Hence, the formulated question for this research intends to

discover the trends of speaking research in English educational research reports.

Once it has been formulated, the next step is deciding the context of text.

Krippendorff (2004) describes how context explains what the analyst does with

the texts; how the texts came to be, what they mean, what they can tell or do.

Hence, the context for this research is explained thoroughly in this chapter.

Once context has been constructed, the next step is to create the analytical

constructs, where the research should be able to explain the relation between the

text and the possible answer to the research question, and the circumstances that

the relation can change. This step is therefore elaborated by ensuring that the

speaking research reports are processed and analyzed according to the context of

their use. Once analytical construct has been made, the next step is drawing

inferences, meaning to discover the latent meaning of the manifest content of the

speaking research texts. The last step of the content analysis process is to ensure

the validity, meaning that it does what it intends to do, where the empirical truth

agrees with the theoretical truth.

A rather more comprehensive procedure of content analysis is proposed by

Cohen et al. (2007) with eleven steps in conducting content analysis. It begins

with defining the research questions to be addressed which can determine what

the research aims to achieve or intends to do. The second step is defining the


43

population, which refers to the domain of the analysis, followed by the third step,

which is defining the sample that should be able to represent the population.

Defining the sample is the fourth step, which includes the type of the sample,

where they come from, how are they gathered and so forth, and followed by the

units of analysis in the fifth step, whether it consists of word, phrase, sentence, or

whole text. For this research for instance, the unit of analysis is the whole text, as

the research examines the whole text first before choosing which content is crucial.

Step six is deciding the codes for analysis. Cohen et al. (2007) define code

as “a word or abbreviation sufficiently close to that which it is describing for the

researcher to see at a glance what it means” (p. 478). Researchers thus need to go

through the entire text and give code to each datum. Constructing the categories

for analysis is done once the codes are given to the data. This step involves

creating domain analysis for each code.

Once codes and categories for analysis have been given, the eighth step is

conducting the coding and data categorizing, which is the actual attribution of

codes and categories to text. Conducting the data analysis is the ninth step, where

it involves counting the frequency of codes, followed by step ten which is

summarizing by determining the major themes or issues that emerge. The last step

which is step eleven deals with making speculative inferences, meaning how the

researcher infer from the text by trying to find the latent meaning behind the text.

Albeit there are several theorists that have formulated the procedures of

content analysis, the procedures are basically similar. Therefore this research

regards the content analysis by Krippendorff (2004) to be the most effective, as it

provides succinct procedures of the content analysis.


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B. RELATED STUDIES

Providing related research studies is important in the academic research in

order to position this research on how it is different with other previous studies

about research trends. There are several studies about educational research trends

First, Ma and Kim (2014) conducted research to investigate the current research

trends of English education in a South Korean journal namely English Teaching

(ET) Journal, and an international journal, namely TESOL Quarterly (TQ). The

results show that the proportion of quantitative and qualitative study was well

balanced in TQ, whilst in ET, more than 50% of the articles were quantitative. In

terms of target language skills, writing was mostly studied in ET and speaking in

TQ. As for research topics, socio-cultural factors were the preferred topics in TQ,

whilst classroom pedagogy was mostly researched in ET. Thus, English learning

was mostly performed in classroom settings in South Korea.

Cavas (2015)’s study aimed to analyze the trends in authors’ nationality and

research topics of articles published in Science Educational International Journal.

The study revealed that the publications by authors from Turkey were the most

dominant, followed by USA and Australia. As for articles’ topics, the dominant

topics were about teacher education, learning conception and learning context.

Akaydin and Çeçen (2015) conducted research on examining articles related

to reading skills between 1990 and 2013 published in different journals to

determine its trends. The research utilized paper classification form consisting of

the important information within the articles related to reading skills. The results

were then presented using descriptive statistics, and the findings showed that most

articles focused on reading comprehension, had a single author and one

hypothesis, employed non-experimental quantitative design, utilized attitude and


45

perception tests as the DGI, participants are mostly middle-school students,

sample size was from 101 to 300, with random sampling technique, and

quantitative descriptive analysis method.

Another research was conducted by Susanti (2017) to investigate the trends

of English knowledge and skills of the 100 research reports from 2007 and 2016

from the published journals, conference proceeding, theses and dissertations from

the inner, outer, and expanding circle countries. The findings revealed that the

most investigated knowledge was pronunciation and vocabulary, whilst the most

investigated skills were writing and speaking, and most research employed

experimental design with students as the research object. Most research set their

focus on investigating the effectiveness of methods, technique and approaches.

Eğmir et al. (2017) conducted a research about the trends in educational

research in the last ten years (from 2008 to March 2017) published in 35 different

countries. The research aimed at determining the distribution of those research

and the dominant findings. Within the distribution of the country where the study

took place, most research came from Turkey. For the number of authors, most

studies were written by a single author. For the topics, most studies subject was

language learning and teaching. Quantitative design was mostly preferred. As for

methods, conceptional study and document analysis were mostly chosen. For the

the data collection technique, scales or questionnaires were mostly used, whilst

descriptive statistics were the most preferred data analysis technique. Most studies

were carried out with student participants differing from k-12 to graduates.

Purposive sampling technique was mostly employed, and most articles used a

sample between 501 and 1000.


46

C. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The learning and teaching of speaking are derived from the concept of

learning domain. Within the knowledge-cognitive part, speaking consists of

language components namely pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Within the

skills-psychomotor part, speaking is colored by accuracy and fluency seen through

performance, whilst the attitude-affective in learning speaking consists of belief,

perception, motivation, confidence, learning strategies, anxiety, and so forth.

Therefore, the data for this research are research reports containing any of those

domains of learning.

Due to the nature of speaking itself as discussed earlier, many learners often

consider speaking to be very challenging and even difficult. For this reason, the

research on speaking is extensively conducted in different parts of the world by

educators and researchers over the years. This can lead to the possibility of having

overlapping topics, methodology and results, thus may reduce the optimum

development of speaking science. The data of this research is therefore taken from

speaking research reports published in 2008 to 2018 within different circle

countries, composed by teachers and learners.

Content analysis itself is useful to investigate research trends. However,

while previous related studies focused on investigating manifest meanings to

determine the trends, this research aims to also investigate the latent content or the

meanings underlying the manifest findings, based on evidence and reasoning with

theoretical grounds. Simply put, this research is extended into an interpretive level.

It focuses on investigating the current trends in speaking research reports

exclusively to see their development, and to see whether there have been

overlapping topics, methodology and results. The characteristics and anomalies of


47

the research reports are also elaborated. Hence, this research can shed light on

what issues or areas of speaking have been overly explored and what areas or

issues need more attention, as well as what kind of anomalies that should have

been avoided to produce a more productive research.

Gilbert et al. (2003) and Teo et al. (2014) believe that a suitable range of

research types consisting of research topics, methods, methodologies, participants

and so forth, should be carried out in content analysis about research trends.

Hence, the investigation of the trends in speaking competence research is

conducted by investigating the manifest content of the research through the

utilization of the manifest content table contains the aspects above which consists

of investigated and related topic, concept clarification, research goals, research

results, and the methodology consists of research design and method, data

gathering instrument, analysis technique, sample of the research reports, sample

sizes, sampling technique, and research validity. The results are analyzed

quantitatively, and then latent content to investigate the possible reason behind the

findings is also elaborated. The framework of pre-understanding is illustrated in

Figure 2.5 in the next page.


48

Investigation on Current Trends in Speaking Competence Research

Harmer (2007), Hoque (2016), Mansfield (2004)

Content

1. Manifest Content

Pre-determined categories:

• Data origin and year of publication

• Investigated topics

• Concept clarifications of speaking

• Related topics

• Research goals

• Research designs and methods

• Data gathering instruments

• Analysis techniques

• Sample of the Research Reports

• Sample sizes

• Sampling techniques

• Research validity and reliability

• Research results

Latent Content

• Investigate the meanings behind the manifest findings

• Describe the characteristics of the current trends

• Describe anomalies found within the data

Figure 2.5 Framework of Pre-understanding

Current Speaking Competence Research

• Journal articles, undergraduate and master theses, doctoral dissertations

• Published from 2008 to 2018

• From Indonesia, inner, outer, expanding circle countries

• Topics chosen as data (components of language learning):

o Speech knowledge (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar)

o Speaking skills (performance which includes both accuracy and fluency,

accuracy alone, or fluency alone)

o Attitude in speaking (belief, perception, motivation, learning style,

learning strategy, confidence, anxiety, and so forth)


49

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter provides a detailed description of the methodology employed

to answer the research question. There are four major sections of this chapter,

namely research method, nature and source of data, research instruments, data

gathering, data analysis and presentation, as well as trustworthiness.

A. RESEARCH METHOD

This research aims to investigate the trends of 100 speaking competence

research reports from 2008 to 2018. To achieve this goal, content analysis method

is implemented. Stemler (2001) believes that content analysis is a powerful data

reduction technique to examine trends and patterns in documents. As this research

is about trends discovery, the method therefore accommodates the intention of the

research. Content analysis itself is more of a blended research using both

quantitative and qualitative techniques. The goal of content analysis according to

Wimmer and Dominick (2011) is an accurate representation of a body of texts,

thus quantification is crucial for researchers in the search for precision. Mayring

(2000) also believes that the advantages of content analysis quantification need to

be conserved by using qualitative text interpretation. Based on all these concepts,

content analysis is the most suitable method to achieve the goal of this research.

The investigation of the trends in speaking competence research is done

through documenting the important observable aspects of the research referred as

manifest content. These aspects also constitute as the investigated trends. The

aspects consist of the topics both main and related topics, goal, concept

clarification, methodology including research design and method, DGI, analysis


50

technique, sample of the research reports, sampling size, sampling technique,

research validity and reliability, and last is the research results. The large volumes

of data are summarized and quantified using descriptive statistics. Each of the

manifest content category above is quantified descriptively, followed by drawing

inferences from each category to determine the latent meanings behind the

manifest findings. The latent findings can then be useful to provide information

about the reason behind the trends’ discovery that can lead to efficiency

improvement in the research of speaking.

B. NATURE AND SOURCE OF DATA

The nature of data in this research is direct observation, as the researcher

directly observes the content of the current speaking research texts. The

observation is conducted through careful reading of those texts one by one, while

at the same time documenting the important key aspects referred as the manifest

content within each text using manifest content table. The researcher then

quantifies and summarizes the manifest findings using descriptive statistics and

drawing inferences.

Stratified random sampling is the most suitable sampling technique for this

content analysis research. Taherdoost (2016) explains that this technique works by

dividing population into strata or subgroups and then random sample is taken

from each subgroup. Through the utilization of this sampling technique, the data

are retrieved from 100 English speaking recent research reports from the

publication year of 2008 to 2018. These reports are in the form of journal articles,

undergraduate theses, master theses, and doctoral dissertations from the reputable

open sources online. The data are collected from the inner, outer, and expanding


51

circle countries, and this research takes the liberty to put Indonesia within a

separate fourth category. This step serves as the stratification of the sample and

followed by random selection from each stratum.

C. INSTRUMENTS

There are two instruments utilized within this research, the first is the

researcher herself, and the second is the Internet research. The researcher is the

main instrument in this study, as she is the one who collects the 100 research

reports on speaking, establishes the code and categorized the data into its own

code, quantified the occurrences, presents the result using descriptive statistics

and makes inferences from the manifest findings.

Another instrument utilized is the Internet access, as the research reports are

collected by visiting reputable open access journal, theses, and dissertation to

collect the data, as well as utilizing Google search engine. The Internet access is

therefore very crucial tool, as most of research today are stored online targeted

for global readers.

D. DATA GATHERING

There are several steps in gathering the speaking research reports as the data.

The first step is visiting the reputable open access journals, theses and

dissertations. The journals for instance, are the ones listed in the Directory of

Open Access Journal (DOAJ) or indexed in major databases for educational

research, such as Scopus and ERIC. As for theses and dissertation is the Open

Access Theses and Dissertations (OATD). Google search engine is also utilized to

collect more data. The main keywords used to find the data in all the platforms

above are English speaking research, speaking research and speaking competence


52

research. This way, research reports that match the keywords appear, including

research on fluency, pronunciation, or attitude, as authors most likely insert the

keyword speaking in their research. In addition, several other keywords such as

speaking skills, speaking attitude, knowledge in speaking and so forth are also

used. Reports that are collected are the ones that meet the publication year criteria.

Once the 100 reports are collected, the next step is doing careful reading to

comprehend the content. This step is followed by underlining the crucial

information which covers the research origin, investigated topic, concept

clarification, related topic, research goals, research design and method, DGI,

analysis technique, sample of the research reports, sampling size, sampling

technique, research validity and reliability, as well as research result.

In the next step, the researcher creates the entry code for each datum based

on publication year, country of origin, and the topic. This entry code is input into

the Data Source Identity Table, together with the data full identity consisting of

the author’s name, publication year, title, and where they are retrieved from. The

next table created is the Manifest Content Table, where the information regarding

the content of the research reports above are entered input into the table. Hence,

this is the most crucial step in the data gathering. The Data Source Identity and the

Manifest Content Table are shown in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2.

Table 3.1 Data Source Identity

Entry Code Full Identity

01ID2008PER

02IC2009FLU

The example for the entry code 01ID2008PER for instance, 01 and 02 are

the data number, ID and IC are the codes for the country of origin, ID refers to

Indonesia, whilst IC refers to inner circle countries. PER and FLU are the


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investigated topic, with PER stands for performance, and FLU stands for fluency.

The full identity column contains the research report’s full identity.

Table 3.2 Manifest Content

Sub-Items Entry Code

01…….. 02……. 03…… 04……. 05……..

Investigated topic

Concept clarification

Related topic

Research goal

Research design

Sample

Sample sizes

Sampling technique

Validity and reliability

DGI

Data analysis technique(s)

Research result

The left column in Table 3.2 shows the content category within the 100

speaking research reports. There are 12 categories in total, and the findings

within each category is documented. The right column contains the entry codes,

which are the data that have been coded one by one from data number one to

the last one.

E. DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

The data analysis begins with counting occurrences of the manifest

category findings. The data are then quantified and presented using descriptive

statistics. For instance, the finding about trends in sampling technique, shows

that there are 30 reports that implement simple random sampling out of 100

reports. These occurrences are then quantified using descriptive statistics, and

therefore the percentage of research reports implementing simple random

sampling is 30%. The descriptive statistics of the manifest content quantitative

findings along with their explanations are presented in the form of charts.


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Following the quantitative finding, inferences revealing the latent

meaning behind the manifest content findings are also drawn to determine the

current trends of speaking research reports. The anomalies within the research

findings are also elaborated as additional evidences found within the data.

F. TRUSTWORTHINESS

Trustworthiness in content analysis determines whether the research does

what it intends to do. It is often used interchangeably with the term validity.

However, trustworthiness is more suitable to be used in content analysis, as what

Kyngäs (as cited in Elo et al., 2014) states that qualitative criteria are mainly used

by researchers to evaluate aspects of validity in content analysis. There are several

components that construct trustworthiness, namely credibility, transferability,

dependability, and confirmability.

Polit and Beck (2012) refer to credibility as “confidence in the truth of the

data and interpretations of them” (p.430). In another way, credibility is therefore

equivalent with internal validity. First, the data analysis within this researched is

supported by theories, to ensure the logical truth agrees with the empirical

evidences. There are other several ways to establish credibility, and there are two

strategies this research employs.

The first one is data triangulation that consists of several types, and the ones

suitable for this research are time and space triangulation. Polit and Beck (2012)

further explain that time triangulation concerns with collecting data on the same

subject matter at different points in time, whilst space triangulation is collecting

them from different places. In this research, time triangulation is done by

collecting the research reports from 2008 to 2018, which means they come from


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various points in time, meaning they are relevant to today context. Space

triangulation is done by collecting the reports from different countries of

publication. Bitsch (2005) proposes another strategy namely the negative case

analysis, which is done when data emerging from the analysis contradicts the

research’s expectations. This research thus reports anomaly of the data and

attempts to examine the cause behind them and what should have been corrected.

Transferability is the equivalent of external validity. Lincoln and Guba

(1985) define transferability as the extent where research results should be able to

be transferred to other context and setting outside of the study. This research thus

takes 100 reports on speaking through stratified random sampling from various

World Englishes circle countries during the timeline above. The topics on

speaking also vary. The sampling size of 100 is therefore representative of the

many speaking reports from various countries, year of publications, and topics.

The research results from this sample is therefore relevant for todays and future’s

context and setting due its representativeness. Another way to establish

transferability is through thick description, which according to Anney (2014),

covers all the research processes including data collection, context of the study

and the final report production. Providing thick description of all the processes

also enables other researchers to replicate the study to other context and setting.

In terms of dependability, Bitsch (2005), refers to it as “the stability of

findings over time” (p. 86). Dependability therefore closely matches reliability as

it deals with the consistency of research. One of the ways to establish

dependability is through peer examination. Morrow (2005) states that this strategy

can be done through discussing the detailed chronology of research process with


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peer researchers, students’ advisors or colleagues. As for this research, the

dependability is done through discussion with the researcher’s thesis advisor,

other lecturers and academic colleagues. They examine the processes and results

of this research to give feedback whether there are elements that should be

corrected or improved within the research.

The last strategy to ensure trustworthiness is through confirmability.

According to Tobin and Begley (2004), confirmability concern with establishing

that data and interpretations of the findings that are clearly derived from the data.

This research therefore provides all the data source identity and the manifest

content. Readers can check the authenticity of the data by referring to them to

determine the confirmability and the overall trustworthiness of this research.


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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULTS

This chapter presents the answer to the research question “what are the

current trends of speaking competence research?” The first section reveals the

trends in speaking competence research by first showing the quantitative

findings, followed by inferences to reveal the latent meanings of the manifest

findings. The second section is the elaboration on the discovery of anomalies

within the research reports.

A. TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE RESEARCH

Before discussing the analysis results, it is necessary to first elaborate the

data source of this study. Through stratified random sampling, the research reports

on speaking are retrieved from journal articles, undergraduate and master theses

as well as doctoral dissertations from English speaking countries and non-English

speaking countries. The articles were retrieved from reputable open access

journals, such as Teaching English with Technology, International Journal of

Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 3L: Language, Linguistic Literature,

and Research in English Language Pedagogy, which are indexed in reputable

major data bases such as Scopus, ASEAN Citation Index, DOAJ, Open J-Gate

and ProQuest.

The undergraduate and master theses as well as doctoral dissertation were

retrieved from open access repositories of various universities from the four circle

countries, particularly the top ranked universities such as Diponegoro University,

University of Florida, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, and Bilkent University.

The theses and dissertations were also retrieved from OATD that serves as a


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reliable indexing service for open access theses and dissertations. As a result, a

total of 100 research reports from 2008 to 2018 were successfully retrieved.

Through the utilization of the manifest content table, the findings are presented in

the form of table and chart. The content consists of data origin and year of

publication, investigated topic, concept clarification, related topic, research goals,

research design and method, DGI, data analysis technique, research sample,

sample sizes, sampling technique, validity and reliability, and research result.

1. Origin and Interest in Research from 2008 to 2018

Prior to presenting the analysis result, it is important to present the data

origin and year of publication to show the implementation of stratified random

sampling utilized within this study. The data are collected from English speaking

countries and non-English-speaking countries. Figure 4.1 shows the comparison

of reports collected from both categories.

Figure 4.1 Data Origin

Research reports that make the highest ratio are those coming from

Indonesia (ID) (29%), followed by expanding circle countries (EC) (27%). The

latter circle consists of countries such as Thailand, Iran, Palestine, Jordan, Algeria,

Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Finland, Poland, Croatia, Brazil, and El-Salvador. Inner


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circle countries (IC) (23%) is in the third place, consisting of countries such as

US, UK, Canada, Australia, and South Africa. Outer circle countries (OC) (21%)

is in the last place, including countries such as India, Bangladesh, Singapore, and

Malaysia. Speaking competence is therefore more researched within Indonesia

where English is spoken as a foreign language.

The latent meanings behind these findings, is that English serves as a foreign

language in Indonesia and EC circle countries, and the fact that spoken English

itself is considered challenging. Brown and Yule (1983 in Tuan et al., 2015)

believe that spoken language production is often considered one of the most

difficult aspects of language learning. Researchers in Indonesia and in EC circle

countries find many issues regarding speaking that need to address. They attempt

to improve efficiency and emphatic understanding in the learning and teaching of

speaking by suggesting different methods and strategies that mostly have been a

success as claimed in their research. For instance, comprehending the knowledge

of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation to able to produce speech accurately

and fluently, may raise many issues, such as psychological issues. Learners need

to have positive attitudes to learn speaking in better ways, as things such as

anxiety, low confidence and low motivation can very much affect how they

acquire speaking.

Ur (1996) also claims that speaking happens in real-time and there is a

degree of exposure to the hearer. Those two factors can also raise many

difficulties such as anxiety, low self-esteem and low confidence. In the learning

and teaching of English in Indonesia and EC circle countries, students are not

given enough time and exposure to practice speaking or to attempt it in real world


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communication. Furthermore, in Indonesia for instance, Huda (1997) argues that a

unified national system of English education in Indonesia itself has not been

established. This means that the attempt to use it as the language of instruction for

instance, to improve efficiency in learning English, remains a failure.

In terms of interest in research from 2008 to 2018, the number of the research

reports in each year can be seen in Table 4.1. The publication year means that the

research on speaking might have been conducted long before it, from several

months up to two years, as the publication process can take a long time.

Table 4.1 Publication Year

Year F %

2015 18 18

2017 18 18

2016 17 17

2014 15 15

2013 9 9

2011 6 6

2012 5 5

2010 4 4

2009 3 3

2018 3 3

2008 2 2

Total 100 100

Table 4.1 shows how the interest to research speaking competence has

been progressing over the years, starting with 2008 (2%), 2009 (3%), 2010

(4%), 2012 (5%), 2011 (6%), 2013 (9%), 2014 (15%), 2015 (18%), and then

slightly drops by 1% in 2016 (17%), and goes up again in 2017 (18%).

However, in 2018, the number of research reports drops to 3%. As explained in

research limitation, the research reports collected in 2018 was only up to the

middle of the year, as the researcher had reached 100 data by that time and


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started processing them. The trends regarding the detected research reports

throughout the years are further illustrated in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Detected, Current Research Reports throughout the Years

Based on forecast analysis in Excel 2016 through the figure above, the

detected research on speaking from 2008 to 2017 increases, as indicated by the

blue line. However, in 2018, it drops to only three research reports found. This

is because from the early to middle of 2018, only three data that matched the

criteria are found, due to many research reports have not yet been uploaded and

published by that time. The three research reports come from Iran as a part of

EC circle countries. The three reports match the criteria for data collection,

where they need to be the ones listed in reputable open sources indexed in

major databases, such as English Language Teaching Journal which is indexed

in Harvard Library E-Journals and Excellence Research for Australia. This is

done to ensure that the research has been acknowledged as a decent research.

Furthermore, in the future, research on speaking is likely to increase in

terms of number, as indicated by the orange line. This means that researchers

might still consider speaking as an interesting subject to research, due to many

issues related to it, might have not been addressed properly to find effective

solution. Especially with the urgency of having a good control of English in


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this globalization era to meet the global demand. Chew (1999) believes that

lack of a control in English leads to the constant marginalization of people in

the world that continues to use the language to a greater degree. This is because

those people would not have access to the wide-ranging resources available in

English. The fact that those resources are only available in English is indeed

the consequence of globalization.

Furthermore, nowadays research might not only aim to improve

efficiency or emphatic understanding, but also to fulfill other purposes.

Altbach and Wit (2018) claim that too much research being published because

the academic system encourages unnecessary publication. This causes a crisis

in academic publishing regarding the quality of the research or whether it is

necessary. For instance, many researchers conduct research to obtain

recognition, academic credits, graduations and other academic purposes. Hence,

apart from the fact the speaking is indeed interesting to research, the increased

interest could be due to any of these reasons.

2. Investigated Topic

From the total 100 research reports on speaking competence, there are

various topics that fall into each domain of competence. There are three domains

of speaking competence that are derived from the domains of language learning,

namely knowledge, skills, and attitude. The findings regarding investigated

competence is shown in Table 4.2. It should be noted that several research reports

belong to more than one or two competence, which affects the total number of the

competence found.


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Table 4.2 Investigated Competence

Competence F %

Skills 86 68

Attitude 30 23

Knowledge 11 9

Total 127 100

Although the total number of research reports are 100, the competence

found is 127, as several reports belong to more than one competence. Through

Table 4.2, skills are the most investigated competence (68%), attitude in speaking

comes second (23%) and knowledge in speaking is the least investigated speaking

competence (9%) which fall far below skills but slightly below attitude. Thus, the

proportion of the three competence is unbalanced.

Winterton et al. (2006) state that skills refer to performance level measured

through accuracy and fluency in performing tasks. Thus, skills in speaking consist

of the indicators namely accuracy and fluency and measured through

performance. Skills are one of the domains in speaking competence that relies on

psychomotor ability. Hence, research reports that discuss skills outnumber attitude

and knowledge. The reason for this is that speaking research is usually about

measurements conducted through tests. This means that learners’ performance is

measured through both indicators of accuracy and fluency, that learners who

demonstrate high accuracy and fluency are considered to perform well in

speaking, whilst lacking one or the other means learners might not perform well.

On the other hand, attitude is related to affective-ability in the language

learning, of how people behave when learning speaking, such being motivated,

having high confidence, feeling anxious, having different perceptions, conducting

certain speaking strategies, and so forth. Albarracin et al. (2005) believe that


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attitude is latent and cannot be observed directly, hence attitude measurement

depends on the overt responses. Topics about attitude in speaking are lower than

skills, because attitude is rather complex and more challenging to research, as it

deals with psychological constructs of the learners. Thing such as learners’ bias

and self-awareness can very much influence what is seen or heard. Many research

reports on attitude in speaking are about measurement, such as measuring anxiety

or motivation, meaning that bias and self-awareness may affect what is performed

by the learners.

Knowledge is about cognitive ability on how learners process and

comprehend speech knowledge such knowledge about grammar, vocabulary and

pronunciation. The findings of research reports that belong to knowledge domain

are the lowest compared to the other two domains. Knowledge in speaking

includes knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Richard (2008)

states that lack of vocabulary, poor grammar and poor pronunciation are the usual

problems in learning speaking.

However, it is likely that the interest to research speech knowledge because

learners are already presumed to have gained the knowledge, shown through their

performance. Hence, the research on speaking mostly centers on skills’ domain,

that other domains are presumed to have been achieved and integrated within

skills’ domain. The elaboration of the findings for each of the three domains of

competence which are skills, knowledge and attitude are shown in Table 4.3, 4.4

and 4.5.


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Table 4.3 Investigated Skills

Skills F %

Performance (accuracy and fluency) 79 62

Fluency only 7 6

Subtotal 86 68

Table 4.3 demonstrates that the most investigated skills are speaking

performance (62%), which refers to the measurement of both accuracy and

fluency shown through speaking performance. Research reports investigating

fluency here is very low (6%). The total investigated skills make a total 62% of

the total 127 competence found as shown in the previous table. Skills domain

therefore make the highest ratio compared to knowledge and attitude that fall far

behind skills.

There is a latent meaning behind this finding where performance topic is the

highest. Winterton et al. (2006) state that performance in speaking is measured

through the success of accuracy and fluency. Research reports that discuss both

fluency and accuracy are therefore considered as performance, meaning learners

perform both indicators. Hence, most research reports discuss about performance,

as it consists of the measurement of the two indicators. Research reports on

fluency alone are much lower than performance. This is because many researchers

believe that researching fluency should not be separated from researching about

accuracy. Segalowitz (2003) refers to fluency as an ability to produce utterances

smoothly, rapidly, and accurately the second language. This means that accuracy

and fluency are knit together and therefore should be assessed together. Thus, the

research reports on accuracy alone are not found, despite it is also one of the

indicators of speaking.


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Similar with research on fluency, research on accuracy would mean

investigating fluency as well, meaning they both fall into research on speaking

performance category. Fluency however makes small number of the total reports,

because most language learners’ goal in learning speaking is to speak effortlessly

without hesitation. Hence, researchers are more interested in fluency topic alone,

rather accuracy topic alone. On the other hand, the attitude domain of learning

contributes 23% of the total competence. The findings are illustrated in Table 4.4

below.

Table 4.4 Investigated Attitude

Attitude F %

Motivation 7 6

Anxiety 6 5

Learning strategies 4 3

Perception 4 3

Belief 3 2

Confidence 2 2

Critical thinking 2 2

Learning style 1 1

Emotional intelligence 1 1

Subtotal 30 23

In terms of attitude, Table 4.4 shows that the most investigated attitude is

motivation (6%), followed by anxiety (5%), learning strategies (3%) and

perception (3%). However, belief (2%), confidence (2%) and critical thinking

(2%) follow slightly behind and share the number of percentages. Learning style

(1%) and emotional intelligence (1%) are the lowest. Attitude domain therefore

contributes 24% of the total speaking competence found. The proportion of the

findings are quite balanced, that none of the topics above outnumber the others,

meaning researchers are interested in various topics regarding attitude.


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Attitude is derived from affective domain of language learning, that it has to

do with learners’ emotion and behavior on how they learn language. Attitude

therefore affects how learners transform knowledge into actions, with positive

attitude can improve learning, whilst negative attitude can do the otherwise. The

interest in researching attitude in speaking means that researchers still find various

issues regarding this affective ability, as attitude itself involves learners’ mental

state, which can change overtime.

Attitude is also widely researched because they can very much affect the

speaking learning experience, in the way that speaking itself is challenging and

happens in real time, which can be a daunting experience and thus learners need to

have positive attitude to succeed. Saranraj and Meenakshi (2016) also believe that

the success in L2 language learning depends on learners’ motivation, confidence

and lower level of anxiety. The lack of positive attitude can result in the negative

learning experience.

Motivation is the dominant finding within the attitude domain. Motivation

plays an important aspect in the learning of speaking and language learning in

general. Gilakjani et al. (2012) claim that the success of any action depends on

how people strive to achieve their goal along with the desire to do so, or in

another way is their motivation. Hence, a motivated learner is more likely to learn

speaking more efficiently. Anxiety is also widely researched because learners

often have this fear or apprehension when performing speaking, and therefore

researching anxiety is conducted to improve understanding towards learners who

experience it, as well as suggesting possible solutions or learning strategies to


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overcome it. As for the investigated knowledge as one of the domains in

competence, the findings are shown in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5 Investigated Knowledge

Knowledge F %

Speaking difficulties 3 2

Pronunciation 3 2

Vocabulary 2 2

Grammar 2 2

Cognitive ability 1 1

Subtotal 11 9

Table 4.5 shows that speaking difficulties topic is the most investigated

(2%). Knowledge of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar follow behind at

2% respectively. Topic on discussion about cognitive ability in general is the

lowest (1%). Knowledge domain thus contributes 8% of the total competence

found. This shows that the area of knowledge of speaking receives less

attention compared to other areas which are skills and attitude.

Knowledge of speaking consists of knowledge about grammar,

vocabulary and pronunciation that can tackle speaking difficulties including

limitation in language knowledge. Difficulties happen when learners fail to

comprehend the knowledge of speaking therefore lead to low speaking

performance. Knowledge is indeed the first key to succeed in the learning and

teaching of speaking. Zashchitina and Moysyak (2017) believe that the lack of

knowledge in the target language can hinder the entire learning process. The

low interest of research in knowledge compared to the other two domains, is

because knowing how learners comprehend knowledge is rather difficult

compared to assessing their performance and evaluating their attitude.


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Based on the finding, pronunciation and speaking difficulties are the

most researched topics, although they are only slightly higher than the rest of

the topics. Hinofotis and Baily (1980) believe that it is pronunciation, not

vocabulary or grammar, which mostly hinder the communication process.

Therefore, researchers are more interested in researching pronunciation, as

there are various factors that affect pronunciation, such as accent, stress,

intonation, rhythm. Researchers hence implement different techniques or

strategies to improve learners’ pronunciation.

Similar with pronunciation, research reports on speaking difficulties are

the ones that explore learners’ difficulties in comprehending the knowledge of

speaking, and not the ones aim to implement techniques or strategies to

improve knowledge. For instace, Dobao and Marinez (2007) argue that the lack

of knowledge about lexical items causes a message not to be well-

communicated in the target language. Hence, exploring speaking difficulties,

such as the findings about the lack of lexical items or negotiation of meaning,

is crucial to find effective solutions to help learners overcome difficulties.

3. Concept Clarification of Speaking

Concept clarification concerns with how research reports on speaking

clarify the concept of speaking and its indicators, which are accuracy and fluency

based on theories. Pronunciation is also an element specifically belongs to

speaking that is often researched and therefore needs to be clarified. Although

there are also research reports about speaking knowledge and attitude, all those

research reports are basically about speaking and therefore they need to clarify


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speaking accordingly. The finding regarding concept clarification of speaking is

shown in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Concept Clarification of Speaking

Code Concept Clarification F %

Not reported 59 59

CC01 Speaking is an interactive process of constructing/conveying

meaning.

16 16

CC02 Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning using

verbal and non-verbal symbols in a variety of contexts.

13 13

CC03 Fluency is the rapid, smooth and accurate translation of

thought into language.

3 3

CC04 Speaking is a two-way process between speaker and listener. 2 2

CC05 Accuracy is the correct use of linguistic competence. 2 2

CC06 Speaking is a multi-sensory activity. 1 1

CC07 Accuracy is the production of language based on its rule

system.

1 1

CC08 Fluency is the ability to deliver a message regardless

grammatical mistake.

1 1

CC09 Fluency is the production of language in real time. 1 1

CC10 Pronunciation is the creation of meaning through sounds

production.

1 1

Total 100 100

Table 4.6 shows 10 categories of concept clarification within the 100

research reports. The findings show that 59 research reports do not clarify their

concept of speaking and its indicators. There are four concepts of clarification

about speaking found, three concepts define speaking as a process, which are

CC01 (16%), CC02 (13%), and CC05 (2%), whilst CC06 (1%) defines speaking

as a multisensory activity.

In terms of indicators of speaking, there are two concepts of accuracy and

three of fluency. For accuracy, CC05 (2%) concerns with the correct use of

linguistic competence, and CC07 (1%) is slightly the same concept but more

relies on the entire rule system. The next indicator of speaking found in the


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investigated topic is fluency, and there are also three categories of fluency found.

In CC03 (3%), fluency is about translation of thought, whilst CC09 (1%) defines

fluency as an ability to deliver message regardless grammatical mistakes. CC10

(1%) clarifies fluency as a real time language production. As for pronunciation,

albeit there are four reports researching about pronunciation, only one clarifies it,

which is the production of sounds to create meaning as stated in CC11 (1%).

All the concept clarifications above are in a specific and justified definitions

based on theories used in the research reports. The exception is for the ones that

define speaking as a two-way process between speaker and listener, which is not

always true in terms of monologue. Research itself is about truth discovery. Thus,

concept clarification is important for justification, meaning and truth, and that

theories supporting it should account better for data, explains better and leads to

better efficiency.

Creswell (2012) believes that literature review provides information about

the current state of knowledge about topic. However, most of the research reports

do not clarify the concepts of speaking and its indicators, but rather describing the

theories of the related topics, such as the theories of corrective feedback,

information gap or storytelling. This is most likely because researchers might not

regard concept clarification of speaking as necessary. The importance is rather

emphasized on conceptualizing the related topic or variables than can help

learners to perform better in speaking. As the topic on speaking might have been

researched widely, researchers whose target readers are the academic community

might also assume that the concept of speaking has been a well-known knowledge

in the research or academic community.


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Over the years, the concept of speaking and its indicators namely accuracy

and fluency, as well its component namely pronunciation have been clarified quite

differently from one author with another. For speaking itself, the definition about

speaking as an interactive process of constructing or conveying meaning, has been

mostly preferred by research reports that include the concept clarification of

speaking in their research. This definition is mostly chosen over the others, likely

because it emphasizes about speaking as process, which goes in a line with the

process of communication itself. It includes message being sent by sender or

encoder, through medium which is English language in this matter, then received

or encoded by the hearer who encode the message to be understood.

Other reports choose a slightly different definition, which still emphasizes

on speaking as a process, but adding verbal or non-verbal symbol as the medium,

as well as adding a variety of context to emphasize how speaking can vary

depending on the context. As for accuracy and fluency, although they are the

indicators of speaking, most repots on speaking performance do not define the two

indicators, but only define speaking. This is likely due to the researchers believe

that defining the indicators are not necessary, as they are already integrated within

the speaking definition.

4. Related Topic

Following the concept clarification, elaborating the findings on the trends

regarding related topic is crucial. This study finds several topics related to

speaking, meaning that these topics constitute as independent or dependent

variable, or merely as related variable with no causal effect with speaking. Table

4.7 shows the findings on the related topic.


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Table 4.7 Related Topic

Related Topic F %

Techniques/strategies 86 78

Methods 11 9

Tasks 6 5

Multimedia learning 4 4

L2 learning factors 1 1

Self-assessment 1 1

Input quantity 1 1

Total 110 100

It should be noted that albeit the total research reports are 100, the related

topics found are 110, meaning several reports have more than one related topic.

Table 4.7 shows that techniques and strategies are the most investigated related

topic (78%). The examples of techniques are information gap, pictorial

description, and look-up technique. Methods (9%) as related topics are the long-

existed methods such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-

Based Language Teaching (TBLT). The rest of the findings include multimedia

learning (4%), social networking (4%), Second Language (L2) learning factors

(1%) which refer to the combination of language aptitude and its strategy and

learning, as well as self-assessment (1%) and input quantity (1%).

Richard (2013) explains how the trends in research about speaking topics

during 1970’s to 1990’s has undergone a shift. Methods and techniques such as

evaluative feedback, task and text-based approach that fall int communicative

competence become the trends of research topics during those periods. However,

in the early 2000’s the trends shift into intercultural competence, hence techniques

such as turn-taking, pair and group activities become the trend. Based on the

finding regarding related topic, most of research reports still focus on past issues

such as task-based approach, instead of issues regarding technologies, particularly


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in this era of rapid technology. Very few research reports that focus on

multimedia and social networking. All this because there are various issues

regarding speaking that were claimed to be successfully solved through the

implementation of long-existing techniques or methods, hence overlapping

methods or techniques are still applied in current research, as they have been

proven over the years to improve speaking. The emergence about communicative

competence in 1980’s through approaches such as task-based and text-based are

still chosen to be the focus of current research, as well the topic about intercultural

competence in the early 2000’s such as turn-taking and feedback.

5. Research Goals

Setting research goal is a crucial aspect of a research as it determines what the

research aims to do. It should conduct the research methodology accordingly and

resulting in research results that demonstrate whether the research reports have

been a success or not. From 100 research reports collected, there are 16 categories

found within the research.

The findings regarding research goals revealed the unbalanced proportion

among the dominant research goal and the rest of the research goals. This is

because most research reports’ goal is about investigating whether the

implementation of Independent Variable (IV) has significant effect on speaking

performance which constitute as Dependent Variable (DV). This goal shows that

most research reports are more interested in experimental method, mainly quasi-

experimental method. The findings regarding research goals’ category are shown

in Table 4.8.


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Table 4.8 Research Goals

Code Research Goals F %

RG01 To investigate whether independent variable(s) affects

performance (both accuracy and fluency)

55 55

RG02 To investigate the correlation between related variable(s) and

performance (both accuracy and fluency)

9 9

RG03 To investigate whether independent variable(s)affects fluency

only

7 7

RG04 To describe factors related to performance (both accuracy and

fluency)

6 6


attitude in speaking

5 5

RG06 To describe factors contributing to attitude in speaking 5 5


attitude in speaking

3 3


pronunciation

2 2

RG09 To describe factors contributing to speaking difficulties 2 2


vocabulary knowledge in speaking

2 2


knowledge in grammar

1 1

RG12 To investigate whether independent variable has effect on

knowledge about grammar in speaking

1 1

RG13 To investigate the correlation between related variable and

cognitive ability in speaking

1 1

RG14 To predict performance (both accuracy and fluency) 1 1

RG15 To predict pronunciation gains 1 1

RG16 To design program for speaking 1 1

Total 100 100

It should be noted that the term ‘variable’ here refers to the related topic

which can vary. The terms Independent Variable (IV) means that the related topic

is intended to give an effect on the investigated topic constitute as Dependent

Variable (DV). The related variable or related topic on the other hand, means that

its increase or decrease does not necessarily cause the investigated topic to behave


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the same. Table 4.8 demonstrates 16 categories regarding the trends on research

goal. RG01 is about investigating whether independent variable affects speaking

performance, which dominates the research goal (55%). There are other similar

research goals about the effect of IV, which are RG03 about the effect of

independent variable on fluency (7%), RG07 about the effect on attitude in

speaking (3%), RG10 about the effect on vocabulary knowledge in speaking (2%),

and RG12 about the effect of it on grammar knowledge in speaking (1%).

RG03 (9%) is the third highest, which is about the goal to investigate the

correlation between speaking performance and related variable. Other goals which

are similar are, RG05 (5%) which is about the correlation between attitude in

speaking and related variable, RG11 (1%) about the correlation between grammar

knowledge in speaking and related variable, RG13 (1%) about the correlation

between cognitive ability in speaking and related variable.

RG02 (9%) is the second highest although it falls far behind RG01. Similar

goals are found in RG06 (5%) which is to describe factors contributing to attitude,

RG09 (2%) aims to describe factors contributing to speaking difficulties. RG10

(1%) and RG11 (1%) are about prediction, with the former is about performance

prediction, and the latter about pronunciation gains. RG12 (1%) is about

designing program for speaking.

Based on the finding regarding trend in research goal, most of the goals are

about the effect of related topic constitutes as IV on the investigated topic

constitute as DV. This means that most research reports on speaking are interested

in implementing certain techniques, strategies or methods to see whether they can

improve efficiency in speaking through how performance which includes


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accuracy and fluency in speaking, becomes better. However, many of the related

topics are long-existing topics that have been around for several decades and have

been extensively researched regarding its effect on speaking, and therefore most

of the goals have been successfully achieved. Regarding complexity, there has

been a long controversy that it is a relatively new dimension and is considered as

an advanced skill. Hence, accuracy and fluency are considered enough to

represent the construct of speaking skill. Most research on skills are therefore

conducted through performance measurement both from the fluency and the

accuracy of the learners.

The predominant finding about research goal where research aims to if the

implementation of IV has significant effect on DV, is in a line with most of the

research reports that implement quasi-experimental method, that is discussed in

other part of this chapter. Muijs (2004) emphasizes that this method aims

determine the effects of an educational intervention on a specific element. In the

case of the most research reports’ goal, the element that is meant to be improved

is speaking performance. Thus, the research reports aim to look at the effects of a

technique or a strategy, such as quantitative/qualitative feedback technique, look-

up, storytelling technique, or drama strategy, on the improvement of speaking

performance of the learners.

The rest of the research goals vary depending on the methods of the research,

such as the ones that aim to investigate correlation, meaning they belong to

research reports employing correlational design. Those that aim to describe,

meaning they belong to qualitative design employing different methods, such as

case study, ethnography or qualitative descriptive.


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7. Research Design and Method

There are three designs found within the current research reports on

speaking competence. The most preferred design is quantitative design employing

various methods, whilst some other reports belong to qualitative and mixed-

methods design. Table 4.9 shows the findings regarding research design and

method.

Table 4.9 Research Design and Method

Design Method F %

Quantitative Quasi-experimental 35 35

Survey 14 14

Correlational 14 14

True experimental 14 14

Pre-experimental 4 4

Ex post facto 2 2

Matched-subject 1 1

Subtotal 84 84

Mixed-methods Sequential explanatory 8 8

Action Research 1 1

Subtotal 9 9

Qualitative Case study 3 3

Qualitative descriptive 3 3

Ethnography 1 1

Subtotal 7 7

Total 100 100

Table 4.9 demonstrates how most research reports on speaking implement

quantitative design (84%) employing various methods, with quasi-experimental

(35%) is the one mostly employed, followed by survey (14%), correlational (14%),

and true experimental (14%) which share the same percentages. Quantitative

method which is employed less are pre-experimental (4%), ex post facto (2%) and

the last is matched-subject (1%). This shows that speaking competence is mostly

assessed through measurement.


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On the other hand, for mixed-methods design (9%), it makes higher

percentage than the qualitative design, with sequential explanatory (8%) is the one

mostly used, followed by Action Research (1%). As for the qualitative design

(7%), the total of research that employ this design is much less than research

reports that employ quantitative design. The methods mostly used within this

design are case study (3%) and qualitative descriptive (3%) which share the same

percentage, whilst ethnography (1%) is least used. As described earlier, speaking

is colored by accuracy and fluency demonstrated through performance, and in the

world of research, performance is ‘measured’, meaning it is assessed

quantitatively. Other domains of speaking which are attitude and knowledge are

sometimes also assessed quantitatively.

Quasi-experimental is the method mostly employed, as it is to see whether

the application of IV such as technique, learning and teaching method, or media

affect speaking. The effect is measured through the level of significance between

control and experimental group when performing speaking, with one receives the

new treatment and one does not. Quasi-experimental however has been widely

used in researching speaking, due to its relatively easy application and its success

in proving that the research has been a success in accomplishing its goal.

Other methods in quantitative design include survey, correlational, true and

pre-experimental as well as several other methods. True and pre-experimental

method are also often used to measure significant difference as in quasi-

experimental method. In terms of true experimental, there is a problem with using

this method which is discussed within the discovery of anomalies section. As for

qualitative and mixed-methods design, they are less used in researching speaking.


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However, topics such as attitude are often employed qualitative design such as

case study. For mixed-methods, this method is rather complex and less used in

researching speaking competence, as it can take a relatively long time to complete

the study using this method.

8. Data Gathering Instruments

Following research design and method, the next finding is regarding the

trends in Data Gathering Instrument (DGI). Quantitative, qualitative and mixed-

methods design utilize various DGI to collect the speaking research reports,

depending on the research method. Table 4.10 shows the DGI finding.

Table 4.10 Data Gathering Instruments

DGI F %

Speaking pre-test and post-test items 53 38

Questionnaire 39 28

Documents 17 12

Single speaking test 16 11

Interview 13 9

Video/voice recording 2 1

Total 140 100

It is evident from Table 4.10 that albeit the total reports are 100, DGI

utilized are 140, as one report can employ more than one DGI. Pre-test and post-

test items (38%) are the DGI that is mostly employed, which is the highest among

other DGI, whilst questionnaire (28%) follows behind. Some mixed-methods

research also employ either one of the questionnaires along with other DGI. Other

DGI utilized include documents (12%), such as rubric, scores on speaking test,

journal, observation note and so forth. The fourth mostly used instrument is single

test (11%), which refers to a single speaking test designed by the researcher,

followed by interview (9%), and the least used in voice/video recording (1%).


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Bernard (as cited in Tongco, 2007) claims that data gathering contributes to

a more profound understanding of the theoretical framework. Therefore, DGI is an

important aspect of the research and therefore a careful selection of which DGI

should be done by referring to the method as well as types of data. Most research

reports use quasi-experimental method that belongs to quantitative research and

hence utilize speaking pre-test and post-test items as the DGI to measure speaking

performance or speaking indicators, such as fluency or pronunciation. Quasi-

experimental method measures the significant difference between the control and

experimental group, with the new treatment such as the implementation of

technique such information gap is only given to the experimental group and not to

the control group. The two groups need to take speaking test before and after the

treatment to see whether the experimental group outperform the control group or

not, which means the implementation of the technique improves students’

speaking performance or not.

As for DGI such as questionnaire, most research reports implement this

DGI, including the research reports belong to quantitative, qualitative or mixed-

design. Questionnaire is mostly used to determine attitude such as perceptions,

belief, motivation, confidence or anxiety. It is also widely used across different

methods. The trends in using speaking pre-test and post-test items, questionnaire,

speaking test and so forth to gather data of speaking competence have been

around for the past several years. This is because these DGI have been proven to

be valid and reliable in collecting data about speaking. However, many research

reports also adopt DGI from previous research reports as they claimed to deliver


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success in the past. Future researchers on speaking therefore need to select the

efficient DGI that can truly accommodate the goal of the research as well as

ensure the validity and reliability of the research.

9. Data Analysis Technique

The next research trend is regarding the data analysis technique. Once the

data have been collected, they are analyzed using different techniques. Depending

on the design of the research and the type of the data, both quantitative and

qualitative employing different analysis techniques, such as mixed-methods

design that combines both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques. The

findings are shown in Table 4.11 below.

Table 4.11 Data Analysis Technique

Analysis Technique F %

Descriptive statistics 84 46

t-test 42 23

Descriptive narrative 17 9

Pearson Product Moment 10 5

Regression analysis 8 4

ANOVA 7 4

Spearman Rank Correlation 4 2

ANCOVA 2 1

Wilcoxon Signed-Rank 2 1

General Linear Model (GLM) 2 1

MANCOVA 1 1

Tuckey test 1 1

Chi-Square test 1 1

Exploratory factor analysis 1 1

Total 182 100

Albeit the total of the research reports on speaking is 100, the total data

analysis technique is 182, as several reports employ more than one or two analysis

techniques. Descriptive statistics (46%) technique is the highest among other

technique, followed by t-test (42%), descriptive narrative (9%), Pearson


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correlation (5%), regression analysis (4%), ANOVA (4%), Wilcoxon Signed-

Rank (1%), GLM (1%), MANCOVA (1%), Tuckey test (1%), Chi-Square test

(1%), and exploratory factory analysis (1%).

The trend in using descriptive statistics and t-test in analyzing speaking is

in a line with most of the research implementing experimental design. Descriptive

statistics is used to analyze the scores of the speaking test prior to the determining

the significance level using t-test. Hence, descriptive statistics might not be the

main data analysis technique, yet it is an important technique to be accounted for.

Thus, t-test has been around for several decades and the analysis of speaking

performance shown through their speaking score can be well-analyzed using this

technique. Other more complex techniques such as factor analysis, Wilcoxon

Signed-Rank, or regression model are rarely used in analyzing speaking, albeit

they give more valid result. This can be due to the time constrain and the

complexity of applying those technique.

Kim (2015) defines t-test as a statistical test to compare the means of two

groups. A t-test is therefore used to determine the significance difference or p-

value. Most research reports employ experimental method, with quasi-

experimental design being the most preferred. This means that they need to

determine the significance difference between the result between the speaking

score of the control and experimental groups in speaking pre-test and post-test. In

the case of other experimental methods such as pre-experimental, t-test is also

used although it only involves a single group. It can determine the significance

difference between the speaking score of a one group of learners, before and after

the treatment.


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Pearson Product Moment or Pearson correlation is also employed in several

of research reports. This technique is used to determine whether the increase or

decrease in one variable causes the increase of decrease in the other variable or

not. Descriptive narrative is the one used in qualitative speaking research such as

case study, as it aims to describe and explain thoroughly regarding the phenomena

related to speaking. The rest of data analysis techniques are mostly about

measurement techniques, which are in a line with the research design and method

and DGI.

10. Sample of the Research Reports

In terms of the findings regarding the sample of the research, this study

finds that the research sample are divided between students and teachers, meaning

that the teaching and learning of speaking still main take place in formal

education. Table 4.12 shows the findings of the research sample.

Table 4.12 Sample of the Research Reports

Sample of the Study F %

University students 37 36

Junior high school 16 16

English language institute students 10 10

Senior high school students 9 9

Secondary school students 7 7

EFL learners 5 5

ESL learners 3 3

University English language instructors 3 3

Primary school teachers 3 3

Junior high school teachers 2 2

Secondary school teachers 2 2

Primary school students 1 1

Vocational school students 1 1

Preschoolers 1 1

Senior high school teachers 1 1

Pre-service teachers 1 1

Total 102 100


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It should be noted that there are research reports employing both students

and teachers as their sample, hence albeit the total research reports are 100, the

total reports employing each sub-category of sample are 102. Table 4.12

demonstrates how most of the research sample come from university students

(36%), with junior high school or medium school students follow behind (16%),

and English language institute students (9%). Senior high school (9%) and

secondary school students (7%) are slightly lower.

General ESL (5%) and EFL learners (3%) are also very low. The rest of the

sample comes from students or learners’ category are students from primary and

vocational school as well as pre-school share the same percentages (1%). For

sample from teachers’ category, university English language instructors (3%) and

primary school teachers (3%) share the same percentages, and junior high school

teachers (2%) and secondary school teachers (2%) follow closely behind, whilst

senior high school teachers (1%) and pre-service teachers (1%) are the lowest at

1.00%. Research reports that involve teachers are mostly about belief and

perception in speaking, as the researchers asked the teachers’ opinion regarding

the performance of their students.

Most sample comes from the university students from Indonesia and EC

countries. This shows that albeit speaking has been taught from primary level in

Indonesia and in the EC circle countries, many students still find it hard to gain

control of it. In Indonesia, although more students are more exposed to English in

their daily life, especially in this technological era where English words are the

language of social media, students still find speaking challenging and even

difficult. Speaking competence itself is a rather a difficult to acquire, as it


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combines the domains of cognitive-knowledge (grammar, vocabulary,

pronunciation), psychomotor-skills (accuracy, fluency, performance) and

affective-attitude (belief, motivation, confidence) all together.

Moreover, learning speaking in the context of foreign language learning is

more difficult as the level of exposure and opportunity to practice it in a real-

world situation is limited, unlike in the OC countries where English mainly serves

as a second language. In Indonesia educational setting for instance, Huda (1997)

believes that a unified English education system should be established by the

government that applies English for all subjects. For now, this is only done in

some private schools. This unified system can be the solution to improve learners’

speaking competence, as learners will have more exposure and more practices.

Thus, many issues regarding speaking exist, regardless the length of the

learning time for those students. This is evident from the fact that research on

speaking still choose university students as the sample of the study. As for junior

to senior high school students where speaking competence has been set as a

curriculum, many still find speaking difficult.

11. Sample Sizes

Deciding the sample size very crucial in research on speaking related to the

external validity of the research. The research reports on speaking competence

collected have various sample sizes, from relatively small to large sample.

Therefore, this research has categorized the sample sizes into several different

ranges as shown in Table 4.13.


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Table 4.13 Sample Sizes

Sample Size F %

31-100 61 61

11-30 17 17

101-300 14 14

301-1000 5 5

1-10 3 3

Total 100 100

It is evident from Table 4.13 that most speaking research reports choose the

sample size from 31 to 100 (61%), followed by sample size from 11 to 30 (17%)

that fall far behind. Sample size from 101 to 300 (14%) is the third highest. The

next sample size is those from 11 to 30 (17%) which is quite low. Sample size

from 301 to 1000 (5%) is the lowest among other ranges of sample size. Sample

size from 31 to 100 are found to be used in different methods and designs.

Sample size is crucial to determine external validity or generalizability of

the research. It can determine whether speaking research has a high external

validity or not. The general rule is that larger the sample leads to the higher

external validity as it represents the population hence the research can be applied

to other situations or groups outside of the study. Sample generally should be

minimum 100 in size to ensure it has high external validity, however minimum

sample of 30 is often considered a large enough sample.

Creswell (2012) states that limited number of research sample happens due

to various factors such access and time constrains. Other factors such as human

resources, or economic constrain can also result in a limited number of samples.

Hence, sample size from 31 to 100 is externally valid. This sample size used in the

research reports that apply different methods. However, most of this range of


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sample is used for experimental research where one or two groups are taken as the

participants. Hence, the range of sample size from 31 to 100 are representative of

the whole population such as the total number of students in one entire school, or

the total number of the entire students in one grade. Another reason is that many

research reports are also about survey, which usually takes a larger sample size.

12. Sampling Technique

Sampling technique is utilized once the target population has been defined

and sample size has been decided. Generally, there are two kinds of sampling

techniques, namely probability sampling, such as simple random, stratified

random, systematic random, and cluster random sampling, whilst the other is non-

probability sampling, such as convenience and purposive sampling, as well as

mixed sampling which includes stratified purposive. Table 4.14 show the findings

regarding sampling technique.

Table 4.14 Sampling Technique

Sampling Technique Sampling Type F %

Simple random 30 30

Stratified random 16 16

Cluster random 5 5

Subtotal 51 51

Non-probability Purposive 32 32

Convenience 15 15

Maximum variation 1 1

Subtotal 48 48

Mixed sampling Stratified purposive 1 1

Subtotal 1 1

Total 100 100

Table 4.14 demonstrates that for the probability sampling, the highest

technique used is simple random sampling (30%), followed by stratified random

(16%), and cluster random (5%). On the other hand, within the non-probability

sampling, purposive sampling is the highest (32%), followed by convenience


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sampling (15%) and maximum variation (1%). There is only one finding

regarding mixed sampling which is stratified purposive (1%).

The trend regarding the sampling technique shows that most research

employ purposive or judgment sampling technique which is a part of non-

probability sampling. Tongco (2007) believes that this sampling relies on

researchers’ judgment and does not need underlying theories. Simply put,

researchers choose the sample based on certain qualities or characteristics that

meet the researchers’ need. The trends in using this sampling technique is in a line

with the predominant method used in most research reports. Most research

employs quasi-experimental design, in which participants as the sample are

chosen purposively based on researchers’ judgment, before randomly assign them

into control and experimental group. Purposive sampling is also considered to be

convenient that as researchers can choose participants that match the criteria of

the research.

However, purposive sampling does not have a high external validity, as it

might not be representative to be applied in other groups, situations or context

outside the study. This is in a line with the many research of quasi-experimental

on speaking that has been widely conducted, where researchers often refer to

previous studies to select the methodology, including the sample that has been

implemented in those studies. Another reason to choose this sampling is because

quasi-experimental uses two groups as sample, meaning that choosing participants

from students in the same class is also convenient for the researchers.


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12. Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are two crucial aspects of a research. Validity

determines whether a research does what it intends to do, whilst reliability deals

with the consistency of a research or a measurement. There are different types of

validity, and each determines validity in different ways. In qualitative research

however, the term trustworthiness is often used instead of validity and reliability.

It should be noted too that one research might employ more than one or two

validity types, validity and reliability together, or even either validity or reliability.

The finding regarding validity is shown in Table 4.15 and reliability in Table 4.16.

Table 4.15 Validity

Validity F %

Not reported 74 74

Content validity 13 13

Face validity 6 6

Concurrent validity 2 2

Item validity 2 2

Construct validity 1 1

Predictive validity 1 1

Trustworthiness 1 1

Total 100 100

It is evident from Table 4.15 that most of research reports (74%) do not

report the type of validity used. Only several research reports demonstrate content

validity (13%) of the total research reports. Content validity itself determines

whether a measure represents all facets of the construct being measured. Face

validity follows behind (6%) and this type of validity is often considered to be the

weakest validity, as it relies on the subjective assessment whether a research or a

test measures what it is supposed to measure. The validity that comes third is

concurrent validity (2%) as part of criterion-referenced validity, which makes 2%

of the total research reports, followed by item validity (2%), construct (1%) and


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predictive validity (1%) respectively, and trustworthiness (1%) Some of those

reports instead show only reliability and overlook the validity part.

The trend in validity shows that most reports do not report their validity. It

might have to do with the lack of knowledge of how to conduct validity. Messick

(1995) claims that validity is not a property of a test or an assessment, but rather

the meaning of the test score. Hence, determining the meaning behind the test

score is very difficult. This explains why many research reports in general only

state their research is valid without showing further evidence. Internal validity

ensures that the theoretical truth agrees with empirical truth within the research,

that it does what in intends to do. External validity ensures that the research can

be transferred to other situation or group outside the study. The fact that most

research reports do not demonstrate validity, might have to with the fact that

speaking itself is rather hard to assess. Nunan (2003) emphasizes that speaking

happens in real time and cannot be revised as in writing. This also means that

validating research on speaking, especially when the research is about measuring

speaking through test, can be difficult, as researchers should be able interpret the

meaning of the test score.

Regardless the fact that many reports do not demonstrate validity, several

reports demonstrate content validity as shown in Table 4.15. Fitzpatrick (1983)

defines content validity as “the outcome of judging the sampling adequacy of test

content” (p. 5). This means that this validity deals with the extent to which a

measure or a test represents the aspects of a given construct. In this matter,

indicators of speaking are accuracy and fluency. Hence, content validity can be

determined from the items within the tests, whether they measure learners’


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accuracy and fluency or not. Thus, content validity is very important within every

speaking research, particularly those that focus on assessment or task. Several

research reports also use face validity, which is the weakest type of validity as it

relies on subjective view whether a test does what it intends to do.

All the validity types in Table 4.15 are parts of internal validity. External

validity is rather difficult to assess, and the general rule is that it is determined

from the sample size and sampling technique. The larger the sample size means

the higher the external validity, and random sampling is considered to have high

external validity. The application of validity is often used to together with

reliability, which deals with overall consistency of a research. Table 4.16 shows

the findings regarding reliability on the speaking research reports.

Table 4.16 Reliability

Reliability F %

Inter-rater 35 35

Not reported 34 34

Internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) 21 21

Test-retest 5 5

Split-half 3 3

Inter-item 1 1

Intra-item 1 1

Total 100 100

It is evident from Table 4.16 that most research reports use inter-rater

reliability (35%) which relies on the agreement between raters, with those that do

not report reliability follows behind (34%). Others include internal consistency

measured using Cronbach’s Alpha (21%), test-retest (5%), and split-half (3%).

Inter-item and intra-item reliability are the lowest (1%). Some of those research

reports also demonstrate findings on validity and skip the reliability part and the

other way.


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The trend regarding reliability show that inter-rater is the one mostly used in

research reports on speaking. Keyton et al. (2004) define it as the extent to which

the way data is being collected in a consistent manner. This reliability is mostly

used in research reports that implement speaking tests to measure performance

and relies on the agreement between coders or raters to judge the results of the test

scores. Most research report use this reliability because the fact that most speaking

performance is assessed through speaking pre-test and post-test items that

constitute as DGI, hence raters’ judgment can help ensure the reliability of the test

items. Regarding internal consistency reliability, there are research reports that

only claim to use Cronbach’s alpha but do not demonstrate the statistics. By

simply stating that they use Cronbach’s, those researchers feel safe to claim that

their research are reliable. Therefore, the issue with the use of Cronbach’s alpha is

elaborated in the section of discovery of anomalies.

Sak (2008) in his study also finds that many research studies on validity and

reliability on speaking only analyze the different aspects of speaking, more than

examining the reliability and the validity themselves. This shows that the validity

and reliability of speaking research can be a challenging process, that many

researchers might decide to overlook it or not to conduct it properly. There are

also various experts who propose different formula to conduct validity and

reliability. However, researchers might find it hard to choose which validity or

reliability that should be employed within their research and how to conduct it

accordingly to achieve high validity and reliability.


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13. Research Result

Research result demonstrates whether research report on speaking have

accomplished its research goal through the implementation of methodology. In

general, educational research aims to describe-explain-control-predict phenomena

within the educational setting. However, many research reports only fulfill one or

two of above educational research goals. From the 100 research reports, there are

various research results as the outcomes of research goal, and hence this study has

made several generalizations of the research results as shown in Table 4.17.

Table 4.17 Research Result

Code Sub-Items F %

RS01 Independent variable(s) has significant effect on performance 54 54

RS02 Related variable(s) correlate positively with performance 9 9

RS03 Independent variable(s) has significant effect on fluency 7 7

RS04 Various factors contribute to performance 7 7

RS05 Related variable(s) correlate positively with attitude in

speaking

5 5

RS06 Various factors contribute to attitude in speaking 5 5

RS07 Independent variable has significant effect on speaking attitude 3 3

RS08 Independent variable has significant effect on pronunciation 2 2

RS09 Various factors contribute to speaking difficulties 2 2

RS10 Independent variable has significant on vocabulary knowledge

in speaking

2 2

RS11 Related variable correlates positively with knowledge of

grammar in speaking

1 1

RS12 Independent variable has significant effect on knowledge of

grammar in speaking

1 1

RS13 Related variable correlates positively with cognitive ability in

speaking

1 1

RS14 Some factors within related variable predict performance and

some do not

1 1

RS15 Related variable(s) did not predict pronunciation gains 1 1

RS16 Independent variable has neither positive nor negative effect on

accuracy and fluency, but it has positive effect on complexity

1 1

RS17 The designed program improves speaking efficiency 1 1

Total 101 100


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There are 17 categories of speaking research results as shown in Table 4.17

in response to research goals, although there are 16 categories of research goals.

There are research reports which goal is to see whether IV has significant effect

on speaking performance, fluency, pronunciation, and attitude in speaking. RS01

(54%) thus shows that most research results show that independent variable has

significant effect on performance. However, RS16 (1%) shows that independent

variable has neither positive nor negative effect on accuracy and fluency, but

instead on complexity. RS03 (7%) shows that independent variable has significant

effect on fluency, whilst RS07 (3%) is the same goal but on attitude in speaking,

and RS 08 (2%) on pronunciation.

Another research goal is about whether related variable correlates with

performance, attitude, grammar knowledge, and cognitive ability in general. RS02

(9%) therefore shows that related variable correlates positively with performance,

as well as with attitude in speaking as shown in RS05 (5%), with grammar

knowledge in RS11 (1%), and with cognitive ability in speaking as shown in

RS13 (1%). On the other hand, there are results in response to the goal about

factors contribution, with RS04 describes various factors contributing to

performance (7%), RS06 factors contributing to speaking attitude (5%), and RS09

about factors contributing to speaking difficulties. As for research about

prediction, RS14 describes that only some factors in related variable predict

performance (1%), whilst RS15 shows that related variable do not predict

pronunciation gains (1%). RS17 is about R&D, and it shows that the program

improves speaking efficiency (1%).


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The trend regarding research result show that most research reports through

the implementation of their methodology have achieved their research goals.

Neuman (2014) describes that research results help to understand the world or the

phenomena better, to see if it can be modified for the greater good. Hence

research results in speaking should be able to improve efficiency and emphatic

understanding of the phenomena. As most research results above are positive, it

can be concluded that the research has been a success.

However, it should be noted that the success of those reports might have to

do with the fact that most them implement quasi-experimental method. It is the

most suitable method for achieving the most preferred research goal, which is to

see whether the implementation of certain related topics can improve speaking

performance significantly. The success of those research reports implementing

quasi-experimental method also depends on the p-values, which most of them

claim to have a p-value less than 0.05. However, Ioannidis (2005) in his study

argues that p-values do not always appropriately summarize and represent most

research. Bias can very much manipulate the analysis or the research results.

Therefore, it is safe to say that the accuracy of the research results should not only

be judged by the result of the p-value, but also the entire process of the research

itself as well as the number of other research reports with the same objectives.

Overall, there are certain characteristics of how research on speaking

competence has been. These characteristics constitute the whole map of the

current trends in speaking competence research. These characteristics are derived

from the predominant findings of each of the manifest content category of the 100

current research reports from 2008 to 2018 discussed in this chapter. They start


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from the origin of the research, the year of publication, investigated topic. concept

clarification of speaking, related topic, research goals, research design and method,

DGI, analysis technique, sample of research reports, sample sizes and sampling

technique, validity, reliability, and research result. Based on the forecast analysis

discussed earlier in this chapter, the number of the research reports on speaking

competence is likely to increase, hence the characteristics might remain the same

or undergo changes. The characteristics are shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Characteristics of the Current Trends

• Validity: not reported

• Reliability: inter-rater

Analysis technique:

descriptive statistics

followed by t-test

Mostly from ID and

EC circle countries

Goal: to see if the implementation

of technique/strategies have

significant effect on speaking

performance

• Method: quasi-experimental

• DGI: speaking pre-test and

post-test items

• Sample: university students

• Sample size: 31-100

• Sampling technique:

purposive

Number of

research reports

increases yearly

Topic: performance

related to

techniques/strategies

Result: techniques/strategies have

significant effect on performance


98

It is evident from Figure 4.3 that most research reports come from Indonesia

and EC circle countries, where English is a foreign language. The number of the

research reports also tends to increase over time. In terms of topics, many research

reports from all the years and all circle countries mostly investigate speaking

performance, in relation with long-existing techniques or strategies, such as

storytelling, debate strategies, look up technique and so forth. The mostly chosen

goal of the research is to see whether the implementation of certain techniques or

strategies, such as look-up techniques or debate strategies have significant effect

on performance.

The most preferred sample of the research reports is university students, as

it seems that even though English has been learned since primary level in

Indonesia and EC circle countries, various issues regarding speaking still exist

among the university level. The preferred sample size is from 31 to 100 using

purposive technique, as this goes accordingly with the quasi-experimental method,

where two groups of students are needed. This range of sample size can be

divided into two groups, and purposive sampling also relies on researchers’

judgment to decide the criteria of the sample to fit the research. The method is

also the most suitable for the goal of the research reports.

Following this, speaking pre-test and post-test items are implemented as the

DGI, as they belong to quasi-experimental method. Descriptive statistics and t-test

thus become the most preferred analysis techniques, with the former aims to

summarize the learners’ performance score, and the latter aims to determine

whether there is a significant difference between the means of the speaking score

between the control and experimental group, with the control group does not


99

receive the treatment of the technique or strategy, and the experimental does.

Most reports however do not report their validity, with several reports use content

validity as well as inter-rater reliability, which both are suitable for a test. The

data are then analyzed by first using descriptive statistics to analyze students’

speaking score, followed by t-test to analyze the significant difference between

the score of speaking between the control and experimental group before and after

the implementation of those techniques or methods. Through the implementation

of the methodology, it is evident that the techniques or strategies have

significantly improved speaking performance.

These characteristics of the current trends about speaking competence

research from 2008 to 2018 however raises awareness whether researchers have

not been as efficient in selecting topics and methodology. Richard (2013)

describes the shifts of the trends within the learning and teaching of speaking.

They indeed have been undergone shifts from the 1970’s to the early 2000’s, with

situational language method emerged in the 1970’s, communicative competence

in the 1980’s, cultural competence in the 1990’s and intercultural competence in

the early 2000’s. However, the techniques of those methods are still used in many

current research reports, such evaluative feedback, paired and group activities,

task-based teaching and so forth. The current research reports seem to focus on

the implementation of those long-existing techniques or strategies by employing

the methodology that have been used in former research reports. Thus, the

methodology has already been proven to produce research results where the

implementation of those techniques improves speaking performance significantly.


100

B. THE DISCOVERY OF ANOMALIES

Two anomalies are discovered during the analysis of the speaking research

reports. These anomalies have to do with the issues regarding the use of true

experimental method and Cronbach’s alpha to estimate internal consistency

reliability.

1. True Experimental Method

Firstly, regarding the method, 14 research reports on speaking claim that

they use true experimental method. Shuttleworth (2008) claims that this method is

commonly used for physical sciences but rather difficult to use in social sciences,

as there is no guarantee that human will exhibit normal behavior under

experimental condition. Henceforth, this method is not supposed to be used in

educational study where the subjects are human beings. This is because when

learners are put into experimental group, they constitute as manipulated variable

that might be affected by external factors. Judging from the methodology used,

these research reports are supposed to label their research as quasi-experimental

instead of true experimental.

Quasi-experimental is therefore commonly used in educational science,

because as what Cook and Campbell (1979) state that within this method,

participants are not randomly assigned and that the cause is manipulated and

occurs before the effect is measured. The experimental group is therefore given

the treatment first to see how the treatment affects them before measuring the

result itself. However, research reports which choose to implement true

experimental, have assigned the participants randomly into both control and

experimental group. This is what most likely cause them not to choose quasi-

experimental, where participants are not supposed to be randomly assigned into


101

two groups. This anomaly regarding true experimental research comes from

research reports published in all circle countries. It shows that researchers might

not have a profound understanding about the essence of true experimental method.

2. Cronbach’s Alpha

Another anomaly is regarding the finding within the reliability using

Cronbach’s alpha to show internal consistency that is used by 21 research reports.

Tavakol and Dennick (2011) explain that Cronbach’s alpha developed by Lee

Cronbach in 1951 aims to estimate internal consistency of test items or a set of

scales, expressed as a number between 0 and 1. As a matter of a fact, Taber (2018)

evaluates how Cronbach’s alpha is widely cited in science education with little or

no explanation why this statistic is considered relevant and often without

interpretation of the result. The same happens with the speaking research reports

that widely use Cronbach’s alpha to measure internal consistency of a speaking

test or questionnaires related to speaking. Nevertheless, these reports fail to

provide explanation why they believe Cronbach’s alpha is the appropriate

measure. They also do not give further interpretation of the result but rather

merely showing the value of alpha.

Tavakol and Dennick (2011) further claim that test length and

dimensionality affect alpha value. Many reports on speaking implementing

Cronbach’s alpha do not even provide the test items within their appendices, or

even simply explain the test length and dimension, yet still implement Cronbach’s

alpha to demonstrate the internal consistency. The implementation of this

statistics therefore needs to be supported by evidences of test length and

dimension, explanation for choosing this technique, as well as interpretation of the


102

result. If the implementation of Cronbach’s alpha is not equipped by these

components, researchers should choose other statistics to estimate reliability such

as inter-rater, split half, or test-retest.

Many researchers in various fields often believe that by simply mentioning

Cronbach’s alpha, or by demonstrating the significant alpha, can guarantee the

internal consistency reliability of their research. The research reports where this

anomaly is found, also come from all circle countries. The possible reason for this

is that research reports might have replicated the use or the mentioning of

Cronbach’s alpha in many previous studies, and that it is presumed to be safe to

use this measurement. Thus, researchers who would like to demonstrate internal

consistency within their research, may choose other measures, such as Kuder-

Richardson Test which is a more advanced and complex measure. The tendency in

using Cronbach’s alpha is also because the belief that the implementation of this

measure is relatively simpler than other more advanced measures.


103

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the summarized research results and conclusions to

provide the answer to the research question, followed by implications and

recommendations of the research. The implications aim to give reflection based

on the results and followed by recommendations for further research.

A. CONCLUSIONS

Based on the investigation, the current trends of 100 speaking competence

research reports from 2008 to 2018 can be summarized as follows:

1. Most research reports come from Indonesia and expanding circle countries.

The number of research reports on speaking also show quite significant

progress from year to year.

2. Most research reports do not clarify the concept of speaking, although the

main topic of their research is about speaking. Instead, many of them clarify

the concept of the related topic.

3. Speaking performance is the most investigated topic. It belongs to the skills-

psychomotor domain of learning. Within attitude-affective domain,

motivation is the one mostly investigated, and within knowledge-cognitive

domain, pronunciation, and speaking difficulties due to lack of knowledge

are mostly investigated.

4. For the related topic, techniques or strategies are the most investigated topic.

This topic is far above other related topics including language learning

factors, other skill or knowledge and methods.


104

5. Most research reports use quantitative design employing quasi-experimental

method and utilizing pre-test and post-test items as the DGI. The data are

then analyzed, firstly using descriptive statistics followed by t-test.

6. University students are mostly preferred as the sample of the research. Most

sample size is from 31 to 100, followed by purposive sampling technique as

the most chosen technique.

7. Most research reports do not demonstrate validity, however the one

employed in several research is content validity. As for reliability, most

research employ inter-rater reliability. The number of research reports with

no reliability is also surprisingly high.

8. Most research reports aim to investigate whether independent variable such

as techniques or strategies have significant effect on speaking. As a result,

most reports show that the independent variable has significant effect on

speaking.

9. Two anomalies are found, the first regarding the use of true experimental

design for educational research, which are found in several reports. This

method is not supposed to use in research with human subjects. The second

is regarding the use of Cronbach’s Alpha to estimate internal consistency

reliability without providing reasons to use the technique, not drawing

inferences from the statistics result, and not providing evidences of test

length and dimension.

From the summary of the results above, it becomes evident that over the

years, the interest in speaking research has been developing in terms of number

and will continue to grow in the future. As for the origin of the research, speaking


105

is constantly and extensively researched in Indonesia and EC circle countries

yearly, but not so much within IC and OC circle countries. In terms of the concept

clarification of speaking, most research reports do not clarify the concept of

speaking. Those that do, mostly clarify speaking as an interactive process of

constructing or conveying meaning. Hence, the development regarding the

concept clarification of speaking has not been showing progress.

The trends regarding the content of the research reports show that many

research reports have not been efficient in terms of topic and methodology

selection, thus produce a less efficient speaking research. This is evident through

the unbalanced proportion of the investigated topic and related topic, that most

reports have been choosing speaking performance in relation with long-existing

techniques or strategies, such as information gap technique and storytelling

strategy. Those research reports then replicate the methodology that has been used

in other similar or previous research over the years, in which the implementation

of certain techniques or strategies most likely have significant effect on speaking

performance. Thus, in terms of topic, methodology and outcome, speaking

research reports have not yet developed further into researching more about

attitude or knowledge in speaking.

B. IMPLICATIONS

From scientific and practical perspectives, the results of this research have

several implications. First, the scientific implication provides information for

future researchers and policy debates on how research about speaking competence

has been developed over the years and whether they have been increasing the

optimum development of speaking science. These things can be seen through the


106

selection of the topics and methodology that should be able to produce a more

efficient research.

In terms of practical implication, the trends provide information for future

researchers about which topics and methodology of speaking competence research

that have been overlapping, and the ones that have been receiving less attention,

thus researchers can focus more on the latter. Secondly, future researchers can

become aware in selecting the most effective and efficient research topics and

methodology in researching speaking competence leading to a more efficient or

productive research. They should not focus on selecting overlapping topics by

replicating methodology from the previous studies, hence producing less efficient

research that can reduce the optimum development of speaking science.

C. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the finding regarding the trends in current speaking competence

research, two recommendations are made. Firstly, future researchers are

encouraged to conduct a more productive research that will increase efficiency

and optimum development in speaking science. A productive research focuses

more on the less researched speaking competence, namely knowledge in speaking

or speech knowledge, including grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Other

research reports that considered to productive, are the ones focus on as attitude in

speaking, including anxiety, belief, confidence, motivation, learning style and

strategies, and so forth. These investigated topics could be explored alone or could

also be linked to other less researched related topics, such as input quantity, L2

learning factors, or technology such as Virtual Learning (VL) or Augmented

Reality (AR). It should be noted that the integration of the constantly evolving


107

technology with language learning is inevitable, hence the learning of speaking

might develop from traditional learning into an advanced technology soon. In

terms of attitude domain, a productive research should employ qualitative design

using case study or ethnography. For speech knowledge domain, mixed-methods

design using sequential explanatory should be employed. The goal of the research

should transcend into the goal of educational research itself, which is to describe-

explain-control-predict the phenomena. The methodology should then follow

according to method. Particularly for validity and reliability or trustworthiness, a

productive research should be able to demonstrate them, in which the theoretical

truth agrees with the empirical truth within their research, and not to replicate

previous studies.

The second recommendation for future researchers is to avoid conducting

unproductive research, which is the contrary of the above description. It is the one

that has been overlapping in terms of topic, methodology and results over the

years. It does not clarify the concept of speaking. It focuses on speaking

performance indicated by accuracy and fluency, in relation with long-existing

techniques or strategies such as storytelling techniques, debates strategies and so

forth. It also replicates methodology that has been used in previous research, set

the same research goals and produce the same outcome where learners’ speaking

performance is successfully improved. Thus, this kind of research is no longer

relevant or necessary to conduct, meaning the trends have not yet developed

further, that they remain stagnant from year to year. An unproductive research

also does not report validity and reliability or trustworthiness. They may use face

validity which is the weakest validity. An unproductive research may also consist


108

of anomalies, such as employing true experimental method for speaking research

which belongs to educational research. This method should not be used in

research with human subject, in this case, speaking learners, who can display

different traits overtime. It should only be used in psychical research with non-

human variable. Another anomaly that found in many unproductive research

reports, is the use of Cronbach’s Alpha to estimate internal consistency reliability,

without explaining the reason or interpreting the meaning of the Alpha value, and

not providing evidence of test length and dimension. By selecting the more

efficient topic and methodology, research on speaking competence can produce

effective results that can improve the optimum development of speaking science.


109

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APPENDICES


118

Appendix 1. Data Source Identity


01ID2010PER Asmiati, A. (2010). Using Time Token Arends to Improve Speaking Ability to the Second Year Students of SMA Negeri 1 Lilirilau Soppeng

(Undergraduate thesis, Alauddin State Islamic University, Indonesia).

02ID2011PER Mudyanita, T. (2011). The Contributions of English Day Program Towards Students’ Speaking Skills in International Standard School SMK N

1 Pacitan. (Undergraduate thesis, Semarang State University, Indonesia).

03ID2011PER

Nurjanah, N. (2011). The Relationship between Students’ Interest in Speaking and their Speaking Score (A Correlational Study at the Second

Grade of Mtsn Parung). (Undergraduate Thesis, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta, Indonesia)

04ID2011PER Katsir, M. S. (2011). The Effect of Storytelling Strategy toward Students Speaking Ability of Narrative Text at the Second Year of MTs

Muhammadiyah 02 Pekanbaru (Undergraduate thesis, State Islamic University Sultan Kasim Riau, Indonesia).

05ID2011PER Wildayanti, N. L. (2011). Vocabulary and Grammar Masteries and their Correlation to Speaking Performance (a Study on the Second

Semester Students of the English Department of Tegal Pancasakti University in 2009/2010 Academic Year) (Master thesis, Diponegoro

University, Indonesia).

06ID2012FLU Ayunda, A. N. (2012). The effect of look-up technique on speaking fluency. Journal on English as a Foreign Language, 2(2), 45-51.

07ID2013PER Purnawan, P. (2013). The Effect of Audio-Visual Aid on Speaking Skills of the Grade Eight Students of SMP PGRI 1 Kebumen (Undergraduate

thesis, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia).

08ID2014PER Nuraeni, S. (2014). The Effectiveness of Classroom Debate to Improve Students’ Speaking Skill (A Quasi-Experimental Study at the Eleventh

Year of SMAN 3 South Tangerang) (Undergraduate thesis, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, Indonesia).

09ID2014PER Maulidiyah, Y. (2014). The Correlation between Students’ Anxiety and their Ability in Speaking Class IAIN Tulungagung (Undergraduate

thesis, State Islamic Institute Tulungagung, Indonesia).

10ID2015PER Abadi, C. P. (2015). Developing speaking skill in EFL English course. Journal on English as a Foreign Language, 5(2), 133-140.

11ID2015PER Saputra, J. B., & Wargianto. (2015). Communicative Language Teaching: changing students’ speaking skill. Premise Journal, 4(1), 1-14.

12ID2015STR Gani, S. A., Fajrina, D., & Hanifa, R. (2015). Students’ learning strategies for developing speaking ability. Studies in English Language and

Education, 2(1), 16-28.

13ID2015PER Inayah (2015). Improving students’ speaking skill through storytelling technique (An experimental study in a senior high school in Bandung).

ELTIN Journal, 3(1), 25-37.

14ID2015PER Setyawan, A. H. (2015). The effectiveness of classroom discussion in improving English speaking skill among the students of SMP N 3 Depok.

Journal of English language and education, 1(2), 184-202.

15ID2015PER Muna, W., & Normawati. (2015). The correlation between self-confidence and the students’ speaking performance of AMIK Global Kendari.

LANGKAWI Journal of The Association for Arabic and English, 1(1), 51-68.


…appendix continued

119


16ID2015PER

Marwiyah, S., & Kaswan. (2015). The influence of student’s learning style on their speaking ability at class IX of MTs Muslimin Peusing

Bandung Barat. Eltin Journal, 3(1), 1-11.

17ID2015PER Asnawi. (2015). The effects of immersive multimedia learning with peer support on speaking skill among male and female students. Studies in

English Language and Education, 2(2), 103-117.

18ID2016PER Hartono, B. (2016). The effects of teaching method and emotional intelligence upon student’s speaking skill. Premise Journal, 5(1), 52-68.

19ID2016PER Rahayu, R. (2016). The Effectiveness of Using Video-Recorded Speaking Task on Students’ Speaking Skill (Undergraduate thesis, Syarif

Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, Indonesia).

20ID2016PER Mastur. (2016). The Relationship between Students’ Self-Efficacy and their Speaking Ability (A Study at MTsS Al-Manar Aceh Besar)

(Undergraduate thesis, Ar-Raniry State Islamic University Darussalam, Indonesia).

21ID2016PER Kurniati. (2016). The effectiveness of animation video in teaching speaking to junior high school. Journal of English Language and Education,

2(1), 33-64.

22ID2016PER Rahmi, R. H. (2016). The use of information gap technique to improve speaking skill. Journal of English Education, Literature, and Culture,

1(1), 57-67.

23ID2017PER Albar, R. (2017). The Relationship between Students’ Vocabulary Size, Foreign Language Anxiety and their Speaking Ability (a Correlational

Study at the Seventh Grade of SMP Islam Al-Azhar 3 Bintaro) (Master thesis, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta,

Indonesia).

24ID2017PER Novita, T. (2017). Students’ English-speaking skill and activation method: the case of one senior high school. Edukasi: Jurnal Pendidikan dan

Pengajaran, 4(2), 10-17.

25ID2017PER Suparman. (2017). The effectiveness of the English conversation to improve Students’ speaking skill in the experimental group. Palapa: Jurnal

Studi Keislaman dan Ilmu Pendidikan, 5(2), 38-52.

26ID2017PER Royani, R., & Zakaria. (2017). The effect of CLT method on students’ speaking skill at the second grade of MTSN 1 Koala. Journal of

Education, Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 244-248.

27ID2017PER Sudharma, P. (2017). The Effect of Screencast-O-Matic on Students’ Speaking Ability of Descriptive Text (Undergraduate thesis, Syarif

Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, Indonesia).

28ID2017PER Faridah, D., & Ratnawati. (2017). Engaging multimedia into speaking class practices: toward student’s achievement and motivation. Script

Journal: Journal of Linguistic and English Teaching, 2(2), 167-176.

29ID2017PER Kaniadewi, N. (2017). The effect of instructional methods and cognitive styles toward speaking skill. Journal of ELT Research, 2(1), 44-54.

30IC2009FLU McGuire, M. (2009). Formulaic Sequences in English Conversation: Improving Spoken Fluency in Non-Native Speakers (Master thesis,

University of North Texas, USA).

31IC2010PRON Haslam, N. O. (2010). The Relationship of Three L2 Learning Factors with Pronunciation Proficiency: Language Aptitude, Strategy Use, and

Learning Context (Master thesis, Brigham Young University, USA).



120


32IC2011PRON Chen, J. J. (2011). The Effects of Music Activities on English Pronunciation and Vocabulary Retention of Fourth-Grade ESOL (English for

Speakers of Other Languages) Students in Taiwan (Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, USA).

33IC2012PER Samaranayake, S. W. (2012). The Effects of Authentic Materials Using Role-Playing Activities on Oral Proficiency: A Case Study of Thai

Undergraduate Students. (Master Thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa).

34IC2013FLU Klomjit, S. (2013). Using Oral Reading to Self to Improve Oral Fluency of English language learners (Doctoral dissertation, University of

Arkansas, USA).

35IC2013PER Khosronejad, S. (2013). The effect of dramatized instruction on speaking ability of Imam Ali University EFL learners. International Journal of

Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 2(5), 87-96.

36IC2013PER Ariafar, M., & Fatemipour, H. R. (2013). The effect of self-assessment on Iranian EFL learners’ speaking skill. International Journal of

Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 2(4), 7-13.

37IC2013BEL

Dinçer, A., & Yeşilyurt, S. (2013). Pre-service English teachers’ beliefs on speaking skill based on motivational orientations. English Language

Teaching, 6(7), 88-95.

38IC2014PER Vahdany, F. (2014). The effects of type and quantity of input on Iranian EFL learners’ oral language proficiency. International Journal of

Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 3(3), 124-129.

39IC2014DIF Al-Jamal, D., & Al-Jamal, D. A. (2014). An investigation of the difficulties faced by EFL undergraduates in speaking skills. English Language

Teaching, 7(1), 19-27.

40IC2014PER

Mihye, K. (2014). Korean EFL Learners’ Perspectives on Speaking Tasks: Discussion, Summary, and Information-Exchange Tasks. English

Language Teaching, 7(11), 1-14.

41IC2014FLU Santos, C., E. D. (2014). The Effects of Quantitative and Qualitative Feedback on Speaking Fluency Development (Master thesis, Brigham

Young University, USA)

42IC2015PER Rahmatollahi, M. (2015). Relationship between intermediate EFL learners' communication apprehension, willingness to communicate, and

speaking ability. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 4(6), 24-32.

43IC2015FLU Khoshsima, H. (2015). The impact of task-based approach in enhancing non-English major students’ speaking fluency. International Journal of

Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 4(3), 16-20.

44IC2015PER Qarajeh, M. (2015). The impact of social networking on the oral performance of EFL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and

English Literature, 6(2), 51-56.

45IC2015PER Madarsara, M. A., & Rahimy, R. (2015). Examining the effect of task complexity and sequence on speaking ability of Iranian EFL learners.

International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 4(1), 247-254.



121


462015ICPER Xu, J. (2015). Predicting ESL learners’ oral proficiency by measuring the collocations in their spontaneous speech (Doctoral dissertation, Iowa

State University, USA).

472016ICPER Ramezani, R., Larsari, E. E., & Kiasi, M. A. (2016). The relationship between critical thinking and EFL learners’ speaking ability. English


48IC2016PER Fung, Y, M. (2016). Effects of board game on speaking ability of low-proficiency ESL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics &

English Literature, 5(3), 261-271.

49IC2016STR

Sadripour, E., & Motallebzadeh, K. (2016). On the relationship between Iranian EFL learner’s musical and visual Intelligences and their use of

speaking strategies in communication. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 5(1), 162-169.

50IC2016PER Liu, Y. (2016). Improving Chinese University Students' Speaking Performance in Mobile-Assisted English Learning (Doctoral dissertation,

University of Illinois at Chicago, USA)

51IC2017PER

Pishkar, K., Moinzadeh, A., & Dabaghi, A. (2017). Modern English drama and the students’ fluency and accuracy of speaking. English


52IC2017PER Shanta, S., & Mekala, S. (2017). The role of oral communicative tasks (OCT) in developing the spoken proficiency of engineering students.

Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 8(2), 161-169.

53OC2012PER Heng, C. S., Abdullah, A. N., & Yusof, N. B. (2012). Investigating the construct of anxiety in relation to speaking skills among ESL tertiary

learners. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 18(3), 155-166.

54OC2013ATTPER Aregu, B. B. (2013). Enhancing self-regulated learning in teaching spoken communication: Does it affect speaking efficacy and performance?

Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 10(1), 96-109.

55OC2013PER Sikder, S. (2013). A Teaching Experience and a Survey on Methods of Teaching Speaking Skills. (Undergraduate thesis, BRAC University,

Dhaka, Bangladesh)

56OC2013PER Dharshini, S. M. P. (2013). Effectiveness of Using Innovative Strategies in Developing Speaking Skills among Engineering Students (Doctoral

dissertation, Alagappa University, India).

57OC2014ANX Chowdhury, S. (2014). Learners’ Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety: A Tertiary Level Scenario in EFL Class. (Undergraduate thesis, BRAC

University, Dhaka, Bangladesh).

58OC2014CON

Adnan, N. (2014). Using Public Speaking to Improve Malaysian Students’ Confidence Level in Speaking Skill: A Case Study. (Master Thesis,

Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia).

59OC2014PER Narayanan, V., Baharuddin, N. N., & Akhyar, A. (2014). Using observation to test speaking skills among primary students based on school-

based assessment: Malaysian teachers’ perceptions. International Journal of Innovative Research & Development, 3(13), 157-162.



122


60OC2014ATT

Zulkurnain, N., & Kaur, S. (2014). Oral English communication difficulties and coping strategies of diploma of hotel management students at

UiTM. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 20(3), 93–112.

61OC2014PER San, P. H., & Abdullah, A. C. (2014). Oral vocabulary as a predictor of English language proficiency among Malaysian Chinese preschool

children. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 20(1), 143-156.

62OC2014PER Lian, H. L., & Budin, M. B. (2014). Investigating the relationship between English language anxiety and the achievement of school based oral

English test among Malaysian form four students. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 2(1): 67-79.

63OC2014ATT

Quadir, M. (2014). Relationships between learners’ motivation factors and speaking strategy factors to learn oral communication in English.

Malaysian Journal of ELT Research, 43(3), 113-135.

64OC2015PER Leow, C., K., Yahya, W., Mohamad, M., & Liu, S. (2015). Mobile-assisted second language learning: Speaking a second language with

auditory stimuli. Issues in Language Studies, 4(2), 15-27.

65OC2015PER Talebi, S. H., & Moradi, Z. (2015). The effect of guided strategic planning on Iranian intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL)

learners' fluency, accuracy and lexical resources in speaking. Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education, 30, 31-50.

66OC2015PRON Akhter, M. (2015). English Pronunciation Difficulties of Students in the Sub-Urban Areas of Sylhet: A Secondary Scenario. (Undergraduate

thesis, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh)

67OC2015ATT Afshar, H. S., & Asakereh, A. (2016). Speaking skills problems encountered by Iranian EFL freshmen and seniors from their own and their

English instructors’ perspectives. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 13(1), 112-130.

68OC2016PER Amailia, S., & Apriani, D. W. (2016). Project-based instruction: integrating technology in speaking instruction. Malaysian Journal of ELT

Research, 45(2), 64-73.

69OC2016DIF Riyaz, H., & Mullick, A. P. (2016). Problems in learning English speaking skill: A study of higher secondary students in Srinagar, India.

International Journal of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(2), 59-69.

70OC2016PER Mary, E., & Latha, E. (2016). Enhancing oral skills in English language for L2 learners using pictorial description technique. International

Journal of Innovative Research & Development, 5(1), 78-81.

71OC2016ANX Galti, A. M., & Tahiru, Z. (2016). Correlation between use of affective strategy and speaking anxiety among Shehu Garbai secondary school

students in Maiduguri-Borno state. Indian Journal of Innovations and Developments, 5(12), 1-5.

72EC2017ANX Mahmud, J. (2017). Effects and Problems of Speaking Anxiety in Bengali Medium Classrooms of Bangladesh. (Undergraduate thesis, BRAC

University, Dhaka, Bangladesh)

73OC2017PER Bozorgian, H., & Fallah, S. (2017). EFL learners’ speaking development: asking referential questions. Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 42(2), 99-

106.



123


74EC2008PER Rashtchi, M., & Khosnevisan, B. (2008). Audiotaped dialogue journal: a technique to improve speaking skill of Iranian EFL learners. Journal

of Applied Linguistics, 1(3), 164-176.

75EC2008PER Hsu, J. T., & Chiu, C. (2008). Lexical collocations and their relation to speaking proficiency. The Asian EFL Journal, 10(1), 181-204.

76EC2009CEP

Riihimäki, J. (2009). Assessment of Oral Skills in Upper Secondary Schools in Finland: Teachers’ View. (Bachelor thesis, University of

Jyväskylä, Finland).

77EC2009PER Murad, T. M. (2009). The Effect of Task-Based Language Teaching on Developing Speaking Skills among the Palestinian Secondary EFL

Students in Israel and Their Attitudes towards English (Doctoral dissertation, Yarmouk University, Jordan).

78EC2010PER Soraya, B. (2010). Enhancing Students’ Oral Proficiency through Cooperative Group Work. (Master Thesis, University of Constantine,

Algeria).

79EC2010FLUMOT Sağlam, E. B. (2010). The Effects of Music on English Language Learners’ Speaking Fluency and on their Motivation/Interest Level (Master

thesis, Bilkent University, Turkey).

80EC2011PER Jondeya, R. S. (2011). The Effectiveness of Using Information Gap on Developing Speaking Skills for the Eighth Graders in Gaza Governorate

Schools. (Master thesis, Al- Azhar University-Gaza, Palestine).

81EC2012PER Nanthaboot, P. (2012). Using Communicative Activities to Develop English Speaking Ability of Matthayomsuksa Three Students (Master thesis,

Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand).

82EC2012PER Phisutthangkoon, P. (2012). The Use of Communicative Activities to Develop English Speaking Ability of the First Year Diploma Vocational

Students (Master thesis, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand).

83EC2013PER Zhang, W., & Liu, M. (2013). Evaluating the impact of oral test anxiety and speaking strategy use on oral English performance. The Journal of

Asia TEFL, 10(2), 115-148.

84EC2014PER Beniss, A., & Bazzaz, V. E. (2014). The impact of pushed output on accuracy and fluency of Iranian EFL learners’ speaking. Iranian Journal of

Language Teaching Research, 2(2), 51-72.

85EC2014PERATT Ashour, J. M. (2014). The Effect of Using a Videoconferencing-based Strategy on UNRWA 9th Graders' English-Speaking Skills and their

Attitudes towards Speaking (Master thesis, The Islamic University of Gaza, Palestine)

86EC2015PER Frančešević, A. (2015). The Relationship between Speaking Activities in the EFL Classroom and Croatian State School-Leaving Exam. (Master

thesis, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Croatia).

87EC2016PER Sabbah, S. R. M. (2016). The Effectiveness of Using Debates in Developing Speaking Skills among English Majors at University of Palestine.

(Master thesis, Al-Azhar University-Gaza, Palestine).

88EC2016PER Anil, B. (2016). A study on developing speaking skills through techno-driven tasks. Brazilian English Language Teaching Journal, 7(1), 80-93.



124


89EC2016PER Moghadam, M. B., & Haghverdi, H. R. (2016). The impact of readers theatre on the development of pre-intermediate Iranian EFL learners’ oral

proficiency. Research in English Language Pedagogy, 3(2), 44-56.

90EC2016PER Burlińska, M. (2016). Ways of Implementing Drama Techniques in Teaching Speaking Skill to Young Learners at the Elementary Level.

Selected Aspects. (Undergraduate thesis, Wyższa Szkoła Języków Obcych w Świeciu, Poland).

91EC2017PRON Rodriguez, D., Vásquez, M., & Ascencio, D. (2017). The Influence of the Spoken Interaction with English Native Speakers in the English

Pronunciation of the Personnel Working in San Salvador-Based Call-Centers. (Undergraduate thesis, University Of El Salvador, El-

Savador)

92EC2017PER Keränen, I. (2017). English Speaking Skills in Finnish Upper Secondary School: Students’ self-assessment vs. the objectives of the Curriculum.

(Undergraduate thesis, University of Jyväskylä, Finland)

93EC2017MOT

Mendez, M. G. (2017). Motivating and demotivating factors for students with low emotional intelligence to participate in speaking activities.

PROFILE, 19(2), 151-163.

94EC2017PER Iman, J. N. (2017). Debate instruction in EFL classroom: Impacts on the critical thinking and speaking skill. International Journal of

Instruction, 10(4), 87-108.

95EC2017PER Alzboun, B. K., Smadi, O. M., & Baniabdelrahman, A. (2017). The effect of role play strategy on Jordanian EFL tenth grade students' speaking

skill. Arab World English Journal, 8(4), 121-136.

96EC2017PER Muslem, A., Mustafa, F., Usman, B., & Rahman, A. (2017). The application of video clips with small group and individual activities to

improve young learners’ speaking performance. Teaching English with Technology, 17(4): 25-37

97EC2017PER Yegani, H., & Jodaei, H. (2017). The effect of task-based and topic-based speaking activities on speaking ability of Iranian EFL learners.

International Journal of English Language and Translation, 5(4), 86-93.

98EC2018PER Khodabandeh, F. (2018). The impact of storytelling techniques through virtual instruction on English students’ speaking ability. Teaching

English with Technology, 18(1), 24-36.

99EC2018PER Soleimani, H., & Khosravi, A. G. (2018). The effect of Kagan's cooperative structures on speaking skill of Iranian EFL learners. International

Journal of English Language and Translation Studies, 6(1), 20-31.

100EC2018FLU Mohammadi, M., & Enayati, B. (2018). The Effects of Lexical Chunks Teaching on EFL Intermediate Learners’ Speaking Fluency.

International Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 179-192.


125

Appendix 2. Manifest Content (Part A)

No. Entry Code Investigated

Topic

Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method

1 01ID2010PER Performance Speaking: Combining

sounds in recognized and

systematic way, according

to language specific

principles to form

meaningful utterances

(Conblect & Carter as

cited in Idris, 2006)

Time token Arends To find out whether

or not time token

Arends is effective

to improve English

speaking ability of

students and

students’ interest in

speaking English.

Quantitative Pre-experimental

2 02ID2011PER Performance Speaking: The ability to

report acts or situation, or

the ability to report

situations in precise

words, or the ability to

express a sequence of

ideas fluently (Lado,

1961, p. 240)

English Day Program 1) To describe the

implementation of

English Day

program at SBI

SMK N 1 Pacitan in

the academic year

2010/2011.

2) To discover the

contributions of

English Day

program towards the

students’ speaking

skill in SBI SMK N

1 Pacitan in the

academic year

2010/2011.

Qualitative

descriptive

Descriptive narrative



126


Topic


3 03ID2011PER Performance N/A Speaking score To find out if there

is any correlation

between students’

interest in speaking

and their speaking

score

Quantitative Correlational

4 04ID2011PER Performance N/A Storytelling To know there is

any significant

effect of storytelling

strategy toward


ability of narrative

text.


5 05ID2011PER Performance N/A Vocabulary, grammar To examine the

correlation between

students' vocabulary

mastery and their

speaking

performance; the

correlation between

students‟ grammar

mastery and their

speaking

performance; the

correlation between

students‟

vocabulary and

grammar mastery

and their speaking

performance




127


Topic


6 06ID2012FLU Fluency N/A Look-up technique To find out the

effect of look up

technique on

speaking fluency

Quantitative Quasi-experimental

7 07ID2013PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To find out whether

there is a significant

difference on the

speaking skill

between the students

who are taught using

audio visual aids

and those who are

taught by using non-

audio visual aids.


8 08ID2014PER Performance Speaking: "a productive

skill that can be directly

and empirically observed"

(Brown, 2004, p. 140)

Debate strategies To see the

effectiveness of

classroom debate to

improve students'

speaking skill


9 09ID2014PER Performance N/A Anxiety To find out whether

there was the

correlation between

students’ anxiety

and their ability in

speaking class




128


Topic


10 10ID2015ATT Performance N/A Teaching technique

and strategy factors

To describe factors

contributing the

development of

speaking skill, and

to describe techniq

es and strategies

used by the teachers

to develop speaking

skill

Qualitative Ethnography

11 11ID2015PER Performance Speaking: Speech or

utterances with the

purpose of having

intention to be recognized

by speaker and the

receiver processes the

statements in order to

recognize their intentions

(Rickheit & Strohner,

2008, p. 207)

Communicative

Language

Teaching

To solve the

speaking problem

faced by students

Mixed-methods Classroom

Action

Research

12 12ID2015STR Strategies Speaking: An interactive

process of constructing

meaning that involves

producing and receiving

and processing

information (Brown,

2004, p. 140)

N/A To study the

learning strategies

used by both low

and high

performance

speaking students in

developing their

speaking skills as

well as the

differences between

their learning

strategies

Qualitative Qualitative

descriptive



129


Topic


13 13ID2015PER Performance Speaking: An interactive


meaning, involving

producing , receiving, and

processing information

(Brown, 2001)

Storytelling technique To investigate the


on students’

speaking ability and

students’ attitudes

toward its

implementation of

storytelling

technique


14 14ID2015PER Performance N/A Classroom discussion To investigate

whether or not there

is a significant

difference in the

mastery of the

speaking skill

between the students

who are taught by

using classroom

discussion and those

who are taught

without using

classroom

discussion


15 15ID2015PER Performance N/A Self-confidence To find out the

correlation between

the students’ self-

confidence and their

speaking

performance




130


Topic


16 16ID2015PER Performance Speaking: The productive

oral skill. It consists of

producing systematic

verbal utterance to convey

meaning Nunan (2003:

48)

Student's learning style To identify whether

students' learning

styles influence

speaking ability

Quantitative Survey

17 17ID2015PER Performance N/A Immersive Multimedia

Learning, peer support,

male and female

students

To investigate the

effects of immersive

multimedia

language learning

technique on

performance in

English in terms of

oral production

skills in reading and

speaking that

involved six

measures, namely,

pausing, phrasing,

stress, intonation,

rate, and integration

without the

mediation of the

first language of the

students amongst

both males and

females




131


Topic


18 18ID2016PER Performance N/A Teaching method,

emotional intelligence

To determine the

effects of teaching

method and

emotional

intelligence upon

student’s speaking

skill


19 19ID2016PER Performance Speaking: "a productive

skill which enables

speaker to express ideas,

feelings, or information

orally" (Harmer, 1991, pp.

52-53)

Multimedia strategies To see the

effectiveness of

classroom debate to

improve students'

speaking skill


20 20ID2016PER Performance Speaking: "the ability in

using oral language to

explore ideas, intentions,

thoughts and feelings to

other people as a way to

make the message clearly

delivered and well

understood by the hearer.”

(Bygate (1987, p.1, in

Mazouzi, 2013, p.5)

Self-efficacy To find out whether

there is a

relationship between

self-efficacy and

speaking

achievement


21 21ID2016PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To find out the

effectiveness of

animation video in

teaching speaking


22 22ID2016PER Performance N/A Information gap

technique

To find out whether

Information Gap

technique was

effective to improve




132


Topic



skill or not

23 23ID2017PER Performance N/A Anxiety, vocabulary To know and

describe the

relationship among

three variables; the


students‘vocabulary

size (X1) and their

speaking ability (Y),

the relationship

between students‘

foreign language

anxiety (X2) and

their speaking

ability (Y) and the


students‘ vocabulary

size, foreign

language anxiety,

and their speaking

ability




133


Topic





producing and receiving

and processing

information (Bailey,

2005)

Activation Method To find out whether

or not:

(1) There was a

significant

improvement on the

eleventh grade


skill who were

taught by using

activation method

before and after the

treatment; and

(2) There was a

significant

difference on the

eleventh grade


skill who were

taught by using

activation method

and those who were

not


25 25ID2017PER Performance Speaking: A productive

skill that can be directly

and empirically observed,

those observation are

invariably colored by the

accuracy and fluency.

(Brown, 2001)

Conversation To examine the

effectiveness of the

English

conversation to

improve students’

speaking skill




134


Topic




meaning involves

producing, receiving and


(Flores, 1991)

Communicative

Language Teaching

To find out if there

is significant effect

of CLT method on

students' speaking

Skill


27 27ID2017PER Performance Speaking: "a verbal

communication which

involves a speaker and a

listener in the

communicating situation"

(Thornbury, 2006, p. 1)

Computer Assisted

Language Learning

To obtain the

empirical evidence

of the effect of

Screencast O-Matic

on students'

speaking ability on

descriptive text


28 28ID2017PER Performance N/A Multimedia,

motivation

To find out whether

multimedia has

effects for teaching

speaking in the

scope of students‟

interests, feedback

and their cognitive

aspects.

Mixed-methods Sequential

explanatory

29 29ID2017PER Performance N/A Instructional methods,

cognitive styles

to investigate the

effect of

instructional

methods and

students’ cognitive

style towards

speaking skill




135


Topic


30 30IC2009FLU Fluency N/A Linguistic competence Eoop Quantitative True experimental

31 31IC2010PRON Pronunciation

gain

N/A Pronunciation

strategies, language

aptitude, learning

context

(1) To determine

whether language

aptitude and the use

of language

strategies predict

pronunciation gains

in second language

(L2) acquisition

(2) To determine

whether these

factors differed

depending on

whether learning

occurred in ESL or

EFL learning

context


32 32IC2011PRON Pronunciation N/A Music activities,

vocabulary

To explore the

effects of music

activities (singing,

speech and body

percussion, and

instrumental

performance) on the

English

pronunciation and

vocabulary retention

of fourth grade

Quantitative True experimental



136


Topic


ESOL students in

Chia-Yi, Taiwan

33 33IC2012PER Performance Accuracy: A focus on

issues of appropriateness

and other formal factors

such as usage, language

for display and

knowledge, and judging

communication by

linguistic competence

(Brumfit, 1984, p. 59)

fluency: the ability to

produce sustained oral

production implying a

certain communicative

competence, as well as the

unstilted spontaneous use

of English conversational

lubricants (Beardsmore,

1974, p.323)

Authentic materials,

contextually-developed

role-playing activities

To investigate the

effects of authentic

materials and

contextually-

developed role-

playing activities on

the oral proficiency

of Thai

undergraduate

students


34 34IC2013FLU Fluency Fluency: A performance

phenomenon related to

‘flow, continuity,

automaticity, or

smoothness of speech’

(Koponen & Riggenbach,

Oral reading To study the effect

of oral reading-to-

self on adult English

Language Learners’

oral fluency and

their perception




137


Topic


2000, p. 6) toward oral reading-

to-self

35 35IC2013PER Performance N/A Drama strategies To determine the

effect of dramatized

instruction on the

speaking ability of

EFL learners


36 36IC2013PER Performance N/A Self-assessment To investigate the

effect of self-

assessment on

speaking skill of

Iranian EFL learners


37 37IC2013BEL Belief N/A Motivational

orientation

To explore pre-

service English

teachers’

perceptions of

teaching speaking in

Turkey, the

importance they

give to this language

skill, and their self-

evaluation of their

speaking

competence

Qualitative Case study



138


Topic


38 38IC2014PER Performance N/A Type of Input, quantity

of input

(1) To look at

different types of

input to which

Iranian grade four

high school EFL

learners are exposed

to;

(2) To investigate

the possible


types and quantity

of input and Iranian

EFL learners’ oral

proficiency


39 39IC2014DIF Difficulties N/A EFL learners’

difficulties

To present, as well

as to assess, the

difficulties in

speaking skill

success through

highlighting the role

of English language

departments across

Jordanian

Universities


explanatory

40 40IC2014ATT Perception

about

speaking

N/A Task preference To investigate

Korean university

EFL learners’ task

preference among

three different

speaking tasks


explanatory



139


Topic


41 41IC2014FLU Fluency Fluency: The smooth,

rapid, effortless use of

language (Crystal, 1987,

p. 421)

Quantitative/qualitative

feedback

The effect of two

forms of feedback

(qualitative and

quantitative) on the

development of the

spoken fluency of

English language

learners


explanatory

42 42IC2015PER Performance Speaking is a challenging

process in which, based

on the cultural and social

context, speakers

should decide why, how,

and when to communicate

(Burns & Seidlhofer as

cited in Martínez-Flor,

Usó-Juan, and Soler,

2006)

Anxiety, motivation To investigate the

underlying patterns

of the relationship

between

communication

apprehension (CA),

willingness to

communicate

(WTC), and

speaking ability with

regard to different

contexts and

receivers

Quantitative Ex post facto

43 43IC2015FLU Fluency Speaking: An active

process, through which

learners use their world

and language knowledge

to convert their thought to

meaningful oral message

(Chastain, P. 270)

Task-based Language

Teaching

To scrutinize the

effects of tasks-

based instruction on

non-English major


fluency


44 44IC2015PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To investigate the

effect of social hubs

on improving EFL




140


Topic


learners' speaking

skill

45 45IC2015PER Performance N/A Task complexity, task

sequence

To examine the

effect of task

complexity and

sequence on

speaking ability


46 46IC2015PER Performance N/A Linguistic competence To investigate the

empirical

performance of a

series of theory-

based collocation

measures on learner

spoken data for

predicting human

criterion scores of

oral English

proficiencies




141


Topic


47 47IC2016PER Performance 1) Speaking: an

interactive process of

constructing meaning that

involves producing,

receiving and processing

information (Brown,

1994; Burns & Joyce,

1997).

2) Fluency: an ability in

the second language to

produce or comprehend

utterances smoothly,

rapidly (Segalowitz,

2003).

3) Fluency: “the rapid,

smooth, accurate, lucid

and efficient translation of

thought or communicative

intention into language

under the temporal

constraints of on-line

processing (Lennon,

2000, p. 26)

Critical thinking To investigate the


critical thinking and

speaking ability

among EFL students

at Payame Noor

University (PNU) of

Rasht


48 48IC2016PER Performance N/A Board game, anxiety To investigate

whether the board

game is a useful tool

to engage learners’

participation in class

and to enhance the

speaking ability of

low-proficiency




142


Topic


ESL learners

49 49IC2016ATT Strategies N/A Musical Intelligence,

visual Intelligence

To investigate the


Iranian EFL

learners’ musical

and visual

intelligences and

their use of speaking

strategies in

communication

Quantitative Ex post facto



143


Topic


50 50IC2016PER Performance N/A Mobile Assisted

Language Learning

To investigate the

effect of positive

feedback on Chinese

university students'

English speaking

perfomrance in a

mobile learning

context

Quantitative Matched-subject

51 51IC2017PER Performance N/A Drama strategies To probe one of the

main concerns of

language learners,

that is, how to

improve their

speaking




144


Topic


components, e.g.

oral fluency and

accuracy

52 52IC2017PER Performance Speaking: The process of

building and sharing

meaning through the use

of verbal and non- verbal

symbols, in a variety of

contexts

(Chaney,1998,p.13)

Oral Communicative

Tasks (OCT)

To investigate the

role of Oral

Communicative

Tasks (OCT) and

their impact on the

spoken proficiency

of ESL students at

tertiary level


53 53OC2012PER Performance N/A Anxiety To investigate the

construct of anxiety

in relation to

speaking skills and

to find out whether

there is a correlation

between anxiety

towards speaking in

English and anxiety

towards taking a

speaking test




145


Topic


54 54OC2013PER Efficacy,

performance

Self-regulated learning N/A To examine the

effects of enhancing

self-regulated

learning in the

teaching of spoken

communication on

speaking efficacy

and performances

among second year

students attending

spoken and written

communi-cation

lessons in the

College of Business

and Economics of

Bahir Dar

University

Quantitative Survey

55 55OC2013PER Performance Accuracy: The correct use

of vocabulary, grammar

etc. in case of controlled

and guided activities

while fluency would

mean the ability to get the

message across regardless

grammatical mistakes

(Gower et al, 1995, p.

100).

Speaking strategies To investigate

whether the teaching

of speaking is still

done in a traditional

method or not

Quantitative Survey



146


Topic


56 56OC2013PER Performance N/A Innovative strategies To investigate

whether innovative

strategies have

signinificant impact

on students'

speaking skills


57 57OC2014ATT Anxiety N/A Language anxiety

factors

To find out the

factors responsible

for speaking anxiety

of the learners, the

effects of the

anxiety and the

ways to reduce

anxiety

Quantitative Survey

58 58OC2014ATT Confidence N/A Publlic speaking

program, confidence

To study the

effectiveness of

Public Speaking

Programme in

improving

Malaysian students’

confidence level in

speaking skill


59 59OC2014PER Performance N/A Observation method To investigate the

usage of observation

method to assess

speaking skills

among primary

students

Qualitative Qualitative

descriptive



147


Topic


60 60OC2014PER Performance N/A Speaking difficulties To examine the

types of oral

communication

difficulties and the

coping strategies of

Diploma level ESL

learners


explanatory

61 61OC2014PER Performance N/A Oral vocabulary To examine whether

oral vocabulary is a

good predictor of

the English language

proficiency of

Malaysian Chinese

preschoolers by

examining the

correlation of oral

vocabulary and

English language

proficiency


62 62OC2014PER Performance N/A Anxiety To investigate the


English language

anxiety and the

achivement of

school based oral

English test

Quantitative Survey



148


Topic


63 63OC2014STR Strategy

factors

N/A Motivation To investigate the

relationships

between motivation

and speaking

strategy factors of

Bangladeshi

university students

to learn oral

communication in

English


64 64OC2015PER Performance N/A Mobile-Assisted

Language Learning

(MALL)

To investigate the

effectiveness of

auditory stimuli for

the speaking

acquisition of a L2,

in two different

modes of

presentation


(2x2)

65 65OC2015PER Performance N/A Guided strategic

planning

To examine the

effect of guided

strategic planning on

the fluency,

accuracy and lexical

resources in the

speaking of Iranian

intermediate English

as a foreign

language (EFL)

learners




149


Topic


66 66OC2015PRON Pronunciation Pronunciation: The

production of sounds that

we use to create meaning

(“Fact”, 2002)

Perception To find out the

English

pronunciation

difficulties of

Bengali medium

students in the sub-

urban areas of

Sylhet and the

possible barriers that

work behind this

problem

Quantitative Survey

67 67OC2015PER Performance Speaking: Demanding

skill for EFL learners as

they need to have not only

grammar and lexical

knowledge, but also

knowledge of socially-

appropriate

language(Shumin, 1997)

Perception To investigate the

speaking skills

problems faced by

Iranian EFL

freshmen and

seniors from their

own and their

English instructors’

perspectives


explanatory

68 68OC2016PER Performance N/A Project-Based

Instruction

To investigate

whether project

based instruction

support the teaching

of speaking in the

English language




150


Topic


classroom

69 69OC2016DIF Difficulties N/A Language learning

problems

To investigate the

problems of higher

secondary students'

in learning English

speaking skills


explanatory

70 70OC2016PER Performance N/A Pictorial description

technique

To explore the

significance of

descriptive

technique in

enhancing spoken

language to

language minority

learners from

Auxilium College,

Vellore, Tamil Nadu


exploratory

71 71OC2016ANX Anxiety N/A Affective strategy To investigate the



anxiety and their use

of affective strategy

during speaking task


72 72OC2017ANX Anxiety N/A Anxiety effects To find out the

problems which are

responsible for

speaking anxiety of

the learners and the

effects of anxiety

Quantitative Survey



151


Topic


73 73OC2017PER Performance N/A Referential questions To investigate the

effect of asking

referential questions

on the students' oral

production


74 74EC2008PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To investigate

whether there was

any significant

difference between

the speaking

achievement of

learners who were

trained by means of

audiotaped dialogue

journal, dialogue

journal writing, or

traditional free

speech


75 75EC2008PER Performance N/A Lexical collocations To explore the

knowledge and use

of English lexical

collocations and

their relation to the

speaking proficiency

(assessed by two

speaking test) of

Taiwanese EFL

university learners


design



152


Topic


76 76EC2009CEP Perception N/A Language assessment To investigate

teachers' view

regarding the oral

language assessment

Quantitative Survey

77 77EC2009PER Performance Speaking: An interactive



producing, receiving and


(Brown, 1994; Burns and

Joyce, 1997)

Attitudes, Task-based

Language Teaching

To explore whether

using music in

English Language

Teaching settings

could be beneficial

for language

learners in

improving their

speaking fluency,

and whether lessons

conducted with

songs would raise

the learners’

motivation/interest

in second language

learning


78 78EC2010PER Performance Speaking involves putting

a message together,

communicating the

message, and interacting

with other people.

(Lindsay and Knight,

Cooperative group

work

To explore the

effects of

cooperative group

work on improving

learners’ oral

proficiency and

Quantitative Survey



153


Topic


2006: 57) communicative

skills

79 79EC2010FLUMOT Fluency,

motivation

N/A Music activities,

motivation

To investigate

whether music plays

a role in improving


fluency and

motivation/interest

in language learning

contexts


80 80EC2011PER Performance Speaking: The productive

oral skill and it consists of


verbal utterances to

convey meaning (Nunan,

2003, p. 48)

Information gap

technique

To investigate the

effectiveness of

using information

gap in developing

speaking skills for

the eighth graders in

Gaza governorate

schools


81 81EC2012PER Performance N/A Communicative

activities

To investigate the

effect of

communicative

activities to develop

English speaking

ability of

Matthayomsuksa 3

students




154


Topic


82 82EC2012PER Performance N/A Communicative

activities

To investigate the

effect of

communicative

activities on the

first-year diploma

students' English

speaking ability


83 83EC2013PER Performance N/A Test anxiety, speaking

strategy use

To explore the effect

of Chinese

university students’

oral test anxiety and

speaking strategy

use on their oral

English performance




155


Topic


84 84EC2014PER Performance Accuracy: The production

of target language

according to its rule

system (Skehan, 1996).

fluency: the production of

language in real time

without undue pausing or

hesitation ( Ellis &

Baarkhuizer, 2005, p.

139)

Pushed output To establish baseline

quantitative data on

the impacts of

pushed output on

two components of

speaking (i.e.,

accuracy and

fluency


85 85EC2014PER Performance,

confidence

Speaking: Complete


meanings, producing

utterances and receiving

and processing

information (Brown,

1994) with confidence

(Bygate, 1987).

Multimedia strategies,

positive/negative

attitudes

To investigate the

effect of a

videoconferencing-

based strategy on

UNRWA Ninth

Graders' English-

Speaking Skills and

their Attitudes

towards speaking

skill


86 86EC2015PER Performance Speaking: The process of



of verbal and non-verbal


contexts (Chaney and

Burk, 1998, p. 13)

Speaking activities To show that the

Matura exam

influences teaching,

particularly teaching

speaking, and

thereby confirms the

existence of the

backwash effect in

language testing in

the Croatian context

Quantitative Survey



156


Topic


87 87EC2016PER Performance Speaking: The productive

oral skill. It consists of


verbal utterance to convey

meaning. (Nunan, 2003,

p. 48)

Debate strategies To investigate the

effectiveness of

using debates in

developing speaking

skills among English

majors at University

of Palestine


88 88EC2016PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To investigate

whether techno

driven tasks have

significant effect on

students' speaking

skills


89 89EC2016PER Performance N/A Readers theatre To investigate the

effect of RT on the

oral proficiency of

Iranian learners of

English as a foreign

language


90 90EC2016PER Performance When speaking, we

construct words and

phrases with individual

sounds, and we also use

pitch change, intonation,

and stress to convey

different meanings

(Harmer, 2007: 29)

Drama techniques To analyse how

applying drama in

the teaching process

can help to improve

speaking fluency

Quantitative Survey

91 91EC2017PER Pronunciation N/A Spoken interaction To determine the

influence of the

spoken interaction

with English native


exploratory



157


Topic


speakers gain by

personnel working

in Call Centre in

surrounding area in

San Salvador

92 92EC2017PER Performance The ability to speak a

language includes the

knowledge of

grammatical rules, but

also the ability to produce

and comprehend

sentences that are

appropriate contexts

(Hymes, 1971)

Self-evaluation To find out how

Finnish upper

secondary school

students self-assess

their English-

speaking skills

Quantitative Survey

93 93EC2017MOT Motivation N/A N/A To understand what

factors may

motivate and

demotivate students

with low emotional

intelligence to

participate in

speaking activities

during English class


94 94EC2017PER Performance Speaking: The process of



of verbal and non-verbal


contexts (Chaney, 998, p.

13).

Debate instruction,

critical thinking

To find out whether

or not using debate

significantly

improved the

students’ critical

thinking and

speaking skill

achievements and




158


Topic


how much debate

contributed to each

aspect of critical

thinking and

speaking skill

95 95EC2017PER Performance N/A Role play strategies To examine the

effect of role-play

strategy on the

Jordanian tenth

grade English as a

foreign language

(EFL) students'

speaking skill


96 96EC2017PER Performance Speaking: A multi-

sensory activity because it

involves paralinguistic

features such as eye

contact, facial

expressions, gestures,

tempo, pauses, voice

quality

changes, and variations in

pitch (voice projection

and vocal variety), which

affect the flow of

conversation (Thornbury,

2007).

Multimedia strategies

(video clips),

individual and small

group activity

To investigate

whether the

application of video

clips with small

groups or with

individual teaching-

learning activities

improved the

speaking skills of

young EFL learners




159


Topic


97 97EC2017PER Performance N/A Speaking activities To investigate the

effect of task-based

and topic-based

speaking activities

on improving the

speaking ability

among Iranian EFL

learners


98 98EC2018PER Performance N/A Virtual story telling To examine the


through the use of

Telegram on oral

language of English

foreign language

(EFL) students


99 99EC2018PER Performance Speaking: A strategic

process involving

speakers in using

language for the purpose

of achieving a certain goal

in particular speaking task

(Luoma, 2004)

Kagan’s cooperative

structures

To measure the

effect of Kagan’s

cooperative

structures on

speaking skill of

Iranian EFL learners


100 100EC2018FLU Fluency N/A Lexical chunks To investigate the

effects of learning

lexical chunks on

the speaking fluency

of EFL Iranian

learners



160

Appendix 3. Manifest Content (Part B)

No. Sample Sample Size Sampling

Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

1 Senior high school

students

30 Purposive N/A Speaking pre-test

and post-test

items, Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

There was significant

improvement of the

students speaking ability

and the students have

positive interest toward

the use of time token

Arends technique. (p =

0.05 with df=30-1).


students, teachers

33

(32 students,

1 teacher)

Convenience Internal consistency Observation, field

note, Likert-scale

questionnaire, and

semi-structured

interview

Descriptive

narrative

English Day program

could improve

students’ and teachers’

speaking skills.

3 Junior high school

students

50 Purposive N/A Likert-scale

questionnaire,

speaking test

Pearson Product

Moment

There is positive

correlation between

students’ interest in

speaking and their

speaking score. (rxy : rt =

0.55 > 0.279 ; rxy : rt =

0.55 >

0.361)


students

92 Cluster Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

There is significant effect

of storytelling strategy

toward speaking ability of

narrative text. (p= .000).

5 University students 32 Random Face validity and

content validity,

internal consistency

reliability

Vocabulary,

grammar, and

speaking test

Descriptive

statistics,

Pearson Product

Moment,

There was positive

significant correlation

between students‟

vocabulary mastery and



161


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

multiple linier

regression

analysis

their speaking

performance indicated by

the correlation coefficient

value (r) of 0.685.

Students‟ grammar

mastery was also found to

correlate positively with

their speaking

performance by its

correlation coefficient

value (r) of 0.735.

Positive correlation is

achieved between

students‟ vocabulary and

grammar mastery in their

speaking performance

with correlation

coefficient (r) was 0.752

or 75.2 %.

6 University students 74 (37 in

CG,37 in EG)

Stratified purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

There was a significant

increase after the look-up

technique was used to

teach speaking. (t-value

higher than t-critical,

1,671 <5.8> 2,390 which

means that Ho was

rejected).

7 Junior high students 46 (24 in CG,

22 in EG)

Convenience Content, construct,

and item validity

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics,

ANOVA

Audio visual aids applied

in teaching speaking is

effective for improving

the students’ speaking

skills. (p=0.03).



162


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results


students

56 (28 in CG

and 28 in EG)

Convenience Content validity,

inter-rater reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

There is a positive effect

of classroom debate

towards the students’

speaking skill. (p-value =

0.05).

9 University students 25 Purposive Internal consistency

reliability

Foreign Language

Classroom

Anxiety Scale

(FLCAS) Likert-

scale

questionnaire,

speaking test score

Descriptive

statistics,

Pearson Product

Moment

There is no correlation

between students’ anxiety

and their speaking test (p-

value= .558).

10 English language

institution students

80 Convenience N/A Observations,

semi-structured

interview, and

field notes

Descriptive

narrative

1) Teachers as the main

factor of presage variable

were observed using

many kinds of strategies,

and techniques for

developing speaking

skills, and (2) appropriate

speaking techniques and

strategies were used to

develop speaking skill in

the mentioned different

speaking class levels.

11 University students 30 Convenience Inter-rater reliability Observation

checklist, field

notes, and

speaking tests

Descriptive

statistics,

descriptive

narrative

CLT had positive

meaningful

effect on improving

students’ speaking skill.


students

16 Stratified random N/A Open-ended

questionnaire,

semi-structured

interview

Descriptive

narrative

High performance

speaking students had

better balance in using all

kinds of learning



163


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

strategies (memory,

cognitive, compensatory,

metacognitive, affective,

and social) for enhancing

their speaking skills; the

same could not be found

with low performance

speaking students.


students

60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Convenience N/A Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

1) the storytelling

technique

had an effect on

improving students’

speaking ability

because there was a

significant difference

between the post-test

scores of students in

experimental and control

groups

with the level of

significance 0f 0,05 the t-

observed (2,106)

was higher than t-table

(1,684)

14 Junior high students 71 (36 in CG

and 35 in EG)

Purposive Construct, content,

and item validity,


reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Classroom

discussion is effective in

improving English

learning achievement in

student’s mastery

of speaking and there is a

significant difference

between both classes (o is



164


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

higher than the t value at

the significance level of

5%, i.e.

2.106<2.000. The level

significance is 0.037)

15 University students 30 Stratified random N/A Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics,

Pearson Product

Moment

There is any significant

correlation (correlated

positively) between

students’ self - confidence

and the students’

speaking performance as

91.8% according to

sig.95%.


students

40 Convenience N/A Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

High performance

speaking students had

better balance in using all

kinds of learning

strategies (memory,

cognitive, compensatory,

metacognitive, affective,

and social) for enhancing

their speaking skills; the

same could not be found

with low performance

speaking students.

17 University students 80 (40 in CG

and 40 in EG)

Purposive Internal Speaking test Descriptive

statistics,

ANOVA

Following the immersive

multimedia learning, male

students in the immersive

multimedia group with

peer support performed

significantly better in four

of the six measures of



165


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

reading skills, namely,

phrasing, stress,

intonation, and

integration as compared

to their counterparts in the

non-peer supported

groups and there were no

significant differences for

pausing and rate. On the

other hand, female

students in the immersive

multimedia learning with

peer support group

performed significantly

better in all six measures

of oral production for

reading and speaking than

their counterparts in the

groups without peer

support. (p<0.05)

18 Vocational school

students

40 (20 in CG

and 20 in EG)

Cluster random Internal consistency Speaking test

score

Descriptive

statistics, two-

way ANOVA

Teaching method and

emotional intelligence has

positive effects on

students' speaking skill. (

p<0.05)


students

87 (44 in CG

and 43 in EG)

Convenience Content and face

validity, inter-rater

reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The use of video-recorded

speaking task was

effective in improving

students’ speaking skill

(p=0.000).


students


questionnaire,

Descriptive

statistics,

There is positive

significant relationship



166


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

speaking test score Pearson Product

Moment

between self-efficacy and

students’ speaking ability.

Students who have high

self-efficacy tend to get

higher score in oral

performance test than

those who have low self-

efficacy (p=.002).


students

60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Purposive N/A Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics

Teaching speaking skill

using animation video

was considered effective.

(CG mean score for pre-

test was 53.37 and post-

test 76.47. EG mean score

for pre-test 39.40 and

post-test 80.68)


students

80 (40 in CG

and 40 in EG)

Purposive N/A Voice recording,

speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The use of Information

Gap Technique in

teaching speaking showed

better result than the

conventional method. (p-

value 0.000)


students

100 Simple random N/A Likert-scale

language anxiety

questionnaire,

vocabulary level

test, and speaking

test on descriptive

text

Regression

analysis, partial

correlation

Students‘ vocabulary size

and foreign language

anxiety variable both

have significant

relationship with their

speaking ability

(p=0.004)


students

60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Purposive Content validity and


Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test


improvement on the

eleventh-grade students’



167


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

speaking skill who were

taught by using activation

method. (p= 0.007).


students

28 Cluster random N/A Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The English conversation

was significantly effective

in speaking skill (p

=.000.)


students

54 (27 in CG

and 27 in EG)

Purposive N/A Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

CLT method was

contributed positive effect

toward the students‟

speaking ability result.

The increased of the

students‟ speaking skill

was 37% (0,51) and the

value of was bigger than

at the p-value 0,05 with df

–26)


students

52 (26 in CG

and 26 in EG)

Purposive Content validity Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Screencast O-Matic is

effective on teaching

speaking on descriptive

text, with the scale of

moderate significant

(p=0.010 with df=50)

28 University students 17 Purposive N/A Observation,

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

narrative, t-test

Multimedia has good

effects for teaching

speaking in the scope of

students‟ interests,

feedback and their

cognitive aspects.


and 40 in EG)

Purposive N/A Speaking test,

open-ended

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics,

ANOVA,

Instructional methods and

cognitive styles are

proven to affect students’



168


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

Tuckey test speaking skill (p<0.05).

30 English language

institute students

19 (8 in CG

and 11 in EG)

Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

A t-test looking for

differences between the

groups found no

statistical difference

between control and

experimental group.

(p=.30)

31 ESL and EFL

learners

186 (86 ESL

students in US

and 100 EFL

students in

China)

Purposive Inter-rater reliability Pronunciation

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

pronunciation pre-

test and post-test

items

Descriptive

statistics,

regression

analysis

General language aptitude

did not predict

pronunciation gains

regardless of type of

setting (ESL or EFL), but

that auditory aptitude may

be linked to pronunciation

proficiency.

32 Primary school

students

128 (64 in CG

and 64 in EG)

Cluster random Construct, content,

criterion-related

validity, split-half,

test-retest and inter-

rater reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics,

General Linear

Model (GLM)

The experimental group

performed significantly

better on vocabulary and

pronunciation post-tests

when compared to the

control group (p<0.05).


and 40 in EG)

Stratified random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Authentic materials and

contextually-developed

role-playing activities

involving a series of

sequential events are

effective in enhancing

learners’ oral proficiency

in programs of English as

a foreign language in the

context of Thailand



169


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

English education

(p<0.05).


and 33 in EG)

Random Construct and content

validity, internal

consistency and inter-

rater reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics,

ANCOVA, t-test

Oral fluency of the

participants was improved

significantly after reading

out loud-to-self (p = .03).


and 30 in EG)


and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Dramatized instruction

has a great effect on the

students’ speaking skills.

(p-value 0.00 with

df=58).

36 EFL learners 60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Convenience Internal consistency

reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Self-assessment practices

helped the participants of

the study to improve their

speaking ability (p<0.05)

37 Pre-service English

teachers

7 Maximum variation N/A Semi-structured

interview

Descriptive

narrative

Participants felt

incompetent in oral

communication though

they had different

motivational orientations

about speaking English.


students

50 Purposive Face validity Likert-scale

questionnaire,

speaking test

Descriptive

statistics,

Spearman rank –

order correlation

EFL

learners’ oral proficiency

is significantly correlated

with efficient and

effective input. (rho=

0.543, sig= 0.00)

39 University students 64 Stratified random Split-half and inter-

rater reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

semi-structured

interview

Descriptive

statistics,

descriptive

narrative

The study found the

EFL's students’ difficulty

in

understanding the content

of the syllabus, failure to



170


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

positive attitudes towards

the subject, and giving

inadequate

importance to the

memorisation of rules and

vocabulary items.

40 University students 88 Random Internal consistency

reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

semi-structured

interview

Descriptive

statistics,

multiple

regression

analysis,

descriptive

narrative

“Discussion task” is the

most preferred task type

among the three different

speaking tasks:

“Discussion task,”

“Information-exchange

task,” and “Summary

task.”

41 English language

institute students

65 (33 in CG

and 32 in EG)

Convenience N/A Fluency pre-test

and post-test

items, open-ended

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics,

ANOVA,

descriptive

narrative

Quantitative and

qualitative feedback was

not a significant factor in

influencing the students’

improvement over the

course of the semester,

and it is probable that

other factors (task

repetition) played a larger

role. (p>0.05).

42 English language

institute students

120 Purposive Intra-rater and inter-

rater reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics,

Spearman's rank

order rho

correlation

Individuals' speaking

ability was neither related

to their level of

Communication

Apprehension (p-value

.969) nor to their

Willingness to

Communicate (p-value



171


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

.029). CA and WTC also

had a negative correlation

(p-value -.189).


and 20 in EG)

Purposive Face validity, content

validity

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Task-based approach

could significantly

improve the students’

speaking fluency. (p-

value= .001 with df= 38)

44 EFL learners 64 (32 in CG

and 32 in EG)


and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Social networking had a

positive impact on

speaking ability of Iranian

EFL students. (p= .000).

45 English language

institute students

60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Purposive Test-retest reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The participants in the

experimental group, who

practiced task sequence

and complexity, far

outweighed the control

group in complexity and

fluency than the other

area of the speaking test

(p= .001)

46 ESL learners 356 Stratified Predictive validity Speaking exams Descriptive

statistics,

multiple and

logistic

regression


prediction of the TEACH

score by OCPMs (p <

.001, adjusted R2= .573).

The significant positive

predictors for TEACH

score included ACP_OK,

B = 2.14, t(58) = 2.065, p

< .05, sr2 = .280, and

GRA_RAT, B = 1.47,

t(58) = 2.078, p < .05, sr2



172


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

= .282. The significant

negative predictors were

ACP_ERR, B = -6.70,

t(58) = -2.446, p < .01,

sr2 = -.327, and CHOP, B

= -84.90, t(58) = -6.410, p

< .01, sr2 = -.672. All

other variables did not

significantly predict the

TEACH score.

47 University students 175 Random Inter-rater reliability IELTS speaking

test, Lauren

Starkey (2010)

Critical Thinking

Test

Spearman Rank

Correlation

Students who are critical

thinkers show better

performances on their

speaking ability. (p=

.000)

48 ESL learners 60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Convenience Internal consistency

and inter-rater

reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

speaking pre- and

post- test

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The board game is a

useful tool to engage

learners’ participation in

class and to enhance the

speaking ability of low-

proficiency ESL learners

(p<0.05).


reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics,

Pearson Product

Moment

There is a significant

relationship

between EFL learners’

musical and visual

intelligences and their use

of speaking strategies

50 University students 99 Random Inter-rater reliability Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics,

multiple

regression

The use of positive

feedback was found to

have neither positive nor

negative effect on



173


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

analysis students’ speaking

accuracy, fluency, but

significantly improve the

complexity of their

speaking performance.

Positive feedback did not


post-score for 70%

accuracy, β= .09, t (99) =

.61, p= .55. Neither did

the interaction score


post-score for 70%

accuracy, β= -.13, t (99) =

-.73, p= .47. However, the

pre-score for 70%

accuracy was found to

marginally significantly

predict its corresponding

post-score, β= .27, t (99)

= 1.94, p= .06. Although

the pre-score for repairs

was positively related to

its corresponding post-

score, β= .53, t (99) =

4.59, p< .01, positive

feedback did not


post-score for repairs, β=

-.06, t (99) = -.49, p= .62.

Neither did the interaction

score significantly predict



174


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

the post-score for repairs,

β= .19, t (99)= 1.31, p=

.19.


and 18 in EG)

Stratified random Internal consistency

reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Students who received

treatment on dramatized

instruction outperformed

those who did not. (p-

value= .00001)


and 38 in EG)

Simple random N/A Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test


level of improvement in

the oral proficiency of the

experimental group (p=

0.01)


reliability

FLCAS (Foreign

Language

Classroom

Anxiety Scale)

Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The construct of anxiety

includes confidence level,

reparation before

speaking, comprehension,

self-consciousness, taking

a speaking test,

comparison with other

speakers, consequences of

taking speaking test, and

anxiety of language skills.

There was a moderately

strong significant


anxiety towards speaking

in English and anxiety

towards taking a speaking

test in English with (p

0.01). The t-test results

indicate no significant



175


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

difference between

genders on anxiety when

speaking in English

(p.970), and on anxiety

when taking a speaking

test in English (p .758)


and 45 in EG)

Simple random Internal consistency

reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics

The EG surpasses the CG

in both speaking efficacy

and performances, which

implies that attention

needs to be paid to the

enhancement of self-

regulated learning in the

process of teaching

spoken communication.

55 Primary school

teachers

6 Convenience N/A Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

Most of the teachers tend

to follow

the traditional method of

teaching until today.

56 University students 45 Simple random Content validity, test-

retest reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics,

ANOVA,

Pearson Product

Moment

Innovative strategies are

effective in developing

speaking skills, with the

post speaking test scores

of the experimental

subjects are significantly

greater than their pre-

speaking test scores

(p=0.01)

57 University students

and their English

instructors

141 (10

teachers, 131

students)

Random Content validity Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

Both teachers and

learners can play

significant role in

reducing learners’



176


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

English-speaking anxiety.

58 University students 3 Purposive Trustworthiness Rubric,

observation form,

semi-structured

interview, journal,

video recording

Descriptive

narrative

The implementation of

public speaking

programme has

successfully elevated the

students‟ level of

confidence in speaking

skill to a

significant extent.

59 Primary school

teachers

40 Stratified random N/A Open-ended

questionnaire

Descriptive

narrative

More than a half of the

teachers agreed that

observation method is

the most convenient

method for them to assess

their students speaking

skills.

60 University students 100 Convenience Internal consistency

reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

semi-structured

interview

Descriptive

statistics,

descriptive

narrative

The results revealed that

difficulties

occurred due to learners’

lack of English language

knowledge. It was also

found that learners are

keen to get

involved in English oral

communication activities

and most of them

negotiate meaning with

the interlocutors to

understand the intended

messages.

61 Preschoolers 204 Random Inter-rater reliability Parental report,

stimulus book/task

Descriptive

statistics,

Pre-schoolers’ oral

production of English



177


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

Pearson Product

Moment

vocabulary had a

significant and positive

correlation with their

English language

proficiency. (p= 0.01)

62 Secondary school

students

200 Random N/A Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

A majority of students

experienced moderate

feelings of anxiety when

communicating in English

with other people.

63 University students 355 Convenience Internal consistency

reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire

Pearson Product

Moment,

Exploratory

Factor Analysis

Motivation factors

(determination to learn,

instrumentality, intrinsic

motivation, and positive

attitude) had positive

correlations to each

other((p<0.05)., while

motivation factor which is

L2 speaking anxiety had

negative correlations with

many speaking strategy

factors (p>0.05)

64 Middle school

students

30 Purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics

Learners who focussed on

auditory stimuli during

the

interface-acquisition

phase performed better in

speaking, when compared

with

learners who focussed on

both the visual and

auditory stimuli with a



178


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

difference of 4.87.


and 20 in EG)


and post-test

items, Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics,

Wilcoxon

Signed-Rank

Students' overall scores in

fluency, accuracy and

lexical resources changed

from pre-test to post-test,

but accuracy was most

affected, and fluency was

least affected. (accuracy:

p = .010 < .05,

vocabulary: p =.013 < .05

and fluency: p = .016 <

.05).

66 English medium

school students and

teachers

120 (108

students and 12

teachers)

Random N/A Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

The schools and the

teachers do not emphasize

on pronunciation skill.

The teachers have little

idea of different

approaches to teach

pronunciation. Besides,

they do not get enough

time to work on students’

pronunciation problem.

Moreover, this study also

found out that use of local

accent of both teachers

and students is working as

a major reason behind the

pronunciation difficulties

of students.


and their English

instructors

248 (238

students, 10

English

Cluster random Empirical construct

validity, internal


Likert-scale

questionnaire,

semi-structured

Descriptive

statistics,

descriptive

Some socially-related and

instructor-related

problems, the lack of



179


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

instructors) rater reliability interview narrative teaching facilities, and the

curricula of the education

system of the country

were among

the major problem-

creating factors for the

freshmen’s and seniors’

speaking skills. One-way

ANOVA

showed that overall there

was no significant

difference among the

freshmen’s, the seniors’

and the instructors’

perceptions of speaking

skills problems (F

(2, 256) = .508, p = .603).

68 High school students 30 (15 in CG

and 15 in EG)

Purposive Content validity,


Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Using the digital camera

in project-based speaking

instruction really works in

promoting students’

speaking ability.

(p=0.000).

69 Higher secondary

school students


questionnaire,

semi-structured

interview,

observation sheet

Descriptive

statistics, t-test,

descriptive

narrative

The overall performance

in speaking skill is very

low that

that second language

learners did not have that

much exposure to English

language use inside and

outside the

classroom (p= .128)



180


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results


and 40 in EG)

Random Face validity Speaking pre-test

and post-test

items, classroom

observation

Descriptive

statistics,

descriptive

narrative

Pictorial description

technique improves

students' oral skills.

71 Secondary school

students


questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics,

Spearman

Product Moment

There is a strong positive

significant relationship

between students’

level of anxiety and the

use of affective strategy

during speaking task (p=

.000)

72 Medium school

students and teachers

120 (110

students and 10

teachers)

Random N/A Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

Anxiety affects learners’

personal, social and

academic life. Moreover,

they face a lot of

problems due to speaking

anxiety.

73 English language

institute students

16 Purposive N/A Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Asking referential

questions increased talk

time and number of words

produced by the learners

and therefore improved

their speaking ability

(p˂.05).

74 English language

institute students

45 Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics,

ANOVA


improvement of students

who received audiotaped

dialogue journal

treatment. (p= 0.001).


and 28 in EG)

Purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking test,

lexical collocation

test

Descriptive

statistics,

Pearson Product

Knowledge of lexical

collocations seemed to be

a more



181


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

Moment significant indicator of

speaking proficiency than

the subjects’ ability to use

lexical

collocations.

76 Upper secondary

school teachers


questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

Teachers felt that it is

difficult to assess oral

skills, and the

most common reason for

this was the lack of time,

which again was the

cause of big class sizes

and tight schedule. It also

seemed that the

assessment they do is not

consistent, and that there

are a lot of personal

differences between

teachers, and these

differences influence that

classroom massively.

When they did find time

for assessment, teachers

focused mostly on aspects

of oral language that are

possible to assess even

from a short utterance,

such as vocabulary and

pronunciation.

77 Secondary school

students

91 (41 in CG

and 50 in EG)

Simple random Internal consistency,

test-retest and inter-

rater reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics,

General Linear

The TBLT program

enhanced significantly the

speaking skill of the



182


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

Model students of the

experimental group and

positively affected their

attitudes towards English

(p<0.05)


and their English

instructors

50 (40

students, 10

teachers)

Simple random N/A Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

Cooperative group work

has positive effect on oral

proficiency.

79 University students 46 Purposive Inter-rater reliability Fluency pre-test

and post-test

items, semi-

structured

interview

Descriptive

statistics, t-test


difference between the

pre and the post-test oral

assessment scores of the

after applying music (p=

.000). The decrease in

motivation/interest levels

of the treatment group

was observed to be

significantly less.


students

70 (35 in CG

and 35 in EG)

Random Referee validity,


and test-retest

reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Using information gap

activities as a method to

improve students’

speaking ability had a

significant impact on

improving students’

speaking proficiency

(p=0.001).

81 High school students 30 Simple random Content validity,


Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The students’ English-

speaking ability after

applying communicative

activities was much

higher than it used to be

(p= .05).



183


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

82 University students 32 Convenience Content validity Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The communicative

activities had a positive

effect on the first-year

diploma students’

English-speaking ability

(p=0.000).


reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire,

speaking test

Descriptive

statistics,

multiple

regression

analysis

(1) although the

respondents generally

perceived test anxiety to

be more facilitating than

debilitating, oral test

anxiety did exist during

the oral English test and

significantly debilitated

their test performance, (2)

more proficient students

tended to be significantly

less anxious during the

oral test; (3) the

participants

used speaking strategies

to varying degrees during

the oral English test, and

more proficient students

tended to use more

effective speaking

strategies

significantly more

frequently; (4) speaking

strategies both enhanced

and

debilitated students’ oral



184


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

test performance; and (5)

oral test anxiety was

significantly correlated

with the use of different

categories of speaking

strategies.

84 English language

institution learners

30 (15 in CG

and 15 in EG)

Random Face validity Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The experimental group

outperformed the control

group in accuracy

(p=.008). In contrast,

findings substantiated that

pushed output had no

impact on fluency (.855).


students

60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Random Referee and content

validity, internal


item reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The videoconferencing-

based strategy affected

positively in the students'

English language

speaking skills (p<0.05).

86 Grammar school

students and teachers

283 (266

students, 17

teachers)

Purposive Internal consistency

reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

Speaking activities indeed

are neglected during

regular EFL classes.

87 University students 20 Random Construct and

criterion-related

validity, split-half

reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics,

Wilcoxon

Signed-Rank

Using debates results in

improving the speaking

skills of each student in

grammar, vocabulary, and

pronunciation. (p<0.05).

88 College students 45 Simple random N/A Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The analysis of the pre-

test and post-test proved

that tasks helped the

respondents to perform

well in their post-test. (p=

.000 with df=99)



185


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

89 EFL learners 60 Convenience Referee validity,


Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The results of data

analysis indicated

improvements of oral

fluency and complexity

because of the learners’

exposure to the treatment.

(p-value for fluency=

.000, for

complexity=0.010)

90 Primary school

teachers


questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

Drama may be an

effective way of teaching

and there are many

positive aspects of

applying it in teaching the

elementary curriculum.

91 Call Centre

employees/EFL

learners

27 Purposive N/A Semi-structured

interview, rubric

Descriptive

statistics,

descriptive

narrative

Spoken interaction with

English native speakers

has significant positive

effect on the participants’

pronunciation.

92 Upper secondary

school students

101 Purposive Internal consistency

reliability

Likert-scale

questionnaire

Descriptive

statistics

Those students who got to

speak English with their

friends or relatives

assessed themselves to

have

better speaking skills than

the others.

93 English language

institute students

20 Purposive N/A Semi-structured

interview, journal

Descriptive

narrative

Motivating factors

include goal-oriented

performance, neutral

corrective feedback,

supportive classroom



186


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

community, interacting

with native speakers.

Demotivating factors

include peer comparison,

group competence,

negative self-talk,

corrective feedback,

anxiety about public

speaking, peer evaluation,

text anxiety, lack of

classroom community.


students

48 (24 in CG

and 24 in EG)

Purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test,

Stepwise

Regression

Analysis

Students in experimental

group got higher critical

thinking and speaking

skill

achievement than those in

control group after the

debate strategy was

applied as the

treatment (p<0.05)

95 Secondary school

students

86 (42 in CG

and 44 in EG)

Random Referee validity, test-

retest

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics,

ANCOVA,

MANCOVA

Role-play strategy had a

significant effect on the

five components of the

speaking skill with the

students of the

experimental group (p=

0.00).


students

67 (34 in CG

and 33 in EG)

Purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The application of video

clips and teaching-

learning

Small Group Activities

gave better results than



187


Technique

Validity and

Reliability

Data Gathering

Instrument

Data Analysis

Technique

Research Results

teaching with Individual

Activities (p=0.00).

97 English language

institute students

60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Simple random Internal consistency

reliability

Speaking pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Task-based speaking

activities enhanced

speaking activities of

Iranian EFL learners (p

.002).


and 15 EG)


and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Storytelling via social

networks/Telegram has

positive effect on EFL

students’ oral abilities.

(p=.0002).

99 English language

institute students

48 (24 in CG

and 24 in EG)


and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

Kagan’s cooperative

structures had a positive

effect on the students’

speaking skills. (p = .000

with df= 46).

100 English language

institute students

60 (30 in CG

and 30 in EG)

Random Internal consistency

and inter-rater

reliability

Fluency pre-test

and post-test items

Descriptive

statistics, t-test

The reading-into-

speaking method or

exposure to extensive

lexical chunks reading

and learning had a

positive impact on the

speaking fluency

development of these

learners, who are lower

and average intermediate

EFL learners (p=.000).


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