CURRENT TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE
RESEARCH: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
A THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree
in English Language Studies
by
Tusthi Sahajani
166332021
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2019
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
i
CURRENT TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE
RESEARCH: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
A THESIS
Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.) Degree
In English Language Studies
by
Tusthi Sahajani
166332021
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2019
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
A Tlresis on
CURR.ENT TRE]I{DS IN,SPEI ffAIiF COMPETENCE
RESEARCH: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
Tusthi
ved by
r)+Yogyakarta, May 8s, 201 g
Dr. J. Bismoko
Advisor
ii
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
A Thesis on
CURRE1YT TRENDS IN SPEAI{TNG COMPETENCE
RESEARCH: A CONTE}YT ANALYSIS
Presented by
Tusthi Sahajani
Student Number. 166332A21
Was Defended belore the Thesis Comnrittee
and lJeclared Acceptable
T'HESIS COMMITTEE
Chairperson: Dr. B.B. Dwijatlnoko, M.A.
Secretary: L)r. J. Bismoko
Member: F.X. fulukarto. Ph.D.
Mernber: Dr. E. Sunarto. M.Hurn.
fr r>4t
Yogy-akarta, May 24th, 20 1 9
uate Pro grar-ir Di rector
University
{
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Bud{ Subanar, SJ.
tr,#E
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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MOTTO
“Education is not the learning of facts, but the
training of the mind to think.” - Albert Einstein
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that unless indicated otherwise, all ideas, phrases, sentences are
the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. I understand the full
consequences, including degree cancellation, for taking someone else's ideas,
phrases, or sentences without proper references.
B'h,2ol9
Tusthi Sahajani
ogyakarta, May
qvlb'*Y
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI
KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama: Tusthi Sahajani
Nomor Mahasiswa : I 66332021
Demi perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah yang berjudul:
CURRI,NTS TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE RESEARCH: A
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Beserta perangkat yang drperlukan. Dengan demikian saya memberikan hak
kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan
dalam media lain, nrengelolanya clalam bentul< pangkalan data,
mendistribusikannya secara terbatas, dan rnempublil<asikannya di internet atau
media lain untuk 1<epentingan akadernis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya
maupun memberil<an royalti kepada saya selarna tetap mencantumkan saya
sebagai penulis.
Demikran pcrnyataan ini saya buat dcngan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di: Yog,val<arta
Pada tanggal: 8 N'lei 201 9
Yang menyatakan,
L$M--Tusthi Sahajani
vi
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the
almighty God for blessing me with abundant love and for giving me the strength
to finish my postgraduate study and to eventually complete my thesis.
I take pride in acknowledging my thesis advisor, Dr. J. Bismoko for guiding
me throughout the process of my thesis completion, without his guidance this
thesis project would have been a little success. I also convey my sincere gratitude
to Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. as the chairperson of my thesis defense for his time
and effective feedbacks. My sincere appreciation also goes to F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D.
and Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum. as my thesis examiners for their fruitful suggestions.
I would also like to express my special thanks of gratitude to Dr. G. Budi Subanar,
SJ. as the Graduate Program Director for his wisdom, hard work and commitment
to ensure the success of the program. My appreciation also goes to P. Sarwoto,
Ph.D. as the head of ELS program for always enlightening all students with his
insights. My special thanks also go Dra. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons), Ph.D.,
Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, Dr. Francis Borgias Alip, M.Pd., M.A., Dr.
Albertus Budi Susanto, SJ., and Dr. J. Haryatmoko, SJ for sharing their wisdom
and knowledge. My special thanks also go to my classmates, the 2016 batch for
the remarkable experience during our exciting study time.
Finally, I deeply thank my parents for always giving me the utmost support
through the ups and downs of my thesis completion. My sincere appreciation also
goes to my supportive best friends for always believing in me.
Tusthi Sahajani
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGE .............................................................................................. ii
THESIS DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE .......................................................... iii
MOTTO ................................................................................................................ iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY .................................................................... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS .............................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................ vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................. xiii
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................ xv
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................... xvi
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... xvii
ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... xviii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................... 1
B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION ........................................................................ 4
C. PROBLEM LIMITATION ................................................................................ 5
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D. PROBLEM FORMULATION .......................................................................... 6
E. RESEARCH GOAL ........................................................................................... 6
F. RESEARCH BENEFITS ................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. THEORETICAL REVIEW ............................................................................... 8
1. Speaking ....................................................................................................... 8
a. Concept Clarification of Speaking ........................................................... 8
b. The Nature of Speaking ......................................................................... 10
c. The Functions of Speaking .................................................................... 14
d. The Components of Speaking ............................................................... 15
e. The Process of Speaking ........................................................................ 18
2. Competence ................................................................................................ 21
a. The Domains of Learning ...................................................................... 21
b. Conceptualizing Competence ................................................................ 24
3. Speaking Competence ................................................................................ 26
4. Speaking Competence Investigation .......................................................... 28
a. Knowledge ............................................................................................. 28
b. Skills ...................................................................................................... 29
c. Attitude .................................................................................................. 30
5. Former Trends in the Learning and Teaching of Speaking ........................ 31
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6. English Educational Research .................................................................... 33
7. Area Classification of English ................................................................... 36
8. Content Analysis ........................................................................................ 38
a. Defining Content Analysis .................................................................... 38
b. Purposes of Content Analysis ............................................................... 40
c. Procedure of Content Analysis .............................................................. 41
B. RELATED STUDIES ...................................................................................... 44
C. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................... 46
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. RESEARCH METHOD .................................................................................. 49
B. NATURE AND SOURCE OF DATA ............................................................. 50
C. INSTRUMENTS.............................................................................................. 51
D. DATA GATHERING ...................................................................................... 51
E. DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ................................................. 53
F. TRUSTWORTHINESS.................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULTS
A. TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE RESEARCH ............................... 57
1. Origin and Interest in Research from 2008 to 2018 ................................... 58
2. Investigated Topic ...................................................................................... 62
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3. Concept Clarification ................................................................................. 69
4. Related Topic ............................................................................................. 72
5. Research Goals ........................................................................................... 74
7. Research Design and Method .................................................................... 78
8. Data Gathering Instruments ....................................................................... 80
9. Data Analysis Technique ........................................................................... 82
10. Sample of the Research Reports .............................................................. 84
11. Sample Sizes ............................................................................................ 86
12. Sampling Technique ................................................................................ 88
12. Validity and Reliability ............................................................................ 90
13. Research Result ........................................................................................ 94
B. THE DISCOVERY OF ANOMALIES ......................................................... 100
1. True Experimental Method ...................................................................... 100
2. Cronbach’s Alpha .................................................................................... 101
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
A. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................... 103
B. IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................... 105
C. RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................... 106
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BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 109
APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 117
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Data Source Identity ................................................................................. 52
Table 3.2 Manifest Content ...................................................................................... 53
Table 4.1 Publication Year ....................................................................................... 60
Table 4.2 Investigated Competence .......................................................................... 63
Table 4.3 Investigated Skills .................................................................................... 65
Table 4.4 Investigated Attitude ................................................................................ 66
Table 4.5 Investigated Knowledge ........................................................................... 68
Table 4.6 Concept Clarification of Speaking ............................................................ 70
Table 4.7 Related Topic ............................................................................................ 73
Table 4.8 Research Goals ......................................................................................... 75
Table 4.9 Research Design and Method ................................................................... 78
Table 4.10 Data Gathering Instruments .................................................................... 80
Table 4.11 Data Analysis Technique ........................................................................ 82
Table 4.12 Sample of the Research Reports ............................................................. 84
Table 4.13 Sample Sizes ........................................................................................... 87
Table 4.14 Sampling Technique ............................................................................... 88
Table 4.15 Validity ................................................................................................... 90
Table 4.16 Reliability ............................................................................................... 92
Table 4.17 Research Result ...................................................................................... 94
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Communication Process (Cheney, 2011) ............................................... 19
Figure 2.2 Domains of Learning (Hoque, 2016) ...................................................... 21
Figure 2.3 Components of Competence (Samian, 2014) .......................................... 25
Figure 2.4 Framework for Content Analysis (as cited from Krippendorff, 2004) ... 41
Figure 2.5 Framework of Pre-understanding ............................................................ 48
Figure 4.1 Data Origin .............................................................................................. 58
Figure 4.2 Detected, Current Research Reports throughout the Years..................... 61
Figure 4.3 Characteristics of the Current Trends ..................................................... 97
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journal
OATD: Open Access Theses and Dissertations
ID: Indonesia
IC: Inner-Circle Countries
OC: Outer-Circle Countries
EC: Expanding-Circle Countries
L2: Second Language Learning
IV: Independent Variable
DV: Dependent Variable
DGI: Data Gathering Instruments
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Data Source Identity .......................................................................... 118
Appendix 2. Manifest Content (Part A) .................................................................. 125
Appendix 3. Manifest Content (Part B) .................................................................. 160
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ABSTRACT
Sahajani, Tusthi. 2019. Current Trends in Speaking Competence Research: A
Content Analysis. Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma
University.
Research on speaking competence has been extensively conducted over
years. Various issues have been addressed to improve efficiency within the
learning and teaching of speaking. Thus, there is a possibility of overlapping
topics, methodology and outcomes. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the
current trends in speaking competence research to see which topics, methodology
and outcomes have been extensively researched. This research thus intends to
answer the formulated question: What are the current trends in speaking
competence research?
Through stratified random sampling, the data were 100 recent research
reports on speaking competence in the form of educational research reports from
2008 to 2018. They came from World Englishes circle countries and retrieved
from reputable open sources on the Internet. Content analysis was implemented,
and the nature of this research is direct observation utilizing the manifest content
tables. The research trends include trends in data origins and publication years,
investigated and related topics, concept clarifications of speaking, research goals
and results, and research methodology including research designs and methods,
Data Gathering Instruments (DGI), analysis techniques, sample, sample sizes,
sampling techniques, as well as research validity and reliability. The analysis
results were presented using descriptive statistics followed by interpretation.
The results revealed that most research on speaking competence came from
Indonesia (29%). Most research in speaking were the ones published in 2015
(18%) and 2017 (18%). Performance (accuracy and fluency) (62%) became the
most investigated topic. Techniques/strategies predominated the related topics
(78%). Most research did not clarify the concept of speaking (59%). Most
research aimed to investigate if independent variable(s) has significant effect on
performance (55%). The trends in methodology showed that most research was
quantitative (84%) with quasi-experimental method (35%). Pre-test and post-test
items (38%) predominated the DGI. Descriptive statistics (46%) often followed by
t-test (23%) predominated data analysis techniques. Most reports took university
students (36%) as their sample. Sample size from 31 to 100 (61%) was mostly
chosen. Purposive sampling (30%) predominated the sampling techniques. Most
research did not report the validity findings (74%), but many reported inter-rater
reliability (35%). Two anomalies were found, which where the implementation of
true experimental design, and the use of Cronbach’s Alpha to estimate reliability.
The findings of the current trends inform future researchers about the topics,
methodology and results that have been overlapping, as well as anomalies found
within the research reports. Researchers may choose the more efficient topics and
methodology that can produce the more efficient outcomes to increase the
optimum development of speaking science, which will lead to the better
acquisition of speaking competence.
Keywords: speaking competence research, speaking research, research trends,
content analysis
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ABSTRAK
Sahajani, Tusthi. 2019. Current Trends in Speaking Competence Research: A
Content Analysis. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pascasarjana
Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Riset mengenai kompetensi berbicara banyak dilakukan dalam beberapa
tahun terakhir. Berbagai isu mengenai berbicara telah banyak diatasi untuk
meningkatkan efisiensi dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran berbicara. Topik –
topik, metodologi dan hasil - hasil yang tumpang tindih mungkin terjadi. Meneliti
tren – tren terkini mengenai riset kompetensi berbicara menjadi penting, untuk
melihat topik – topik, metodologi dan hasil – hasil mana yang tumpang tindih.
Riset ini bertujuan untuk menjawab pertanyaan rumusan: Apakah tren-tren
penelitian kompetensi berbicara saat ini?
Melalui teknik stratified random sampling, data diambil dari 100 riset
terkini tentang kompetensi berbicara dalam bentuk laporan penelitian pendidikan,
dari tahun 2008 hingga 2018. Data diambil dari negara – negara lingkaran World
Englishes dari sumber-sumber terbuka di Internet. Metode riset adalah analisi isi.
Sifat penelitian ini adalah pengamatan langsung dengan tabel manifest content
berisi informasi mengenai asal-usul data, tahun publikasi, topik utama dan terkait,
klarifikasi konsep berbicara, tujuan dan hasil, serta metodologi yang mencakup
desain dan metode, instrumen pengumpulan data, teknik analisis data, sampel,
ukuran dan teknik sampel, serta validitas dan realibilitas. Hasil analisis disajikan
menggunakan statistik deskriptif diikuti dengan interpretasi.
Hasil riset menunjukan bahwa mayoritas riset berbicara berasal dari
Indonesia (29%). Mayoritas riset berbicara diterbitkan di tahun 2015 (18%) dan
2017 (18%). Performa berbicara (55%) menjadi topik utama yang paling banyak
diteliti. Teknik/strategi (62%) adalah topik terkait tertinggi. Mayoritas riset tidak
menjelaskan konsep berbicara (59%). Mayoritas riset ingin meneliti apakah
variabel independen berimbas signifikan terhadap berbicara (55%), diikuti
dengan hasil yang signifikan (54%). Tren-tren pada metodologi menunjukan
bahwa mayoritas riset adalah quantitatif (84%) yang banyak diikuti dengan
metode quasi-eksperimental (35%) menggunakan soal – soal pre-test dan post-test
(38%). Statistik deskriptif (46%) yang sering diikuti dengan t-test (23%) adalah
teknik analisis tertinggi. Mayoritas sampel adalah mahasiswa (36%). Mayoritas
ukuran sampel adalah 31 hingga 100 (61%). Teknik purposive sampling (32%)
paling diminati. Mayoritas riset tidak melaporkan validitas (74%), namun
melaporkan reliabilitas inter-rater (35%). Anomali-anomali yang ditemukan
berupa penerapan desain true-experimental dalam riset pendidikan, dan
penggunaan Alpha Cronbach untuk mengestimasi realibilitas.
Hasil riset diharapkan memberi informasi kepada para peneliti yang akan
datang mengenai topik – topik, metodologi dan hasil – hasil apa yang tumpang
tindih, serta anomali – anomali apa yang ditemukan. Para peneliti dapat memilih
topik – topik dan metodologi yang lebih efisien, yang dapat menghasilkan hasil –
hasil riset yang juga efisien untuk lebih mengoptimalkan pengetahuan dalam ilmu
berbicara, sehingga menghasilkan akuisisi kompetensi berbicara yang lebih baik.
Kata Kunci: riset kompetensi berbicara, riset berbicara, tren-ten riset, analisis isi
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The first chapter provides the apprehensible background information of
the research. There are four parts presented in this chapter, namely the
background of the research, problem identification, problem limitation,
problem formulation, as well as research goal and research benefits. The main
goal of this chapter is to ensure that the research is justified.
A. BACKGROUND
English is inevitably the most important and the most widely spoken global
language. Albeit it remains the number three of the world most spoken languages
after Chinese and Spanish, it is in fact more widely spoken that those two
languages that rely on the numbers of native speakers. Crystal (2003) claims that
the reason for a language to become a global language has nothing to do with
number of people who speak it but is more related with who the speakers are.
English is therefore a global language due to the economic and political
power dominated by the English native speakers because of the British imperial
and industrial revolution back in 18th and 19th century. As a result, English today
acts as a lingua franca in the globalization era that bridges communication barriers
between people from different places of the world. It is now the language of
business, education, science, technology, travel, tourism, and international
relations.
Furthermore, as we are now entering the fourth industrial revolution or is
often called Industry 4.0 within this globalization era, the utilization of technology
including the Internet, emails, voice and video calls, mobile applications, the
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social media, multimedia learnings, and the augmented reality – break the
boundaries among nations, people and culture. Chareonwongsak (2002) argues
“globalization and technology share a causal relationship, each gaining from and
building on the other” (p. 191). In embracing this rapid change, the global citizens
need to have a good control of the English language particularly spoken English,
considering the high demand of competent English speaker, either for work or
business purposes, pursuing higher educations, traveling, or simply engaging with
people from different nationalities.
Ur (1996) believes that among reading, listening and writing, speaking
seems intuitively the most important, that people who know a language are
considered as the speakers of that language. This means that the main motivation
for people to learn English language is to gain ability to converse with speakers of
that language, hence the interest in mastering speaking is the highest among other
macro skills. Unfortunately, many global citizens especially in countries where
English is not the first or official language, people still do not possess good
speaking competence consisting of knowledge, skills, and attitude, hence the
effective teaching and learning of it is always conducted both in formal or non-
formal education. There are various issues regarding speaking appear everywhere
regarding the lack of one or more of the components above.
Speaking itself is defined by Chaney (1998) as "the process of building and
sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of
contexts" (p. 13). Speaking is important in the way that the ability to transform
ideas or thoughts into spoken words in English is the main indicator of mastery in
English. However, speaking is also considered to be the very challenging, as
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Brown and Yule (1983 in Tuan et al., 2015) believe that spoken language
production is often considered one of the most difficult aspects of language
learning. Especially for those who learn oral English as their foreign language,
problems often arise during the learning of speaking.
One of the main problems of speaking as described by Ur (1996), is that
speaking happens in real-time and there is a degree of exposure to the hearer. This
can cause psychological issues such as anxiety, low self-esteem and low
confidence. Approaches in addressing these issues also vary, including
implementing different strategies and techniques, such as group work, suggest an
interesting topics and tasks, and so forth. The complexity of speaking also rises
another problem, as how Johnson (as cited in Burns, 2017) describes that
complexity requires the ability to do various things at the same time. This means
that speaking requires not only a set of linguistic knowledge but also
sociolinguistic competence to apply the knowledge in different context
accordingly.
Due the importance of speaking and the fact that many people across the
world still find speaking challenging or even difficult, research on speaking is
consistently and continuously conducted in different parts of the world. As there
have been various research on speaking coming different countries in the past
decade, it becomes important to determine the trends of those research. This is
done to see what issues or topics on speaking that have been widely addressed,
which methodology that has been selected, and whether efficiency in speaking is
improved. Determining the trends of speaking research reports in the last decade
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is also important to see which issues or topics that might also be important yet
receives less attention and therefore need further investigation.
B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Researching speaking is not new in the English educational studies, as it has
been widely conducted for the past several decades. However, numerous research
reports on speaking seem to focus on addressing various overlapping issues by
implementing long-existing methods, techniques or strategies which produce
similar results, in which speaking efficiency is always claimed to improve.
Research in speaking often focuses on as assessing learners’ speaking through
various long-existing methods or techniques such as Task-Based Language
Teaching (TBLT), evaluative feedback, paired and group activities, and so forth.
Those techniques are also the most common topics in speaking research that
extensively to address similar issue. Other topics include helping learners to cope
with negative attitudes during speaking such as anxiety, lack of confidence and
motivation, low self-esteem and so forth. Many research reports also focus on
improving accuracy and fluency as the indicators of speaking through
implementing long-existing techniques and strategies. Other research focus on
relation between speaking and listening, reading and writing.
Furthermore, the success in speaking might be mostly measured
quantitatively through speaking tests rather than, for instance, prolonged
observation, that is mostly harder to do because of the time, place or access
constrains. Those research reports also mostly implemented similar
methodologies that produced similar outcomes or results, meaning the repeated
results are predictable and their effectiveness in improving efficiency could not
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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further progress and might reduce the optimum development of speaking science.
Henceforth, through investigating the current trends of speaking research reports,
the recent development of those research reports over the last years can be
determined. There might be other areas or issues of speaking that have not yet
received further attention or have not yet been explored extensively to improve
efficiency, or emphatic understanding if the issues are related to marginalized
speaking learners.
C. PROBLEM LIMITATION
There are some limitations of this research due to time and access constrains.
The first limitation is regarding the topic of the research reports, where the topics
only concentrate on speaking competence which include knowledge, skills, and
attitude, with or without relation to other variables. The second limitation is the
number of the reports taken as data to be examined, which are only 100
educational research reports, followed by the third limitation which is on
publication years from 2008 to 2018. It should also be noted that due to time
constrain, the research reports retrieved in 2018 is only up to middle of the year.
The fourth limitation is on the countries of origin, which are divided into
Kachru (1985)’s World’s Englishes circle countries namely the inner circle, outer
circle, and expanding circle. However, this research takes the liberty to put
Indonesia into a separate fourth category as the research itself is conducted in
Indonesia and therefore the target audience is mostly likely Indonesian readers
and researchers. It is also important to see the trends of research on speaking
competence in Indonesia to determine whether it has become the interest within
the educational research or not.
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D. PROBLEM FORMULATION
This research aims to investigate the current trends of English-speaking
competence research reports from 2008 to 2018. Hence, problem is formulated in
one research question: what are the current trends in speaking competence
research?
E. RESEARCH GOAL
The main purpose of this research is to discover the current trends in
English-speaking competence research from 2008 to 2018 to answer the
formulated question. Discovering the research trends means discovering the trends
of the elements within the research reports, including data origin and the interest
of research or the publication year from 2008 to 2018, investigated and related
topic, the concept clarification of speaking, related topic, research goal, research
result, and the methodology including research design and method, data gathering
instrument, analysis technique, sample, sampling size, sampling technique, and
research validity. The crucial information above determine the research trends in
speaking competence to see its development.
F. RESEARCH BENEFITS
There are two benefits within this research, the first is the theoretical benefit
and the second is the practical benefit. The theoretical benefit is that this research
is expected to increase the optimum development of speaking science by
providing parsimonious description regarding the current trends in speaking
competence research from 2008 to 2018. The trends regarding data origin, year of
publication, concept clarification of speaking, the research topics, research goals
and results, as well as research methodology, constitute current research trends.
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The practical benefit is for other researchers to become aware in selecting the
most effective and efficient research topics and methodology in researching
speaking competence. Hence, they will not only focus on topics and methodology
that have been overlapping, hence produce a less efficient research that can reduce
the optimum development of speaking science.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
The second chapter is the clarification of concepts underlying key terms in
order to discover the logical truth. The basic conception elaborates the literary
reference of speaking. There are three parts of this section, namely theoretical
review, related studies and theoretical framework.
A. THEORETICAL REVIEW
This section aims at building better understanding on the important terms
underlying the reserach throughout the concept clarification. The review of each
term does not merely contain quotations and relevant theories, but it also tries to
associate one theory ot another in order to obtain a theoretical framework as the
logical answer to the research question.
1. Speaking
The theory and topic about speaking have been extensively discussed and
researched within English educational context. It is therefore crucial to clarify the
concept of speaking to grasp a better understanding of it before discussing about
other elements of it.
a. Concept Clarification of Speaking
Concept clarification of speaking includes elaborating its definition as well
as its nature proposed by different scholars. Firstly, Wilson (1983) refers to
speaking as “development of the relationship between speaker and listener” (p. 5),
which means speaking plays an important role in building rapport between the
speaker and hearer, in the way that the better the meanings are expressed in a
good sequence, the better they will be perceived and the better the relationship
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between the speaker and the hearer will be. Cameron (2001) also believes that
speaking centers upon “making people understand speaker’s feeling and ideas by
doing an act of communication using language” (p. 40). Hence, the emphasis is
more on the idea that the hearer can understand what the speaker is
communicating using language. If ideas and feelings are not understood, it means
that the speaker does not communicate them well, and this might be caused by
speaker does not have a good control over the language that constitutes as the
medium of communication.
Byrne (1997) defines speaking as “a two-way process between speaker and
listener and involves the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of
understanding" (p. 8). Hence, the term ‘understanding’ is the key, in the sense that
the message should not only get across to the hearer, but that it must be
understood well. The emphasis is also on the speaking as a process. Kayi (2006)
further argues that speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning
through the use of verbal and non-verbal in variety of context” (p. 1), which
shows that non-verbal communication, such as the use of gesture, facial
expression, eye contact, or the use of symbols are used along with verbal
communication to deliver meanings to the hearer.
Nunan (2003) further emphasizes that speaking happens in real time and
cannot be revised as in writing. Henceforth, speaking is difficult in the way that
speaker needs to think quickly of what to say and how to say it properly so that
the messages can be understood well by the hearer and does not lead to confusion.
More advanced English learners therefore get into the habit of thinking in English,
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rather than trying to translate from the mother language into English which might
take longer time.
In the context of language learning, speaking is a part of meaning-focused
output strand as suggested by Nation (2007), that “the meaning-focused output
strand involves learning through speaking and writing – using language
productively” (p. 2). It means that producing language is an essential part of
language learning. This means that once language learner has received input in
the target language through reading and listening, the next step is to actually
produce the language through speaking and writing. By producing the language,
learners can demonstrate the language knowledge they have received through
the input such as exposure from watching video or reading a story.
In terms of its relationship with other macro skills, namely listening,
reading, and writing, Morrow et al. (2016) state that oral and written language are
interactive that they have reciprocal relationship. Speaking and listening as oral
language inform reading and writing as written language, and vice versa, where
written language influence oral language. The example of this, is when children
produce a sentence orally, using terminology that they read in children’s books to
describe what they are doing.
b. The Nature of Speaking
In grasping a more profound understanding about speaking, there are
several natures of speaking proposed by Nunan (1999) that should be
comprehended. First, is regarding communicative competence, which is defined
by Nunan (1999) as the ability to function in a truly communicative setting
which enables dynamic exchange and that linguistic competence adjust itself to
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informational input. Therefore, communicative competence enables learners to
attempt speaking in a real-world situation where various information inputs help
them to engage in conversation more naturally. Nunan (1999) further claims that
communicative competence includes linguistic competence and a range of other
sociolinguistic and conversational skills. Hence, the context of where the
language is spoken is very crucial as speaker needs to adjust what to speak and
how to speak in different contexts.
Communicative competence consists of various knowledge. First,
knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language which are
fundamental in oral language learning. Second is knowledge of rules of
speaking, including knowing how to begin and end conversations, what topics
can be talked about in different types of speech events, and which address forms
should be used with different persons one speaks to and in different situations.
The third is knowledge on how to use and respond to different types of speech
acts such as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations. The fourth and last is
knowledge on how to use language appropriately.
The second nature of speaking is regarding the discourse vs dialogue.
Nunan (1999) states that content of discourse happens in most conversations as
and there is a conversation about the conversation which is referred as met-
discourse. Meta-discourse hence become the media for interlocuters to negotiate
meaning and ensure the conversation is well-managed. On the other hand,
dialogue concern on whether the speaking is planned or spontaneous, that each
situation has its own utterances and routines to say. In relation to this nature,
there are two types of speaking according to Nunan (2003), namely monologues
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and dialogues. The former is a speech given by a single person that allows only
one-way communication, such as in drama, movie and public speaking, whilst
the latter is a speech where there are two or more people engaging in a
conversation and thus allow two-way communication.
The third nature is regarding accuracy and fluency which constitute as the
indicators of speaking. Nunan (2003) defines accuracy as “the extent to which
students’ speech matches what people actually say when they use the target
language” (p. 55). It means that to acquire accuracy, learners must have the
communicative competence knowledge as explained earlier. Housen and Kuiken
(2009) define accuracy as “the extent to which an L2 performance deviates from
a norm” (p. 4), which basically learners need to acquire accuracy by using words
and phrases outside the range of normally allowed selections and not afraid to
make mistakes. As for fluency, Segalowitz (2003) refers to it as “an ability in the
second language to produce or comprehend utterances smoothly, rapidly, and
accurately” (p. 384). Accuracy and fluency are therefore knit together, as to be
fluent also means to be accurate. Skehan (2009) also defines fluency as the
capacity to produce speech at normal rate and without interruption.
Following accuracy and fluency, there is a relatively new dimension called
‘complexity’ as a part of Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency (CAF) framework
introduced by Skehan (1988) and began to emerge in the 1990’s. CAF
constitutes as three principal proficiency dimensions, where it is used as
performance indicators for speaking performance. Ellis (2008) defines
complexity as the ability to use more advanced language, whilst Skehan (2009)
claims that complexity is challenging. This shows that complexity is rather
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difficult to learn as learners need to acquire both accuracy and fluency first
before their speech can be complex and advanced. Wolfe-Quintero et al. (1998)
define complexity more specifically as s “a wide variety of both basic and
sophisticated structures and words are available to the learner” (p. 69). This shows
that learners need to have a good knowledge of grammar and vocabulary and
pronunciation first prior to acquiring complexity.
However, the Complexity, Accuracy, Fluency (CAF) framework remains
controversial due to the issues of its construct validity and of how it should be
defined. Hence, accuracy and fluency are the indicators of speaking that learners
and researchers should focus on. Richard (2003) also believes that accuracy and
fluency with a greater tolerance of errors are the primary goals in the teaching of
speaking. Thus, complexity indicator is not as crucial, especially for non-
advanced learners. Complexity should be acquired when learners become more
advanced and have gained a good control of both accuracy and fluency.
The next nature of speaking is regarding the negotation of meaning, which
according to Nunan (2003) deals with how learners make progress by
communicating in the target language trying to understand and make yourself
understood. In speaking, learners are the producer of utterances in the target
language as well as receptor who should in return, understand the utterances in
the target language spoken by others. This nature is important in the way that
different person might make different meaning out of the same utterance, hence
meaning negotiation is very crucial for an effective oral communication between
the speaker and the hearer. The last nature of speaking has to do with functions
of it, which is further elaborated in the next section.
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c. The Functions of Speaking
There are basically two functions of speaking according to Nunan (2003),
namely interactional and transactional function. The former is about
communicating for social purposes whilst the latter is about communicating to
get something else, such as exchange of goods or services. The former is also
more about engaging in speaking for social purposes and small talks, such as
greeting, talking about the weather, holiday, school and so forth, whilst the latter
is more about exchanging information in a more formal situations such as
business meeting, giving details in police station, job interview and so forth. It is
also believed that interactional speech is much more fluid and upredictable than
transactional speech.
Richard (2008) further develops the functions of speaking into talk as
interaction, talk as transaction, and talk as performance. The two functions of
interaction and transaction share the same concept with Nunan, however, within
the last term which is talk as performance, is rather different, which deals with
transmitting information in front of an audience, that includes activities such as
speeches or public announcement. This function of speaking is also monologue
in nature.
In addition, the functions of speaking can also be analysed in terms of
routines, in which Bygate (1987) explains that there are two types of routines,
namely information and interaction routines. The former includes activities such
as telling story, describing something, giving a set of instructions, making a
comparison. The latter includes activities such as service encounters, including
job interview, social functions, dinner party, lunch and coffee break and so forth.
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The functions of speaking are often referred as speech act. Finegan (2004)
defines it as “actions that are carried out through language” (p. 296). He breaks
down the functions of speaking into six categories. The first speech act is
representatives, which function is to make statement, to describe and to suggest.
Hence the characteristic of this function can be categorized as true and false. The
second speech act is commissive, which aims to commit to a course of an action,
such as making promises, vowing, threating, or pledging.
The third speech act is directiveness, which aims to get something by
performing an action, such as commanding, requesting, inviting, challenging and
so forth. The fourth is declarations, which aim to prompt a situation, such as
hiring, blessing, firing, marrying, and so forth. The fifth function is expressive,
which aims to indicate the attitude or psychological state, such as greeting,
congratulating, apologizing, and so forth. The last act is verdictives, which aim to
assess or to judge, which involves activities such as assessing, appraising, ranking,
and so forth.
d. The Components of Speaking
The components of speaking are sometimes referred as the properties of a
spoken language. There are four fundamental properties of spoken language,
namely the phonological system, the stress system, the tone melodies and
phonotactic rules (American TESOL Institute, 2015). This is in a line with
Harmer (2007) who states that the components of speaking are about the ability
to pronounce phonemes correctly, to use appropriate stress and intonation
patterns, to speak in connected speech. In addition, there are two additional
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elements, which are the ability to speak in in different genres and situation, and
the ability to apply conversational strategies.
Morrow et al. (2016) further describe the components of speaking in terms
of five language areas. The first is semantics, where speaker develops meaning
for the words they hear and say in the conversations. The second is syntax or
also known as grammar, where speaker learns the rules of how words are linked
together. The third is morphology, which is about knowing how to manipulate
the smallest units of meaning called morpheme. The third is phonology, where
speaker understands the sound structure of language, and the last is pragmatic,
where speaker understands the social uses of the language.
As there are several experts who propose different speaking components,
they basically refer to the same components. Harmer (2007) sums up the
components of speaking into six properties, namely vocabulary, grammar,
pronunciation, fluency and comprehension. All these components when
integrated will lead to learners having a good control of the spoken language.
The first element is vocabulary, in which Moeller et al. (2009) describe that
vocabulary is about how word knowledge itself is powerful that it constitutes as
building blocks to learning. There are several types of vocabularies introduced
by Pikulski and Templeton (2004), namely meaning or oral vocabulary which
refers to the combination of listening and speaking vocabulary, and literate
vocabulary which refers to the combination of reading and writing vocabulary.
The second component is grammar, which defined by Harmer (2007) as “a
knowledge of what words can go where and what form these words should take”
(p. 32). In the same respect, Debata (2013) argues that grammar might be
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perceived differently by different people. For instance, among the general
population, grammar is simply about the correctness of the language being spoken,
whilst for students it means an analytical and logical study of sentences. The third
component is pronunciation which is defined by Lado (1964) as the utilization of
sound system in speaking and listening. How the speaker pronounces English
words and utterances accordingly therefore affects how the listener understands
them, meaning that mispronunciation can cause confusion in the listener’s part.
The fourth component is fluency, which according to Hedge (2000) refers to
“the ability to link units of speech together with facility and without strain or
inappropriate slowness, or undue hesitation” (p. 7). According to Hughes (2002),
fluency is the learners’ ability to speak in understandable way in order not to
break down communication because listeners may lose their interest. Furthermore,
Fillmore (1979) clarifies fluency in several concepts. The first is the ability to fill
time with talk, where quantity of talk is more important than the quality. The
second is the ability to talk in coherent, logical and dense sentences. The third is
the ability to say appropriate things in a variety of contexts. The fourth is the
ability to be creative in the use of language.
The last component is comprehension, of which Durkin (1993) states that it
deals with constructing meaning from text. Comprehension therefore relies on the
cognitive ability as it aims to comprehend new information or knowledge about
speaking and tries to interpret it. Rudner and Lunner (2014) state that apart from
auditory ability, cognitive ability is also necessary for speech comprehension to
access and retrieve the knowledge stored in the semantic long-term memory.
Without cognitive ability, the knowledge that language learners have been
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accumulated during their process of learning cannot be used. Morrow et al. (2016)
also argue that oral language comprehension is about knowing how to combine
linguistic information in different language areas to produce meaningful talk.
Hence, learners must firstly possess and restore the knowledge of semantic, syntax,
morphology, phonily and pragmatic, as well how to combine them to produce
meaningful talk.
e. The Process of Speaking
There are three types of communication according to Thitthongkam et al.
(2010), namely mass communication, wireless communication, written
communication, spoken communication, and nonverbal communication.
Speaking mainly falls into the spoken communication, albeit it also uses
nonverbal symbols including body language, gestures and other paralinguistic
features such as eye contact, tone and touch.
Communication can also be conducted in two ways, which are in oral and
written form, with the latter often referred as speech. Byrne (1980) however
explains that the one functions as natural means of communication between
members of community is speech, not writing. In the same respect, Widiati and
Cahyono (2006) describe how writing is a means of recording speech that it has
its own function as a means of communication. Therefore, both oral and written
communication are equally important and have their own function.
The process of speaking is derived from the key aspects of spoken
language proposed by Bailey (2003), where spoken language is described as
auditory, temporary, prosody that needs immediate feedback, planning and
editing limited by channel. Auditory refers to listening, showing that speaking
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process involves listening and the listener acts as the receiver of the message.
Temporary means speaking happens instantly and cannot be revised, whilst
prosody concerns with the rhythm, stress and intonation.
The concept of clarification of speaking therefore sheds three important
aspects of speaking; it constitutes as a process and as an act of communication,
as well as it emphasizes on the understanding between the speaker and the
hearer. The process of speaking is thus derived from the process of
communication itself. Keyton’s study (as cited in Lunenburg, 2010) supports the
belief that communication is the process of transmitting information and
common understanding from one person to another. The information itself can
be about ideas, opinions, feelings, aspirations, comments on things, and so forth.
Cheney (2011) illustrates the process of speaking shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Communication Process (Cheney, 2011)
The process of communication involves several elements, including sender,
medium, message, noise, and feedback. It begins with the sender who encodes
ideas through by selecting words of the message. In another way, the sender is
the one who initiates the communication. Then, the message as the outcome of
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idea encoding, travels through the medium. In the case of dialogue, it could be a
face-to-face conversation, or a phone or a video call. Noise here refers to
anything that distorts the transmitting message, such as language barriers. The
receiver or the hearer then receives the message, then tries to decode or
comprehend what the message means. Feedback is then given by the receiver
once the message is decoded. In addition to the illustration, there should be a
context of communication, such as where it happens, the topics, the persons
involved in the talk, and the appropriateness of the message.
Ondondo (2015) further explains the process of communication by
emphasizing the integration between language, thought and brain as follows:
“Words constitute language, which is a code that can only be
understood if both parties give the same meaning to the symbols that
are used. Language is stored in the brain of human beings in form of
lexical items and rules that determine how these items structure and
function. To produce real speech these items are retrieved from the
brain and structured according to language specific rules. In this way,
language, thought and the brain are interrelated because they have to
work together as a system in the production of speech or writing” (p.
1324)
Producing effective spoken language therefore requires several components to
work together and be integrated with one another. When one of these
components malfunctions or is unable to integrate with the others, it hinders the
process of effective communication. For instance, when one learns to speak in
English and has a limited linguistic knowledge stored in the brain, this
individual might have difficulties in attempting effective communication, as this
means one of the elements above, which is thought, is still unable to construct
about how to say things according to language specific rules.
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2. Competence
Prior to gaining a more profound understanding regarding speaking
competence, it is necessary to conceptualize competence starting from its core
concept, which is the domains of learning, and relate it with the construction of
competence concept.
a. The Domains of Learning
The process to acquire competence cannot be separated from the domains
of learning. Learning itself is rather a continuous process, as there are always
new knowledge need to be comprehended with positive attitude that enable
people to acquire and perform new skills. The domains of learning are derived
from Bloom’s taxonomy back in 1956 that had been revised along the way. The
three domains are cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Hoque (2016) modifies
the learning domains proposed by Harrow (1975) in Figure 2.2 below.
Figure 2.2 Domains of Learning (Hoque, 2016)
The cognitive domain according to Hoque (2016) involves “the
development of our mental skills and the acquisition of knowledge” (p. 47). The
cognitive domain is therefore the process where a language learner processes
new knowledge with their cognitive ability to eventually judge the value of a
knowledge. In this domain, there is a hierarchy of skills consisting of six levels
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which is a revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy proposed by Krathwohl (2002).
It begins with knowledge and ends with evaluation. The sequence of the
hierarchy within this domain is explained below.
At the lowest level of the cognitive domains is knowledge. It begins with
the ability to remember new information without having to understand or absorb
it. This includes activities such as collecting, identifying, and memorizing. Once
knowledge is remembered, it moves up to comprehension, meaning the ability to
understand or comprehend the knowledge and interpret it, which includes
activities such as discussing, explaining, illustrating and predicting. The third
level is application, which concerns with how learners apply the new knowledge
that has been comprehended in a real situation.
The fourth level is analysis, meaning the ability to break down the
knowledge into components, such as examining, categorizing, and comparing. It
goes up to fifth level, which is synthesis, meaning the ability to put different
concepts or elements together, such as arranging, combining, constructing,
designing and developing. The highest level of this domain is evaluation, where
learners can judge the value or the importance of the knowledge. The activities
include appraising, arguing, deciding, grading, convincing and concluding.
However, cognitive domain itself in its application needs to be integrated
with affective domain, for a more efficient learning. Hoque (2016) states that
this domain is about “the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such
as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes” (p. 49).
There are five levels of hierarchy within affective domain. It begins with
receiving and ends with characterization.
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At the bottom of the cognitive domain hierarchy is receiving, which refers
to the awareness of feelings and emotions and the ability to respond to it. The
example is listening attentively or watching a movie. At the second level is the
responding, meaning the state where a learner actively participates by
responding to the feelings and emotion. The activities include discussion,
conversation, or giving a presentation. The third level of this domain is valuing,
meaning the ability to see the value of something and express it. This level
according to Hoque (2016) ranges from simple acceptance to a more complex
level of commitment. The example of the former is a desire to improve the
performance of a team, and the example of the latter is taking responsibility of
the entire team regarding their performance.
The fourth level is organization, meaning the ability to prioritize what is
more important by creating unique value. This includes the activity such as
student who choose to spend more time studying than going out with friends.
The fifth and highest level within this domain is characterization, meaning the
ability to incorporate value and let it control the learner’s behaviors. The
example of this is how a woman decides to finally get married because she is
ready, not because of social pressure.
The third and last domain is the psychomotor domain, which concerns
with psychical activity. Hoque (2016) refers to this domain as “natural,
autonomic responses or reflexes” (p. 50). The two other domains combined with
this domain lead to learning competence. There are seven levels of hierarchy
within this domain, starting with imitation and ends with naturalization (Dave,
1975, as cited in Hoque, 2016).
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At the bottom of the domain hierarchy is imitation, which involves
observing and imitating someone else. The example of this is how language
learners imitate words spoken by native speakers. The next level is manipulation,
involving activities such as performing skill under guided instruction. This is
when learners perform the word through memorization or under the directions of
the teachers.
On the third level is precision, which deals with performing the skill to be
more precise, such as learners begin to be more precise in how they produce
speech sounds. The fourth level is articulation, meaning combining two or more
skills to be performed consistently. The example is when learners can combine
several skills together, such as speaking and listening skill that enable them to
engage in a conversation. At the highest level of the hierarchy is naturalization,
where learners have the higher level of performance though turning actions into
their second nature.
The framework of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain were
originally derived from Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy, which introduces the
concept of Knowledge, Skills and Attitude (KSA) in language learning. Laird
(1985) proposes that cognitive domain represent knowledge, psychomotor
domain represents skills, and affective domain represents attitude. The three
concepts of knowledge-cognitive, skills-psychomotor, and attitude-affective,
construct competence.
b. Conceptualizing Competence
There have been debates and confusions among scholars regarding the
definition of the term competence, as it cannot accommodate and reconcile the
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different ways the term is used (Elleström, 1997; Robotham and Jubb, 1996, as
cited in Winterton et al., 2006). The term competency is instead widely used
instead of competence. Hartle (as cited in Winterton et al., 2006) describes
competence as a characteristic of a person who shows superior job performance is
combining visible competencies of knowledge, skills traits and motives. In
addition, the term that is widely used is in occupational context are described by
Woodruffle (as cited in Winterton et al., 2006) as ‘being competent’, which means
meeting the occupational demands, or ‘having competencies’ meaning having the
necessary trait to perform competently.
There are several components of competence proposed by Samian (2014)
that is based on the domains of learning concept. The illustration of the
components of competence is shown through Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Components of Competence (Samian, 2014)
The application for this concept in learning experience is how cognitive
domain enables learners to comprehend knowledge of English speaking, how
affective domain raises awareness of learners on how their feelings and
emotions have effect in how they comprehend knowledge, and how
Affective values and attitudes
Psychomotor Skills
Cognitive Knowledge
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psychomotor domain ensures that the knowledge being learnt with certain
attitude can be performed in real world situation. Therefore, the domains of
learning are summarized into knowledge, skill and attitude.
Competence itself is broken down into three components, namely
conceptual, procedural and performance competence (Gelman & Greeno, 1989;
Greeno et al., 1984; Sophian, 1997, as cited in Winterton et al., 2006).
Conceptual competence is basically an abstract or conceptual knowledge about
an entire domain, whilst procedural competence has to do with skills to actualize
the knowledge. Performance competence has to do with selecting strategies to
assess problems, which falls into the affective domain.
Mansfield (2004) describes the three uses of competence, namely outcomes,
tasks, and people’s characteristics. Outcomes refer to what people need to be able
to do, tasks refer to what currently happens, and personal traits describes people’s
characteristics. The description of the three uses of competence are very closely
related to the three domains of learning, where knowledge or cognitive ability is
closely matched with outcomes as it answers to what people need to be able to do.
Skill or psychomotor is closely related to task, as it is required to have the skill to
complete a task, and personal traits which falls into attitude or affective domain.
3. Speaking Competence
Based on the conceptual truth regarding the domains of learning, speaking
competence has adopted this taxonomy. Speaking competence therefore
combines several aspects, with Johnson (as cited in Burns 2012, p. 167) refers to
speaking as a “combinatorial skill” that “involves doing various things at the
same time”. Burns (2012) proposes three components of speaking competence,
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namely the knowledge of language and discourse, the core speaking skills, and
communication strategies. Knowledge is related to cognitive domain, skills are
related to psychomotor domain, and communication strategies is related to
affective domain or attitude. The combination of these three components leads to
a more fluent and more accurate production of the spoken language in a socially
appropriate way.
Adapting from Bloom’s Taxonomy, Brown (2004) proposes five levels of
hierarchy regarding speaking competence. Learners of speaking should be able
to begin the process of learning, starting from the bottom or the lowest level of
the hierarchy. Speaking competence begins with imitative and ends with
extensive. At the lowest level is imitative, which is the ability to imitate
utterances, where it is a word, a phrase, or a sentence. This level albeit seems
basic, but does include several language properties such as lexical and
grammatical knowledge. The second level is intensive, which refers to ability to
produce shorts stretches of oral language in a limited band of grammatical,
phrasal, lexical knowledge, such as intonation, stress, rhythm. Intensive is thus
frequently used in a speaking assessment. Moving up from intensive is
responsive, which refers to ability to perform tasks but in a limited level. This
includes engaging in small talks, greetings, simple requests and so forth.
The fifth level within the hierarchy is interactive, which is basically
similar with responsive, but the difference is in the length and complexity, that
the speaking is done in a longer duration and the complexity increases. There are
two forms of interactive, which also serve as the nature of speaking, namely
transactional and interpersonal. The former aims to exchange specific
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information whilst the latter aims to maintain social relations. Within the
interpersonal,l the speaker sometimes needs to use humor or slang, meaning this
talk is pragmatically complex.
The highest level within the speaking hierarchy is extensive, which is often
referred as dialogue. This level needs extensive speaking tasks such as speeches,
storytelling, and oral presentation. The involvement from the listener is also
very limited, such as when listener has the chance to ask question. The style for
this speaking is usually formal and it has been planned rather than spontaneous,
albeit speakers might intentionally or unintentionally use casual speech.
4. Speaking Competence Investigation
There are three domains of speaking competence namely knowledge, skills
and attitude, which are derived from the three domains of language learning.
Knowledge represents the cognitive domain, skills represents the psychomotor
domain, and attitude represents the affective domain. The speaking research
reports chosen are therefore the ones that discuss any of the following domains,
including speaking skills, knowledge in speaking or known as speech knowledge,
and attitude in speaking.
a. Knowledge
Knowledge is defined by Winterton et al. (2006) as the result of an
interaction between intelligence (capacity to learn) and situation (opportunity to
learn). Knowledge therefore relies on the cognitive ability to absorb it, after it is
gained mostly through experience of doing certain things or tasks. Weinert (1999)
categorizes knowledge into general world knowledge and more arbitrary
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specialized knowledge. The former can be measured by vocabulary tests as a part
of intelligence measurement, and the latter is more of a demand specific.
Burns (2012) believes that the knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and
communication strategies can compensate limitation in language knowledge.
Hence, the lack of those knowledge can contribute to difficulties when learning
the language. As for grammar, Gerot and Wignell (1994) define it as the study of
wording, of how words are put together and how they work. The knowledge of
grammar therefore enables learners to perform speaking accurately. Vocabulary
constitutes as the third aspect of knowledge. Nation (2001) explains that
vocabulary knowledge and language use, have a reciprocal relationship. This
means that the knowledge in vocabulary helps learners to perform speaking better,
and by performing speaking, learners obtain more vocabularies.
As for pronunciation, Harmer (2007) further emphasizes that pronunciation
has a degree and is related to attitude. This means that albeit learners want to be
exposed to the native speaker’s pronunciation, the degree of their pronunciation
depends on their attitude, of how they speak and how they hear. Moreover, the
lack of one or more of these knowledge components above can lead to difficulties
when performing speaking. It is therefore important to include research reports
that discuss the knowledge in speaking or speech knowledge.
b. Skills
Skills are very much related to performance, as what Winterton et al. (2006)
state that the term ‘skills’ is used to refer to performance level measured through
accuracy and fluency in performing tasks. Skills is therefore closely related to
psychomotor domain, as it is the psychical action of transfer knowledge into
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performance. Hemerka (as cited in Astuti, 2013) argues that performance signifies
the production of utterances as the result of certain mental processes. The skills
that are investigated within this research are therefore about speaking performance
and its indicators, namely accuracy and fluency. Hedge (2000) expresses that
fluency is the ability to answer coherently by connecting the words and phrases,
pronouncing the sounds clearly, and using stress and intonation. On the other hand,
it has been explained earlier that complexity can also be the indicator of speaking
performance. However, since it is considered as an advanced skill, complexity is
not as crucial as accuracy and fluency.
There might be research reports that focus on investigating performance in
general, meaning fluency and accuracy are also included, but there might be other
reports that focus only on investigating one of the indicators. Speaking skills
concern with the ability of speakers to process speech quickly so that fluency,
including speech rate, chunking, pausing can be increased. In addition, this core
requires speakers to negotiate speech and manage its flow.
c. Attitude
Attitude falls into the affective domain, meaning it has to do with how
people perceive and embrace feelings and emotions. Latchanna and Daagnew
(2009) claim that attitude serves as a concept of understanding human behavior
and is generally defined as mental state about beliefs and feelings. Pickens (2005)
clarifies attitude as “a complex combination of things we tend to call personality,
beliefs, values, behaviors and motivations” (p. 44). To put into perspective,
attitude does play a significant role in language learning, as learners’ positive
attitude leads to positive learning experience, and the otherwise.
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Burns (2012) believes that in the language learning, learners may need
support related to affective factors when performing speaking, such as anxiety,
nervousness, or embarrassment. This means that attitude and performance in
speaking are closely related to each other. Anxiety as a negative attitude for
instance, is defined by Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) as a fear or apprehension
when performing in target language. Anxiety is therefore often experienced by
learners and it can affect how they perform speaking, especially because speaking
itself is challenging and happens in real time. To overcome all the negative
attitudes, learners can apply learning strategies. O’Malley and Chamot (as cited in
Hardan, 2013), define learning strategies as the thoughts and behaviors that enable
learners to comprehend, learn, or retain information. To sum up, the investigated
attitude within the research reports are belief, perception, motivation, confidence,
self-efficacy, learning strategies, anxiety and several other related attitudes.
5. Former Trends in the Learning and Teaching of Speaking
Proni (as cited in Rech, 2011) states that trends are past event characteristics
that are related to one another and believed to be present in future events in the
same way or to undergo changes. This concept of trends also applies in
discovering the trends of research. Trends can determine the tendency of the past
and current research, as well predicting future research tendency. Falkingham and
Revees (1998) believe that it is important to update research trends using content
analysis to provide an additional method in the field for research community.
Looking back at the educational reports conducted over the years for instance, the
characteristics of those research reports, such as the issues or areas addressed, the
methodology and the outcomes, are all related and thus become the trends of those
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research. The trends might remain the same in the future or they might also
undergo changes.
Richard (2013) further elaborates that the trends in the learning and teaching
of speaking have undergone a major shift in the recent years. This is true when
looking at the trends from 1970’s up to 1990’s. In the early 70’s, speaking focused
on Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism, meaning learners are
more passive, and the learning relies heavily on teachers’ role. Shrum and Glisan
(as cited in Richard, 2013) describe that during those years, speaking was more
about repeating after the teacher, memorizing dialogue and responding to
mechanical drill.
Richard (2013) explains that in the 1980’s, the shift changes into the
emergence of communicative competence. This leaded to various communicative
syllabuses as well as task-based and text-based approaches. Fluency thus became
the goal through various tasks, such as information gap that required learners to
attempt actual communication regardless of limited proficiency. Various
communication strategies which require learners to engage in negotiation of
meaning were implemented. This shift hence was positive as learners transform
the experience in learning speaking passively into a more active learning.
Richard (2013) further describes that in the 1990’s, the trends shift into
proficiency-oriented teaching. This means that the learning and teaching of
speaking more focused on practicing speaking in different contexts using different
functions. Rather than focusing on fluency back in the 80’s, the focus emphasized
on building accuracy. During these years, responsive instruction, evaluative
feedback, and cultural understanding were more promoted. As for early 2000’s,
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Richard (2013) describes that the trends shifted from communicative competence
into intercultural competence. This leaded to the emergence of conversation
analysis and corpus analysis of real speech, revealing things such as
conversational routines, turn-taking, feedback, topic management, interactional
and transactional talk, pair and group activities, and so forth. During those years,
both accuracy and fluency with greater tolerance become the main goal of the
learning of speaking.
Based on the major shifts from 1970’s to early 2000’s, the current research
reports on speaking are supposed to focus on addressing new issues that are
different from the all previous issues. However, many research or studies still
focus on issues or areas that have become the focus in the past, such as how
research in late 2000’s still focus on paired and group activities which became the
interest in the early 2000’s. This might show that past strategies might still found
to be effective in the learning and teaching of speaking.
6. English Educational Research
A research is conducted to discover the truth about the world reality of an
object, or an event or a phenomenon. A research on object means that the research
itself should be able to improve higher efficiency. This principle is derived from
positivist paradigm, which according to Gray (2004), its basic belief is that “the
world is external and objective” (p. 25). This means that a research on a
phenomenon should be objective, meaning everyone has the same idea about the
object. On the other hand, research on an event means that the research itself
should be able to improve emphatic understanding of those who are marginalized.
This principle is derived from phenomenological paradigm, of which Gray (2004)
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argues that the basic belief is on the idea that “the world is socially constructed
and subjective” (p. 25). This also means that research on an event or a
phenomenon tends to subjective, that everyone might have a different idea about it.
In English educational context, research has also been consistently and
continuously conducted to address various issues, both of objects or events.
Cresswell (2012) proposes three goals of educational research, which are: (1) to
add to our knowledge; (2) to improve practice, and (3) to inform policy debates.
‘Adding to knowledge’ means that the discovery within English research report
can inform educators and learners regarding the truth of an object or a
phenomenon within English educational setting. ‘Improving practice’ should lead
to improved efficiency for learning teaching process, as well emphatic
understanding. ‘Informing policy’ makers during the research and debate of
educational topics.
English educational research reports are therefore an important source of
knowledge to improve efficiency. According to Creswell (2012) “research is a
process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue” (p. 3). This shows how research is a step by step
process. The writing of the research reports should thus follow certain procedures
that is systematic and effective. Thomas and Hodges (2010) also believe that
research reports should be “well-organized, readable and presented in formats
consistent with generally accepted practice” (p. 1). There are different kinds of
research reports, that each should follow different formats according to its own
guidelines. As this research collects data from journal articles as well as these and
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dissertations, each of them should meet the acceptable guideline according the
generally accepted practice.
Thomas and Hodges (2010) define journal article as “a research report
presented in a form suitable for publication in an academic or scientific journal”
(p. 2). Therefore, journal article serves as a succinct form of knowledge or data
on a topic aiming to contribute to academic community by increasing the
knowledge base in the field. Journal article is also a good way to communicate
with people from across the world who study the same thing. It is always seen as
credible as it is more of a fact-based than opinion-based. The writing of journal
article should also follow the guideline of journal publishers. It should not go into
extensive details of the research project but rather provide the crucial key aspects
of the research.
A thesis or a dissertation is rather different than a journal article. Thomas
and Hodges (2010) believe that it should provide detailed descriptions of the
design, methods and results. It must also include review of the previous or related
studies to position the research project on how it is different from those previous
studies. The process of writing is also under the supervision of a lecturer or an
academic supervisor to ensure that it is written according to the guidelines and
that its content is relevant. In the educational field, a thesis for instance, might aim
to make a tangible product out of research such as a book, and therefore student
and supervisor should ensure that the product is efficient.
According to Creswell (2012), the process of research covers six steps. It
begins with identifying a research problem, reviewing the literature, specifying
the purpose, collecting the data, analyzing and interpreting the data, and ends with
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reporting and evaluating. The data gathering instrument is therefore one of the
main important aspects within any research, as it is the instrument for data
collection step. Therefore, this research employs content analysis that is useful to
search for trends, and therefore adapts the Paper Classification Form (PCF), which
was developed by Gul and Sozbilir (2015) to determine trends in research.
However, this research has modified the PCF into a more suitable classification
form for this research.
Gul and Sozbilir (2015) divide PCF into seven sections: (1) descriptive
information for the paper identity; (2) topics; (3) subject matter; (4) method; (5)
data collection tools, (6) sample, (7) sample sizes; (8) data analysis methods.
Those parts containing the content of a research paper is considered to provide
enough information for a research paper, in which researchers can draw inferences
from the results of descriptive statistics. This research has adapted the PCF to
accommodate the purpose of this research. There are few sections added to the
original PCF, and hence the structure of the PCF becomes 14 sections: (1) data
origin; (2) year of publication; (3) concept clarification of speaking; (4)
investigated topic; (5) related topic; (6) research goals; (7) research design and
method; (8) sample; (9) sample size; (10) sampling techniques; (11) validity and
reliability; (12) data gathering instruments (DGI); (13) data analysis technique;
(14) research result.
7. Area Classification of English
The source of data for this research is retrieved form research reports
originated from different parts of the world. Kachru (1985) states that the spread
of English is divided into three concentric circles, namely the inner circle, the
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outer circle, and the expanding circles. However, the status of World Englishes
had been a heated debate once, which Kilickaya (2009) points out how Quirk
(1985, 1990) and Kachru (1985, 1991) disagreed over the World Englishes, that
Quirk proposed a single common standard of English to be regulated in different
contexts. However, Kachru (1985) believes that such standard was not relevant as
the members of the outer circle countries also use English.
Despite there are only three circle countries within Kachru’s model, this
research takes the liberty to put Indonesia into a separate fourth category as to see
whether there have been many research reports on speaking within the country
compared to other circle countries, and to see its development. Hence the
classification is adjusted into four categories.
The first category is Indonesia. English in Indonesia is learnt as a foreign
language. It is however learnt mostly in formal education context, but due to the
high global demand as well as the increase of international contacts, the learning
and teaching of English in this country has been increasingly done in non-formal
education. Kirkpatrick (2010) explains how the Indonesian government require
English to be learnt in all secondary level schools as well as other private schools,
beginning from primary to tertiary level of education and higher degree. In fact,
some private institutions ensure that English is compulsory to be learnt from
primary level, and is even used as the instructional language in all subjects.
Despite the fact the above, Widiati and Cahyono (2006) argue that the use of
English as a medium of instruction is still a failure. The main reason for is
because a unified national system of English education has not been established
(Huda, 1997).
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The second category is the inner circle countries consisting of countries
where English serves as the first language, where for the speakers, they require it
as their mother tongue. This circle consists of countries such as the United States
(US), United Kingdom (UK), Ireland, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South
Africa.
The third category is the outer circle constitutes countries in where English
serves as lingua franca. In addition, English also commonly serves as the official
language in these countries. These countries are mostly the former British
colonies, such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, the
Philippines, Ghana, Kenya, Jamaica, and Zambia.
The fourth category is the expanding circle countries, where English serves
as a foreign language. This category consists of the rest of the world outside the
inner and outer circle. In Asia, countries such as Japan, China, North and South
Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Saudi Arabia, Palestine, Israel, Iran,
Jordan and so forth. In Europe, countries such Turkey, Italy, Spain, France,
Croatia, Germany, Greece and so forth.
8. Content Analysis
This section provides the description regarding content analysis as the
chosen method for this research. It begins with conceptualizing content
analysis itself, then describing its purposes and elaborating its procedure.
a. Defining Content Analysis
Content analysis has been around for decades and has been implemented in
various fields of study. Prasad (2008) simply clarifies that “content denotes what
is contained and content analysis is the analysis of what is contained in a message”
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(p. 2). However, as there might too many information contained in a message, it
important to understand this method in a more specific meaning. According to
Cohen et al. (2007), content analysis is “the process of summarizing and reporting
written data – the main contents of data and their messages” (p. 475). The main or
manifest content of research reports on speaking hence serves as the written data
and is summarized and reported accordingly. On the other hand, the messages or
meanings of why the quantitative findings are elaborated, of why the data are like
that, are also elaborated hrough logical reasoning supported by theories.
In the same respect with Cohen et al., Lac (2016) defines content analysis as
“a research method for classifying, evaluating, and studying recorded
communications objectively and systematically” (p. 1). Hence the emphasis is on
content analysis as an objective and systematic method. This method should be
conducted in such as systematic way and is free from bias. Krippendorff (2004)
further defines content analysis more specifically as “a research technique for
making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to
the contexts of their use (p. 18)”. This shows that as a valid and reliable technique,
content analysis should be able to make inferences from the texts, and therefore
the inferences should be made from the manifest content of speaking research
reports.
Prasad (2008) further highlights that content analysis relies on three basic
principle, which are objectivity, systematic, and generalizability. Objectivity
means that content analysis is conducted according to explicit rules that ensure
different researchers can generate the same results when analyzing the same
documents. Systematic deals with how the analysis of the content is done
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systematically according to its rule system. Generalizability ensures that the
results of the analysis can be transferred or applied to other contexts.
b. Purposes of Content Analysis
Content analysis falls into both quantitative and qualitative paradigm. It is
quantitative in the way that it aims to summarize details of text information and
quantify them (Krippendorff, 2004; Neuendorf, 2002, as cited in Bengtsson, 2016).
Through summarizing rather reporting the entire information and then quantifying
them, content analysis deals with counting the number occurrences of the contents
within the speaking research reports. Content analysis is also qualitative in the
way that it also aims to analyze the latent content (Guest et al., 2012; White &
Marsh, 2006, as cited in Gavora, 2015). Hence, unlike manifest content, latent
content is rather more difficult to analyze, as researchers need to interpret the
possible reason behind the manifest content findings. This is in a line with
Lasswell (as cited in Ahuvia, 2000) who defines latent content as an
“interpretation”. The interpretation thus needs to have a theoretical ground that
researchers not only interpret from evidence and reasoning, but also able to
support their interpretation with related theories.
Prasad (2008) argues that content analysis aims to describe content
characteristics and to determine the causes and effects of the content. For
describing content characteristics, it can include describing content trends or
sources’ characteristics through text analysis. The cause of content can be about
analyzing individuals’ traits or even aspects of culture. Effect of content can be
done through the analysis of the information flow.
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To put into perspective, manifest content is the observable and countable
elements of a text, and latent content is the underlying meaning that may lie
behind the manifest content (Rose et al., 2015). For its application, Ary et al.
(2010) state that there are various types of documents that can be analyzed
through content analysis, including textbooks, movies, themes, and so forth.
c. Procedure of Content Analysis
There are several procedures of content analysis proposed by different
scholars. One of the renowned content analysis theories is the one proposed by
Krippendorff (2004). He proposes a framework of content analysis that serves as a
set of succinct procedures. It begins with text and ends with validating evidence.
Figure 2.4 shows the framework for the content analysis used as the procedure in
conducting this research.
Figure 2.4 Framework for Content Analysis (as cited from
Krippendorff, 2004)
The framework of content analysis starts with data, where in this research is
research texts on speaking. These research texts are intended for wide target
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audiences and not the ones intended to merely become the unit of analysis for
other research. The next step is formulating research question. This part is very
crucial as it sets what the research intends to discover, as research itself is about
truth discovery. Hence, the formulated question for this research intends to
discover the trends of speaking research in English educational research reports.
Once it has been formulated, the next step is deciding the context of text.
Krippendorff (2004) describes how context explains what the analyst does with
the texts; how the texts came to be, what they mean, what they can tell or do.
Hence, the context for this research is explained thoroughly in this chapter.
Once context has been constructed, the next step is to create the analytical
constructs, where the research should be able to explain the relation between the
text and the possible answer to the research question, and the circumstances that
the relation can change. This step is therefore elaborated by ensuring that the
speaking research reports are processed and analyzed according to the context of
their use. Once analytical construct has been made, the next step is drawing
inferences, meaning to discover the latent meaning of the manifest content of the
speaking research texts. The last step of the content analysis process is to ensure
the validity, meaning that it does what it intends to do, where the empirical truth
agrees with the theoretical truth.
A rather more comprehensive procedure of content analysis is proposed by
Cohen et al. (2007) with eleven steps in conducting content analysis. It begins
with defining the research questions to be addressed which can determine what
the research aims to achieve or intends to do. The second step is defining the
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population, which refers to the domain of the analysis, followed by the third step,
which is defining the sample that should be able to represent the population.
Defining the sample is the fourth step, which includes the type of the sample,
where they come from, how are they gathered and so forth, and followed by the
units of analysis in the fifth step, whether it consists of word, phrase, sentence, or
whole text. For this research for instance, the unit of analysis is the whole text, as
the research examines the whole text first before choosing which content is crucial.
Step six is deciding the codes for analysis. Cohen et al. (2007) define code
as “a word or abbreviation sufficiently close to that which it is describing for the
researcher to see at a glance what it means” (p. 478). Researchers thus need to go
through the entire text and give code to each datum. Constructing the categories
for analysis is done once the codes are given to the data. This step involves
creating domain analysis for each code.
Once codes and categories for analysis have been given, the eighth step is
conducting the coding and data categorizing, which is the actual attribution of
codes and categories to text. Conducting the data analysis is the ninth step, where
it involves counting the frequency of codes, followed by step ten which is
summarizing by determining the major themes or issues that emerge. The last step
which is step eleven deals with making speculative inferences, meaning how the
researcher infer from the text by trying to find the latent meaning behind the text.
Albeit there are several theorists that have formulated the procedures of
content analysis, the procedures are basically similar. Therefore this research
regards the content analysis by Krippendorff (2004) to be the most effective, as it
provides succinct procedures of the content analysis.
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B. RELATED STUDIES
Providing related research studies is important in the academic research in
order to position this research on how it is different with other previous studies
about research trends. There are several studies about educational research trends
First, Ma and Kim (2014) conducted research to investigate the current research
trends of English education in a South Korean journal namely English Teaching
(ET) Journal, and an international journal, namely TESOL Quarterly (TQ). The
results show that the proportion of quantitative and qualitative study was well
balanced in TQ, whilst in ET, more than 50% of the articles were quantitative. In
terms of target language skills, writing was mostly studied in ET and speaking in
TQ. As for research topics, socio-cultural factors were the preferred topics in TQ,
whilst classroom pedagogy was mostly researched in ET. Thus, English learning
was mostly performed in classroom settings in South Korea.
Cavas (2015)’s study aimed to analyze the trends in authors’ nationality and
research topics of articles published in Science Educational International Journal.
The study revealed that the publications by authors from Turkey were the most
dominant, followed by USA and Australia. As for articles’ topics, the dominant
topics were about teacher education, learning conception and learning context.
Akaydin and Çeçen (2015) conducted research on examining articles related
to reading skills between 1990 and 2013 published in different journals to
determine its trends. The research utilized paper classification form consisting of
the important information within the articles related to reading skills. The results
were then presented using descriptive statistics, and the findings showed that most
articles focused on reading comprehension, had a single author and one
hypothesis, employed non-experimental quantitative design, utilized attitude and
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45
perception tests as the DGI, participants are mostly middle-school students,
sample size was from 101 to 300, with random sampling technique, and
quantitative descriptive analysis method.
Another research was conducted by Susanti (2017) to investigate the trends
of English knowledge and skills of the 100 research reports from 2007 and 2016
from the published journals, conference proceeding, theses and dissertations from
the inner, outer, and expanding circle countries. The findings revealed that the
most investigated knowledge was pronunciation and vocabulary, whilst the most
investigated skills were writing and speaking, and most research employed
experimental design with students as the research object. Most research set their
focus on investigating the effectiveness of methods, technique and approaches.
Eğmir et al. (2017) conducted a research about the trends in educational
research in the last ten years (from 2008 to March 2017) published in 35 different
countries. The research aimed at determining the distribution of those research
and the dominant findings. Within the distribution of the country where the study
took place, most research came from Turkey. For the number of authors, most
studies were written by a single author. For the topics, most studies subject was
language learning and teaching. Quantitative design was mostly preferred. As for
methods, conceptional study and document analysis were mostly chosen. For the
the data collection technique, scales or questionnaires were mostly used, whilst
descriptive statistics were the most preferred data analysis technique. Most studies
were carried out with student participants differing from k-12 to graduates.
Purposive sampling technique was mostly employed, and most articles used a
sample between 501 and 1000.
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C. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The learning and teaching of speaking are derived from the concept of
learning domain. Within the knowledge-cognitive part, speaking consists of
language components namely pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Within the
skills-psychomotor part, speaking is colored by accuracy and fluency seen through
performance, whilst the attitude-affective in learning speaking consists of belief,
perception, motivation, confidence, learning strategies, anxiety, and so forth.
Therefore, the data for this research are research reports containing any of those
domains of learning.
Due to the nature of speaking itself as discussed earlier, many learners often
consider speaking to be very challenging and even difficult. For this reason, the
research on speaking is extensively conducted in different parts of the world by
educators and researchers over the years. This can lead to the possibility of having
overlapping topics, methodology and results, thus may reduce the optimum
development of speaking science. The data of this research is therefore taken from
speaking research reports published in 2008 to 2018 within different circle
countries, composed by teachers and learners.
Content analysis itself is useful to investigate research trends. However,
while previous related studies focused on investigating manifest meanings to
determine the trends, this research aims to also investigate the latent content or the
meanings underlying the manifest findings, based on evidence and reasoning with
theoretical grounds. Simply put, this research is extended into an interpretive level.
It focuses on investigating the current trends in speaking research reports
exclusively to see their development, and to see whether there have been
overlapping topics, methodology and results. The characteristics and anomalies of
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47
the research reports are also elaborated. Hence, this research can shed light on
what issues or areas of speaking have been overly explored and what areas or
issues need more attention, as well as what kind of anomalies that should have
been avoided to produce a more productive research.
Gilbert et al. (2003) and Teo et al. (2014) believe that a suitable range of
research types consisting of research topics, methods, methodologies, participants
and so forth, should be carried out in content analysis about research trends.
Hence, the investigation of the trends in speaking competence research is
conducted by investigating the manifest content of the research through the
utilization of the manifest content table contains the aspects above which consists
of investigated and related topic, concept clarification, research goals, research
results, and the methodology consists of research design and method, data
gathering instrument, analysis technique, sample of the research reports, sample
sizes, sampling technique, and research validity. The results are analyzed
quantitatively, and then latent content to investigate the possible reason behind the
findings is also elaborated. The framework of pre-understanding is illustrated in
Figure 2.5 in the next page.
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Investigation on Current Trends in Speaking Competence Research
Harmer (2007), Hoque (2016), Mansfield (2004)
Content
1. Manifest Content
Pre-determined categories:
• Data origin and year of publication
• Investigated topics
• Concept clarifications of speaking
• Related topics
• Research goals
• Research designs and methods
• Data gathering instruments
• Analysis techniques
• Sample of the Research Reports
• Sample sizes
• Sampling techniques
• Research validity and reliability
• Research results
Latent Content
• Investigate the meanings behind the manifest findings
• Describe the characteristics of the current trends
• Describe anomalies found within the data
Figure 2.5 Framework of Pre-understanding
Current Speaking Competence Research
• Journal articles, undergraduate and master theses, doctoral dissertations
• Published from 2008 to 2018
• From Indonesia, inner, outer, expanding circle countries
• Topics chosen as data (components of language learning):
o Speech knowledge (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar)
o Speaking skills (performance which includes both accuracy and fluency,
accuracy alone, or fluency alone)
o Attitude in speaking (belief, perception, motivation, learning style,
learning strategy, confidence, anxiety, and so forth)
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter provides a detailed description of the methodology employed
to answer the research question. There are four major sections of this chapter,
namely research method, nature and source of data, research instruments, data
gathering, data analysis and presentation, as well as trustworthiness.
A. RESEARCH METHOD
This research aims to investigate the trends of 100 speaking competence
research reports from 2008 to 2018. To achieve this goal, content analysis method
is implemented. Stemler (2001) believes that content analysis is a powerful data
reduction technique to examine trends and patterns in documents. As this research
is about trends discovery, the method therefore accommodates the intention of the
research. Content analysis itself is more of a blended research using both
quantitative and qualitative techniques. The goal of content analysis according to
Wimmer and Dominick (2011) is an accurate representation of a body of texts,
thus quantification is crucial for researchers in the search for precision. Mayring
(2000) also believes that the advantages of content analysis quantification need to
be conserved by using qualitative text interpretation. Based on all these concepts,
content analysis is the most suitable method to achieve the goal of this research.
The investigation of the trends in speaking competence research is done
through documenting the important observable aspects of the research referred as
manifest content. These aspects also constitute as the investigated trends. The
aspects consist of the topics both main and related topics, goal, concept
clarification, methodology including research design and method, DGI, analysis
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technique, sample of the research reports, sampling size, sampling technique,
research validity and reliability, and last is the research results. The large volumes
of data are summarized and quantified using descriptive statistics. Each of the
manifest content category above is quantified descriptively, followed by drawing
inferences from each category to determine the latent meanings behind the
manifest findings. The latent findings can then be useful to provide information
about the reason behind the trends’ discovery that can lead to efficiency
improvement in the research of speaking.
B. NATURE AND SOURCE OF DATA
The nature of data in this research is direct observation, as the researcher
directly observes the content of the current speaking research texts. The
observation is conducted through careful reading of those texts one by one, while
at the same time documenting the important key aspects referred as the manifest
content within each text using manifest content table. The researcher then
quantifies and summarizes the manifest findings using descriptive statistics and
drawing inferences.
Stratified random sampling is the most suitable sampling technique for this
content analysis research. Taherdoost (2016) explains that this technique works by
dividing population into strata or subgroups and then random sample is taken
from each subgroup. Through the utilization of this sampling technique, the data
are retrieved from 100 English speaking recent research reports from the
publication year of 2008 to 2018. These reports are in the form of journal articles,
undergraduate theses, master theses, and doctoral dissertations from the reputable
open sources online. The data are collected from the inner, outer, and expanding
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circle countries, and this research takes the liberty to put Indonesia within a
separate fourth category. This step serves as the stratification of the sample and
followed by random selection from each stratum.
C. INSTRUMENTS
There are two instruments utilized within this research, the first is the
researcher herself, and the second is the Internet research. The researcher is the
main instrument in this study, as she is the one who collects the 100 research
reports on speaking, establishes the code and categorized the data into its own
code, quantified the occurrences, presents the result using descriptive statistics
and makes inferences from the manifest findings.
Another instrument utilized is the Internet access, as the research reports are
collected by visiting reputable open access journal, theses, and dissertation to
collect the data, as well as utilizing Google search engine. The Internet access is
therefore very crucial tool, as most of research today are stored online targeted
for global readers.
D. DATA GATHERING
There are several steps in gathering the speaking research reports as the data.
The first step is visiting the reputable open access journals, theses and
dissertations. The journals for instance, are the ones listed in the Directory of
Open Access Journal (DOAJ) or indexed in major databases for educational
research, such as Scopus and ERIC. As for theses and dissertation is the Open
Access Theses and Dissertations (OATD). Google search engine is also utilized to
collect more data. The main keywords used to find the data in all the platforms
above are English speaking research, speaking research and speaking competence
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research. This way, research reports that match the keywords appear, including
research on fluency, pronunciation, or attitude, as authors most likely insert the
keyword speaking in their research. In addition, several other keywords such as
speaking skills, speaking attitude, knowledge in speaking and so forth are also
used. Reports that are collected are the ones that meet the publication year criteria.
Once the 100 reports are collected, the next step is doing careful reading to
comprehend the content. This step is followed by underlining the crucial
information which covers the research origin, investigated topic, concept
clarification, related topic, research goals, research design and method, DGI,
analysis technique, sample of the research reports, sampling size, sampling
technique, research validity and reliability, as well as research result.
In the next step, the researcher creates the entry code for each datum based
on publication year, country of origin, and the topic. This entry code is input into
the Data Source Identity Table, together with the data full identity consisting of
the author’s name, publication year, title, and where they are retrieved from. The
next table created is the Manifest Content Table, where the information regarding
the content of the research reports above are entered input into the table. Hence,
this is the most crucial step in the data gathering. The Data Source Identity and the
Manifest Content Table are shown in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2.
Table 3.1 Data Source Identity
Entry Code Full Identity
01ID2008PER
02IC2009FLU
The example for the entry code 01ID2008PER for instance, 01 and 02 are
the data number, ID and IC are the codes for the country of origin, ID refers to
Indonesia, whilst IC refers to inner circle countries. PER and FLU are the
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investigated topic, with PER stands for performance, and FLU stands for fluency.
The full identity column contains the research report’s full identity.
Table 3.2 Manifest Content
Sub-Items Entry Code
01…….. 02……. 03…… 04……. 05……..
Investigated topic
Concept clarification
Related topic
Research goal
Research design
Sample
Sample sizes
Sampling technique
Validity and reliability
DGI
Data analysis technique(s)
Research result
The left column in Table 3.2 shows the content category within the 100
speaking research reports. There are 12 categories in total, and the findings
within each category is documented. The right column contains the entry codes,
which are the data that have been coded one by one from data number one to
the last one.
E. DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
The data analysis begins with counting occurrences of the manifest
category findings. The data are then quantified and presented using descriptive
statistics. For instance, the finding about trends in sampling technique, shows
that there are 30 reports that implement simple random sampling out of 100
reports. These occurrences are then quantified using descriptive statistics, and
therefore the percentage of research reports implementing simple random
sampling is 30%. The descriptive statistics of the manifest content quantitative
findings along with their explanations are presented in the form of charts.
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Following the quantitative finding, inferences revealing the latent
meaning behind the manifest content findings are also drawn to determine the
current trends of speaking research reports. The anomalies within the research
findings are also elaborated as additional evidences found within the data.
F. TRUSTWORTHINESS
Trustworthiness in content analysis determines whether the research does
what it intends to do. It is often used interchangeably with the term validity.
However, trustworthiness is more suitable to be used in content analysis, as what
Kyngäs (as cited in Elo et al., 2014) states that qualitative criteria are mainly used
by researchers to evaluate aspects of validity in content analysis. There are several
components that construct trustworthiness, namely credibility, transferability,
dependability, and confirmability.
Polit and Beck (2012) refer to credibility as “confidence in the truth of the
data and interpretations of them” (p.430). In another way, credibility is therefore
equivalent with internal validity. First, the data analysis within this researched is
supported by theories, to ensure the logical truth agrees with the empirical
evidences. There are other several ways to establish credibility, and there are two
strategies this research employs.
The first one is data triangulation that consists of several types, and the ones
suitable for this research are time and space triangulation. Polit and Beck (2012)
further explain that time triangulation concerns with collecting data on the same
subject matter at different points in time, whilst space triangulation is collecting
them from different places. In this research, time triangulation is done by
collecting the research reports from 2008 to 2018, which means they come from
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various points in time, meaning they are relevant to today context. Space
triangulation is done by collecting the reports from different countries of
publication. Bitsch (2005) proposes another strategy namely the negative case
analysis, which is done when data emerging from the analysis contradicts the
research’s expectations. This research thus reports anomaly of the data and
attempts to examine the cause behind them and what should have been corrected.
Transferability is the equivalent of external validity. Lincoln and Guba
(1985) define transferability as the extent where research results should be able to
be transferred to other context and setting outside of the study. This research thus
takes 100 reports on speaking through stratified random sampling from various
World Englishes circle countries during the timeline above. The topics on
speaking also vary. The sampling size of 100 is therefore representative of the
many speaking reports from various countries, year of publications, and topics.
The research results from this sample is therefore relevant for todays and future’s
context and setting due its representativeness. Another way to establish
transferability is through thick description, which according to Anney (2014),
covers all the research processes including data collection, context of the study
and the final report production. Providing thick description of all the processes
also enables other researchers to replicate the study to other context and setting.
In terms of dependability, Bitsch (2005), refers to it as “the stability of
findings over time” (p. 86). Dependability therefore closely matches reliability as
it deals with the consistency of research. One of the ways to establish
dependability is through peer examination. Morrow (2005) states that this strategy
can be done through discussing the detailed chronology of research process with
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peer researchers, students’ advisors or colleagues. As for this research, the
dependability is done through discussion with the researcher’s thesis advisor,
other lecturers and academic colleagues. They examine the processes and results
of this research to give feedback whether there are elements that should be
corrected or improved within the research.
The last strategy to ensure trustworthiness is through confirmability.
According to Tobin and Begley (2004), confirmability concern with establishing
that data and interpretations of the findings that are clearly derived from the data.
This research therefore provides all the data source identity and the manifest
content. Readers can check the authenticity of the data by referring to them to
determine the confirmability and the overall trustworthiness of this research.
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CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULTS
This chapter presents the answer to the research question “what are the
current trends of speaking competence research?” The first section reveals the
trends in speaking competence research by first showing the quantitative
findings, followed by inferences to reveal the latent meanings of the manifest
findings. The second section is the elaboration on the discovery of anomalies
within the research reports.
A. TRENDS IN SPEAKING COMPETENCE RESEARCH
Before discussing the analysis results, it is necessary to first elaborate the
data source of this study. Through stratified random sampling, the research reports
on speaking are retrieved from journal articles, undergraduate and master theses
as well as doctoral dissertations from English speaking countries and non-English
speaking countries. The articles were retrieved from reputable open access
journals, such as Teaching English with Technology, International Journal of
Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 3L: Language, Linguistic Literature,
and Research in English Language Pedagogy, which are indexed in reputable
major data bases such as Scopus, ASEAN Citation Index, DOAJ, Open J-Gate
and ProQuest.
The undergraduate and master theses as well as doctoral dissertation were
retrieved from open access repositories of various universities from the four circle
countries, particularly the top ranked universities such as Diponegoro University,
University of Florida, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, and Bilkent University.
The theses and dissertations were also retrieved from OATD that serves as a
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reliable indexing service for open access theses and dissertations. As a result, a
total of 100 research reports from 2008 to 2018 were successfully retrieved.
Through the utilization of the manifest content table, the findings are presented in
the form of table and chart. The content consists of data origin and year of
publication, investigated topic, concept clarification, related topic, research goals,
research design and method, DGI, data analysis technique, research sample,
sample sizes, sampling technique, validity and reliability, and research result.
1. Origin and Interest in Research from 2008 to 2018
Prior to presenting the analysis result, it is important to present the data
origin and year of publication to show the implementation of stratified random
sampling utilized within this study. The data are collected from English speaking
countries and non-English-speaking countries. Figure 4.1 shows the comparison
of reports collected from both categories.
Figure 4.1 Data Origin
Research reports that make the highest ratio are those coming from
Indonesia (ID) (29%), followed by expanding circle countries (EC) (27%). The
latter circle consists of countries such as Thailand, Iran, Palestine, Jordan, Algeria,
Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Finland, Poland, Croatia, Brazil, and El-Salvador. Inner
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circle countries (IC) (23%) is in the third place, consisting of countries such as
US, UK, Canada, Australia, and South Africa. Outer circle countries (OC) (21%)
is in the last place, including countries such as India, Bangladesh, Singapore, and
Malaysia. Speaking competence is therefore more researched within Indonesia
where English is spoken as a foreign language.
The latent meanings behind these findings, is that English serves as a foreign
language in Indonesia and EC circle countries, and the fact that spoken English
itself is considered challenging. Brown and Yule (1983 in Tuan et al., 2015)
believe that spoken language production is often considered one of the most
difficult aspects of language learning. Researchers in Indonesia and in EC circle
countries find many issues regarding speaking that need to address. They attempt
to improve efficiency and emphatic understanding in the learning and teaching of
speaking by suggesting different methods and strategies that mostly have been a
success as claimed in their research. For instance, comprehending the knowledge
of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation to able to produce speech accurately
and fluently, may raise many issues, such as psychological issues. Learners need
to have positive attitudes to learn speaking in better ways, as things such as
anxiety, low confidence and low motivation can very much affect how they
acquire speaking.
Ur (1996) also claims that speaking happens in real-time and there is a
degree of exposure to the hearer. Those two factors can also raise many
difficulties such as anxiety, low self-esteem and low confidence. In the learning
and teaching of English in Indonesia and EC circle countries, students are not
given enough time and exposure to practice speaking or to attempt it in real world
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communication. Furthermore, in Indonesia for instance, Huda (1997) argues that a
unified national system of English education in Indonesia itself has not been
established. This means that the attempt to use it as the language of instruction for
instance, to improve efficiency in learning English, remains a failure.
In terms of interest in research from 2008 to 2018, the number of the research
reports in each year can be seen in Table 4.1. The publication year means that the
research on speaking might have been conducted long before it, from several
months up to two years, as the publication process can take a long time.
Table 4.1 Publication Year
Year F %
2015 18 18
2017 18 18
2016 17 17
2014 15 15
2013 9 9
2011 6 6
2012 5 5
2010 4 4
2009 3 3
2018 3 3
2008 2 2
Total 100 100
Table 4.1 shows how the interest to research speaking competence has
been progressing over the years, starting with 2008 (2%), 2009 (3%), 2010
(4%), 2012 (5%), 2011 (6%), 2013 (9%), 2014 (15%), 2015 (18%), and then
slightly drops by 1% in 2016 (17%), and goes up again in 2017 (18%).
However, in 2018, the number of research reports drops to 3%. As explained in
research limitation, the research reports collected in 2018 was only up to the
middle of the year, as the researcher had reached 100 data by that time and
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started processing them. The trends regarding the detected research reports
throughout the years are further illustrated in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Detected, Current Research Reports throughout the Years
Based on forecast analysis in Excel 2016 through the figure above, the
detected research on speaking from 2008 to 2017 increases, as indicated by the
blue line. However, in 2018, it drops to only three research reports found. This
is because from the early to middle of 2018, only three data that matched the
criteria are found, due to many research reports have not yet been uploaded and
published by that time. The three research reports come from Iran as a part of
EC circle countries. The three reports match the criteria for data collection,
where they need to be the ones listed in reputable open sources indexed in
major databases, such as English Language Teaching Journal which is indexed
in Harvard Library E-Journals and Excellence Research for Australia. This is
done to ensure that the research has been acknowledged as a decent research.
Furthermore, in the future, research on speaking is likely to increase in
terms of number, as indicated by the orange line. This means that researchers
might still consider speaking as an interesting subject to research, due to many
issues related to it, might have not been addressed properly to find effective
solution. Especially with the urgency of having a good control of English in
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this globalization era to meet the global demand. Chew (1999) believes that
lack of a control in English leads to the constant marginalization of people in
the world that continues to use the language to a greater degree. This is because
those people would not have access to the wide-ranging resources available in
English. The fact that those resources are only available in English is indeed
the consequence of globalization.
Furthermore, nowadays research might not only aim to improve
efficiency or emphatic understanding, but also to fulfill other purposes.
Altbach and Wit (2018) claim that too much research being published because
the academic system encourages unnecessary publication. This causes a crisis
in academic publishing regarding the quality of the research or whether it is
necessary. For instance, many researchers conduct research to obtain
recognition, academic credits, graduations and other academic purposes. Hence,
apart from the fact the speaking is indeed interesting to research, the increased
interest could be due to any of these reasons.
2. Investigated Topic
From the total 100 research reports on speaking competence, there are
various topics that fall into each domain of competence. There are three domains
of speaking competence that are derived from the domains of language learning,
namely knowledge, skills, and attitude. The findings regarding investigated
competence is shown in Table 4.2. It should be noted that several research reports
belong to more than one or two competence, which affects the total number of the
competence found.
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Table 4.2 Investigated Competence
Competence F %
Skills 86 68
Attitude 30 23
Knowledge 11 9
Total 127 100
Although the total number of research reports are 100, the competence
found is 127, as several reports belong to more than one competence. Through
Table 4.2, skills are the most investigated competence (68%), attitude in speaking
comes second (23%) and knowledge in speaking is the least investigated speaking
competence (9%) which fall far below skills but slightly below attitude. Thus, the
proportion of the three competence is unbalanced.
Winterton et al. (2006) state that skills refer to performance level measured
through accuracy and fluency in performing tasks. Thus, skills in speaking consist
of the indicators namely accuracy and fluency and measured through
performance. Skills are one of the domains in speaking competence that relies on
psychomotor ability. Hence, research reports that discuss skills outnumber attitude
and knowledge. The reason for this is that speaking research is usually about
measurements conducted through tests. This means that learners’ performance is
measured through both indicators of accuracy and fluency, that learners who
demonstrate high accuracy and fluency are considered to perform well in
speaking, whilst lacking one or the other means learners might not perform well.
On the other hand, attitude is related to affective-ability in the language
learning, of how people behave when learning speaking, such being motivated,
having high confidence, feeling anxious, having different perceptions, conducting
certain speaking strategies, and so forth. Albarracin et al. (2005) believe that
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attitude is latent and cannot be observed directly, hence attitude measurement
depends on the overt responses. Topics about attitude in speaking are lower than
skills, because attitude is rather complex and more challenging to research, as it
deals with psychological constructs of the learners. Thing such as learners’ bias
and self-awareness can very much influence what is seen or heard. Many research
reports on attitude in speaking are about measurement, such as measuring anxiety
or motivation, meaning that bias and self-awareness may affect what is performed
by the learners.
Knowledge is about cognitive ability on how learners process and
comprehend speech knowledge such knowledge about grammar, vocabulary and
pronunciation. The findings of research reports that belong to knowledge domain
are the lowest compared to the other two domains. Knowledge in speaking
includes knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Richard (2008)
states that lack of vocabulary, poor grammar and poor pronunciation are the usual
problems in learning speaking.
However, it is likely that the interest to research speech knowledge because
learners are already presumed to have gained the knowledge, shown through their
performance. Hence, the research on speaking mostly centers on skills’ domain,
that other domains are presumed to have been achieved and integrated within
skills’ domain. The elaboration of the findings for each of the three domains of
competence which are skills, knowledge and attitude are shown in Table 4.3, 4.4
and 4.5.
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Table 4.3 Investigated Skills
Skills F %
Performance (accuracy and fluency) 79 62
Fluency only 7 6
Subtotal 86 68
Table 4.3 demonstrates that the most investigated skills are speaking
performance (62%), which refers to the measurement of both accuracy and
fluency shown through speaking performance. Research reports investigating
fluency here is very low (6%). The total investigated skills make a total 62% of
the total 127 competence found as shown in the previous table. Skills domain
therefore make the highest ratio compared to knowledge and attitude that fall far
behind skills.
There is a latent meaning behind this finding where performance topic is the
highest. Winterton et al. (2006) state that performance in speaking is measured
through the success of accuracy and fluency. Research reports that discuss both
fluency and accuracy are therefore considered as performance, meaning learners
perform both indicators. Hence, most research reports discuss about performance,
as it consists of the measurement of the two indicators. Research reports on
fluency alone are much lower than performance. This is because many researchers
believe that researching fluency should not be separated from researching about
accuracy. Segalowitz (2003) refers to fluency as an ability to produce utterances
smoothly, rapidly, and accurately the second language. This means that accuracy
and fluency are knit together and therefore should be assessed together. Thus, the
research reports on accuracy alone are not found, despite it is also one of the
indicators of speaking.
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Similar with research on fluency, research on accuracy would mean
investigating fluency as well, meaning they both fall into research on speaking
performance category. Fluency however makes small number of the total reports,
because most language learners’ goal in learning speaking is to speak effortlessly
without hesitation. Hence, researchers are more interested in fluency topic alone,
rather accuracy topic alone. On the other hand, the attitude domain of learning
contributes 23% of the total competence. The findings are illustrated in Table 4.4
below.
Table 4.4 Investigated Attitude
Attitude F %
Motivation 7 6
Anxiety 6 5
Learning strategies 4 3
Perception 4 3
Belief 3 2
Confidence 2 2
Critical thinking 2 2
Learning style 1 1
Emotional intelligence 1 1
Subtotal 30 23
In terms of attitude, Table 4.4 shows that the most investigated attitude is
motivation (6%), followed by anxiety (5%), learning strategies (3%) and
perception (3%). However, belief (2%), confidence (2%) and critical thinking
(2%) follow slightly behind and share the number of percentages. Learning style
(1%) and emotional intelligence (1%) are the lowest. Attitude domain therefore
contributes 24% of the total speaking competence found. The proportion of the
findings are quite balanced, that none of the topics above outnumber the others,
meaning researchers are interested in various topics regarding attitude.
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Attitude is derived from affective domain of language learning, that it has to
do with learners’ emotion and behavior on how they learn language. Attitude
therefore affects how learners transform knowledge into actions, with positive
attitude can improve learning, whilst negative attitude can do the otherwise. The
interest in researching attitude in speaking means that researchers still find various
issues regarding this affective ability, as attitude itself involves learners’ mental
state, which can change overtime.
Attitude is also widely researched because they can very much affect the
speaking learning experience, in the way that speaking itself is challenging and
happens in real time, which can be a daunting experience and thus learners need to
have positive attitude to succeed. Saranraj and Meenakshi (2016) also believe that
the success in L2 language learning depends on learners’ motivation, confidence
and lower level of anxiety. The lack of positive attitude can result in the negative
learning experience.
Motivation is the dominant finding within the attitude domain. Motivation
plays an important aspect in the learning of speaking and language learning in
general. Gilakjani et al. (2012) claim that the success of any action depends on
how people strive to achieve their goal along with the desire to do so, or in
another way is their motivation. Hence, a motivated learner is more likely to learn
speaking more efficiently. Anxiety is also widely researched because learners
often have this fear or apprehension when performing speaking, and therefore
researching anxiety is conducted to improve understanding towards learners who
experience it, as well as suggesting possible solutions or learning strategies to
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overcome it. As for the investigated knowledge as one of the domains in
competence, the findings are shown in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Investigated Knowledge
Knowledge F %
Speaking difficulties 3 2
Pronunciation 3 2
Vocabulary 2 2
Grammar 2 2
Cognitive ability 1 1
Subtotal 11 9
Table 4.5 shows that speaking difficulties topic is the most investigated
(2%). Knowledge of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar follow behind at
2% respectively. Topic on discussion about cognitive ability in general is the
lowest (1%). Knowledge domain thus contributes 8% of the total competence
found. This shows that the area of knowledge of speaking receives less
attention compared to other areas which are skills and attitude.
Knowledge of speaking consists of knowledge about grammar,
vocabulary and pronunciation that can tackle speaking difficulties including
limitation in language knowledge. Difficulties happen when learners fail to
comprehend the knowledge of speaking therefore lead to low speaking
performance. Knowledge is indeed the first key to succeed in the learning and
teaching of speaking. Zashchitina and Moysyak (2017) believe that the lack of
knowledge in the target language can hinder the entire learning process. The
low interest of research in knowledge compared to the other two domains, is
because knowing how learners comprehend knowledge is rather difficult
compared to assessing their performance and evaluating their attitude.
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Based on the finding, pronunciation and speaking difficulties are the
most researched topics, although they are only slightly higher than the rest of
the topics. Hinofotis and Baily (1980) believe that it is pronunciation, not
vocabulary or grammar, which mostly hinder the communication process.
Therefore, researchers are more interested in researching pronunciation, as
there are various factors that affect pronunciation, such as accent, stress,
intonation, rhythm. Researchers hence implement different techniques or
strategies to improve learners’ pronunciation.
Similar with pronunciation, research reports on speaking difficulties are
the ones that explore learners’ difficulties in comprehending the knowledge of
speaking, and not the ones aim to implement techniques or strategies to
improve knowledge. For instace, Dobao and Marinez (2007) argue that the lack
of knowledge about lexical items causes a message not to be well-
communicated in the target language. Hence, exploring speaking difficulties,
such as the findings about the lack of lexical items or negotiation of meaning,
is crucial to find effective solutions to help learners overcome difficulties.
3. Concept Clarification of Speaking
Concept clarification concerns with how research reports on speaking
clarify the concept of speaking and its indicators, which are accuracy and fluency
based on theories. Pronunciation is also an element specifically belongs to
speaking that is often researched and therefore needs to be clarified. Although
there are also research reports about speaking knowledge and attitude, all those
research reports are basically about speaking and therefore they need to clarify
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speaking accordingly. The finding regarding concept clarification of speaking is
shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Concept Clarification of Speaking
Code Concept Clarification F %
Not reported 59 59
CC01 Speaking is an interactive process of constructing/conveying
meaning.
16 16
CC02 Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning using
verbal and non-verbal symbols in a variety of contexts.
13 13
CC03 Fluency is the rapid, smooth and accurate translation of
thought into language.
3 3
CC04 Speaking is a two-way process between speaker and listener. 2 2
CC05 Accuracy is the correct use of linguistic competence. 2 2
CC06 Speaking is a multi-sensory activity. 1 1
CC07 Accuracy is the production of language based on its rule
system.
1 1
CC08 Fluency is the ability to deliver a message regardless
grammatical mistake.
1 1
CC09 Fluency is the production of language in real time. 1 1
CC10 Pronunciation is the creation of meaning through sounds
production.
1 1
Total 100 100
Table 4.6 shows 10 categories of concept clarification within the 100
research reports. The findings show that 59 research reports do not clarify their
concept of speaking and its indicators. There are four concepts of clarification
about speaking found, three concepts define speaking as a process, which are
CC01 (16%), CC02 (13%), and CC05 (2%), whilst CC06 (1%) defines speaking
as a multisensory activity.
In terms of indicators of speaking, there are two concepts of accuracy and
three of fluency. For accuracy, CC05 (2%) concerns with the correct use of
linguistic competence, and CC07 (1%) is slightly the same concept but more
relies on the entire rule system. The next indicator of speaking found in the
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investigated topic is fluency, and there are also three categories of fluency found.
In CC03 (3%), fluency is about translation of thought, whilst CC09 (1%) defines
fluency as an ability to deliver message regardless grammatical mistakes. CC10
(1%) clarifies fluency as a real time language production. As for pronunciation,
albeit there are four reports researching about pronunciation, only one clarifies it,
which is the production of sounds to create meaning as stated in CC11 (1%).
All the concept clarifications above are in a specific and justified definitions
based on theories used in the research reports. The exception is for the ones that
define speaking as a two-way process between speaker and listener, which is not
always true in terms of monologue. Research itself is about truth discovery. Thus,
concept clarification is important for justification, meaning and truth, and that
theories supporting it should account better for data, explains better and leads to
better efficiency.
Creswell (2012) believes that literature review provides information about
the current state of knowledge about topic. However, most of the research reports
do not clarify the concepts of speaking and its indicators, but rather describing the
theories of the related topics, such as the theories of corrective feedback,
information gap or storytelling. This is most likely because researchers might not
regard concept clarification of speaking as necessary. The importance is rather
emphasized on conceptualizing the related topic or variables than can help
learners to perform better in speaking. As the topic on speaking might have been
researched widely, researchers whose target readers are the academic community
might also assume that the concept of speaking has been a well-known knowledge
in the research or academic community.
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Over the years, the concept of speaking and its indicators namely accuracy
and fluency, as well its component namely pronunciation have been clarified quite
differently from one author with another. For speaking itself, the definition about
speaking as an interactive process of constructing or conveying meaning, has been
mostly preferred by research reports that include the concept clarification of
speaking in their research. This definition is mostly chosen over the others, likely
because it emphasizes about speaking as process, which goes in a line with the
process of communication itself. It includes message being sent by sender or
encoder, through medium which is English language in this matter, then received
or encoded by the hearer who encode the message to be understood.
Other reports choose a slightly different definition, which still emphasizes
on speaking as a process, but adding verbal or non-verbal symbol as the medium,
as well as adding a variety of context to emphasize how speaking can vary
depending on the context. As for accuracy and fluency, although they are the
indicators of speaking, most repots on speaking performance do not define the two
indicators, but only define speaking. This is likely due to the researchers believe
that defining the indicators are not necessary, as they are already integrated within
the speaking definition.
4. Related Topic
Following the concept clarification, elaborating the findings on the trends
regarding related topic is crucial. This study finds several topics related to
speaking, meaning that these topics constitute as independent or dependent
variable, or merely as related variable with no causal effect with speaking. Table
4.7 shows the findings on the related topic.
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Table 4.7 Related Topic
Related Topic F %
Techniques/strategies 86 78
Methods 11 9
Tasks 6 5
Multimedia learning 4 4
L2 learning factors 1 1
Self-assessment 1 1
Input quantity 1 1
Total 110 100
It should be noted that albeit the total research reports are 100, the related
topics found are 110, meaning several reports have more than one related topic.
Table 4.7 shows that techniques and strategies are the most investigated related
topic (78%). The examples of techniques are information gap, pictorial
description, and look-up technique. Methods (9%) as related topics are the long-
existed methods such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-
Based Language Teaching (TBLT). The rest of the findings include multimedia
learning (4%), social networking (4%), Second Language (L2) learning factors
(1%) which refer to the combination of language aptitude and its strategy and
learning, as well as self-assessment (1%) and input quantity (1%).
Richard (2013) explains how the trends in research about speaking topics
during 1970’s to 1990’s has undergone a shift. Methods and techniques such as
evaluative feedback, task and text-based approach that fall int communicative
competence become the trends of research topics during those periods. However,
in the early 2000’s the trends shift into intercultural competence, hence techniques
such as turn-taking, pair and group activities become the trend. Based on the
finding regarding related topic, most of research reports still focus on past issues
such as task-based approach, instead of issues regarding technologies, particularly
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in this era of rapid technology. Very few research reports that focus on
multimedia and social networking. All this because there are various issues
regarding speaking that were claimed to be successfully solved through the
implementation of long-existing techniques or methods, hence overlapping
methods or techniques are still applied in current research, as they have been
proven over the years to improve speaking. The emergence about communicative
competence in 1980’s through approaches such as task-based and text-based are
still chosen to be the focus of current research, as well the topic about intercultural
competence in the early 2000’s such as turn-taking and feedback.
5. Research Goals
Setting research goal is a crucial aspect of a research as it determines what the
research aims to do. It should conduct the research methodology accordingly and
resulting in research results that demonstrate whether the research reports have
been a success or not. From 100 research reports collected, there are 16 categories
found within the research.
The findings regarding research goals revealed the unbalanced proportion
among the dominant research goal and the rest of the research goals. This is
because most research reports’ goal is about investigating whether the
implementation of Independent Variable (IV) has significant effect on speaking
performance which constitute as Dependent Variable (DV). This goal shows that
most research reports are more interested in experimental method, mainly quasi-
experimental method. The findings regarding research goals’ category are shown
in Table 4.8.
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Table 4.8 Research Goals
Code Research Goals F %
RG01 To investigate whether independent variable(s) affects
performance (both accuracy and fluency)
55 55
RG02 To investigate the correlation between related variable(s) and
performance (both accuracy and fluency)
9 9
RG03 To investigate whether independent variable(s)affects fluency
only
7 7
RG04 To describe factors related to performance (both accuracy and
fluency)
6 6
RG05 To investigate the correlation between related variable(s) and
attitude in speaking
5 5
RG06 To describe factors contributing to attitude in speaking 5 5
RG07 To investigate whether independent variable(s) affects
attitude in speaking
3 3
RG08 To investigate whether independent variable(s) affects
pronunciation
2 2
RG09 To describe factors contributing to speaking difficulties 2 2
RG10 To investigate whether independent variable(s) affects
vocabulary knowledge in speaking
2 2
RG11 To investigate the correlation between related variable(s) and
knowledge in grammar
1 1
RG12 To investigate whether independent variable has effect on
knowledge about grammar in speaking
1 1
RG13 To investigate the correlation between related variable and
cognitive ability in speaking
1 1
RG14 To predict performance (both accuracy and fluency) 1 1
RG15 To predict pronunciation gains 1 1
RG16 To design program for speaking 1 1
Total 100 100
It should be noted that the term ‘variable’ here refers to the related topic
which can vary. The terms Independent Variable (IV) means that the related topic
is intended to give an effect on the investigated topic constitute as Dependent
Variable (DV). The related variable or related topic on the other hand, means that
its increase or decrease does not necessarily cause the investigated topic to behave
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the same. Table 4.8 demonstrates 16 categories regarding the trends on research
goal. RG01 is about investigating whether independent variable affects speaking
performance, which dominates the research goal (55%). There are other similar
research goals about the effect of IV, which are RG03 about the effect of
independent variable on fluency (7%), RG07 about the effect on attitude in
speaking (3%), RG10 about the effect on vocabulary knowledge in speaking (2%),
and RG12 about the effect of it on grammar knowledge in speaking (1%).
RG03 (9%) is the third highest, which is about the goal to investigate the
correlation between speaking performance and related variable. Other goals which
are similar are, RG05 (5%) which is about the correlation between attitude in
speaking and related variable, RG11 (1%) about the correlation between grammar
knowledge in speaking and related variable, RG13 (1%) about the correlation
between cognitive ability in speaking and related variable.
RG02 (9%) is the second highest although it falls far behind RG01. Similar
goals are found in RG06 (5%) which is to describe factors contributing to attitude,
RG09 (2%) aims to describe factors contributing to speaking difficulties. RG10
(1%) and RG11 (1%) are about prediction, with the former is about performance
prediction, and the latter about pronunciation gains. RG12 (1%) is about
designing program for speaking.
Based on the finding regarding trend in research goal, most of the goals are
about the effect of related topic constitutes as IV on the investigated topic
constitute as DV. This means that most research reports on speaking are interested
in implementing certain techniques, strategies or methods to see whether they can
improve efficiency in speaking through how performance which includes
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accuracy and fluency in speaking, becomes better. However, many of the related
topics are long-existing topics that have been around for several decades and have
been extensively researched regarding its effect on speaking, and therefore most
of the goals have been successfully achieved. Regarding complexity, there has
been a long controversy that it is a relatively new dimension and is considered as
an advanced skill. Hence, accuracy and fluency are considered enough to
represent the construct of speaking skill. Most research on skills are therefore
conducted through performance measurement both from the fluency and the
accuracy of the learners.
The predominant finding about research goal where research aims to if the
implementation of IV has significant effect on DV, is in a line with most of the
research reports that implement quasi-experimental method, that is discussed in
other part of this chapter. Muijs (2004) emphasizes that this method aims
determine the effects of an educational intervention on a specific element. In the
case of the most research reports’ goal, the element that is meant to be improved
is speaking performance. Thus, the research reports aim to look at the effects of a
technique or a strategy, such as quantitative/qualitative feedback technique, look-
up, storytelling technique, or drama strategy, on the improvement of speaking
performance of the learners.
The rest of the research goals vary depending on the methods of the research,
such as the ones that aim to investigate correlation, meaning they belong to
research reports employing correlational design. Those that aim to describe,
meaning they belong to qualitative design employing different methods, such as
case study, ethnography or qualitative descriptive.
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7. Research Design and Method
There are three designs found within the current research reports on
speaking competence. The most preferred design is quantitative design employing
various methods, whilst some other reports belong to qualitative and mixed-
methods design. Table 4.9 shows the findings regarding research design and
method.
Table 4.9 Research Design and Method
Design Method F %
Quantitative Quasi-experimental 35 35
Survey 14 14
Correlational 14 14
True experimental 14 14
Pre-experimental 4 4
Ex post facto 2 2
Matched-subject 1 1
Subtotal 84 84
Mixed-methods Sequential explanatory 8 8
Action Research 1 1
Subtotal 9 9
Qualitative Case study 3 3
Qualitative descriptive 3 3
Ethnography 1 1
Subtotal 7 7
Total 100 100
Table 4.9 demonstrates how most research reports on speaking implement
quantitative design (84%) employing various methods, with quasi-experimental
(35%) is the one mostly employed, followed by survey (14%), correlational (14%),
and true experimental (14%) which share the same percentages. Quantitative
method which is employed less are pre-experimental (4%), ex post facto (2%) and
the last is matched-subject (1%). This shows that speaking competence is mostly
assessed through measurement.
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On the other hand, for mixed-methods design (9%), it makes higher
percentage than the qualitative design, with sequential explanatory (8%) is the one
mostly used, followed by Action Research (1%). As for the qualitative design
(7%), the total of research that employ this design is much less than research
reports that employ quantitative design. The methods mostly used within this
design are case study (3%) and qualitative descriptive (3%) which share the same
percentage, whilst ethnography (1%) is least used. As described earlier, speaking
is colored by accuracy and fluency demonstrated through performance, and in the
world of research, performance is ‘measured’, meaning it is assessed
quantitatively. Other domains of speaking which are attitude and knowledge are
sometimes also assessed quantitatively.
Quasi-experimental is the method mostly employed, as it is to see whether
the application of IV such as technique, learning and teaching method, or media
affect speaking. The effect is measured through the level of significance between
control and experimental group when performing speaking, with one receives the
new treatment and one does not. Quasi-experimental however has been widely
used in researching speaking, due to its relatively easy application and its success
in proving that the research has been a success in accomplishing its goal.
Other methods in quantitative design include survey, correlational, true and
pre-experimental as well as several other methods. True and pre-experimental
method are also often used to measure significant difference as in quasi-
experimental method. In terms of true experimental, there is a problem with using
this method which is discussed within the discovery of anomalies section. As for
qualitative and mixed-methods design, they are less used in researching speaking.
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However, topics such as attitude are often employed qualitative design such as
case study. For mixed-methods, this method is rather complex and less used in
researching speaking competence, as it can take a relatively long time to complete
the study using this method.
8. Data Gathering Instruments
Following research design and method, the next finding is regarding the
trends in Data Gathering Instrument (DGI). Quantitative, qualitative and mixed-
methods design utilize various DGI to collect the speaking research reports,
depending on the research method. Table 4.10 shows the DGI finding.
Table 4.10 Data Gathering Instruments
DGI F %
Speaking pre-test and post-test items 53 38
Questionnaire 39 28
Documents 17 12
Single speaking test 16 11
Interview 13 9
Video/voice recording 2 1
Total 140 100
It is evident from Table 4.10 that albeit the total reports are 100, DGI
utilized are 140, as one report can employ more than one DGI. Pre-test and post-
test items (38%) are the DGI that is mostly employed, which is the highest among
other DGI, whilst questionnaire (28%) follows behind. Some mixed-methods
research also employ either one of the questionnaires along with other DGI. Other
DGI utilized include documents (12%), such as rubric, scores on speaking test,
journal, observation note and so forth. The fourth mostly used instrument is single
test (11%), which refers to a single speaking test designed by the researcher,
followed by interview (9%), and the least used in voice/video recording (1%).
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Bernard (as cited in Tongco, 2007) claims that data gathering contributes to
a more profound understanding of the theoretical framework. Therefore, DGI is an
important aspect of the research and therefore a careful selection of which DGI
should be done by referring to the method as well as types of data. Most research
reports use quasi-experimental method that belongs to quantitative research and
hence utilize speaking pre-test and post-test items as the DGI to measure speaking
performance or speaking indicators, such as fluency or pronunciation. Quasi-
experimental method measures the significant difference between the control and
experimental group, with the new treatment such as the implementation of
technique such information gap is only given to the experimental group and not to
the control group. The two groups need to take speaking test before and after the
treatment to see whether the experimental group outperform the control group or
not, which means the implementation of the technique improves students’
speaking performance or not.
As for DGI such as questionnaire, most research reports implement this
DGI, including the research reports belong to quantitative, qualitative or mixed-
design. Questionnaire is mostly used to determine attitude such as perceptions,
belief, motivation, confidence or anxiety. It is also widely used across different
methods. The trends in using speaking pre-test and post-test items, questionnaire,
speaking test and so forth to gather data of speaking competence have been
around for the past several years. This is because these DGI have been proven to
be valid and reliable in collecting data about speaking. However, many research
reports also adopt DGI from previous research reports as they claimed to deliver
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success in the past. Future researchers on speaking therefore need to select the
efficient DGI that can truly accommodate the goal of the research as well as
ensure the validity and reliability of the research.
9. Data Analysis Technique
The next research trend is regarding the data analysis technique. Once the
data have been collected, they are analyzed using different techniques. Depending
on the design of the research and the type of the data, both quantitative and
qualitative employing different analysis techniques, such as mixed-methods
design that combines both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques. The
findings are shown in Table 4.11 below.
Table 4.11 Data Analysis Technique
Analysis Technique F %
Descriptive statistics 84 46
t-test 42 23
Descriptive narrative 17 9
Pearson Product Moment 10 5
Regression analysis 8 4
ANOVA 7 4
Spearman Rank Correlation 4 2
ANCOVA 2 1
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank 2 1
General Linear Model (GLM) 2 1
MANCOVA 1 1
Tuckey test 1 1
Chi-Square test 1 1
Exploratory factor analysis 1 1
Total 182 100
Albeit the total of the research reports on speaking is 100, the total data
analysis technique is 182, as several reports employ more than one or two analysis
techniques. Descriptive statistics (46%) technique is the highest among other
technique, followed by t-test (42%), descriptive narrative (9%), Pearson
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correlation (5%), regression analysis (4%), ANOVA (4%), Wilcoxon Signed-
Rank (1%), GLM (1%), MANCOVA (1%), Tuckey test (1%), Chi-Square test
(1%), and exploratory factory analysis (1%).
The trend in using descriptive statistics and t-test in analyzing speaking is
in a line with most of the research implementing experimental design. Descriptive
statistics is used to analyze the scores of the speaking test prior to the determining
the significance level using t-test. Hence, descriptive statistics might not be the
main data analysis technique, yet it is an important technique to be accounted for.
Thus, t-test has been around for several decades and the analysis of speaking
performance shown through their speaking score can be well-analyzed using this
technique. Other more complex techniques such as factor analysis, Wilcoxon
Signed-Rank, or regression model are rarely used in analyzing speaking, albeit
they give more valid result. This can be due to the time constrain and the
complexity of applying those technique.
Kim (2015) defines t-test as a statistical test to compare the means of two
groups. A t-test is therefore used to determine the significance difference or p-
value. Most research reports employ experimental method, with quasi-
experimental design being the most preferred. This means that they need to
determine the significance difference between the result between the speaking
score of the control and experimental groups in speaking pre-test and post-test. In
the case of other experimental methods such as pre-experimental, t-test is also
used although it only involves a single group. It can determine the significance
difference between the speaking score of a one group of learners, before and after
the treatment.
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Pearson Product Moment or Pearson correlation is also employed in several
of research reports. This technique is used to determine whether the increase or
decrease in one variable causes the increase of decrease in the other variable or
not. Descriptive narrative is the one used in qualitative speaking research such as
case study, as it aims to describe and explain thoroughly regarding the phenomena
related to speaking. The rest of data analysis techniques are mostly about
measurement techniques, which are in a line with the research design and method
and DGI.
10. Sample of the Research Reports
In terms of the findings regarding the sample of the research, this study
finds that the research sample are divided between students and teachers, meaning
that the teaching and learning of speaking still main take place in formal
education. Table 4.12 shows the findings of the research sample.
Table 4.12 Sample of the Research Reports
Sample of the Study F %
University students 37 36
Junior high school 16 16
English language institute students 10 10
Senior high school students 9 9
Secondary school students 7 7
EFL learners 5 5
ESL learners 3 3
University English language instructors 3 3
Primary school teachers 3 3
Junior high school teachers 2 2
Secondary school teachers 2 2
Primary school students 1 1
Vocational school students 1 1
Preschoolers 1 1
Senior high school teachers 1 1
Pre-service teachers 1 1
Total 102 100
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It should be noted that there are research reports employing both students
and teachers as their sample, hence albeit the total research reports are 100, the
total reports employing each sub-category of sample are 102. Table 4.12
demonstrates how most of the research sample come from university students
(36%), with junior high school or medium school students follow behind (16%),
and English language institute students (9%). Senior high school (9%) and
secondary school students (7%) are slightly lower.
General ESL (5%) and EFL learners (3%) are also very low. The rest of the
sample comes from students or learners’ category are students from primary and
vocational school as well as pre-school share the same percentages (1%). For
sample from teachers’ category, university English language instructors (3%) and
primary school teachers (3%) share the same percentages, and junior high school
teachers (2%) and secondary school teachers (2%) follow closely behind, whilst
senior high school teachers (1%) and pre-service teachers (1%) are the lowest at
1.00%. Research reports that involve teachers are mostly about belief and
perception in speaking, as the researchers asked the teachers’ opinion regarding
the performance of their students.
Most sample comes from the university students from Indonesia and EC
countries. This shows that albeit speaking has been taught from primary level in
Indonesia and in the EC circle countries, many students still find it hard to gain
control of it. In Indonesia, although more students are more exposed to English in
their daily life, especially in this technological era where English words are the
language of social media, students still find speaking challenging and even
difficult. Speaking competence itself is a rather a difficult to acquire, as it
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combines the domains of cognitive-knowledge (grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation), psychomotor-skills (accuracy, fluency, performance) and
affective-attitude (belief, motivation, confidence) all together.
Moreover, learning speaking in the context of foreign language learning is
more difficult as the level of exposure and opportunity to practice it in a real-
world situation is limited, unlike in the OC countries where English mainly serves
as a second language. In Indonesia educational setting for instance, Huda (1997)
believes that a unified English education system should be established by the
government that applies English for all subjects. For now, this is only done in
some private schools. This unified system can be the solution to improve learners’
speaking competence, as learners will have more exposure and more practices.
Thus, many issues regarding speaking exist, regardless the length of the
learning time for those students. This is evident from the fact that research on
speaking still choose university students as the sample of the study. As for junior
to senior high school students where speaking competence has been set as a
curriculum, many still find speaking difficult.
11. Sample Sizes
Deciding the sample size very crucial in research on speaking related to the
external validity of the research. The research reports on speaking competence
collected have various sample sizes, from relatively small to large sample.
Therefore, this research has categorized the sample sizes into several different
ranges as shown in Table 4.13.
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Table 4.13 Sample Sizes
Sample Size F %
31-100 61 61
11-30 17 17
101-300 14 14
301-1000 5 5
1-10 3 3
Total 100 100
It is evident from Table 4.13 that most speaking research reports choose the
sample size from 31 to 100 (61%), followed by sample size from 11 to 30 (17%)
that fall far behind. Sample size from 101 to 300 (14%) is the third highest. The
next sample size is those from 11 to 30 (17%) which is quite low. Sample size
from 301 to 1000 (5%) is the lowest among other ranges of sample size. Sample
size from 31 to 100 are found to be used in different methods and designs.
Sample size is crucial to determine external validity or generalizability of
the research. It can determine whether speaking research has a high external
validity or not. The general rule is that larger the sample leads to the higher
external validity as it represents the population hence the research can be applied
to other situations or groups outside of the study. Sample generally should be
minimum 100 in size to ensure it has high external validity, however minimum
sample of 30 is often considered a large enough sample.
Creswell (2012) states that limited number of research sample happens due
to various factors such access and time constrains. Other factors such as human
resources, or economic constrain can also result in a limited number of samples.
Hence, sample size from 31 to 100 is externally valid. This sample size used in the
research reports that apply different methods. However, most of this range of
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sample is used for experimental research where one or two groups are taken as the
participants. Hence, the range of sample size from 31 to 100 are representative of
the whole population such as the total number of students in one entire school, or
the total number of the entire students in one grade. Another reason is that many
research reports are also about survey, which usually takes a larger sample size.
12. Sampling Technique
Sampling technique is utilized once the target population has been defined
and sample size has been decided. Generally, there are two kinds of sampling
techniques, namely probability sampling, such as simple random, stratified
random, systematic random, and cluster random sampling, whilst the other is non-
probability sampling, such as convenience and purposive sampling, as well as
mixed sampling which includes stratified purposive. Table 4.14 show the findings
regarding sampling technique.
Table 4.14 Sampling Technique
Sampling Technique Sampling Type F %
Simple random 30 30
Stratified random 16 16
Cluster random 5 5
Subtotal 51 51
Non-probability Purposive 32 32
Convenience 15 15
Maximum variation 1 1
Subtotal 48 48
Mixed sampling Stratified purposive 1 1
Subtotal 1 1
Total 100 100
Table 4.14 demonstrates that for the probability sampling, the highest
technique used is simple random sampling (30%), followed by stratified random
(16%), and cluster random (5%). On the other hand, within the non-probability
sampling, purposive sampling is the highest (32%), followed by convenience
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sampling (15%) and maximum variation (1%). There is only one finding
regarding mixed sampling which is stratified purposive (1%).
The trend regarding the sampling technique shows that most research
employ purposive or judgment sampling technique which is a part of non-
probability sampling. Tongco (2007) believes that this sampling relies on
researchers’ judgment and does not need underlying theories. Simply put,
researchers choose the sample based on certain qualities or characteristics that
meet the researchers’ need. The trends in using this sampling technique is in a line
with the predominant method used in most research reports. Most research
employs quasi-experimental design, in which participants as the sample are
chosen purposively based on researchers’ judgment, before randomly assign them
into control and experimental group. Purposive sampling is also considered to be
convenient that as researchers can choose participants that match the criteria of
the research.
However, purposive sampling does not have a high external validity, as it
might not be representative to be applied in other groups, situations or context
outside the study. This is in a line with the many research of quasi-experimental
on speaking that has been widely conducted, where researchers often refer to
previous studies to select the methodology, including the sample that has been
implemented in those studies. Another reason to choose this sampling is because
quasi-experimental uses two groups as sample, meaning that choosing participants
from students in the same class is also convenient for the researchers.
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12. Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability are two crucial aspects of a research. Validity
determines whether a research does what it intends to do, whilst reliability deals
with the consistency of a research or a measurement. There are different types of
validity, and each determines validity in different ways. In qualitative research
however, the term trustworthiness is often used instead of validity and reliability.
It should be noted too that one research might employ more than one or two
validity types, validity and reliability together, or even either validity or reliability.
The finding regarding validity is shown in Table 4.15 and reliability in Table 4.16.
Table 4.15 Validity
Validity F %
Not reported 74 74
Content validity 13 13
Face validity 6 6
Concurrent validity 2 2
Item validity 2 2
Construct validity 1 1
Predictive validity 1 1
Trustworthiness 1 1
Total 100 100
It is evident from Table 4.15 that most of research reports (74%) do not
report the type of validity used. Only several research reports demonstrate content
validity (13%) of the total research reports. Content validity itself determines
whether a measure represents all facets of the construct being measured. Face
validity follows behind (6%) and this type of validity is often considered to be the
weakest validity, as it relies on the subjective assessment whether a research or a
test measures what it is supposed to measure. The validity that comes third is
concurrent validity (2%) as part of criterion-referenced validity, which makes 2%
of the total research reports, followed by item validity (2%), construct (1%) and
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predictive validity (1%) respectively, and trustworthiness (1%) Some of those
reports instead show only reliability and overlook the validity part.
The trend in validity shows that most reports do not report their validity. It
might have to do with the lack of knowledge of how to conduct validity. Messick
(1995) claims that validity is not a property of a test or an assessment, but rather
the meaning of the test score. Hence, determining the meaning behind the test
score is very difficult. This explains why many research reports in general only
state their research is valid without showing further evidence. Internal validity
ensures that the theoretical truth agrees with empirical truth within the research,
that it does what in intends to do. External validity ensures that the research can
be transferred to other situation or group outside the study. The fact that most
research reports do not demonstrate validity, might have to with the fact that
speaking itself is rather hard to assess. Nunan (2003) emphasizes that speaking
happens in real time and cannot be revised as in writing. This also means that
validating research on speaking, especially when the research is about measuring
speaking through test, can be difficult, as researchers should be able interpret the
meaning of the test score.
Regardless the fact that many reports do not demonstrate validity, several
reports demonstrate content validity as shown in Table 4.15. Fitzpatrick (1983)
defines content validity as “the outcome of judging the sampling adequacy of test
content” (p. 5). This means that this validity deals with the extent to which a
measure or a test represents the aspects of a given construct. In this matter,
indicators of speaking are accuracy and fluency. Hence, content validity can be
determined from the items within the tests, whether they measure learners’
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accuracy and fluency or not. Thus, content validity is very important within every
speaking research, particularly those that focus on assessment or task. Several
research reports also use face validity, which is the weakest type of validity as it
relies on subjective view whether a test does what it intends to do.
All the validity types in Table 4.15 are parts of internal validity. External
validity is rather difficult to assess, and the general rule is that it is determined
from the sample size and sampling technique. The larger the sample size means
the higher the external validity, and random sampling is considered to have high
external validity. The application of validity is often used to together with
reliability, which deals with overall consistency of a research. Table 4.16 shows
the findings regarding reliability on the speaking research reports.
Table 4.16 Reliability
Reliability F %
Inter-rater 35 35
Not reported 34 34
Internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) 21 21
Test-retest 5 5
Split-half 3 3
Inter-item 1 1
Intra-item 1 1
Total 100 100
It is evident from Table 4.16 that most research reports use inter-rater
reliability (35%) which relies on the agreement between raters, with those that do
not report reliability follows behind (34%). Others include internal consistency
measured using Cronbach’s Alpha (21%), test-retest (5%), and split-half (3%).
Inter-item and intra-item reliability are the lowest (1%). Some of those research
reports also demonstrate findings on validity and skip the reliability part and the
other way.
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The trend regarding reliability show that inter-rater is the one mostly used in
research reports on speaking. Keyton et al. (2004) define it as the extent to which
the way data is being collected in a consistent manner. This reliability is mostly
used in research reports that implement speaking tests to measure performance
and relies on the agreement between coders or raters to judge the results of the test
scores. Most research report use this reliability because the fact that most speaking
performance is assessed through speaking pre-test and post-test items that
constitute as DGI, hence raters’ judgment can help ensure the reliability of the test
items. Regarding internal consistency reliability, there are research reports that
only claim to use Cronbach’s alpha but do not demonstrate the statistics. By
simply stating that they use Cronbach’s, those researchers feel safe to claim that
their research are reliable. Therefore, the issue with the use of Cronbach’s alpha is
elaborated in the section of discovery of anomalies.
Sak (2008) in his study also finds that many research studies on validity and
reliability on speaking only analyze the different aspects of speaking, more than
examining the reliability and the validity themselves. This shows that the validity
and reliability of speaking research can be a challenging process, that many
researchers might decide to overlook it or not to conduct it properly. There are
also various experts who propose different formula to conduct validity and
reliability. However, researchers might find it hard to choose which validity or
reliability that should be employed within their research and how to conduct it
accordingly to achieve high validity and reliability.
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13. Research Result
Research result demonstrates whether research report on speaking have
accomplished its research goal through the implementation of methodology. In
general, educational research aims to describe-explain-control-predict phenomena
within the educational setting. However, many research reports only fulfill one or
two of above educational research goals. From the 100 research reports, there are
various research results as the outcomes of research goal, and hence this study has
made several generalizations of the research results as shown in Table 4.17.
Table 4.17 Research Result
Code Sub-Items F %
RS01 Independent variable(s) has significant effect on performance 54 54
RS02 Related variable(s) correlate positively with performance 9 9
RS03 Independent variable(s) has significant effect on fluency 7 7
RS04 Various factors contribute to performance 7 7
RS05 Related variable(s) correlate positively with attitude in
speaking
5 5
RS06 Various factors contribute to attitude in speaking 5 5
RS07 Independent variable has significant effect on speaking attitude 3 3
RS08 Independent variable has significant effect on pronunciation 2 2
RS09 Various factors contribute to speaking difficulties 2 2
RS10 Independent variable has significant on vocabulary knowledge
in speaking
2 2
RS11 Related variable correlates positively with knowledge of
grammar in speaking
1 1
RS12 Independent variable has significant effect on knowledge of
grammar in speaking
1 1
RS13 Related variable correlates positively with cognitive ability in
speaking
1 1
RS14 Some factors within related variable predict performance and
some do not
1 1
RS15 Related variable(s) did not predict pronunciation gains 1 1
RS16 Independent variable has neither positive nor negative effect on
accuracy and fluency, but it has positive effect on complexity
1 1
RS17 The designed program improves speaking efficiency 1 1
Total 101 100
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There are 17 categories of speaking research results as shown in Table 4.17
in response to research goals, although there are 16 categories of research goals.
There are research reports which goal is to see whether IV has significant effect
on speaking performance, fluency, pronunciation, and attitude in speaking. RS01
(54%) thus shows that most research results show that independent variable has
significant effect on performance. However, RS16 (1%) shows that independent
variable has neither positive nor negative effect on accuracy and fluency, but
instead on complexity. RS03 (7%) shows that independent variable has significant
effect on fluency, whilst RS07 (3%) is the same goal but on attitude in speaking,
and RS 08 (2%) on pronunciation.
Another research goal is about whether related variable correlates with
performance, attitude, grammar knowledge, and cognitive ability in general. RS02
(9%) therefore shows that related variable correlates positively with performance,
as well as with attitude in speaking as shown in RS05 (5%), with grammar
knowledge in RS11 (1%), and with cognitive ability in speaking as shown in
RS13 (1%). On the other hand, there are results in response to the goal about
factors contribution, with RS04 describes various factors contributing to
performance (7%), RS06 factors contributing to speaking attitude (5%), and RS09
about factors contributing to speaking difficulties. As for research about
prediction, RS14 describes that only some factors in related variable predict
performance (1%), whilst RS15 shows that related variable do not predict
pronunciation gains (1%). RS17 is about R&D, and it shows that the program
improves speaking efficiency (1%).
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The trend regarding research result show that most research reports through
the implementation of their methodology have achieved their research goals.
Neuman (2014) describes that research results help to understand the world or the
phenomena better, to see if it can be modified for the greater good. Hence
research results in speaking should be able to improve efficiency and emphatic
understanding of the phenomena. As most research results above are positive, it
can be concluded that the research has been a success.
However, it should be noted that the success of those reports might have to
do with the fact that most them implement quasi-experimental method. It is the
most suitable method for achieving the most preferred research goal, which is to
see whether the implementation of certain related topics can improve speaking
performance significantly. The success of those research reports implementing
quasi-experimental method also depends on the p-values, which most of them
claim to have a p-value less than 0.05. However, Ioannidis (2005) in his study
argues that p-values do not always appropriately summarize and represent most
research. Bias can very much manipulate the analysis or the research results.
Therefore, it is safe to say that the accuracy of the research results should not only
be judged by the result of the p-value, but also the entire process of the research
itself as well as the number of other research reports with the same objectives.
Overall, there are certain characteristics of how research on speaking
competence has been. These characteristics constitute the whole map of the
current trends in speaking competence research. These characteristics are derived
from the predominant findings of each of the manifest content category of the 100
current research reports from 2008 to 2018 discussed in this chapter. They start
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from the origin of the research, the year of publication, investigated topic. concept
clarification of speaking, related topic, research goals, research design and method,
DGI, analysis technique, sample of research reports, sample sizes and sampling
technique, validity, reliability, and research result. Based on the forecast analysis
discussed earlier in this chapter, the number of the research reports on speaking
competence is likely to increase, hence the characteristics might remain the same
or undergo changes. The characteristics are shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 Characteristics of the Current Trends
• Validity: not reported
• Reliability: inter-rater
Analysis technique:
descriptive statistics
followed by t-test
Mostly from ID and
EC circle countries
Goal: to see if the implementation
of technique/strategies have
significant effect on speaking
performance
• Method: quasi-experimental
• DGI: speaking pre-test and
post-test items
• Sample: university students
• Sample size: 31-100
• Sampling technique:
purposive
Number of
research reports
increases yearly
Topic: performance
related to
techniques/strategies
Result: techniques/strategies have
significant effect on performance
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It is evident from Figure 4.3 that most research reports come from Indonesia
and EC circle countries, where English is a foreign language. The number of the
research reports also tends to increase over time. In terms of topics, many research
reports from all the years and all circle countries mostly investigate speaking
performance, in relation with long-existing techniques or strategies, such as
storytelling, debate strategies, look up technique and so forth. The mostly chosen
goal of the research is to see whether the implementation of certain techniques or
strategies, such as look-up techniques or debate strategies have significant effect
on performance.
The most preferred sample of the research reports is university students, as
it seems that even though English has been learned since primary level in
Indonesia and EC circle countries, various issues regarding speaking still exist
among the university level. The preferred sample size is from 31 to 100 using
purposive technique, as this goes accordingly with the quasi-experimental method,
where two groups of students are needed. This range of sample size can be
divided into two groups, and purposive sampling also relies on researchers’
judgment to decide the criteria of the sample to fit the research. The method is
also the most suitable for the goal of the research reports.
Following this, speaking pre-test and post-test items are implemented as the
DGI, as they belong to quasi-experimental method. Descriptive statistics and t-test
thus become the most preferred analysis techniques, with the former aims to
summarize the learners’ performance score, and the latter aims to determine
whether there is a significant difference between the means of the speaking score
between the control and experimental group, with the control group does not
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receive the treatment of the technique or strategy, and the experimental does.
Most reports however do not report their validity, with several reports use content
validity as well as inter-rater reliability, which both are suitable for a test. The
data are then analyzed by first using descriptive statistics to analyze students’
speaking score, followed by t-test to analyze the significant difference between
the score of speaking between the control and experimental group before and after
the implementation of those techniques or methods. Through the implementation
of the methodology, it is evident that the techniques or strategies have
significantly improved speaking performance.
These characteristics of the current trends about speaking competence
research from 2008 to 2018 however raises awareness whether researchers have
not been as efficient in selecting topics and methodology. Richard (2013)
describes the shifts of the trends within the learning and teaching of speaking.
They indeed have been undergone shifts from the 1970’s to the early 2000’s, with
situational language method emerged in the 1970’s, communicative competence
in the 1980’s, cultural competence in the 1990’s and intercultural competence in
the early 2000’s. However, the techniques of those methods are still used in many
current research reports, such evaluative feedback, paired and group activities,
task-based teaching and so forth. The current research reports seem to focus on
the implementation of those long-existing techniques or strategies by employing
the methodology that have been used in former research reports. Thus, the
methodology has already been proven to produce research results where the
implementation of those techniques improves speaking performance significantly.
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B. THE DISCOVERY OF ANOMALIES
Two anomalies are discovered during the analysis of the speaking research
reports. These anomalies have to do with the issues regarding the use of true
experimental method and Cronbach’s alpha to estimate internal consistency
reliability.
1. True Experimental Method
Firstly, regarding the method, 14 research reports on speaking claim that
they use true experimental method. Shuttleworth (2008) claims that this method is
commonly used for physical sciences but rather difficult to use in social sciences,
as there is no guarantee that human will exhibit normal behavior under
experimental condition. Henceforth, this method is not supposed to be used in
educational study where the subjects are human beings. This is because when
learners are put into experimental group, they constitute as manipulated variable
that might be affected by external factors. Judging from the methodology used,
these research reports are supposed to label their research as quasi-experimental
instead of true experimental.
Quasi-experimental is therefore commonly used in educational science,
because as what Cook and Campbell (1979) state that within this method,
participants are not randomly assigned and that the cause is manipulated and
occurs before the effect is measured. The experimental group is therefore given
the treatment first to see how the treatment affects them before measuring the
result itself. However, research reports which choose to implement true
experimental, have assigned the participants randomly into both control and
experimental group. This is what most likely cause them not to choose quasi-
experimental, where participants are not supposed to be randomly assigned into
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two groups. This anomaly regarding true experimental research comes from
research reports published in all circle countries. It shows that researchers might
not have a profound understanding about the essence of true experimental method.
2. Cronbach’s Alpha
Another anomaly is regarding the finding within the reliability using
Cronbach’s alpha to show internal consistency that is used by 21 research reports.
Tavakol and Dennick (2011) explain that Cronbach’s alpha developed by Lee
Cronbach in 1951 aims to estimate internal consistency of test items or a set of
scales, expressed as a number between 0 and 1. As a matter of a fact, Taber (2018)
evaluates how Cronbach’s alpha is widely cited in science education with little or
no explanation why this statistic is considered relevant and often without
interpretation of the result. The same happens with the speaking research reports
that widely use Cronbach’s alpha to measure internal consistency of a speaking
test or questionnaires related to speaking. Nevertheless, these reports fail to
provide explanation why they believe Cronbach’s alpha is the appropriate
measure. They also do not give further interpretation of the result but rather
merely showing the value of alpha.
Tavakol and Dennick (2011) further claim that test length and
dimensionality affect alpha value. Many reports on speaking implementing
Cronbach’s alpha do not even provide the test items within their appendices, or
even simply explain the test length and dimension, yet still implement Cronbach’s
alpha to demonstrate the internal consistency. The implementation of this
statistics therefore needs to be supported by evidences of test length and
dimension, explanation for choosing this technique, as well as interpretation of the
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result. If the implementation of Cronbach’s alpha is not equipped by these
components, researchers should choose other statistics to estimate reliability such
as inter-rater, split half, or test-retest.
Many researchers in various fields often believe that by simply mentioning
Cronbach’s alpha, or by demonstrating the significant alpha, can guarantee the
internal consistency reliability of their research. The research reports where this
anomaly is found, also come from all circle countries. The possible reason for this
is that research reports might have replicated the use or the mentioning of
Cronbach’s alpha in many previous studies, and that it is presumed to be safe to
use this measurement. Thus, researchers who would like to demonstrate internal
consistency within their research, may choose other measures, such as Kuder-
Richardson Test which is a more advanced and complex measure. The tendency in
using Cronbach’s alpha is also because the belief that the implementation of this
measure is relatively simpler than other more advanced measures.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents the summarized research results and conclusions to
provide the answer to the research question, followed by implications and
recommendations of the research. The implications aim to give reflection based
on the results and followed by recommendations for further research.
A. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the investigation, the current trends of 100 speaking competence
research reports from 2008 to 2018 can be summarized as follows:
1. Most research reports come from Indonesia and expanding circle countries.
The number of research reports on speaking also show quite significant
progress from year to year.
2. Most research reports do not clarify the concept of speaking, although the
main topic of their research is about speaking. Instead, many of them clarify
the concept of the related topic.
3. Speaking performance is the most investigated topic. It belongs to the skills-
psychomotor domain of learning. Within attitude-affective domain,
motivation is the one mostly investigated, and within knowledge-cognitive
domain, pronunciation, and speaking difficulties due to lack of knowledge
are mostly investigated.
4. For the related topic, techniques or strategies are the most investigated topic.
This topic is far above other related topics including language learning
factors, other skill or knowledge and methods.
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5. Most research reports use quantitative design employing quasi-experimental
method and utilizing pre-test and post-test items as the DGI. The data are
then analyzed, firstly using descriptive statistics followed by t-test.
6. University students are mostly preferred as the sample of the research. Most
sample size is from 31 to 100, followed by purposive sampling technique as
the most chosen technique.
7. Most research reports do not demonstrate validity, however the one
employed in several research is content validity. As for reliability, most
research employ inter-rater reliability. The number of research reports with
no reliability is also surprisingly high.
8. Most research reports aim to investigate whether independent variable such
as techniques or strategies have significant effect on speaking. As a result,
most reports show that the independent variable has significant effect on
speaking.
9. Two anomalies are found, the first regarding the use of true experimental
design for educational research, which are found in several reports. This
method is not supposed to use in research with human subjects. The second
is regarding the use of Cronbach’s Alpha to estimate internal consistency
reliability without providing reasons to use the technique, not drawing
inferences from the statistics result, and not providing evidences of test
length and dimension.
From the summary of the results above, it becomes evident that over the
years, the interest in speaking research has been developing in terms of number
and will continue to grow in the future. As for the origin of the research, speaking
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is constantly and extensively researched in Indonesia and EC circle countries
yearly, but not so much within IC and OC circle countries. In terms of the concept
clarification of speaking, most research reports do not clarify the concept of
speaking. Those that do, mostly clarify speaking as an interactive process of
constructing or conveying meaning. Hence, the development regarding the
concept clarification of speaking has not been showing progress.
The trends regarding the content of the research reports show that many
research reports have not been efficient in terms of topic and methodology
selection, thus produce a less efficient speaking research. This is evident through
the unbalanced proportion of the investigated topic and related topic, that most
reports have been choosing speaking performance in relation with long-existing
techniques or strategies, such as information gap technique and storytelling
strategy. Those research reports then replicate the methodology that has been used
in other similar or previous research over the years, in which the implementation
of certain techniques or strategies most likely have significant effect on speaking
performance. Thus, in terms of topic, methodology and outcome, speaking
research reports have not yet developed further into researching more about
attitude or knowledge in speaking.
B. IMPLICATIONS
From scientific and practical perspectives, the results of this research have
several implications. First, the scientific implication provides information for
future researchers and policy debates on how research about speaking competence
has been developed over the years and whether they have been increasing the
optimum development of speaking science. These things can be seen through the
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selection of the topics and methodology that should be able to produce a more
efficient research.
In terms of practical implication, the trends provide information for future
researchers about which topics and methodology of speaking competence research
that have been overlapping, and the ones that have been receiving less attention,
thus researchers can focus more on the latter. Secondly, future researchers can
become aware in selecting the most effective and efficient research topics and
methodology in researching speaking competence leading to a more efficient or
productive research. They should not focus on selecting overlapping topics by
replicating methodology from the previous studies, hence producing less efficient
research that can reduce the optimum development of speaking science.
C. RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the finding regarding the trends in current speaking competence
research, two recommendations are made. Firstly, future researchers are
encouraged to conduct a more productive research that will increase efficiency
and optimum development in speaking science. A productive research focuses
more on the less researched speaking competence, namely knowledge in speaking
or speech knowledge, including grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Other
research reports that considered to productive, are the ones focus on as attitude in
speaking, including anxiety, belief, confidence, motivation, learning style and
strategies, and so forth. These investigated topics could be explored alone or could
also be linked to other less researched related topics, such as input quantity, L2
learning factors, or technology such as Virtual Learning (VL) or Augmented
Reality (AR). It should be noted that the integration of the constantly evolving
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technology with language learning is inevitable, hence the learning of speaking
might develop from traditional learning into an advanced technology soon. In
terms of attitude domain, a productive research should employ qualitative design
using case study or ethnography. For speech knowledge domain, mixed-methods
design using sequential explanatory should be employed. The goal of the research
should transcend into the goal of educational research itself, which is to describe-
explain-control-predict the phenomena. The methodology should then follow
according to method. Particularly for validity and reliability or trustworthiness, a
productive research should be able to demonstrate them, in which the theoretical
truth agrees with the empirical truth within their research, and not to replicate
previous studies.
The second recommendation for future researchers is to avoid conducting
unproductive research, which is the contrary of the above description. It is the one
that has been overlapping in terms of topic, methodology and results over the
years. It does not clarify the concept of speaking. It focuses on speaking
performance indicated by accuracy and fluency, in relation with long-existing
techniques or strategies such as storytelling techniques, debates strategies and so
forth. It also replicates methodology that has been used in previous research, set
the same research goals and produce the same outcome where learners’ speaking
performance is successfully improved. Thus, this kind of research is no longer
relevant or necessary to conduct, meaning the trends have not yet developed
further, that they remain stagnant from year to year. An unproductive research
also does not report validity and reliability or trustworthiness. They may use face
validity which is the weakest validity. An unproductive research may also consist
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of anomalies, such as employing true experimental method for speaking research
which belongs to educational research. This method should not be used in
research with human subject, in this case, speaking learners, who can display
different traits overtime. It should only be used in psychical research with non-
human variable. Another anomaly that found in many unproductive research
reports, is the use of Cronbach’s Alpha to estimate internal consistency reliability,
without explaining the reason or interpreting the meaning of the Alpha value, and
not providing evidence of test length and dimension. By selecting the more
efficient topic and methodology, research on speaking competence can produce
effective results that can improve the optimum development of speaking science.
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Appendix 1. Data Source Identity
Entry Code Full Identity
01ID2010PER Asmiati, A. (2010). Using Time Token Arends to Improve Speaking Ability to the Second Year Students of SMA Negeri 1 Lilirilau Soppeng
(Undergraduate thesis, Alauddin State Islamic University, Indonesia).
02ID2011PER Mudyanita, T. (2011). The Contributions of English Day Program Towards Students’ Speaking Skills in International Standard School SMK N
1 Pacitan. (Undergraduate thesis, Semarang State University, Indonesia).
03ID2011PER
Nurjanah, N. (2011). The Relationship between Students’ Interest in Speaking and their Speaking Score (A Correlational Study at the Second
Grade of Mtsn Parung). (Undergraduate Thesis, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta, Indonesia)
04ID2011PER Katsir, M. S. (2011). The Effect of Storytelling Strategy toward Students Speaking Ability of Narrative Text at the Second Year of MTs
Muhammadiyah 02 Pekanbaru (Undergraduate thesis, State Islamic University Sultan Kasim Riau, Indonesia).
05ID2011PER Wildayanti, N. L. (2011). Vocabulary and Grammar Masteries and their Correlation to Speaking Performance (a Study on the Second
Semester Students of the English Department of Tegal Pancasakti University in 2009/2010 Academic Year) (Master thesis, Diponegoro
University, Indonesia).
06ID2012FLU Ayunda, A. N. (2012). The effect of look-up technique on speaking fluency. Journal on English as a Foreign Language, 2(2), 45-51.
07ID2013PER Purnawan, P. (2013). The Effect of Audio-Visual Aid on Speaking Skills of the Grade Eight Students of SMP PGRI 1 Kebumen (Undergraduate
thesis, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia).
08ID2014PER Nuraeni, S. (2014). The Effectiveness of Classroom Debate to Improve Students’ Speaking Skill (A Quasi-Experimental Study at the Eleventh
Year of SMAN 3 South Tangerang) (Undergraduate thesis, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, Indonesia).
09ID2014PER Maulidiyah, Y. (2014). The Correlation between Students’ Anxiety and their Ability in Speaking Class IAIN Tulungagung (Undergraduate
thesis, State Islamic Institute Tulungagung, Indonesia).
10ID2015PER Abadi, C. P. (2015). Developing speaking skill in EFL English course. Journal on English as a Foreign Language, 5(2), 133-140.
11ID2015PER Saputra, J. B., & Wargianto. (2015). Communicative Language Teaching: changing students’ speaking skill. Premise Journal, 4(1), 1-14.
12ID2015STR Gani, S. A., Fajrina, D., & Hanifa, R. (2015). Students’ learning strategies for developing speaking ability. Studies in English Language and
Education, 2(1), 16-28.
13ID2015PER Inayah (2015). Improving students’ speaking skill through storytelling technique (An experimental study in a senior high school in Bandung).
ELTIN Journal, 3(1), 25-37.
14ID2015PER Setyawan, A. H. (2015). The effectiveness of classroom discussion in improving English speaking skill among the students of SMP N 3 Depok.
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15ID2015PER Muna, W., & Normawati. (2015). The correlation between self-confidence and the students’ speaking performance of AMIK Global Kendari.
LANGKAWI Journal of The Association for Arabic and English, 1(1), 51-68.
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
…appendix continued
119
Entry Code Full Identity
16ID2015PER
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17ID2015PER Asnawi. (2015). The effects of immersive multimedia learning with peer support on speaking skill among male and female students. Studies in
English Language and Education, 2(2), 103-117.
18ID2016PER Hartono, B. (2016). The effects of teaching method and emotional intelligence upon student’s speaking skill. Premise Journal, 5(1), 52-68.
19ID2016PER Rahayu, R. (2016). The Effectiveness of Using Video-Recorded Speaking Task on Students’ Speaking Skill (Undergraduate thesis, Syarif
Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta, Indonesia).
20ID2016PER Mastur. (2016). The Relationship between Students’ Self-Efficacy and their Speaking Ability (A Study at MTsS Al-Manar Aceh Besar)
(Undergraduate thesis, Ar-Raniry State Islamic University Darussalam, Indonesia).
21ID2016PER Kurniati. (2016). The effectiveness of animation video in teaching speaking to junior high school. Journal of English Language and Education,
2(1), 33-64.
22ID2016PER Rahmi, R. H. (2016). The use of information gap technique to improve speaking skill. Journal of English Education, Literature, and Culture,
1(1), 57-67.
23ID2017PER Albar, R. (2017). The Relationship between Students’ Vocabulary Size, Foreign Language Anxiety and their Speaking Ability (a Correlational
Study at the Seventh Grade of SMP Islam Al-Azhar 3 Bintaro) (Master thesis, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta,
Indonesia).
24ID2017PER Novita, T. (2017). Students’ English-speaking skill and activation method: the case of one senior high school. Edukasi: Jurnal Pendidikan dan
Pengajaran, 4(2), 10-17.
25ID2017PER Suparman. (2017). The effectiveness of the English conversation to improve Students’ speaking skill in the experimental group. Palapa: Jurnal
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26ID2017PER Royani, R., & Zakaria. (2017). The effect of CLT method on students’ speaking skill at the second grade of MTSN 1 Koala. Journal of
Education, Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 244-248.
27ID2017PER Sudharma, P. (2017). The Effect of Screencast-O-Matic on Students’ Speaking Ability of Descriptive Text (Undergraduate thesis, Syarif
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28ID2017PER Faridah, D., & Ratnawati. (2017). Engaging multimedia into speaking class practices: toward student’s achievement and motivation. Script
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29ID2017PER Kaniadewi, N. (2017). The effect of instructional methods and cognitive styles toward speaking skill. Journal of ELT Research, 2(1), 44-54.
30IC2009FLU McGuire, M. (2009). Formulaic Sequences in English Conversation: Improving Spoken Fluency in Non-Native Speakers (Master thesis,
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31IC2010PRON Haslam, N. O. (2010). The Relationship of Three L2 Learning Factors with Pronunciation Proficiency: Language Aptitude, Strategy Use, and
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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Entry Code Full Identity
32IC2011PRON Chen, J. J. (2011). The Effects of Music Activities on English Pronunciation and Vocabulary Retention of Fourth-Grade ESOL (English for
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33IC2012PER Samaranayake, S. W. (2012). The Effects of Authentic Materials Using Role-Playing Activities on Oral Proficiency: A Case Study of Thai
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34IC2013FLU Klomjit, S. (2013). Using Oral Reading to Self to Improve Oral Fluency of English language learners (Doctoral dissertation, University of
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35IC2013PER Khosronejad, S. (2013). The effect of dramatized instruction on speaking ability of Imam Ali University EFL learners. International Journal of
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37IC2013BEL
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40IC2014PER
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41IC2014FLU Santos, C., E. D. (2014). The Effects of Quantitative and Qualitative Feedback on Speaking Fluency Development (Master thesis, Brigham
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42IC2015PER Rahmatollahi, M. (2015). Relationship between intermediate EFL learners' communication apprehension, willingness to communicate, and
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43IC2015FLU Khoshsima, H. (2015). The impact of task-based approach in enhancing non-English major students’ speaking fluency. International Journal of
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44IC2015PER Qarajeh, M. (2015). The impact of social networking on the oral performance of EFL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and
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45IC2015PER Madarsara, M. A., & Rahimy, R. (2015). Examining the effect of task complexity and sequence on speaking ability of Iranian EFL learners.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 4(1), 247-254.
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462015ICPER Xu, J. (2015). Predicting ESL learners’ oral proficiency by measuring the collocations in their spontaneous speech (Doctoral dissertation, Iowa
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472016ICPER Ramezani, R., Larsari, E. E., & Kiasi, M. A. (2016). The relationship between critical thinking and EFL learners’ speaking ability. English
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48IC2016PER Fung, Y, M. (2016). Effects of board game on speaking ability of low-proficiency ESL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics &
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49IC2016STR
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speaking strategies in communication. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 5(1), 162-169.
50IC2016PER Liu, Y. (2016). Improving Chinese University Students' Speaking Performance in Mobile-Assisted English Learning (Doctoral dissertation,
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51IC2017PER
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52IC2017PER Shanta, S., & Mekala, S. (2017). The role of oral communicative tasks (OCT) in developing the spoken proficiency of engineering students.
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53OC2012PER Heng, C. S., Abdullah, A. N., & Yusof, N. B. (2012). Investigating the construct of anxiety in relation to speaking skills among ESL tertiary
learners. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 18(3), 155-166.
54OC2013ATTPER Aregu, B. B. (2013). Enhancing self-regulated learning in teaching spoken communication: Does it affect speaking efficacy and performance?
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55OC2013PER Sikder, S. (2013). A Teaching Experience and a Survey on Methods of Teaching Speaking Skills. (Undergraduate thesis, BRAC University,
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56OC2013PER Dharshini, S. M. P. (2013). Effectiveness of Using Innovative Strategies in Developing Speaking Skills among Engineering Students (Doctoral
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57OC2014ANX Chowdhury, S. (2014). Learners’ Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety: A Tertiary Level Scenario in EFL Class. (Undergraduate thesis, BRAC
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58OC2014CON
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59OC2014PER Narayanan, V., Baharuddin, N. N., & Akhyar, A. (2014). Using observation to test speaking skills among primary students based on school-
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60OC2014ATT
Zulkurnain, N., & Kaur, S. (2014). Oral English communication difficulties and coping strategies of diploma of hotel management students at
UiTM. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 20(3), 93–112.
61OC2014PER San, P. H., & Abdullah, A. C. (2014). Oral vocabulary as a predictor of English language proficiency among Malaysian Chinese preschool
children. 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, 20(1), 143-156.
62OC2014PER Lian, H. L., & Budin, M. B. (2014). Investigating the relationship between English language anxiety and the achievement of school based oral
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63OC2014ATT
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64OC2015PER Leow, C., K., Yahya, W., Mohamad, M., & Liu, S. (2015). Mobile-assisted second language learning: Speaking a second language with
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65OC2015PER Talebi, S. H., & Moradi, Z. (2015). The effect of guided strategic planning on Iranian intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL)
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67OC2015ATT Afshar, H. S., & Asakereh, A. (2016). Speaking skills problems encountered by Iranian EFL freshmen and seniors from their own and their
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68OC2016PER Amailia, S., & Apriani, D. W. (2016). Project-based instruction: integrating technology in speaking instruction. Malaysian Journal of ELT
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69OC2016DIF Riyaz, H., & Mullick, A. P. (2016). Problems in learning English speaking skill: A study of higher secondary students in Srinagar, India.
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70OC2016PER Mary, E., & Latha, E. (2016). Enhancing oral skills in English language for L2 learners using pictorial description technique. International
Journal of Innovative Research & Development, 5(1), 78-81.
71OC2016ANX Galti, A. M., & Tahiru, Z. (2016). Correlation between use of affective strategy and speaking anxiety among Shehu Garbai secondary school
students in Maiduguri-Borno state. Indian Journal of Innovations and Developments, 5(12), 1-5.
72EC2017ANX Mahmud, J. (2017). Effects and Problems of Speaking Anxiety in Bengali Medium Classrooms of Bangladesh. (Undergraduate thesis, BRAC
University, Dhaka, Bangladesh)
73OC2017PER Bozorgian, H., & Fallah, S. (2017). EFL learners’ speaking development: asking referential questions. Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 42(2), 99-
106.
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123
Entry Code Full Identity
74EC2008PER Rashtchi, M., & Khosnevisan, B. (2008). Audiotaped dialogue journal: a technique to improve speaking skill of Iranian EFL learners. Journal
of Applied Linguistics, 1(3), 164-176.
75EC2008PER Hsu, J. T., & Chiu, C. (2008). Lexical collocations and their relation to speaking proficiency. The Asian EFL Journal, 10(1), 181-204.
76EC2009CEP
Riihimäki, J. (2009). Assessment of Oral Skills in Upper Secondary Schools in Finland: Teachers’ View. (Bachelor thesis, University of
Jyväskylä, Finland).
77EC2009PER Murad, T. M. (2009). The Effect of Task-Based Language Teaching on Developing Speaking Skills among the Palestinian Secondary EFL
Students in Israel and Their Attitudes towards English (Doctoral dissertation, Yarmouk University, Jordan).
78EC2010PER Soraya, B. (2010). Enhancing Students’ Oral Proficiency through Cooperative Group Work. (Master Thesis, University of Constantine,
Algeria).
79EC2010FLUMOT Sağlam, E. B. (2010). The Effects of Music on English Language Learners’ Speaking Fluency and on their Motivation/Interest Level (Master
thesis, Bilkent University, Turkey).
80EC2011PER Jondeya, R. S. (2011). The Effectiveness of Using Information Gap on Developing Speaking Skills for the Eighth Graders in Gaza Governorate
Schools. (Master thesis, Al- Azhar University-Gaza, Palestine).
81EC2012PER Nanthaboot, P. (2012). Using Communicative Activities to Develop English Speaking Ability of Matthayomsuksa Three Students (Master thesis,
Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand).
82EC2012PER Phisutthangkoon, P. (2012). The Use of Communicative Activities to Develop English Speaking Ability of the First Year Diploma Vocational
Students (Master thesis, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand).
83EC2013PER Zhang, W., & Liu, M. (2013). Evaluating the impact of oral test anxiety and speaking strategy use on oral English performance. The Journal of
Asia TEFL, 10(2), 115-148.
84EC2014PER Beniss, A., & Bazzaz, V. E. (2014). The impact of pushed output on accuracy and fluency of Iranian EFL learners’ speaking. Iranian Journal of
Language Teaching Research, 2(2), 51-72.
85EC2014PERATT Ashour, J. M. (2014). The Effect of Using a Videoconferencing-based Strategy on UNRWA 9th Graders' English-Speaking Skills and their
Attitudes towards Speaking (Master thesis, The Islamic University of Gaza, Palestine)
86EC2015PER Frančešević, A. (2015). The Relationship between Speaking Activities in the EFL Classroom and Croatian State School-Leaving Exam. (Master
thesis, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Croatia).
87EC2016PER Sabbah, S. R. M. (2016). The Effectiveness of Using Debates in Developing Speaking Skills among English Majors at University of Palestine.
(Master thesis, Al-Azhar University-Gaza, Palestine).
88EC2016PER Anil, B. (2016). A study on developing speaking skills through techno-driven tasks. Brazilian English Language Teaching Journal, 7(1), 80-93.
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Entry Code Full Identity
89EC2016PER Moghadam, M. B., & Haghverdi, H. R. (2016). The impact of readers theatre on the development of pre-intermediate Iranian EFL learners’ oral
proficiency. Research in English Language Pedagogy, 3(2), 44-56.
90EC2016PER Burlińska, M. (2016). Ways of Implementing Drama Techniques in Teaching Speaking Skill to Young Learners at the Elementary Level.
Selected Aspects. (Undergraduate thesis, Wyższa Szkoła Języków Obcych w Świeciu, Poland).
91EC2017PRON Rodriguez, D., Vásquez, M., & Ascencio, D. (2017). The Influence of the Spoken Interaction with English Native Speakers in the English
Pronunciation of the Personnel Working in San Salvador-Based Call-Centers. (Undergraduate thesis, University Of El Salvador, El-
Savador)
92EC2017PER Keränen, I. (2017). English Speaking Skills in Finnish Upper Secondary School: Students’ self-assessment vs. the objectives of the Curriculum.
(Undergraduate thesis, University of Jyväskylä, Finland)
93EC2017MOT
Mendez, M. G. (2017). Motivating and demotivating factors for students with low emotional intelligence to participate in speaking activities.
PROFILE, 19(2), 151-163.
94EC2017PER Iman, J. N. (2017). Debate instruction in EFL classroom: Impacts on the critical thinking and speaking skill. International Journal of
Instruction, 10(4), 87-108.
95EC2017PER Alzboun, B. K., Smadi, O. M., & Baniabdelrahman, A. (2017). The effect of role play strategy on Jordanian EFL tenth grade students' speaking
skill. Arab World English Journal, 8(4), 121-136.
96EC2017PER Muslem, A., Mustafa, F., Usman, B., & Rahman, A. (2017). The application of video clips with small group and individual activities to
improve young learners’ speaking performance. Teaching English with Technology, 17(4): 25-37
97EC2017PER Yegani, H., & Jodaei, H. (2017). The effect of task-based and topic-based speaking activities on speaking ability of Iranian EFL learners.
International Journal of English Language and Translation, 5(4), 86-93.
98EC2018PER Khodabandeh, F. (2018). The impact of storytelling techniques through virtual instruction on English students’ speaking ability. Teaching
English with Technology, 18(1), 24-36.
99EC2018PER Soleimani, H., & Khosravi, A. G. (2018). The effect of Kagan's cooperative structures on speaking skill of Iranian EFL learners. International
Journal of English Language and Translation Studies, 6(1), 20-31.
100EC2018FLU Mohammadi, M., & Enayati, B. (2018). The Effects of Lexical Chunks Teaching on EFL Intermediate Learners’ Speaking Fluency.
International Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 179-192.
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Appendix 2. Manifest Content (Part A)
No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
1 01ID2010PER Performance Speaking: Combining
sounds in recognized and
systematic way, according
to language specific
principles to form
meaningful utterances
(Conblect & Carter as
cited in Idris, 2006)
Time token Arends To find out whether
or not time token
Arends is effective
to improve English
speaking ability of
students and
students’ interest in
speaking English.
Quantitative Pre-experimental
2 02ID2011PER Performance Speaking: The ability to
report acts or situation, or
the ability to report
situations in precise
words, or the ability to
express a sequence of
ideas fluently (Lado,
1961, p. 240)
English Day Program 1) To describe the
implementation of
English Day
program at SBI
SMK N 1 Pacitan in
the academic year
2010/2011.
2) To discover the
contributions of
English Day
program towards the
students’ speaking
skill in SBI SMK N
1 Pacitan in the
academic year
2010/2011.
Qualitative
descriptive
Descriptive narrative
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
3 03ID2011PER Performance N/A Speaking score To find out if there
is any correlation
between students’
interest in speaking
and their speaking
score
Quantitative Correlational
4 04ID2011PER Performance N/A Storytelling To know there is
any significant
effect of storytelling
strategy toward
students’ speaking
ability of narrative
text.
Quantitative Pre-experimental
5 05ID2011PER Performance N/A Vocabulary, grammar To examine the
correlation between
students' vocabulary
mastery and their
speaking
performance; the
correlation between
students‟ grammar
mastery and their
speaking
performance; the
correlation between
students‟
vocabulary and
grammar mastery
and their speaking
performance
Quantitative Correlational
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
6 06ID2012FLU Fluency N/A Look-up technique To find out the
effect of look up
technique on
speaking fluency
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
7 07ID2013PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To find out whether
there is a significant
difference on the
speaking skill
between the students
who are taught using
audio visual aids
and those who are
taught by using non-
audio visual aids.
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
8 08ID2014PER Performance Speaking: "a productive
skill that can be directly
and empirically observed"
(Brown, 2004, p. 140)
Debate strategies To see the
effectiveness of
classroom debate to
improve students'
speaking skill
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
9 09ID2014PER Performance N/A Anxiety To find out whether
there was the
correlation between
students’ anxiety
and their ability in
speaking class
Quantitative Correlational
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
10 10ID2015ATT Performance N/A Teaching technique
and strategy factors
To describe factors
contributing the
development of
speaking skill, and
to describe techniq
es and strategies
used by the teachers
to develop speaking
skill
Qualitative Ethnography
11 11ID2015PER Performance Speaking: Speech or
utterances with the
purpose of having
intention to be recognized
by speaker and the
receiver processes the
statements in order to
recognize their intentions
(Rickheit & Strohner,
2008, p. 207)
Communicative
Language
Teaching
To solve the
speaking problem
faced by students
Mixed-methods Classroom
Action
Research
12 12ID2015STR Strategies Speaking: An interactive
process of constructing
meaning that involves
producing and receiving
and processing
information (Brown,
2004, p. 140)
N/A To study the
learning strategies
used by both low
and high
performance
speaking students in
developing their
speaking skills as
well as the
differences between
their learning
strategies
Qualitative Qualitative
descriptive
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
13 13ID2015PER Performance Speaking: An interactive
process of constructing
meaning, involving
producing , receiving, and
processing information
(Brown, 2001)
Storytelling technique To investigate the
effect of storytelling
on students’
speaking ability and
students’ attitudes
toward its
implementation of
storytelling
technique
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
14 14ID2015PER Performance N/A Classroom discussion To investigate
whether or not there
is a significant
difference in the
mastery of the
speaking skill
between the students
who are taught by
using classroom
discussion and those
who are taught
without using
classroom
discussion
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
15 15ID2015PER Performance N/A Self-confidence To find out the
correlation between
the students’ self-
confidence and their
speaking
performance
Quantitative Correlational
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
16 16ID2015PER Performance Speaking: The productive
oral skill. It consists of
producing systematic
verbal utterance to convey
meaning Nunan (2003:
48)
Student's learning style To identify whether
students' learning
styles influence
speaking ability
Quantitative Survey
17 17ID2015PER Performance N/A Immersive Multimedia
Learning, peer support,
male and female
students
To investigate the
effects of immersive
multimedia
language learning
technique on
performance in
English in terms of
oral production
skills in reading and
speaking that
involved six
measures, namely,
pausing, phrasing,
stress, intonation,
rate, and integration
without the
mediation of the
first language of the
students amongst
both males and
females
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
18 18ID2016PER Performance N/A Teaching method,
emotional intelligence
To determine the
effects of teaching
method and
emotional
intelligence upon
student’s speaking
skill
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
19 19ID2016PER Performance Speaking: "a productive
skill which enables
speaker to express ideas,
feelings, or information
orally" (Harmer, 1991, pp.
52-53)
Multimedia strategies To see the
effectiveness of
classroom debate to
improve students'
speaking skill
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
20 20ID2016PER Performance Speaking: "the ability in
using oral language to
explore ideas, intentions,
thoughts and feelings to
other people as a way to
make the message clearly
delivered and well
understood by the hearer.”
(Bygate (1987, p.1, in
Mazouzi, 2013, p.5)
Self-efficacy To find out whether
there is a
relationship between
self-efficacy and
speaking
achievement
Quantitative Correlational
21 21ID2016PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To find out the
effectiveness of
animation video in
teaching speaking
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
22 22ID2016PER Performance N/A Information gap
technique
To find out whether
Information Gap
technique was
effective to improve
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
students’ speaking
skill or not
23 23ID2017PER Performance N/A Anxiety, vocabulary To know and
describe the
relationship among
three variables; the
relationship between
students‘vocabulary
size (X1) and their
speaking ability (Y),
the relationship
between students‘
foreign language
anxiety (X2) and
their speaking
ability (Y) and the
relationship between
students‘ vocabulary
size, foreign
language anxiety,
and their speaking
ability
Quantitative Correlational
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
24 24ID2017PER Performance Speaking: An interactive
process of constructing
meaning that involves
producing and receiving
and processing
information (Bailey,
2005)
Activation Method To find out whether
or not:
(1) There was a
significant
improvement on the
eleventh grade
students’ speaking
skill who were
taught by using
activation method
before and after the
treatment; and
(2) There was a
significant
difference on the
eleventh grade
students’ speaking
skill who were
taught by using
activation method
and those who were
not
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
25 25ID2017PER Performance Speaking: A productive
skill that can be directly
and empirically observed,
those observation are
invariably colored by the
accuracy and fluency.
(Brown, 2001)
Conversation To examine the
effectiveness of the
English
conversation to
improve students’
speaking skill
Quantitative Pre-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
26 26ID2017PER Performance Speaking: An interactive
process of constructing
meaning involves
producing, receiving and
processing information
(Flores, 1991)
Communicative
Language Teaching
To find out if there
is significant effect
of CLT method on
students' speaking
Skill
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
27 27ID2017PER Performance Speaking: "a verbal
communication which
involves a speaker and a
listener in the
communicating situation"
(Thornbury, 2006, p. 1)
Computer Assisted
Language Learning
To obtain the
empirical evidence
of the effect of
Screencast O-Matic
on students'
speaking ability on
descriptive text
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
28 28ID2017PER Performance N/A Multimedia,
motivation
To find out whether
multimedia has
effects for teaching
speaking in the
scope of students‟
interests, feedback
and their cognitive
aspects.
Mixed-methods Sequential
explanatory
29 29ID2017PER Performance N/A Instructional methods,
cognitive styles
to investigate the
effect of
instructional
methods and
students’ cognitive
style towards
speaking skill
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
30 30IC2009FLU Fluency N/A Linguistic competence Eoop Quantitative True experimental
31 31IC2010PRON Pronunciation
gain
N/A Pronunciation
strategies, language
aptitude, learning
context
(1) To determine
whether language
aptitude and the use
of language
strategies predict
pronunciation gains
in second language
(L2) acquisition
(2) To determine
whether these
factors differed
depending on
whether learning
occurred in ESL or
EFL learning
context
Quantitative Correlational
32 32IC2011PRON Pronunciation N/A Music activities,
vocabulary
To explore the
effects of music
activities (singing,
speech and body
percussion, and
instrumental
performance) on the
English
pronunciation and
vocabulary retention
of fourth grade
Quantitative True experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
ESOL students in
Chia-Yi, Taiwan
33 33IC2012PER Performance Accuracy: A focus on
issues of appropriateness
and other formal factors
such as usage, language
for display and
knowledge, and judging
communication by
linguistic competence
(Brumfit, 1984, p. 59)
fluency: the ability to
produce sustained oral
production implying a
certain communicative
competence, as well as the
unstilted spontaneous use
of English conversational
lubricants (Beardsmore,
1974, p.323)
Authentic materials,
contextually-developed
role-playing activities
To investigate the
effects of authentic
materials and
contextually-
developed role-
playing activities on
the oral proficiency
of Thai
undergraduate
students
Quantitative True experimental
34 34IC2013FLU Fluency Fluency: A performance
phenomenon related to
‘flow, continuity,
automaticity, or
smoothness of speech’
(Koponen & Riggenbach,
Oral reading To study the effect
of oral reading-to-
self on adult English
Language Learners’
oral fluency and
their perception
Quantitative True experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
2000, p. 6) toward oral reading-
to-self
35 35IC2013PER Performance N/A Drama strategies To determine the
effect of dramatized
instruction on the
speaking ability of
EFL learners
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
36 36IC2013PER Performance N/A Self-assessment To investigate the
effect of self-
assessment on
speaking skill of
Iranian EFL learners
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
37 37IC2013BEL Belief N/A Motivational
orientation
To explore pre-
service English
teachers’
perceptions of
teaching speaking in
Turkey, the
importance they
give to this language
skill, and their self-
evaluation of their
speaking
competence
Qualitative Case study
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
38 38IC2014PER Performance N/A Type of Input, quantity
of input
(1) To look at
different types of
input to which
Iranian grade four
high school EFL
learners are exposed
to;
(2) To investigate
the possible
relationship between
types and quantity
of input and Iranian
EFL learners’ oral
proficiency
Quantitative Correlational
39 39IC2014DIF Difficulties N/A EFL learners’
difficulties
To present, as well
as to assess, the
difficulties in
speaking skill
success through
highlighting the role
of English language
departments across
Jordanian
Universities
Mixed-methods Sequential
explanatory
40 40IC2014ATT Perception
about
speaking
N/A Task preference To investigate
Korean university
EFL learners’ task
preference among
three different
speaking tasks
Mixed-methods Sequential
explanatory
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
41 41IC2014FLU Fluency Fluency: The smooth,
rapid, effortless use of
language (Crystal, 1987,
p. 421)
Quantitative/qualitative
feedback
The effect of two
forms of feedback
(qualitative and
quantitative) on the
development of the
spoken fluency of
English language
learners
Mixed-methods Sequential
explanatory
42 42IC2015PER Performance Speaking is a challenging
process in which, based
on the cultural and social
context, speakers
should decide why, how,
and when to communicate
(Burns & Seidlhofer as
cited in Martínez-Flor,
Usó-Juan, and Soler,
2006)
Anxiety, motivation To investigate the
underlying patterns
of the relationship
between
communication
apprehension (CA),
willingness to
communicate
(WTC), and
speaking ability with
regard to different
contexts and
receivers
Quantitative Ex post facto
43 43IC2015FLU Fluency Speaking: An active
process, through which
learners use their world
and language knowledge
to convert their thought to
meaningful oral message
(Chastain, P. 270)
Task-based Language
Teaching
To scrutinize the
effects of tasks-
based instruction on
non-English major
students’ speaking
fluency
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
44 44IC2015PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To investigate the
effect of social hubs
on improving EFL
Quantitative True experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
learners' speaking
skill
45 45IC2015PER Performance N/A Task complexity, task
sequence
To examine the
effect of task
complexity and
sequence on
speaking ability
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
46 46IC2015PER Performance N/A Linguistic competence To investigate the
empirical
performance of a
series of theory-
based collocation
measures on learner
spoken data for
predicting human
criterion scores of
oral English
proficiencies
Quantitative Correlational
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
47 47IC2016PER Performance 1) Speaking: an
interactive process of
constructing meaning that
involves producing,
receiving and processing
information (Brown,
1994; Burns & Joyce,
1997).
2) Fluency: an ability in
the second language to
produce or comprehend
utterances smoothly,
rapidly (Segalowitz,
2003).
3) Fluency: “the rapid,
smooth, accurate, lucid
and efficient translation of
thought or communicative
intention into language
under the temporal
constraints of on-line
processing (Lennon,
2000, p. 26)
Critical thinking To investigate the
relationship between
critical thinking and
speaking ability
among EFL students
at Payame Noor
University (PNU) of
Rasht
Quantitative Correlational
48 48IC2016PER Performance N/A Board game, anxiety To investigate
whether the board
game is a useful tool
to engage learners’
participation in class
and to enhance the
speaking ability of
low-proficiency
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
ESL learners
49 49IC2016ATT Strategies N/A Musical Intelligence,
visual Intelligence
To investigate the
relationship between
Iranian EFL
learners’ musical
and visual
intelligences and
their use of speaking
strategies in
communication
Quantitative Ex post facto
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
50 50IC2016PER Performance N/A Mobile Assisted
Language Learning
To investigate the
effect of positive
feedback on Chinese
university students'
English speaking
perfomrance in a
mobile learning
context
Quantitative Matched-subject
51 51IC2017PER Performance N/A Drama strategies To probe one of the
main concerns of
language learners,
that is, how to
improve their
speaking
Quantitative True experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
components, e.g.
oral fluency and
accuracy
52 52IC2017PER Performance Speaking: The process of
building and sharing
meaning through the use
of verbal and non- verbal
symbols, in a variety of
contexts
(Chaney,1998,p.13)
Oral Communicative
Tasks (OCT)
To investigate the
role of Oral
Communicative
Tasks (OCT) and
their impact on the
spoken proficiency
of ESL students at
tertiary level
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
53 53OC2012PER Performance N/A Anxiety To investigate the
construct of anxiety
in relation to
speaking skills and
to find out whether
there is a correlation
between anxiety
towards speaking in
English and anxiety
towards taking a
speaking test
Quantitative Correlational
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
54 54OC2013PER Efficacy,
performance
Self-regulated learning N/A To examine the
effects of enhancing
self-regulated
learning in the
teaching of spoken
communication on
speaking efficacy
and performances
among second year
students attending
spoken and written
communi-cation
lessons in the
College of Business
and Economics of
Bahir Dar
University
Quantitative Survey
55 55OC2013PER Performance Accuracy: The correct use
of vocabulary, grammar
etc. in case of controlled
and guided activities
while fluency would
mean the ability to get the
message across regardless
grammatical mistakes
(Gower et al, 1995, p.
100).
Speaking strategies To investigate
whether the teaching
of speaking is still
done in a traditional
method or not
Quantitative Survey
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
56 56OC2013PER Performance N/A Innovative strategies To investigate
whether innovative
strategies have
signinificant impact
on students'
speaking skills
Quantitative True experimental
57 57OC2014ATT Anxiety N/A Language anxiety
factors
To find out the
factors responsible
for speaking anxiety
of the learners, the
effects of the
anxiety and the
ways to reduce
anxiety
Quantitative Survey
58 58OC2014ATT Confidence N/A Publlic speaking
program, confidence
To study the
effectiveness of
Public Speaking
Programme in
improving
Malaysian students’
confidence level in
speaking skill
Qualitative Case study
59 59OC2014PER Performance N/A Observation method To investigate the
usage of observation
method to assess
speaking skills
among primary
students
Qualitative Qualitative
descriptive
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
60 60OC2014PER Performance N/A Speaking difficulties To examine the
types of oral
communication
difficulties and the
coping strategies of
Diploma level ESL
learners
Mixed-methods Sequential
explanatory
61 61OC2014PER Performance N/A Oral vocabulary To examine whether
oral vocabulary is a
good predictor of
the English language
proficiency of
Malaysian Chinese
preschoolers by
examining the
correlation of oral
vocabulary and
English language
proficiency
Quantitative Correlational
62 62OC2014PER Performance N/A Anxiety To investigate the
relationship between
English language
anxiety and the
achivement of
school based oral
English test
Quantitative Survey
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
63 63OC2014STR Strategy
factors
N/A Motivation To investigate the
relationships
between motivation
and speaking
strategy factors of
Bangladeshi
university students
to learn oral
communication in
English
Quantitative Correlational
64 64OC2015PER Performance N/A Mobile-Assisted
Language Learning
(MALL)
To investigate the
effectiveness of
auditory stimuli for
the speaking
acquisition of a L2,
in two different
modes of
presentation
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
(2x2)
65 65OC2015PER Performance N/A Guided strategic
planning
To examine the
effect of guided
strategic planning on
the fluency,
accuracy and lexical
resources in the
speaking of Iranian
intermediate English
as a foreign
language (EFL)
learners
Quantitative True experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
66 66OC2015PRON Pronunciation Pronunciation: The
production of sounds that
we use to create meaning
(“Fact”, 2002)
Perception To find out the
English
pronunciation
difficulties of
Bengali medium
students in the sub-
urban areas of
Sylhet and the
possible barriers that
work behind this
problem
Quantitative Survey
67 67OC2015PER Performance Speaking: Demanding
skill for EFL learners as
they need to have not only
grammar and lexical
knowledge, but also
knowledge of socially-
appropriate
language(Shumin, 1997)
Perception To investigate the
speaking skills
problems faced by
Iranian EFL
freshmen and
seniors from their
own and their
English instructors’
perspectives
Mixed-methods Sequential
explanatory
68 68OC2016PER Performance N/A Project-Based
Instruction
To investigate
whether project
based instruction
support the teaching
of speaking in the
English language
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
classroom
69 69OC2016DIF Difficulties N/A Language learning
problems
To investigate the
problems of higher
secondary students'
in learning English
speaking skills
Mixed-methods Sequential
explanatory
70 70OC2016PER Performance N/A Pictorial description
technique
To explore the
significance of
descriptive
technique in
enhancing spoken
language to
language minority
learners from
Auxilium College,
Vellore, Tamil Nadu
Mixed-methods Sequential
exploratory
71 71OC2016ANX Anxiety N/A Affective strategy To investigate the
relationship between
students’ speaking
anxiety and their use
of affective strategy
during speaking task
Quantitative Correlational
72 72OC2017ANX Anxiety N/A Anxiety effects To find out the
problems which are
responsible for
speaking anxiety of
the learners and the
effects of anxiety
Quantitative Survey
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
73 73OC2017PER Performance N/A Referential questions To investigate the
effect of asking
referential questions
on the students' oral
production
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
74 74EC2008PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To investigate
whether there was
any significant
difference between
the speaking
achievement of
learners who were
trained by means of
audiotaped dialogue
journal, dialogue
journal writing, or
traditional free
speech
Quantitative True experimental
75 75EC2008PER Performance N/A Lexical collocations To explore the
knowledge and use
of English lexical
collocations and
their relation to the
speaking proficiency
(assessed by two
speaking test) of
Taiwanese EFL
university learners
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
design
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
76 76EC2009CEP Perception N/A Language assessment To investigate
teachers' view
regarding the oral
language assessment
Quantitative Survey
77 77EC2009PER Performance Speaking: An interactive
process of constructing
meaning that involves
producing, receiving and
processing information
(Brown, 1994; Burns and
Joyce, 1997)
Attitudes, Task-based
Language Teaching
To explore whether
using music in
English Language
Teaching settings
could be beneficial
for language
learners in
improving their
speaking fluency,
and whether lessons
conducted with
songs would raise
the learners’
motivation/interest
in second language
learning
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
78 78EC2010PER Performance Speaking involves putting
a message together,
communicating the
message, and interacting
with other people.
(Lindsay and Knight,
Cooperative group
work
To explore the
effects of
cooperative group
work on improving
learners’ oral
proficiency and
Quantitative Survey
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
2006: 57) communicative
skills
79 79EC2010FLUMOT Fluency,
motivation
N/A Music activities,
motivation
To investigate
whether music plays
a role in improving
students’ speaking
fluency and
motivation/interest
in language learning
contexts
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
80 80EC2011PER Performance Speaking: The productive
oral skill and it consists of
producing systematic
verbal utterances to
convey meaning (Nunan,
2003, p. 48)
Information gap
technique
To investigate the
effectiveness of
using information
gap in developing
speaking skills for
the eighth graders in
Gaza governorate
schools
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
81 81EC2012PER Performance N/A Communicative
activities
To investigate the
effect of
communicative
activities to develop
English speaking
ability of
Matthayomsuksa 3
students
Quantitative Pre-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
82 82EC2012PER Performance N/A Communicative
activities
To investigate the
effect of
communicative
activities on the
first-year diploma
students' English
speaking ability
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
83 83EC2013PER Performance N/A Test anxiety, speaking
strategy use
To explore the effect
of Chinese
university students’
oral test anxiety and
speaking strategy
use on their oral
English performance
Quantitative Correlational
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
84 84EC2014PER Performance Accuracy: The production
of target language
according to its rule
system (Skehan, 1996).
fluency: the production of
language in real time
without undue pausing or
hesitation ( Ellis &
Baarkhuizer, 2005, p.
139)
Pushed output To establish baseline
quantitative data on
the impacts of
pushed output on
two components of
speaking (i.e.,
accuracy and
fluency
Quantitative True experimental
85 85EC2014PER Performance,
confidence
Speaking: Complete
process of constructing
meanings, producing
utterances and receiving
and processing
information (Brown,
1994) with confidence
(Bygate, 1987).
Multimedia strategies,
positive/negative
attitudes
To investigate the
effect of a
videoconferencing-
based strategy on
UNRWA Ninth
Graders' English-
Speaking Skills and
their Attitudes
towards speaking
skill
Quantitative True experimental
86 86EC2015PER Performance Speaking: The process of
building and sharing
meaning through the use
of verbal and non-verbal
symbols, in a variety of
contexts (Chaney and
Burk, 1998, p. 13)
Speaking activities To show that the
Matura exam
influences teaching,
particularly teaching
speaking, and
thereby confirms the
existence of the
backwash effect in
language testing in
the Croatian context
Quantitative Survey
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
87 87EC2016PER Performance Speaking: The productive
oral skill. It consists of
producing systematic
verbal utterance to convey
meaning. (Nunan, 2003,
p. 48)
Debate strategies To investigate the
effectiveness of
using debates in
developing speaking
skills among English
majors at University
of Palestine
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
88 88EC2016PER Performance N/A Multimedia strategies To investigate
whether techno
driven tasks have
significant effect on
students' speaking
skills
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
89 89EC2016PER Performance N/A Readers theatre To investigate the
effect of RT on the
oral proficiency of
Iranian learners of
English as a foreign
language
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
90 90EC2016PER Performance When speaking, we
construct words and
phrases with individual
sounds, and we also use
pitch change, intonation,
and stress to convey
different meanings
(Harmer, 2007: 29)
Drama techniques To analyse how
applying drama in
the teaching process
can help to improve
speaking fluency
Quantitative Survey
91 91EC2017PER Pronunciation N/A Spoken interaction To determine the
influence of the
spoken interaction
with English native
Mixed-methods Sequential
exploratory
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
speakers gain by
personnel working
in Call Centre in
surrounding area in
San Salvador
92 92EC2017PER Performance The ability to speak a
language includes the
knowledge of
grammatical rules, but
also the ability to produce
and comprehend
sentences that are
appropriate contexts
(Hymes, 1971)
Self-evaluation To find out how
Finnish upper
secondary school
students self-assess
their English-
speaking skills
Quantitative Survey
93 93EC2017MOT Motivation N/A N/A To understand what
factors may
motivate and
demotivate students
with low emotional
intelligence to
participate in
speaking activities
during English class
Qualitative Case study
94 94EC2017PER Performance Speaking: The process of
building and sharing
meaning through the use
of verbal and non-verbal
symbols, in a variety of
contexts (Chaney, 998, p.
13).
Debate instruction,
critical thinking
To find out whether
or not using debate
significantly
improved the
students’ critical
thinking and
speaking skill
achievements and
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
how much debate
contributed to each
aspect of critical
thinking and
speaking skill
95 95EC2017PER Performance N/A Role play strategies To examine the
effect of role-play
strategy on the
Jordanian tenth
grade English as a
foreign language
(EFL) students'
speaking skill
Quantitative True experimental
96 96EC2017PER Performance Speaking: A multi-
sensory activity because it
involves paralinguistic
features such as eye
contact, facial
expressions, gestures,
tempo, pauses, voice
quality
changes, and variations in
pitch (voice projection
and vocal variety), which
affect the flow of
conversation (Thornbury,
2007).
Multimedia strategies
(video clips),
individual and small
group activity
To investigate
whether the
application of video
clips with small
groups or with
individual teaching-
learning activities
improved the
speaking skills of
young EFL learners
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
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No. Entry Code Investigated
Topic
Concept Clarification Related Topic Research Goal Research Design Research Method
97 97EC2017PER Performance N/A Speaking activities To investigate the
effect of task-based
and topic-based
speaking activities
on improving the
speaking ability
among Iranian EFL
learners
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
98 98EC2018PER Performance N/A Virtual story telling To examine the
effect of storytelling
through the use of
Telegram on oral
language of English
foreign language
(EFL) students
Quantitative Quasi-experimental
99 99EC2018PER Performance Speaking: A strategic
process involving
speakers in using
language for the purpose
of achieving a certain goal
in particular speaking task
(Luoma, 2004)
Kagan’s cooperative
structures
To measure the
effect of Kagan’s
cooperative
structures on
speaking skill of
Iranian EFL learners
Quantitative True experimental
100 100EC2018FLU Fluency N/A Lexical chunks To investigate the
effects of learning
lexical chunks on
the speaking fluency
of EFL Iranian
learners
Quantitative True experimental
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Appendix 3. Manifest Content (Part B)
No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
1 Senior high school
students
30 Purposive N/A Speaking pre-test
and post-test
items, Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
There was significant
improvement of the
students speaking ability
and the students have
positive interest toward
the use of time token
Arends technique. (p =
0.05 with df=30-1).
2 Senior high school
students, teachers
33
(32 students,
1 teacher)
Convenience Internal consistency Observation, field
note, Likert-scale
questionnaire, and
semi-structured
interview
Descriptive
narrative
English Day program
could improve
students’ and teachers’
speaking skills.
3 Junior high school
students
50 Purposive N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire,
speaking test
Pearson Product
Moment
There is positive
correlation between
students’ interest in
speaking and their
speaking score. (rxy : rt =
0.55 > 0.279 ; rxy : rt =
0.55 >
0.361)
4 Junior high school
students
92 Cluster Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
There is significant effect
of storytelling strategy
toward speaking ability of
narrative text. (p= .000).
5 University students 32 Random Face validity and
content validity,
internal consistency
reliability
Vocabulary,
grammar, and
speaking test
Descriptive
statistics,
Pearson Product
Moment,
There was positive
significant correlation
between students‟
vocabulary mastery and
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
multiple linier
regression
analysis
their speaking
performance indicated by
the correlation coefficient
value (r) of 0.685.
Students‟ grammar
mastery was also found to
correlate positively with
their speaking
performance by its
correlation coefficient
value (r) of 0.735.
Positive correlation is
achieved between
students‟ vocabulary and
grammar mastery in their
speaking performance
with correlation
coefficient (r) was 0.752
or 75.2 %.
6 University students 74 (37 in
CG,37 in EG)
Stratified purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
There was a significant
increase after the look-up
technique was used to
teach speaking. (t-value
higher than t-critical,
1,671 <5.8> 2,390 which
means that Ho was
rejected).
7 Junior high students 46 (24 in CG,
22 in EG)
Convenience Content, construct,
and item validity
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics,
ANOVA
Audio visual aids applied
in teaching speaking is
effective for improving
the students’ speaking
skills. (p=0.03).
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
8 Senior high school
students
56 (28 in CG
and 28 in EG)
Convenience Content validity,
inter-rater reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
There is a positive effect
of classroom debate
towards the students’
speaking skill. (p-value =
0.05).
9 University students 25 Purposive Internal consistency
reliability
Foreign Language
Classroom
Anxiety Scale
(FLCAS) Likert-
scale
questionnaire,
speaking test score
Descriptive
statistics,
Pearson Product
Moment
There is no correlation
between students’ anxiety
and their speaking test (p-
value= .558).
10 English language
institution students
80 Convenience N/A Observations,
semi-structured
interview, and
field notes
Descriptive
narrative
1) Teachers as the main
factor of presage variable
were observed using
many kinds of strategies,
and techniques for
developing speaking
skills, and (2) appropriate
speaking techniques and
strategies were used to
develop speaking skill in
the mentioned different
speaking class levels.
11 University students 30 Convenience Inter-rater reliability Observation
checklist, field
notes, and
speaking tests
Descriptive
statistics,
descriptive
narrative
CLT had positive
meaningful
effect on improving
students’ speaking skill.
12 Senior high school
students
16 Stratified random N/A Open-ended
questionnaire,
semi-structured
interview
Descriptive
narrative
High performance
speaking students had
better balance in using all
kinds of learning
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
strategies (memory,
cognitive, compensatory,
metacognitive, affective,
and social) for enhancing
their speaking skills; the
same could not be found
with low performance
speaking students.
13 Senior high school
students
60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Convenience N/A Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
1) the storytelling
technique
had an effect on
improving students’
speaking ability
because there was a
significant difference
between the post-test
scores of students in
experimental and control
groups
with the level of
significance 0f 0,05 the t-
observed (2,106)
was higher than t-table
(1,684)
14 Junior high students 71 (36 in CG
and 35 in EG)
Purposive Construct, content,
and item validity,
internal consistency
reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Classroom
discussion is effective in
improving English
learning achievement in
student’s mastery
of speaking and there is a
significant difference
between both classes (o is
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
higher than the t value at
the significance level of
5%, i.e.
2.106<2.000. The level
significance is 0.037)
15 University students 30 Stratified random N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics,
Pearson Product
Moment
There is any significant
correlation (correlated
positively) between
students’ self - confidence
and the students’
speaking performance as
91.8% according to
sig.95%.
16 Junior high school
students
40 Convenience N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
High performance
speaking students had
better balance in using all
kinds of learning
strategies (memory,
cognitive, compensatory,
metacognitive, affective,
and social) for enhancing
their speaking skills; the
same could not be found
with low performance
speaking students.
17 University students 80 (40 in CG
and 40 in EG)
Purposive Internal Speaking test Descriptive
statistics,
ANOVA
Following the immersive
multimedia learning, male
students in the immersive
multimedia group with
peer support performed
significantly better in four
of the six measures of
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
reading skills, namely,
phrasing, stress,
intonation, and
integration as compared
to their counterparts in the
non-peer supported
groups and there were no
significant differences for
pausing and rate. On the
other hand, female
students in the immersive
multimedia learning with
peer support group
performed significantly
better in all six measures
of oral production for
reading and speaking than
their counterparts in the
groups without peer
support. (p<0.05)
18 Vocational school
students
40 (20 in CG
and 20 in EG)
Cluster random Internal consistency Speaking test
score
Descriptive
statistics, two-
way ANOVA
Teaching method and
emotional intelligence has
positive effects on
students' speaking skill. (
p<0.05)
19 Junior high school
students
87 (44 in CG
and 43 in EG)
Convenience Content and face
validity, inter-rater
reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The use of video-recorded
speaking task was
effective in improving
students’ speaking skill
(p=0.000).
20 Junior high school
students
32 Purposive N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire,
Descriptive
statistics,
There is positive
significant relationship
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
speaking test score Pearson Product
Moment
between self-efficacy and
students’ speaking ability.
Students who have high
self-efficacy tend to get
higher score in oral
performance test than
those who have low self-
efficacy (p=.002).
21 Junior high school
students
60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Purposive N/A Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics
Teaching speaking skill
using animation video
was considered effective.
(CG mean score for pre-
test was 53.37 and post-
test 76.47. EG mean score
for pre-test 39.40 and
post-test 80.68)
22 Senior high school
students
80 (40 in CG
and 40 in EG)
Purposive N/A Voice recording,
speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The use of Information
Gap Technique in
teaching speaking showed
better result than the
conventional method. (p-
value 0.000)
23 Junior high school
students
100 Simple random N/A Likert-scale
language anxiety
questionnaire,
vocabulary level
test, and speaking
test on descriptive
text
Regression
analysis, partial
correlation
Students‘ vocabulary size
and foreign language
anxiety variable both
have significant
relationship with their
speaking ability
(p=0.004)
24 Senior high school
students
60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Purposive Content validity and
inter-rater reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
There was a significant
improvement on the
eleventh-grade students’
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
speaking skill who were
taught by using activation
method. (p= 0.007).
25 Junior high school
students
28 Cluster random N/A Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The English conversation
was significantly effective
in speaking skill (p
=.000.)
26 Junior high school
students
54 (27 in CG
and 27 in EG)
Purposive N/A Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
CLT method was
contributed positive effect
toward the students‟
speaking ability result.
The increased of the
students‟ speaking skill
was 37% (0,51) and the
value of was bigger than
at the p-value 0,05 with df
–26)
27 Junior high school
students
52 (26 in CG
and 26 in EG)
Purposive Content validity Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Screencast O-Matic is
effective on teaching
speaking on descriptive
text, with the scale of
moderate significant
(p=0.010 with df=50)
28 University students 17 Purposive N/A Observation,
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
narrative, t-test
Multimedia has good
effects for teaching
speaking in the scope of
students‟ interests,
feedback and their
cognitive aspects.
29 University students 80 (40 in CG
and 40 in EG)
Purposive N/A Speaking test,
open-ended
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics,
ANOVA,
Instructional methods and
cognitive styles are
proven to affect students’
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
Tuckey test speaking skill (p<0.05).
30 English language
institute students
19 (8 in CG
and 11 in EG)
Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
A t-test looking for
differences between the
groups found no
statistical difference
between control and
experimental group.
(p=.30)
31 ESL and EFL
learners
186 (86 ESL
students in US
and 100 EFL
students in
China)
Purposive Inter-rater reliability Pronunciation
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
pronunciation pre-
test and post-test
items
Descriptive
statistics,
regression
analysis
General language aptitude
did not predict
pronunciation gains
regardless of type of
setting (ESL or EFL), but
that auditory aptitude may
be linked to pronunciation
proficiency.
32 Primary school
students
128 (64 in CG
and 64 in EG)
Cluster random Construct, content,
criterion-related
validity, split-half,
test-retest and inter-
rater reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics,
General Linear
Model (GLM)
The experimental group
performed significantly
better on vocabulary and
pronunciation post-tests
when compared to the
control group (p<0.05).
33 University students 80 (40 in CG
and 40 in EG)
Stratified random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Authentic materials and
contextually-developed
role-playing activities
involving a series of
sequential events are
effective in enhancing
learners’ oral proficiency
in programs of English as
a foreign language in the
context of Thailand
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
English education
(p<0.05).
34 University students 63 (30 in CG
and 33 in EG)
Random Construct and content
validity, internal
consistency and inter-
rater reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics,
ANCOVA, t-test
Oral fluency of the
participants was improved
significantly after reading
out loud-to-self (p = .03).
35 University students 60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Dramatized instruction
has a great effect on the
students’ speaking skills.
(p-value 0.00 with
df=58).
36 EFL learners 60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Convenience Internal consistency
reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Self-assessment practices
helped the participants of
the study to improve their
speaking ability (p<0.05)
37 Pre-service English
teachers
7 Maximum variation N/A Semi-structured
interview
Descriptive
narrative
Participants felt
incompetent in oral
communication though
they had different
motivational orientations
about speaking English.
38 Junior high school
students
50 Purposive Face validity Likert-scale
questionnaire,
speaking test
Descriptive
statistics,
Spearman rank –
order correlation
EFL
learners’ oral proficiency
is significantly correlated
with efficient and
effective input. (rho=
0.543, sig= 0.00)
39 University students 64 Stratified random Split-half and inter-
rater reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
semi-structured
interview
Descriptive
statistics,
descriptive
narrative
The study found the
EFL's students’ difficulty
in
understanding the content
of the syllabus, failure to
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
positive attitudes towards
the subject, and giving
inadequate
importance to the
memorisation of rules and
vocabulary items.
40 University students 88 Random Internal consistency
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
semi-structured
interview
Descriptive
statistics,
multiple
regression
analysis,
descriptive
narrative
“Discussion task” is the
most preferred task type
among the three different
speaking tasks:
“Discussion task,”
“Information-exchange
task,” and “Summary
task.”
41 English language
institute students
65 (33 in CG
and 32 in EG)
Convenience N/A Fluency pre-test
and post-test
items, open-ended
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics,
ANOVA,
descriptive
narrative
Quantitative and
qualitative feedback was
not a significant factor in
influencing the students’
improvement over the
course of the semester,
and it is probable that
other factors (task
repetition) played a larger
role. (p>0.05).
42 English language
institute students
120 Purposive Intra-rater and inter-
rater reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics,
Spearman's rank
order rho
correlation
Individuals' speaking
ability was neither related
to their level of
Communication
Apprehension (p-value
.969) nor to their
Willingness to
Communicate (p-value
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Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
.029). CA and WTC also
had a negative correlation
(p-value -.189).
43 University students 40 (20 in CG
and 20 in EG)
Purposive Face validity, content
validity
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Task-based approach
could significantly
improve the students’
speaking fluency. (p-
value= .001 with df= 38)
44 EFL learners 64 (32 in CG
and 32 in EG)
Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Social networking had a
positive impact on
speaking ability of Iranian
EFL students. (p= .000).
45 English language
institute students
60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Purposive Test-retest reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The participants in the
experimental group, who
practiced task sequence
and complexity, far
outweighed the control
group in complexity and
fluency than the other
area of the speaking test
(p= .001)
46 ESL learners 356 Stratified Predictive validity Speaking exams Descriptive
statistics,
multiple and
logistic
regression
There was a significant
prediction of the TEACH
score by OCPMs (p <
.001, adjusted R2= .573).
The significant positive
predictors for TEACH
score included ACP_OK,
B = 2.14, t(58) = 2.065, p
< .05, sr2 = .280, and
GRA_RAT, B = 1.47,
t(58) = 2.078, p < .05, sr2
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Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
= .282. The significant
negative predictors were
ACP_ERR, B = -6.70,
t(58) = -2.446, p < .01,
sr2 = -.327, and CHOP, B
= -84.90, t(58) = -6.410, p
< .01, sr2 = -.672. All
other variables did not
significantly predict the
TEACH score.
47 University students 175 Random Inter-rater reliability IELTS speaking
test, Lauren
Starkey (2010)
Critical Thinking
Test
Spearman Rank
Correlation
Students who are critical
thinkers show better
performances on their
speaking ability. (p=
.000)
48 ESL learners 60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Convenience Internal consistency
and inter-rater
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
speaking pre- and
post- test
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The board game is a
useful tool to engage
learners’ participation in
class and to enhance the
speaking ability of low-
proficiency ESL learners
(p<0.05).
49 University students 360 Random Internal consistency
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics,
Pearson Product
Moment
There is a significant
relationship
between EFL learners’
musical and visual
intelligences and their use
of speaking strategies
50 University students 99 Random Inter-rater reliability Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics,
multiple
regression
The use of positive
feedback was found to
have neither positive nor
negative effect on
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Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
analysis students’ speaking
accuracy, fluency, but
significantly improve the
complexity of their
speaking performance.
Positive feedback did not
significantly predict the
post-score for 70%
accuracy, β= .09, t (99) =
.61, p= .55. Neither did
the interaction score
significantly predict the
post-score for 70%
accuracy, β= -.13, t (99) =
-.73, p= .47. However, the
pre-score for 70%
accuracy was found to
marginally significantly
predict its corresponding
post-score, β= .27, t (99)
= 1.94, p= .06. Although
the pre-score for repairs
was positively related to
its corresponding post-
score, β= .53, t (99) =
4.59, p< .01, positive
feedback did not
significantly predict the
post-score for repairs, β=
-.06, t (99) = -.49, p= .62.
Neither did the interaction
score significantly predict
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
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Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
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Research Results
the post-score for repairs,
β= .19, t (99)= 1.31, p=
.19.
51 University students 36 (18 in CG
and 18 in EG)
Stratified random Internal consistency
reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Students who received
treatment on dramatized
instruction outperformed
those who did not. (p-
value= .00001)
52 University students 76 (38 in CG
and 38 in EG)
Simple random N/A Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
There was a significant
level of improvement in
the oral proficiency of the
experimental group (p=
0.01)
53 University students 700 Random Internal consistency
reliability
FLCAS (Foreign
Language
Classroom
Anxiety Scale)
Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The construct of anxiety
includes confidence level,
reparation before
speaking, comprehension,
self-consciousness, taking
a speaking test,
comparison with other
speakers, consequences of
taking speaking test, and
anxiety of language skills.
There was a moderately
strong significant
relationship between
anxiety towards speaking
in English and anxiety
towards taking a speaking
test in English with (p
0.01). The t-test results
indicate no significant
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
difference between
genders on anxiety when
speaking in English
(p.970), and on anxiety
when taking a speaking
test in English (p .758)
54 University students 97 (46 in CG
and 45 in EG)
Simple random Internal consistency
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics
The EG surpasses the CG
in both speaking efficacy
and performances, which
implies that attention
needs to be paid to the
enhancement of self-
regulated learning in the
process of teaching
spoken communication.
55 Primary school
teachers
6 Convenience N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
Most of the teachers tend
to follow
the traditional method of
teaching until today.
56 University students 45 Simple random Content validity, test-
retest reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics,
ANOVA,
Pearson Product
Moment
Innovative strategies are
effective in developing
speaking skills, with the
post speaking test scores
of the experimental
subjects are significantly
greater than their pre-
speaking test scores
(p=0.01)
57 University students
and their English
instructors
141 (10
teachers, 131
students)
Random Content validity Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
Both teachers and
learners can play
significant role in
reducing learners’
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No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
English-speaking anxiety.
58 University students 3 Purposive Trustworthiness Rubric,
observation form,
semi-structured
interview, journal,
video recording
Descriptive
narrative
The implementation of
public speaking
programme has
successfully elevated the
students‟ level of
confidence in speaking
skill to a
significant extent.
59 Primary school
teachers
40 Stratified random N/A Open-ended
questionnaire
Descriptive
narrative
More than a half of the
teachers agreed that
observation method is
the most convenient
method for them to assess
their students speaking
skills.
60 University students 100 Convenience Internal consistency
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
semi-structured
interview
Descriptive
statistics,
descriptive
narrative
The results revealed that
difficulties
occurred due to learners’
lack of English language
knowledge. It was also
found that learners are
keen to get
involved in English oral
communication activities
and most of them
negotiate meaning with
the interlocutors to
understand the intended
messages.
61 Preschoolers 204 Random Inter-rater reliability Parental report,
stimulus book/task
Descriptive
statistics,
Pre-schoolers’ oral
production of English
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Technique
Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
Pearson Product
Moment
vocabulary had a
significant and positive
correlation with their
English language
proficiency. (p= 0.01)
62 Secondary school
students
200 Random N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
A majority of students
experienced moderate
feelings of anxiety when
communicating in English
with other people.
63 University students 355 Convenience Internal consistency
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire
Pearson Product
Moment,
Exploratory
Factor Analysis
Motivation factors
(determination to learn,
instrumentality, intrinsic
motivation, and positive
attitude) had positive
correlations to each
other((p<0.05)., while
motivation factor which is
L2 speaking anxiety had
negative correlations with
many speaking strategy
factors (p>0.05)
64 Middle school
students
30 Purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics
Learners who focussed on
auditory stimuli during
the
interface-acquisition
phase performed better in
speaking, when compared
with
learners who focussed on
both the visual and
auditory stimuli with a
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Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
difference of 4.87.
65 University students 40 (20 in CG
and 20 in EG)
Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test
items, Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics,
Wilcoxon
Signed-Rank
Students' overall scores in
fluency, accuracy and
lexical resources changed
from pre-test to post-test,
but accuracy was most
affected, and fluency was
least affected. (accuracy:
p = .010 < .05,
vocabulary: p =.013 < .05
and fluency: p = .016 <
.05).
66 English medium
school students and
teachers
120 (108
students and 12
teachers)
Random N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
The schools and the
teachers do not emphasize
on pronunciation skill.
The teachers have little
idea of different
approaches to teach
pronunciation. Besides,
they do not get enough
time to work on students’
pronunciation problem.
Moreover, this study also
found out that use of local
accent of both teachers
and students is working as
a major reason behind the
pronunciation difficulties
of students.
67 University students
and their English
instructors
248 (238
students, 10
English
Cluster random Empirical construct
validity, internal
consistency and inter-
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
semi-structured
Descriptive
statistics,
descriptive
Some socially-related and
instructor-related
problems, the lack of
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Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
instructors) rater reliability interview narrative teaching facilities, and the
curricula of the education
system of the country
were among
the major problem-
creating factors for the
freshmen’s and seniors’
speaking skills. One-way
ANOVA
showed that overall there
was no significant
difference among the
freshmen’s, the seniors’
and the instructors’
perceptions of speaking
skills problems (F
(2, 256) = .508, p = .603).
68 High school students 30 (15 in CG
and 15 in EG)
Purposive Content validity,
inter-rater reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Using the digital camera
in project-based speaking
instruction really works in
promoting students’
speaking ability.
(p=0.000).
69 Higher secondary
school students
160 Random N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire,
semi-structured
interview,
observation sheet
Descriptive
statistics, t-test,
descriptive
narrative
The overall performance
in speaking skill is very
low that
that second language
learners did not have that
much exposure to English
language use inside and
outside the
classroom (p= .128)
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Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
70 University students 80 (40 in CG
and 40 in EG)
Random Face validity Speaking pre-test
and post-test
items, classroom
observation
Descriptive
statistics,
descriptive
narrative
Pictorial description
technique improves
students' oral skills.
71 Secondary school
students
93 Random N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics,
Spearman
Product Moment
There is a strong positive
significant relationship
between students’
level of anxiety and the
use of affective strategy
during speaking task (p=
.000)
72 Medium school
students and teachers
120 (110
students and 10
teachers)
Random N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
Anxiety affects learners’
personal, social and
academic life. Moreover,
they face a lot of
problems due to speaking
anxiety.
73 English language
institute students
16 Purposive N/A Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Asking referential
questions increased talk
time and number of words
produced by the learners
and therefore improved
their speaking ability
(p˂.05).
74 English language
institute students
45 Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics,
ANOVA
There was a significant
improvement of students
who received audiotaped
dialogue journal
treatment. (p= 0.001).
75 University students 56 (28 in CG
and 28 in EG)
Purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking test,
lexical collocation
test
Descriptive
statistics,
Pearson Product
Knowledge of lexical
collocations seemed to be
a more
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Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
Moment significant indicator of
speaking proficiency than
the subjects’ ability to use
lexical
collocations.
76 Upper secondary
school teachers
32 Purposive N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
Teachers felt that it is
difficult to assess oral
skills, and the
most common reason for
this was the lack of time,
which again was the
cause of big class sizes
and tight schedule. It also
seemed that the
assessment they do is not
consistent, and that there
are a lot of personal
differences between
teachers, and these
differences influence that
classroom massively.
When they did find time
for assessment, teachers
focused mostly on aspects
of oral language that are
possible to assess even
from a short utterance,
such as vocabulary and
pronunciation.
77 Secondary school
students
91 (41 in CG
and 50 in EG)
Simple random Internal consistency,
test-retest and inter-
rater reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics,
General Linear
The TBLT program
enhanced significantly the
speaking skill of the
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Validity and
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Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
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Research Results
Model students of the
experimental group and
positively affected their
attitudes towards English
(p<0.05)
78 University students
and their English
instructors
50 (40
students, 10
teachers)
Simple random N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
Cooperative group work
has positive effect on oral
proficiency.
79 University students 46 Purposive Inter-rater reliability Fluency pre-test
and post-test
items, semi-
structured
interview
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
There was a significant
difference between the
pre and the post-test oral
assessment scores of the
after applying music (p=
.000). The decrease in
motivation/interest levels
of the treatment group
was observed to be
significantly less.
80 Junior high school
students
70 (35 in CG
and 35 in EG)
Random Referee validity,
internal consistency
and test-retest
reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Using information gap
activities as a method to
improve students’
speaking ability had a
significant impact on
improving students’
speaking proficiency
(p=0.001).
81 High school students 30 Simple random Content validity,
inter-rater reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The students’ English-
speaking ability after
applying communicative
activities was much
higher than it used to be
(p= .05).
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Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
82 University students 32 Convenience Content validity Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The communicative
activities had a positive
effect on the first-year
diploma students’
English-speaking ability
(p=0.000).
83 University students 493 Random Internal consistency
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire,
speaking test
Descriptive
statistics,
multiple
regression
analysis
(1) although the
respondents generally
perceived test anxiety to
be more facilitating than
debilitating, oral test
anxiety did exist during
the oral English test and
significantly debilitated
their test performance, (2)
more proficient students
tended to be significantly
less anxious during the
oral test; (3) the
participants
used speaking strategies
to varying degrees during
the oral English test, and
more proficient students
tended to use more
effective speaking
strategies
significantly more
frequently; (4) speaking
strategies both enhanced
and
debilitated students’ oral
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Validity and
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Data Analysis
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Research Results
test performance; and (5)
oral test anxiety was
significantly correlated
with the use of different
categories of speaking
strategies.
84 English language
institution learners
30 (15 in CG
and 15 in EG)
Random Face validity Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The experimental group
outperformed the control
group in accuracy
(p=.008). In contrast,
findings substantiated that
pushed output had no
impact on fluency (.855).
85 Junior high school
students
60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Random Referee and content
validity, internal
consistency and inter-
item reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The videoconferencing-
based strategy affected
positively in the students'
English language
speaking skills (p<0.05).
86 Grammar school
students and teachers
283 (266
students, 17
teachers)
Purposive Internal consistency
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
Speaking activities indeed
are neglected during
regular EFL classes.
87 University students 20 Random Construct and
criterion-related
validity, split-half
reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics,
Wilcoxon
Signed-Rank
Using debates results in
improving the speaking
skills of each student in
grammar, vocabulary, and
pronunciation. (p<0.05).
88 College students 45 Simple random N/A Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The analysis of the pre-
test and post-test proved
that tasks helped the
respondents to perform
well in their post-test. (p=
.000 with df=99)
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185
No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
89 EFL learners 60 Convenience Referee validity,
inter-rater reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The results of data
analysis indicated
improvements of oral
fluency and complexity
because of the learners’
exposure to the treatment.
(p-value for fluency=
.000, for
complexity=0.010)
90 Primary school
teachers
30 Purposive N/A Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
Drama may be an
effective way of teaching
and there are many
positive aspects of
applying it in teaching the
elementary curriculum.
91 Call Centre
employees/EFL
learners
27 Purposive N/A Semi-structured
interview, rubric
Descriptive
statistics,
descriptive
narrative
Spoken interaction with
English native speakers
has significant positive
effect on the participants’
pronunciation.
92 Upper secondary
school students
101 Purposive Internal consistency
reliability
Likert-scale
questionnaire
Descriptive
statistics
Those students who got to
speak English with their
friends or relatives
assessed themselves to
have
better speaking skills than
the others.
93 English language
institute students
20 Purposive N/A Semi-structured
interview, journal
Descriptive
narrative
Motivating factors
include goal-oriented
performance, neutral
corrective feedback,
supportive classroom
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186
No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
community, interacting
with native speakers.
Demotivating factors
include peer comparison,
group competence,
negative self-talk,
corrective feedback,
anxiety about public
speaking, peer evaluation,
text anxiety, lack of
classroom community.
94 Senior high school
students
48 (24 in CG
and 24 in EG)
Purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test,
Stepwise
Regression
Analysis
Students in experimental
group got higher critical
thinking and speaking
skill
achievement than those in
control group after the
debate strategy was
applied as the
treatment (p<0.05)
95 Secondary school
students
86 (42 in CG
and 44 in EG)
Random Referee validity, test-
retest
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics,
ANCOVA,
MANCOVA
Role-play strategy had a
significant effect on the
five components of the
speaking skill with the
students of the
experimental group (p=
0.00).
96 Junior high school
students
67 (34 in CG
and 33 in EG)
Purposive Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The application of video
clips and teaching-
learning
Small Group Activities
gave better results than
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187
No. Sample Sample Size Sampling
Technique
Validity and
Reliability
Data Gathering
Instrument
Data Analysis
Technique
Research Results
teaching with Individual
Activities (p=0.00).
97 English language
institute students
60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Simple random Internal consistency
reliability
Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Task-based speaking
activities enhanced
speaking activities of
Iranian EFL learners (p
.002).
98 University students 30 (15 in CG
and 15 EG)
Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Storytelling via social
networks/Telegram has
positive effect on EFL
students’ oral abilities.
(p=.0002).
99 English language
institute students
48 (24 in CG
and 24 in EG)
Random Inter-rater reliability Speaking pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
Kagan’s cooperative
structures had a positive
effect on the students’
speaking skills. (p = .000
with df= 46).
100 English language
institute students
60 (30 in CG
and 30 in EG)
Random Internal consistency
and inter-rater
reliability
Fluency pre-test
and post-test items
Descriptive
statistics, t-test
The reading-into-
speaking method or
exposure to extensive
lexical chunks reading
and learning had a
positive impact on the
speaking fluency
development of these
learners, who are lower
and average intermediate
EFL learners (p=.000).
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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