A case study of social media and remote communications in military researach: Examining military...

SAGE Research Methods Cases

A Case Study of Social Media andRemote Communications in MilitaryResearch: Examining Military and

Deployment Experiences of Army Women

Contributors: Nikki R. Wooten & Marlene B. Al-Barwani & Jessica A. Chmielewski &Jennifer E. Buck & Taylor L. Hall & Lisa L. Moore & Alyssia C. WoodsBook Title: SAGE Research Methods CasesChapter Title: "A Case Study of Social Media and Remote Communications in MilitaryResearch: Examining Military and Deployment Experiences of Army Women"Pub. Date: 20140512Access Date: August 27, 2014Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Ltd.

City: LondonPrint ISBN:Online ISBN: 9781446273050DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/978144627305014540257

©2014 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

This PDF has been generated from SAGE Research Methods. Please note that thepagination of the online version will vary from the pagination of the print book.

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/978144627305014540257

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©2014 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. SAGE Research Methods

of 27 SAGE Research Methods Cases: A Case Studyof Social Media and Remote Communications

in Military Research: Examining Military andDeployment Experiences of Army Women

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/978144627305014540257

A Case Study of Social Media and RemoteCommunications in Military Research:Examining Military and DeploymentExperiences of Army Women

Military research requires innovative methods to access a highly mobile, technologicallysavvy population subject to stressful work environments, frequent relocations,prolonged family separations, and overseas deployments. Social media and remotecommunication technology allow researchers to recruit military service membersand their families for quantitative and qualitative research regardless of geographicallocation or time zone. Understanding the benefits and risks of using these technologiesis essential to optimizing sampling strategy, data security, confidentiality, and ethicalapplication of technology in military research. This case study describes the use ofsocial media and remote communication technology in mixed-methods researchexamining military service and deployment experiences of women serving in the UnitedStates Army during Operations Iraqi Freedom, Operations Enduring Freedom, andOperations New Dawn. Implications for using social media and remote communicationsin future military research are also discussed.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this case study, students should be able to

• Provide a rationale for using social media and remote communicationtechnology in military research

• Explain how social media (i.e. pages, ads, posts, tweets) can be used forpurposive sampling and data collection in military research

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http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/978144627305014540257

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• Explain methodological considerations for using social media and remotecommunication technology in mixed-methods research with militarypopulations

• Describe the benefits and risks associated with utilizing social media andremote communication technology in military research

Introduction

Conducting military research requires innovative strategies to access a highly mobile,technologically savvy population subject to stressful work environments, frequentrelocations, prolonged family separations, and overseas deployments. Social media andremote communication technology allow researchers to recruit military service membersand their families for quantitative and qualitative research regardless of geographicallocation, time zone, or access to transportation. Understanding the benefits and risksof using social media and remote communication technology is essential to optimizingsampling strategy, data security, confidentiality, and ethical application of technologyin military research. This methodological case study describes the use of social mediaand remote communication technology in mixed-methods research examining militaryservice and deployment experiences of Army women.

Army Women Research Project Overview

The Army Women Research Project (AWRP) took a phenomenological approach tomixed methodology using a convergent design, that is, one using both quantitativeand qualitative methods at the same time, each with equal emphasis (Creswell &Plano Clark, 2011) to examine military service and deployment experiences of Armywomen. The AWRP was a follow-up study to a quantitative cross-sectional study,funded by a Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) Fellowship, conducted by Dr Wootenin 2009 (see Wooten, 2011, 2012, 2013), during which 104 Army National Guard(ARNG) women provided their contact information (email address, telephone number)to be contacted for a qualitative interview. Planning for the AWRP began in 2010 atthe Boston University School of Social Work, and recruitment and data collectionbegan in October 2011. Between October 2011 and October 2013, quantitative and



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qualitative data were collected concurrently using an anonymous online survey andsemi-structured qualitative interviews, respectively.

Research participants included deployed and non-deployed military women and womenveterans of any military duty status (i.e. active duty, National Guard, reserves, retired,or discharged). Inclusion criteria were English-speaking women, aged 18 years andolder of any race/ethnicity, who were in the United States Army on 11 September 2001and served during Operations Enduring Freedom, Operations Iraqi Freedom, and/orOperations New Dawn (OEF/OIF/OND). Military women and women veterans fromthe US Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, as well as those in the Armywhose military service began and ended before 11 September 2001 were excluded.

All the research team members were affiliated with the Boston University School ofSocial Work at the beginning of the study and included principal investigator (PI), NikkiR. Wooten, PhD, LISW-CP, Assistant Professor; co-investigator, Lisa L. Moore, PhD,LICSW, Clinical Assistant Professor; one doctoral-level assistant, two master's-levelassistants, and one undergraduate research assistant (RA). Throughout the project, the

research team used Dropbox® for collaboration during data management, data analysis,

and manuscript development. Skype® was used as needed for research team meetingsto discuss methodological and technological aspects of the study. Near the conclusionof data collection, Dr Wooten relocated to the University of South Carolina College ofSocial Work, submitted an Institutional Review Board (IRB) closure report with BostonUniversity, and transferred the IRB protocol to the University of South Carolina for dataanalysis and manuscript development.

Using Social Media and RemoteCommunications in Military Research

Social media—online forums such as social networking web sites, blogs, chat, andinstant messaging—and remote communications—telephone, Internet, text, andvideophone—can improve researchers' ability to reach highly mobile, hard-to-reachpopulations, such as military personnel, veterans, and their families, who desire



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anonymity or confidentiality regarding their participation in research. This sectiondescribes the rationale for and types of social media and remote communicationtechnology used in the AWRP. Recruitment and data collection strategies using thesetechnologies are also described.

Social Media and Remote Communicationsas Innovative Research Tools

Military organizations, service members, and veteran service organizations (e.g. Iraqand Afghanistan Veterans Association) use social media and remote communicationsfor multiple purposes (see Prindle, 2011; Smith, Smith, Gray, Ryan; for the MillenniumCohort Study Team, 2007). Military organizations and veteran service organizations use

Facebook® Twitter®, Google®, mobile applications (apps), email, and text messages tocommunicate with military personnel, veterans, their families, the general population,government and community organizations, and prospective recruits for militaryservice (Matthews-Juarez, Juarez, & Faulkner, 2013). Military service members andtheir families use these same technologies for everyday communications, and tocommunicate during prolonged separations, overseas assignments, and combatdeployments. During the performance of their military occupations, military personneluse computer and communication technologies to operate military vehicles andequipment, brief military leadership, and communicate in garrison and on the battlefield.Consequently, military personnel and their families are very proficient in the use ofsocial media and remote communications, which makes these technologies viable toolsfor conducting military research.

Recruitment and Data Collection UsingSocial Media and Remote Communications

The US military has fully embraced the use of social networking and remotecommunications to recruit a younger generation of service members, relay current



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events and unclassified information to its members, and encourage deployed militarypersonnel to maintain contact with family and friends. Given the military's increasinguse of technology, social media and remote communications are ideal methods to

communicate with and recruit military personnel for research. Facebook®, Twitter®

Google Ads®, SurveyMonkey® Skype®, and Skype® audio recorder each provided

innovative strategies to recruit and collect data from Army women. Facebook®, Twitter®

Google Voice®, and Webs® were used to provide military-related information andresources to Army women throughout the AWRP. All these technologies have mobileapplications that permit access to users on their smartphones, tablets, and computers.

Recruitment Strategies

Facebook

Facebook (FB), a popular social networking site, provided three methods by whichArmy women were recruited: (1) strategic FB ads targeting Army women and thelarger military population, (2) promotion of the study through the FB newsfeed, and (3)purposive sampling using FB's ‘like’ feature. The Army Women Project FB page (https://www.facebook.com/armywomenproject) described the AWRP study, highlighted itsaffiliation with the Boston University School of Social Work, and provided backgroundinformation about the lead investigators.

FB ads and promotions were used for purposive sampling (Teddlie & Yu, 2007) bytargeting potential research participants based on socio-demographic characteristicssuch as age, gender, professional and social affiliations, and special interests, whichwere determined by FB users' posts, comments, and ‘likes’ using their FB profile andinformation on their FB page. Using a 2-weeks on/2-weeks off schedule, three FB adsran during the first 4 months following study implementation. The ads had two aims:(1) recruit participants for the anonymous online survey and semi-structured qualitativeinterviews, and (2) increase visibility of the AWRP by encouraging FB users to ‘like’ theFB page.



https://www.facebook.com/armywomenproject

https://www.facebook.com/armywomenproject

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The AWRP FB page was linked to the PI's personal FB page (without interferencewith the function of each account), and two master's-level RAs ‘liked’ the AWRP FBpage from their personal FB pages. Consistent with inclusion criteria, AWRP FB postsand ads targeted FB users who have military interests and Army women through their‘likes’ of other military-related FB pages and posts. To capitalize on these interests,posts on the AWRP FB page included links to articles, news, and resources relevant tomilitary personnel, especially Army women. Recruitment strategies were maximized by‘promoting’ (for a nominal fee) the link to the online survey and posts relevant to Armywomen (e.g. peer-reviewed articles and news stories on military women) to increaserecruitment and subsequently sample size. This option is only available to the FB pageadministrator, and a maximum dollar amount can be set to ‘promote’ each FB post.The ‘like’ feature further maximized recruitment efforts by broadening the network ofpotential participants because the study's FB page newsfeed and posts were displayedon the FB newsfeed of ‘friends’ of those who ‘liked’ the AWRP page. Table 1 displaysstudy promotion and recruitment outcomes using FB ads.

Table 1. Facebook advertisement and data collection outcomes comparing Facebookad promotions to no ad promotions.

When using FB as the page administrator, the list of individuals who ‘liked’ the AWRPFB page was used to identify additional Army women based on public access totheir FB page and identification on their FB page as a member of the Army. Potentialresearch participants were invited to participate in the study using FB inbox. FB insights,also available to the FB page administrator, provided statistics on the number of FBusers reached for the page, posts, and tweets, as well as their socio-demographiccharacteristics. The PI was also emailed a weekly FB page update that included thenumber of new likes, people engaged, and weekly total reach, as well as a percentagereflecting an increase or decrease in people engaged and weekly total reach. Figure 1



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provides an example of one of these emails. A master's-level RA managed the FB pageand account, and had FB page administrative privileges.

Figure 1. Weekly Facebook page update.

Twitter

Boasting over 255 million monthly active users globally and over 500 million tweets

daily, Twitter®, a popular social networking and microblogging application, allowsusers to post short messages limited to 140 characters called ‘tweets’ that includemessages and/or links to news items, photos, videos, and other information. TheAWRP capitalized on this large recruitment base by using its Twitter account as both arecruitment tool and a means to communicate with the military community. In additionto tweeting the link to the online survey, tweets and re-tweets were posted about

scholarly and news articles relevant to Army women. The AWRP Twitter® account isArmyWomen_USCSW (ArmyWomen_BUSSW was used previously).

The Twitter accounts of US military, veteran, and military-related organizations (e.g.Wounded Warrior Project) were followed along with those of military personnel andmilitary family members. This strategy proved somewhat successful as the AWRPTwitter page followed 293 individuals and organizations, and generated 74 followersincluding US military service members, military family members, Congressional



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representatives, grassroots, non-profit, and military service organizations, significantlyincreasing access to potential research participants. During the AWRP, Twitter and FBaccounts were linked, allowing tweets to be posted on the AWRP FB newsfeed, whichrecruited research participants and promoted the AWRP on both social networkingsites. Tweets were re-tweeted by Twitter followers to their followers, and posted onthe AWRP FB page. Two master's-level RAs (one at Boston University and one at theUniversity of South Carolina) managed the AWRP Twitter account, followed the AWRPTwitter account with their personal Twitter account, and re-tweeted AWRP tweets totheir Twitter followers.

Google

Google® provides a compilation of Internet services that facilitate recruitment andremote communications in military research. The AWRP utilized two Google services:Google AdWords and Google Voice (the latter is discussed in the section ‘AdditionalResearch Strategies’). Google AdWords was used to recruit Army women by targetingAWRP advertisements to Google search engine users based on their keywordsearches of military-related terms. The AWRP ran two Google Ads to recruit Armywomen—one for the anonymous online survey and the other for the qualitativeinterview. Advertisements ran concurrently with FB ads, although Google Ads startedapproximately 2 months later and did not run as frequently. Keywords included‘U.S. Department of Defense’, ‘U.S. National Guard’, ‘military women’, and ‘femaleveterans’. Google AdWords also has a Google analytics feature that provided data onhow successful keywords were in reaching Army women, and sent emails to the PIsuggesting additional keywords based on search terms previously used on Google andthe number of people who used them. Figure 2 is an example of a Google analyticsemail sent to the PI.

Figure 2. Example of email from Google AdWords.



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Data Collection Strategies

SurveyMonkey

Online survey software, SurveyMonkey®, was used as both a data collection andrecruitment strategy. The AWRP anonymous online survey was administered using

SurveyMonkey® and included validated measures of posttraumatic stress disorder;alcohol misuse; resilience; religious and spiritual coping; social support; attitudes,beliefs, and feelings about help-seeking; and depressive symptoms. Two open-endedquestions, included at the end of the survey, asked Army women to describe both theirpositive and negative military service and deployment experiences. At the conclusion ofthe survey, Army women were thanked for their participation and instructed to email theresearch team via [email protected] if they were interested in being interviewed abouttheir military service and deployment experiences.

Of the 281 Army women who voluntarily agreed to participate in the study, 256 (91.1%)met inclusion criteria. Of Army women meeting inclusion criteria, 110 (43%) answeredthe two open-ended questions. Subscribing to SurveyMonkey's gold plan allowed DrWooten to categorize continuous variables, and develop a code scheme and conducttext analysis of the open-ended questions. (The invitation to participate in the surveycan be reviewed at https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/ArmyWomen.)



https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/ArmyWomen

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Skype

Confidential semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with eight Armywomen who consented to being interviewed following their participation in the

anonymous online survey. The interviews were conducted using Skype®, a voice-over-Internet-protocol software application that permits subscribers to initiate audio and videoteleconferencing with up to 25 other Skype users. Compatible with multiple devices,including desktop computers, mobile phones, tablets, mobile gaming systems, andSkype-ready televisions and landline phones, Skype provides an ideal way to conductinterviews with military personnel. Most AWRP interview participants were registeredSkype users. Those without Skype accounts were able to participate by registering for afree Skype account.

Prior to conducting the qualitative interviews, Dr Wooten or the doctoral-level RAemailed each of the eight interview participants to answer any questions and toobtain written informed consent. To maintain confidentiality, no interviews were

video-recorded, and the interviews were conducted using Skype® audio recorderto accommodate PC users or Photo Booth to accommodate Mac users. Theinterviews ranged from 33 to 84 minutes in length and were saved as audio files inDropbox. The interviewer took extensive notes to supplement the audio recordings,capture details of each participant's emotions during the interview, and memo aboutrelevant concepts. The semi-structured interview protocol was replicated in a surveyformat on SurveyMonkey so that the interviewer could record her notes, memos,and demographic information on the Army women who were qualitative interviewparticipants. The interviewer also transcribed the interviews from the audio files. Amaster's-level RA reviewed the audio recordings and transcriptions for quality controland annotated corrections or missing data into the transcripts as needed. She was alsoone of three coders of the qualitative data using MAXQDA (i.e. a software programdesigned for computer-assisted qualitative, text, and multimedia analysis), and she,along with the doctoral-level RA, annotated additional codes to the codebook andcoding scheme created by Dr Wooten.



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Additional Research Strategies

Google Voice

Google Voice®, Google's online telecommunication service, allows users to route allphone calls to a single number for all or some of their telecommunication devices,depending on user preference. Google Voice provided a free or low-cost (dependingon service used) method for study participants to contact the research team, withoutresearchers revealing their work or cell telephone numbers. Research participants didnot need to subscribe to Google Voice or any other Google service to initiate or receivea call from the Google Voice telephone number. Although available only in the UnitedStates, the AWRP's Google Voice number served as a primary point of contact forparticipants to express interest in the study, request additional information, or contactthe lead investigators if they became distressed during study participation. Both leadinvestigators are licensed clinical social workers and were available to assess and referresearch participants as needed. Google Voice also sent an email or text message to adesignated email address or cell phone number, respectively, to alert investigators of avoicemail. Google Voice also maintains a de-identified log of calls and voicemails thatcan assist in documenting adverse events and anonymously report them to the IRB.

Webs

An AWRP Resource Page was created using Webs®, a free web site design servicethat allows users to create a personal web site using one of the templates provided.An online resource for study participants and female veterans in general, the webpagelisted contact information for service agencies that address issues relevant to militarywomen and veterans, including obstetrics and gynecologic care, military sexual trauma,combat trauma, substance use disorders, and general physical and mental healthconcerns. The AWRP Resource Page served as an excellent way for the research teamto provide a direct benefit to military women and veterans and the military community ingeneral. To optimize its use, the team posted links to the AWRP Resource Page on the



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AWRP FB page. Google Voice callers seeking health care and counseling informationwere provided a national list of VA women veteran coordinators and directed to theAWRP Resource Page for links to additional resources.

Methodological Considerations in UsingSocial Media and Remote Communicationsin Military Research

Social media and remote communications are rapidly evolving communication, datasharing, and data collection tools that blur the boundaries between public and privatespheres of communication and self-presentation. Consequently, the potential tointentionally or inadvertently exploit the vulnerabilities of research participants isgreat. The burden thus rests upon the researcher to accurately assess and effectivelycommunicate the unique benefits and risks of using these technologies to IRBs, humansubjects committees, funding agencies, and potential research participants. Thissection discusses methodological considerations in using social media and remotecommunications in military research.

Obtaining Approvals for Research withHuman Subjects

Obtaining approval to conduct research with Army women using social media andremote communications was one of the most challenging aspects of the researchprocess. Human subjects approval applications were submitted to the Army HumanResearch Protections Office (AHRPO), as specified by Department of DefenseInstruction 3216.02 and Army Regulation 70–25. IRB applications were submitted toBoston University and the University of South Carolina, and application was madefor a Certificate of Confidentiality (CoC) from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuseand Alcoholism (NIAAA). Additional approvals to conduct research with Army National



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Guard women were required from the Adjutants General of the District of Columbia,Maryland, and the Virginia National Guard.

During review of the IRB application at Boston University, the PI had a meeting with theIRB analyst to provide an in-depth explanation about the research protocol, how socialmedia and remote communications would be used in the study, the AHRPO approvingprocedures, privacy and confidentiality measures, and the provision that the Departmentof Defense would not have access to the identities of the research participants or thedata. At the conclusion of this meeting, the IRB analyst recommended the following:

• 1. given the sensitive nature of data to be collected during the study (i.e.alcohol misuse, psychiatric disorders, military sexual trauma), application bemade for a CoC from NIAAA

• 2. the FB page and web site providing resource and referral information toArmy women be developed for IRB analyst review prior to IRB approval

Application for the CoC was initiated online (see http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/grant-funding/management-reporting/certificates-confidentiality-niaaa-specific-protecting-identity)and occurred over the course of 2–3 weeks. Like the IRB approval, it required multipleemails and telephone conversations. The public health analyst at NIAAA was veryknowledgeable and provided guidance to the PI regarding the CoC language requiredin the informed consent for the anonymous online survey and qualitative interviews.The AHRPO approval involved submitting the Boston University IRB approval letter, theresearch protocol, and approval letters received from the Adjutants General from theArmy National Guard. The AHRPO review and approval occurred over 1–2 weeks andoccurred simultaneously with the CoC application process.

Consequently, the AWRP protocol received multiple human subjects and IRBapprovals. Primary IRB approval was obtained from Boston University. Initially,the research team monitored recruitment and data collection strategies using only

SurveyMonkey® and Skype®; however, the team realized through weekly brainstormingsessions that the implementation of additional technologies could possibly enhancerecruitment and data collection. As a result, three IRB amendments were requested



http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/grant-funding/management-reporting/certificates-confidentiality-niaaa-specific-protecting-identity

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and approved within the first 6 months of the study to allow use of Facebook®, Webs®,

Twitter®, and Google Ads® to assist in outreach and recruitment efforts.

Privacy

Privacy involves protecting the identity of research participants. Social media andremote communications users frequently reveal more about themselves on the Internetthan they normally would in person, incurring risks of which they may be unaware orthat they may have difficulty comprehending. Therefore, users of social networking sitesmay be susceptible to privacy breaches due to site design, a developer's policies, andthe availability or limited use of security features. While this openness in self-disclosuregives researchers multiple opportunities to recruit research participants and gather datathat might otherwise be unavailable, the researcher bears the burden of assessing andmitigating risks to research participants.

Protecting the privacy of study participants was a primary focus of the AWRP, giventhe extensive use of social media and remote communications and the sensitivenature of data collected during the online survey and qualitative interviews. The CoCensured that participant disclosures of stigmatizing conditions (e.g. alcohol misuse,psychiatric disorders, military sexual trauma) could not be used against them byexempting the research team from having to disclose participant information duringlegal proceedings even when research records are subpoenaed by military or civiliancourts. All potential research participants were informed of the existence of the CoCwhen obtaining informed consent. The informed consent was outlined on the firstpage of the anonymous online survey provided to potential qualitative interviewparticipants when informed consent was obtained in writing, and read before thequalitative interview was conducted.

Additional methods to protect research participants' privacy included the anonymity

of the online survey, and using Skype® and Skype® audio recorder without the videofeature (i.e. the webcam). Although Skype allows both audio and video recording, noqualitative interviews were video-recorded. When one participant expressed concern

about being audio-recorded, the interview was conducted using the Skype® to landline/



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cell phone feature instead of the Skype® audio recorder. Conducting the qualitativeinterview via phone was an alternative if the participant did not have computer access(to minimize participant burden) or if there were technological difficulties. One of theCoC stipulations included providing qualitative interview participants with a confidentialpasscode (e.g. in the AWRP, the name of a zoo animal) after informed consent wasreceived via email or fax. Participation was confirmed by reading the informed consentat the beginning of the qualitative interview after which the participant provided thepasscode, and then the interviewer confirmed the passcode prior to beginning thesemi-structured interview protocol. The passcode list was stored separately from thequalitative data on a password-protected server.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality involves the researcher's methods for protecting participants' private andpotentially identifiable information collected during research. It was strictly enforced toallay participants' potential concerns about reporting sensitive information and negativemilitary service and deployment experiences. During transcription and prior to dataanalysis, the data from each qualitative interview were given a case identificationnumber that was not associated with the passcode. All handwritten interview noteswere shredded after transcription to minimize accidental re-disclosure of sensitiveinformation. Finally, all survey and interview participants were allowed to refuse toanswer any question for any reason to minimize any perceived pressure to revealsensitive information. Although the PI is a field grade officer in the ARNG, her statuswas not disclosed to avoid the undue influence of military rank on participants.

Social media and remote communication users are also susceptible to breaches of

confidentiality by developer design or technical function. For instance, SurveyMonkey®

allows the collection of the Internet protocol (IP) addresses of respondents, from whichthe geographical location and identity of respondents can subsequently be tracedusing an IP tracker or IP locator. In this study, IP addresses were not collected so thatparticipant identity and data could not be linked. The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)



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security feature of SurveyMonkey® was also used to ensure a secure link between

SurveyMonkey® and the web browser of the research participant.

Google Voice® maintains a record of data related to calls using their service, includingthe date, time, dialing number, receiving number, and recording of each conversation,which the Google Voice subscriber can access at any time through their email,voicemail, or a specialized Google call recorder. In the AWRP, the Google call recorderwas not used. Although this feature poses moderate risk to participant confidentiality,it also provides a means to identify a distressed caller for whom contact has beeninterrupted, enabling the study team to take action to ensure the callers' safety and tocomply with IRB requirements to report adverse events.

To balance maintaining privacy and confidentiality with the need to provide researchparticipants with resources and referral if they experienced distress during the researchstudy, the AWRP study team decided that Google Voice information would be accessedonly for emergency purposes and that only Drs Wooten and Moore, both licensedclinical social workers, would access it should such a situation arise. Fortunately,neither investigator had reason to access the data. Although conversations aregenerally anonymized prior to being stored on Google servers, Google Voice userscan elect to have all of their recorded conversations attached to their personal data filein order to use Personalized Voice Recognition, a premium feature offered by GoogleVoice. Unauthorized access to these recorded conversations could be especiallyconcerning in cases where participants contact the study team to share intimate ornegative information about their life or military experiences. Therefore, the AWRP teamelected not to use Personalized Voice Recognition.

Generalizability

Social media presents military researchers with several generalizability issues. Theglobal reach of social media permits the recruitment of military personnel who may bedeployed or residing overseas. Thus, social media potentially increases generalizabilityof study findings. However, social media in research may also negatively impactgeneralizability. Social media users and non-users frequently differ with regard to age,



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education, occupation, income level, and, to a lesser degree, gender. Social mediausers tend to be younger adults aged 18–24 years old, raised in the Internet age, highschool or college graduates, and users of social media and the Internet as a routinepart of their work or school-related activities. Adults who are older, less educated, or notrequired to use social media as part of their occupational duties are less likely to utilizesocial media regularly, a factor that may limit their participation in research studies thatrely heavily on social media to recruit participants or collect data. To address thesemethodological concerns, the AWRP study team used both traditional and social mediarecruitment methods, but collected data collection primarily using the Internet andremote communications. Because military service members are technologically savvyas a collective group, using social media and remote communications in the AWRP didnot negatively affect generalizability.

Differences among social media users may also affect generalizability of study findingsdepending upon the study's target population. According to Hargittai (2007), the mediaresearch agency iCrossing reported in 2005 that Google search engine users tend to bemore Internet-savvy and more likely to use the search engine for work-related purposesthan users of other search engines. Given the US military's increasing adoption ofsocial media and Internet technologies for operational purposes, it was expectedthat the AWRP's use of Google products would be less likely to negatively impactgeneralizability. Recent research (Wooten et al., 2013) indicates that, on average,active duty Army members are younger than age 30.

Using Social Media and RemoteCommunications in Future MilitaryResearch

Using social media and remote communications in research with Army women hasmultiple implications for conducting future military search. The process for multiplehuman subjects' approvals, obtaining the CoC, and explaining the practical use of socialmedia and remote technology in military research resulted in a protracted timeline(i.e. several months) at the beginning of the study that delayed data collection. For



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instance, initial AWRP planning began in January 2011, but data collection did notbegin until October 2011. Additional reasons for the protracted timeline may have beenrelated to Boston University's IRB procedures, which used either interoffice mail orwork email to send IRB applications and communicate with IRB analysts rather than aneIRB system that creates an audit trail of IRB submissions, requests for modifications,communications, and amendments. The delay of study implementation may havealso been a result of the novelty of using social media and remote communicationsin research, and the academic community's and IRB analyst's unfamiliarity with thesetechnologies and military research. This lengthy process should be reflected in thetimelines of research proposals submitted for funding and dissertation proposals. The PIwas also a new faculty member at Boston University and had received approval for theprevious cross-sectional study at the University of Maryland Baltimore and the BaltimoreVeterans Administration Medical Center's research and development committee, butthe Boston University IRB requested methodological changes (i.e. research participantscontacting the PI via email to give permission for a qualitative interview rather than theresearch participant providing contact information at the end of the online survey for theresearch team to contact them) to the research protocol.

Although AWRP FB ads targeted female FB users, the majority of individuals who ‘liked’the AWRP FB page were young adult males 18–24 years of age. Several possibleexplanations for this exist. First, users of social networking sites such as FB are morelikely to be 18–24 years old, the generation of young adults for whom the Internetand social media have been an integral component of their social lives. Similarly, theMillennium Cohort Study Team (Smith et al., 2007) found that male participants wereslightly more likely than female participants to select the option of a web-based surveyversus a paper-based survey. Furthermore, because males comprise the majority ofmilitary personnel and did not meet study inclusion criteria, they may have ‘liked’ theAWRP FB page to show their support for military-related social media. The PI alsoreceived emails from men who clicked the AWRP survey link, but did not complete

the survey, which suggests that the response rate reported by SurveyMonkey® didnot account for ineligible participants who accessed the survey. Thus, demographicdifferences among social media users and non-users may have implications forsampling bias and generalizability. Future research should examine sampling and datacollection strategies with military men and women using social media.



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Advantages and Benefits

Social media and remote communications can provide a greater degree of anonymityand confidentiality, and possibly minimize perceived reprisal and negative impacton military career progression from being a research participant. During the AWRP,

online survey administration using SurveyMonkey® documented the consentprocess anonymously without increasing participant burden, and no IP addresseswere collected. For data collection, a secure survey link was sent via email using

SurveyMonkey® to Army women who provided their contact information at the end ofthe previous cross-sectional study. Unlike with paper administration, skip patterns wereseamlessly integrated into the survey, data entry and management tasks were reduced,

descriptive statistics for each question were viewed on the SurveyMonkey® web site,and the quantitative data were exported into Microsoft Excel or a statistical softwareprogram for data cleaning and analysis.

The Skype® audio recorder provided high-quality audio-recordings and a cost-effectiveway to interview deployed Army women. The interviewer encountered minimal technicaland logistical issues. Technical issues included a few participants experiencing difficultyconnecting to the Internet during the interview and occasional lags in the audio-recordings. The biggest logistical issue was scheduling interviews across time zones,which required the interviewer to confirm participant location, determine time differencesbetween participant and interviewer, and schedule interview times most convenient forparticipant. Nevertheless, the ability to meet with willing participants despite differences

in time zones made Skype® an invaluable tool for conducting the qualitative phase ofthe AWRP.

Having doctoral and master's-level research assistants and a colleague on the researchteam who were technologically savvy was also invaluable. Master's-level researchassistants were active participants in brainstorming sessions on how best to use socialmedia and advanced features of FB, Twitter, and Google to recruit Army women. Onemaster's-level assistant was granted administrative privileges for the FB page and theother monitored Twitter and Google AdWords and made recruitment suggestions to



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refine our research efforts. Dr Moore was a frequent user of Google Voice and sharedits functionality with the research team.

Challenges, Risks, and Limitations

Using social media to advertise research studies and recruit research participantshas a number of challenges, risks, and limitations. For instance, advertising the linkusing social media and other online venues resulted in a number of individuals (rangingfrom 5–89 respondents per question) who clicked the survey link and skipped throughall or most of the survey questions. This can complicate response rate calculationsand increase missing data. Although the AWRP was not funded and access to

most technology was free (e.g. Facebook, Skype®, Skype® audio recorder), somecosts were incurred for the use of the advanced features of the FB page, GoogleAdWords, and Google Voice. The AWRP Resource Page received very little traffic andwas subsequently disabled by the study team. The team then decided to maximizerecruitment efforts by linking its Twitter and Facebook accounts and posting tweets torecruit Army women.

The PI's transfer from Boston University to the University of South Carolina also posedmethodological difficulties. During the University of South Carolina IRB review, theIRB analyst requested methodological changes to the research protocol, which poseda threat to validity and generalizability of the data already collected and the researchfindings. As a result, the PI terminated data collection, and requested IRB approval fordata analysis and article development only.

As explained above, recruiting military personnel as research participants (andsometimes abstract and publication submissions) requires additional approvals fromDepartment of Defense (DoD) agencies (e.g. AHRPO, US Army, Army NationalGuard). However, even when military personnel know that the DoD has approved aresearch study, the value placed on good order and discipline in the military may, inpart, discourage them from participating in research studies. Prior studies have hadinconsistent response rates that may be attributed to the nature of military serviceand military life. Therefore, in military research, additional precautions must be taken



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regarding human subjects' approvals, voluntary participation, informed consent,anonymity, confidentiality, data security, and interpretation and dissemination of findingsto ensure compliance with DoD regulations and protection of national security.

Conclusion

Conducting military research is essential for identifying trends in population healthamong military service members and generating empirical evidence on militarybehavioral health problems and service utilization. Social media and remotecommunications are innovative methods for recruiting and collecting data from thistechnologically savvy, highly mobile population. Using technology in military researchrequires additional planning and procedures to ensure appropriate human subjectsapprovals are obtained, and alternative methods are available to minimize risks toconfidentiality and privacy despite increased access to personal information afforded bythe use of social media. During military research, all reasonable efforts should be madeto protect the rights of those who serve and who have volunteered to protect the rightsand freedoms we cherish.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Dr Wooten is a lieutenant colonel in the District of Columbia Army National Guard withover 25 years of military service, but did not conduct this study as a part of her officialmilitary duties. The opinions and assertions herein are those of the authors and donot necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Defense. This research wasconducted in compliance with all applicable federal regulations governing the protectionof human subjects. Authors report no conflicts of interest.

Exercises and Discussion Questions

• 1. Explain the unique aspects of military service and military life that makesocial media and remote communications technology viable tools forconducting military research.



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• 2. What are the methodological considerations in obtaining human subjectsapprovals in military research?

• 3. What are the benefits and risks of using social media and remotecommunications in military research?

• 4. How can social media be used for purposive sampling in military research?• 5. How can risks to confidentiality and privacy be minimized when using

social media and remote communications for recruitment and data collectionin military research?

Further Reading

Nicholas, D., & Rowlands, I. (2011). Social media use in the research workflow.Information Services & Use, 31, 61–83. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/ISU-2011-0623

Cann, A., Dimitriou, K., & Hooley, T. (2011). Social media: A guide for researchers.London, England: Research Information Network. Retrieved from http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/196715

Matthews-Juarez, P., Juarez, P. D., & Faulkner, R. T. (2013). Social mediaand military families: A perspective. Journal of Human Behavior in the SocialEnvironment, 23, 769–776. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2013.795073 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2013.795073

McManus, J., Mehta, S. G., McClinton, A. R., De Lorenzo, R. A., & Baskin, T. W.(2005). Informed consent and ethical issues in military medical research. AcademicEmergency Medicine, 12, 1120–1126. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1197/j.aem.2005.05.037http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1553-2712.2005.tb00839.x

Prindle, R. (2011). Social media as a military communication competency. InternationalJournal of Humanities and Social Science, 1, 203–207.

Scott, W. J., McCone, D. R., Sayegh, L., Looney, J. D., & Jackson,R. J. (2011). Mixed methods in a post-deployment study of U.S. ArmyNational Guard soldiers. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 26,



http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/ISU-2011-0623

http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/196715

http://derby.openrepository.com/derby/handle/10545/196715

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2013.795073

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2013.795073

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2013.795073

http://dx.doi.org/10.1197/j.aem.2005.05.037

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1553-2712.2005.tb00839.x

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275–295. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15555240.2011.618430 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15555240.2011.618430

Smith, B., Smith, T. C., Gray, G. C., & Ryan, M. A. K.; for the Millennium Cohort StudyTeam (2007). When epidemiology meets the internet: Web-based surveys in theMillennium Cohort Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166, 1345–1354. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwm212 http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwm212

Beneito-Montagut, R. (2011). Ethnography goes online: Towards a user-centredmethodology to research interpersonal communication on the internet. QualitativeResearch, 11, 716–735. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468794111413368 http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1468794111413368

U.S. Army on social media. Retrieved from http://www.army.mil/media/socialmedia/

U.S. Army Slideshare. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/USArmySocialMedia/social-media-handbook-2013

Budzyna, T. (2010, August). Social media shapes markets, military, and life. Retrievedfrom http://www.army.mil/article/44497/social-media-is-shaping-markets-the-military-and-life/

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