[430.15a]. Singh, Rana P.B. 2015. Heritage Value of Religious Sites and Built Archetypes: The...

Singh, Rana P.B.: ‘Hindu Religious Heritage Sites’; Aatmbodh Jl, UP Col. Varanasi vol. XII (1), 2015: pp. 1-23. 1

Singh, Rana P.B. 2015. Heritage Value of Religious Sites and Built Archetypes: The Scenario of

Hinduism, and illustrating the Riverfront Varanasi. [A special address in the ICOMOS-

UNESCO Conference, Seoul, Korea: 24 April 2015]. Aatmbodh, the Journal of Knowledge

of Self (ISSN: 0972-1398. RSMT, U.P. College, Varanasi), vol. XII (no. 1), Spring: pp. 1 - 23. [Pdf, ref. 430.15a].

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Heritage Value of Religious Sites and Built Archetypes: The

Scenario of Hinduism, and illustrating the Riverfront Varanasi

Prof. Rana P.B. Singh*

Abstract Hinduism is experienced through its spirituality, sacredness, architecture, and landscape. Hindu temples are Hinduism’s coded religious messages, constructed of symbols, designs, iconography, and depictions of historic and literary events. Combining and unifying these elements, Hindu temples communicate the divine. Eight of the 32 UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites (WHS) in India fall in the category of the religious heritage of Hinduism, viz. Chola temples, Hampi shrines, Mahabalipuram, Pattadakal, Khajuraho, Sun temple, Elephanta caves, and Ellora caves. To date 51 properties are listed in the WHS’s Tentative List from India, and 7 of them are associated with Hinduism, viz. Bishunpur, Ekambra, Hoysala, Srirangapatan, Kakatiya, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and Majuli Island. In Southeast Asia, there are 5 religious WH sites, viz. Prambanan Temple (Indonesia), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Pashupatinath Temple and other temples (Nepal), Mỹ Son Sanctuary (Viet Nam), and Mother Temple of Besakih (Bali, Indonesia). The case of Varanasi’s Riverfront is a unique Religious Heritage and cultural landscape, still waiting for inscription in the WHL, however due to internal politics and lack of coordination, the process becomes too complicated and difficult. As recent discourses identify the unique characteristics and heritage value of Hinduism and its temples, it will affirm the value of the divine in the human experience. As a result, pilgrimage-heritage tourism will promote and contribute to global understanding.

Keywords. Heritage ecology, Hinduism, Krishna, Riverfront heritagescapes, Shiva, Southeast Asia, Varanasi, Vishnu, World Heritage Sites.

1. Heritagescapes, Religion, and Hinduism: the Perspective

A variety of forces can threaten the preservation, restoration, and maintenance of religious sites: to name a few, globalization, democratization, countervailing community choices, the priority of a market economy, the commoditization of culture, and the politics of religious and ethnic groups. (This article, in sequence, identifies several examples from Hinduism.) Cultural heritage, especially of religious built forms, has been historically important. However, beginning in the nineteenth century and continuing today, perhaps partially in response to “modernity,” cultural tourism has become more popular and explicitly reinforces the value, use, and conservation of religion; tourists who appreciate cultural developments increasingly comprehend the significant role of religious beliefs and practices in shaping local geographies through physical structures and associated rituals and performances. Political control, identity, hegemony, and social

* Prof. Rana P.B. Singh, MA, PhD, FJF, FIFS, FAAI, FACLA, ‘Ganga-Ratna’, is Vice-President, ACLA: Asian

Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Seoul, Korea), and President: IASR, Indian Association for Study of Religion 2014-16, and Professor of Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies, & Head, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005, India. Cell: (+091)- 9838119474. Email: [email protected]


security are all religiously symbolized (see Harvey 1979). Monuments and buildings are recurring testaments of successive generations, typically of the dominant community or a ruler’s patronage, each in turn manifesting the then current understanding of the human place in and of nature.

These sacred built structures are, symbolically, the repositories of knowledge about the former understanding of our planet as ‘home’ and our relationship with it as ‘actor’. In a broad sense such heritage refers to the places where the spirit of nature and culture meet, and are additionally memorized and maintained by rituals and festivities performed there. Together they shaped the interactions between humanity and divinity and thus formed an environment of faithscapes (Singh 1997). Broadly, sacrosanct built forms possess at least four attributes:

(i) external (e.g. architecture, visibility, design, environmental context),

(ii) internal (images, association with divinities, aesthetics),

(iii) eternal (e.g. universal message, inherent/ imposed meanings, spiritual feelings, cross-cultural context and linkages), and

(iv) manifest (e.g. adherents’ belief systems and supporting mythologies). But the transfer of both context and content from one to another is often confused, whether intentional or not, and sometimes results in conflict and contradictions between adherents. Similarly, signs, words, and symbols representing the built heritage and related inherent values of one set of believers, may differ from those of non-believers, tourists, or other groups (Vukonić 2006: 244).

The four basic issues for expressing representations and discursive construction of religious heritage include (i) understanding cultural significance, (ii) information on the value of heritage, (iii) conservation in response to religiosity-spirituality, and (iv) cultural responsibility (Waterton, Smith and Campbell 2006: 350).

It seems that some heritage practices (and also religio-ritual traditions) commonly associated with an ancient period were always in flux, even as they were passed from one generation to the next. Lowenthal (1998: 226) argues that “heritage, far from being fatally predetermined or God-given, is in large measure our own marvellously malleable creation”. Of course, heritage is not an innate or primordial phenomenon; people created and converted it into symbolic form, and in many cases associated it with a belief system and its symbolic expressions and mythologies. The understanding of religious heritage as an expression of culture is largely that of a community or society with a relatively agreed upon set of universal values. When one culture interacts with another culture holding different values conflict and contention is possible, if not probable, particularly if control or assets are at stake. This condition is more prevalent in the case of built religious heritage landscape in South and South East Asia, exemplified with varying forms of Hinduism, a virtual ensemble of various Hindu traditions.

In Indian tradition, heritage is called ‘dharohara’, which is a combination of two words, i.e. dharā- (‘the mother Earth/Lord Vishnu who holds’), and -ihara (‘endeavour of identity through time’). The word also carries the meaning of ‘bearing’ and ‘preserving’ the surface of the mother Earth. It is best explained in terms of the ‘root’ (‘shrota’) and ‘identity’ (‘asmitā’) ― a framework of continuity of inter-connectedness and a personality of culture. In Asia, it is openly debated whether significant elements of religious traditions should include heritage environments.

Religious traditions and customs result from popular habituation, an informal process (Eiter 2004: 173). Statutory law, in contrast, is applied to all members of a society, regardless of its individual’s roots. Consequently, conflicts can occur in all heritagescapes when divergent practices clash, however formed, in recording claims by individual religious groups.

2. India’s Hindu Religious World Heritage Sites

India’s Hinduism is simultaneously and inseparably cultural and religious, tangible and intangible, historic and present. As a result, India’s Hindus possess colourful heritagescapes, a combination of mystic-religious sacredscapes and ancient monuments, all drawn from a variety of literature and traditions. The latest UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites lists 981 properties, 32 of which are in India (cf. Fig. 1). Eight of these 32 sites are associated with Hinduism, viz. Chola temples (cf. Fig. 5), Hampi


shrines (cf. Fig. 6), Mahabalipuram (cf. Fig. 7), Khajuraho (cf. Fig. 3, and 8), Pattadakal (cf. Fig. 9), Sun temple at Konark (cf. Fig. 4), Elephanta caves (cf. Fig. 10), and Ellora caves (cf. 11) [cf. Table 1]. Additionally, 51 sites in India are listed on the WHS Tentative List, of which 7 are associated with Hinduism, viz. Bishunpur, Ekambra, Hoyalsha, Srirangapatan, Kakatiya, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and Majuli Island (cf. Table 2).

Fig. 1.

Hindu religious World Heritage Sites may further be categorized, generally speaking, according to their association with major deities (images) and their affinities or avatars. Consequently, though monistic, the Hindu religion appears polytheistic, where one god dominates the sacred territory on cosmic principles, and other auxiliary or associated gods have supporting functions. In fact, many Hindus focus on one “god” after another, what Max Müller termed ‘kathenotheism’. This is why Hindus are often seen as Panchadevapujaka (worshipper of five gods together) after they have sequentially devoted before the statuary of the typical five categorical


divinities, i.e. Shiva (god of dissolution-recreation), Surya (Sun-god), Ganesha (elephant-headed god), Devi (mother goddess), and Vishnu (god of sustenance and life) (cf. Table 3):

(i) Shiva, one of the Hindu pantheons of gods, known as the cosmic dancer and god of dissolution-recreation (cf. Fig. 2). Five of the 8 WHS are predominantly associated with Shiva. The three heads (trimurti, in Elephanta cave, no. 7) are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and dissolution. The temple of Brihadishvara (Chola, at Thanjavur, cf. Fig. 5) is built on granite and sandstone slabs, and is surrounded by life-size images of eight deities protecting the temple; their placement conforms to axial and symmetrical rules of geometry. Virupakha (Hampi, cf. Fig. 6) symbolizes the god of progeny who controls the river Pampa/Tungabhadra. The nine Shiva temples at Pattadakal, represent various forms and associated stories of Shiva. Ardhanarishvara (Elephanta), represents the sublimate form of Shiva who controls two forces of nature, i.e. male (purusha) and female (prakriti). Shiva is also represented here as a cosmic dancer (Nataraja), lord of yoga, and killer of a demon. Kailasanatha Temple (Ellora), incorporating Mt Kailasha (the resort, cf. Fig. 11) and Shiva, representing possibly the world’s largest monolithic structure, is carved out of one single basalt rock-cut, with four parts, i.e. the body of the temple, the entrance gate, the Nandi shrine and a group of five shrines surrounding the courtyard.

Fig. 2. Shiva, as cosmic dancer, Nataraja.

(ii) Shiva and Vishnu (the god of sustenance) together or side-by-side is the other prevailing

depiction in the religious WHS. The territory of Mahabalipuram presents both images, i.e. of Shiva (Shore temple), and Vishnu-Varaha (Boar-form Vishnu, rock-cut temple, and Thirukadalmallai temple). The giant open-air reliefs such as the famous ‘Descent of the Ganga’, and other sculptures depicting stories from the Mahabharata (e.g. Pancha Rathas, the five chariots) show the close relationship between the Shaivism and Vaishnavism groups of Hindu tradition. Similarly the religious heritage buildings at Khajuraho present a combination of three religious groups, viz. Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism (goddess-adherents). Of the twenty-two temples in Khajuraho (cf. Fig. 3) seven are dedicated to Shiva, seven to Vishnu, four to Devi (goddess), one to the Sun-god, and the


remaining three to Jain Tirthankaras. Of all of them, only Matangeshvara is functionally active in terms of rituals and festivities. The location of these temples is formerly interconnected from a perspective of cosmic geometry. However to comprehend the spiritual connections, we need a deeper understanding of how the human and the divine interact (cf. Singh 2009a: 75).

Fig. 3. Khajuraho


In Khajuraho, Hindu temples built upon the ground plan of the vastupurusha mandala are typically aligned along cardinal directions. It is anticipated that these carefully constructed structures would demonstrate the precision with which the architects of the Chandelas could establish cardinality. It is discovered, however, that all of the axes of symmetry that we measured were rotated by 3° to 11° south of east (Singh 2009a: 66). Says Stella Kramrisch (1976: 165, 300-303) that in the early medieval temples the chief deity of the sanctum is the luminous source which radiates its power in cardinal directions through the images of its manifestations. This observation also indicates alignment of the central deity to the sunrays. Though each image in the sanctum is complete in itself yet their situation is always in consonance to a symmetry; in fact, each image forms a sub-system in the bigger wholeness of cosmic principle.

On the WHS Tentative List, Ekambra (Bhubaneshwar, the Temple City) contains a multitude of Shiva and Vishnu statuary, including the most famous one, the Harihara image (‘Shiva-Vishnu in one’), in the Lingaraj temple. The depicted superimposition and integration of Shiva and Vishnu facilitates and realized cooperation and interaction of their respective adherents. Similarly in the Hoysala area both Shiva (Hoysaleshvara) and Vishnu (Chennakeshvara I) are treated equally. The sculptures and frescoes of Vishnu’s incarnation depict stories from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. Statuary of Garuda (Vishnu) and Ganesha (Shiva) provide protection to their master deity and are worshipped together.

Fig. 4. Konark, the Sun temple complex: The plan, and Conjectural view.

Fig. 5. Chola temple, Brihadishvara temple compound.

(iii) Surya, the Sun-god, is represented in most Hindu temples as an auxiliary image. At Konark (cf. Fig. 4), however, there is a 13th century temple of Surya riding in a seven spirited horse-chariot of twelve pairs of exquisitely decorated wheels, representing 7 days and 12 months, respectively. Since the images were removed long ago from the main temple, the sanctuary is no longer regarded as a holy place or functional temple. In the northeast corner of the Konark compound a modem building houses the old doorway arch showing the planets of Hindu mythology, i.e. Sun,


Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. In personified form, they are seated cross-legged on lotuses, each carrying in the left hand a water pot and in the right a rosary (Singh 1997: 124). Fig. 6. Hampi, Virupakha temple compound

Fig. 7. Monolithic temples and structures at Mamallapuram: the decent of the Ganga.

(iv) Vishnu, god of sustenance, in reincarnated form Krishna. As patron deity, Vishnu is represented in four places on the WHS Tentative List. At Srirangapattanam, Vishnu is reclining on a snake bed with his two wives on one side, Sridevi (goddess of wealth) and Bhudevi (mother Earth), and Brahma (‘the creator’). The surrounding shrines include images of Narsimha (a ‘Man-Lion form’), child Krishna, Srinivas, Hanuman (‘monkey god’) and Garuda (a ‘eagle-man’ vehicle of Vishnu). The temple complex of Ranganathasvamy at Srirangam is one of the largest religious complexes in the world, and contains a large temple dedicated to Vishnu, representing his many forms like Narsimha, Rama, Hayagriva, Krishna, and Dhanavantari. This sacred compound has 21 gopurams

(towers), 39 pavilions, 50 shrines, the Ayiram kaal mandapam (a hall of 1000 pillars) and several


small water bodies inside. The 1000-pillars hall is made of granite with sculptures of riding horses and is unique among all the Hindu religious buildings.

Majuli Island, famous as the Brahmaputra River’s largest island, is a tentative-listed natural

site. It has 22 Satras (monasteries) dedicated to the 16th century Vaishnavite socio-religious reformer and saint Srimanta Sankar Deb. He taught that serenity can be achieved in nature through religious rituals and festivities. Regrettably, conflict arose between Christians and Hindus when the former immigrated onto the island. Subsequent divisions in local politics, contentious diversification, and, ironically, wide scale indifference to the importance of religious heritage has hindered this site’s potential to be listed finally in the WHL. Fig. 8. Khajuraho Temples: Kandariya Mahadeva, and Lakshmana Temple.

The small town of Bishnupur, about 130 kilometres northwest of Kolkata, is famous for

temples made of terracotta and lateritic earth. In addition to carving stone, artisans developed the technique of baking the area’s rich red earth to make long lasting bricks and sculptures. They focused on depicting the life of Vishnu, and his principal incarnation, Krishna, as well as aspects of everyday life, like bullock carts, river boats and hunting scenes.

(v) Goddess/ Devi. In most cases and in most religious heritage sites, the female aspect of major deities is represented as goddess or devi. However, the Swayambhu Alyam (‘Mother Earth’- Bhu-Devi), temple in affinity with Swayambhu Gudi and Rudreshvara (both, forms of Shiva) at Kakatiya contain unique depictions. Fig. 9. Pattadakal: Hoyeseleshvara Temple plan, and Chalukya temple at Badami.


Fig. 10. Elephanta cave Temples; Shiva as androgen.

Fig. 11. Ellora cave, Kailashnatha Temple: an aerial view, and plan of temple and their numbers.

3. Hindu Religious World Heritage Sites outside of India

Starting around 200 BCE until around the 15th century CE, Southeast Asia was under Indian influence through India’s trade, cultural, and political relations. Consequently, Hindu-Buddhist beliefs and practices were absorbed by local polities, culture, and religions throughout Southeast Asia. Of course, Buddhism eventually prevailed the region, but Hindu’s temples, statuary, and architecture have been variously preserved. Among such religious WHS, five are noteworthy, viz. Prambanan Temple (Indonesia), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Pashupatinath Temple and other temples (Nepal), Mỹ Son Sanctuary (Viet Nam), and Mother Temple of Besakih (Bali, Indonesia) (cf. Table 4). The important characteristics and contemporary concerns are noted below:

(i) Prambanan Temple Complex, Central Java, Indonesia. Prambanan Temple complex (cf. Fig. 12) consists of 224 temples, built during the heyday of Sailendra’s powerful dynasty in Java in the CE 9th century. Main structures include the Prambanan Temple (also called Loro Jonggrang), Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple, and Lumbung Temple. The Hindu temples are decorated with reliefs, masterpieces of stone carving, which illustrate the Indonesian version of the Ramayana epic. The images are mostly of Shiva, his assistants, and associates. The earthquake of 27 May 2006 destroyed the major Shiva temple, which has yet to be restored, though research activities and technical studies were conducted in 2010 and 2011. Noteworthy is one enclosed cluster of temples dedicated to the three primordial Hindu gods and three small temples dedicated to their “animal vehicles” (Bull for Shiva, Eagle for Brahma and Swan for Vishnu). Other minor temples were located at the entrance gates or outside the central enclosure. The Shiva temple had four statues: located in the central


chamber is the Shiva statue; in the north chamber stands the Devi Durga Mahisasuramardini (goddess) statue; in the west chamber stands the Ganesha (‘elephant-headed god’, son of Shiva) statue; and the south chamber contains the statue of Agastya, a great mythical devotee of Shiva. The other two temples enshrine images of Brahma and Vishnu, respectively. In the Vishnu temple is carved the story of Kresnayana (stories of Krishna, a form of Vishnu), while the Brahma temple houses the continuous story of the epic Ramayana. The temples of Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma are all decorated with reliefs illustrating the Ramayana period (history of the Hindu hero Rama, written around 300 BCE). In 2007 and 2008 those responsible for the spatial planning aspects of heritage sites determined that Prambanan’s temple compounds and related area was a strategic national asset warranting protection, integrated management, and preservation. Fig. 12. Prambanan Temple Complex: Plan, Shiva temple and its cross section.

(ii) Angkor Wat, Cambodia. Angkor Wat is the principal temple complex of Cambodia (cf. Fig. 13), once serving as the seat of the Khmer Empire. In the 12th century, Suryavarman II dedicated it to Vishnu, the god of preservation, breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings. Though Angkor Wat was subsequently used for Theravada Buddhist worship, it remains the largest existing Hindu temple complex. A rare architectural achievement, the carvings on the main Angkor Wat temple walls tell the stories of Vishnu, also in his reincarnated forms, from the ancient Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, dating from ca. fifteenth century BCE. The Angkor Wat main temple, of the high classical style of Khmer architecture, is the best-preserved, and is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its construction. Several temples of Angkor Wat depart from the typical eastern orientation, which may suggest that Angkor Wat’s alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west. Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved. There are miles of reliefs illustrating scenes from ancient Hindu literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hair styles. Fig. 13. Angkor Wat, Cambodia: Front view, and a Fresco on the Mahabharata.


(iii) Pashupatinath and other Hindu temples in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. In the Kathmandu valley, amidst the several Buddhist temples, is the oldest temple of Pashupatinath, dedicated to Shiva (cf. Fig. 14); but there are many other Hindu temples in this area, including the Changu Narayan (Vishnu, in Bhaktapur), which sprang from a traditional Newari settlement. Another Hindu temple complex contains one of the earliest inscriptions in the Valley, dated to the fifth century CE. These are unique, tiered temples made mostly from fired brick with mud mortar and timber. The roofs are covered with small overlapping terracotta tiles, with gilded brass ornamentation. The windows, doorways and roof struts have rich decorative carvings. Most of the principal monuments are in Durbar Square, the social, religious and urban focal point of the city. They were built between the CE 12th and the 18th centuries by the ancient Malla kings of Nepal. Some of the most popular among Hindu devotees are the temples of Taleju (local goddess), Kal Bhairab (black-form Shiva), and the Jagannath (Vishnu-form) Temple. Under the patronage of the government an Integrated Management Plan for the Kathmandu World Heritage Property was adopted in 2007. Several voluntary organizations and NGOs now cooperate to conserve and preserve this rich architectural area. Due the tragic earth quake (7.9 Richter scale) on 25 April 2015, many of the heritage buildings and temples have been badly damaged, including the ones mentioned above; in such a drastic situation, naturally priority will be given to human calamities, not the heritage at this stage, except cleaning the debris and ruins. Pashupatinath temple is saved. Fig. 14. Pashupatinath Temple complex and nearby temples.

Fig. 15. Mỹ Son Sanctuary, Viet Nam, ruined Hindu temples: Bhadreshvara, and dancing Shiva.

(iv) Mỹ Son Sanctuary, Viet Nam. The tower temples of Mỹ Sanctuary (Duy Phu Commune,

Duy Xuyen District, along the coast; cf. Fig. 15) were built over ten centuries of continuous development in what was the heart of the ancestral homeland of the ruling Dua Clan which unified the Cham clans and established the kingdom of Champapura (Sanskrit for City of the Cham people) in CE 192. During the CE 4th to 13th centuries this unique culture owed its spiritual lineage to the Hinduism of the Indian sub-continent. Many temples were built with fired brick and stone pillars and decorated with sandstone bas-reliefs depicting scenes from Hindu mythology, honouring the patron Hindu deities Shiva and Vishnu and his incarnation Krishna. Although Mahayana Buddhist penetrated the Cham culture, probably from the CE 4th century, and became strongly established in the north of


the kingdom, Shaivite Hinduism remained the established state religion. The temples contain a variety of architectural designs symbolizing the greatness and purity of Mount Meru, the mythical sacred mountain home of Hindu gods, especially Shiva. Shiva is first depicted at the centre of the universe, and then set on Earth in the mountainous homeland of the Cham people.

The placement of the temples themselves reflects the principle of cosmological archetypes: the

main tower (kalan) symbolizes the sacred mountain (meru) at the centre of the universe, which is built from brick or stone blocks and decorated with reliefs; the square or rectangular base (bhurloka), representing the human world; and the main tower (bhuvaloka), above this, picturing the divine beings, constructed entirely in brick, with columns and a false door facing east. The interiors are plain, with small niches for lamps. The Shiva lingam is centred on a plinth symbolizing the entire spirit world. From the 13th century the Champa Kingdom slowly declined and was absorbed by the growing power of Vietnam. It ceased to exist as an entity in the late 15th century, when worship ceased at Mỹ Son. With significantly increased numbers of tourists visiting the site, managing its restoration will be increasingly important and should also be addressed as part of a Heritage Management Plan under the ongoing Master Plan (2008 to 2020) as required for the site.

(v) Pura Besakih, Eastern Bali, Indonesia (cf. Fig. 16). Without repeating the historical context of the Hinduism that carried to the island of Bali centuries ago with the expansion of Javanese Hinduism, it is important to note that the official designation of Balinese religion as “Hinduism.” Unfortunately, only five religions are recognized according to Indonesian law; however Bali Hinduism is not one of them. The Hindu community in Bali was unsuccessful in stopping construction of a hotel adjacent to the world famed temple of Tanah Lot, but resistance did accomplish two long-term results: (a) restrictions on the height and proximity of hotels for religious sites, and (b) the awakening of many Balinese to the fragility of their environment, to say nothing of the opportunities to act with a sense of empowerment over their land and culture.

Fig. 16. Pura Besakih temples complex, Eastern Bali, Indonesia: morning view, and prayers.

Move to declare Pura Besakih a UNESCO preservation site, has not been successful, mainly due to strong local protests and changing democratic reform towards making local community more stronger (cf. Salazar 2014: 3845). In this instance, the Balinese Hindu community refused to relinquish its authority over this symbolic centre, fearing the good intentions of the World Heritage site project might impugn their jurisdiction over practices and care of Bali’s greatest pilgrimage site (Fischer 2003: 6-7). It is observed that lack of clarity with regard to the functioning of the temple under the patronage of Balinese Hinduism after it had become a World Heritage Site lay at the heart of the dispute; moreover, the rising Islam as dominant political power in the frame of globalisation serves as obstacle in making Besakih into a World Heritage Site (cf. Hitchcock and Putra 2012).


4. Framing HRIDAY and PRASAD

The Government of India’s Ministry of Tourism and Culture and the Ministry of Urban Development are reviewing the relationship of tourism and cultural development to see them as complimentary. Both ministries want to preserve the ancient roots of heritage properties and the traditions of spirituality, sacrality and pilgrimage. As a result, two innovative and appropriate national programs have arisen: (i) Heritage city Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY), and (ii) Pilgrimage

Rejuvenation And Spiritual Augmentation Drive (PRASAD). With these programs the ministries of Culture and Tourism and Urban Development will collaborate to strengthen and promote the heritage sites and centres of pilgrimage-tourism.

(i) National mission of HRIDAY The National mission on the “Heritage city Development and Augmentation Yojana” (HRIDAY), launched on 21 January 2015 with allocation of 5000 million rupees (ca US$ 84 million) for the next 27-months, aims to revitalise through conserving and preserving the distinct and unique characters of the heritage cities, and to maintain the continuity of their traditions of heritage (tangible, intangible, and cultural landscapes, including written, oral, and performed ones), to ensure they will be used as a resource for sustainable development and ecological restoration. In broad sense it aims to being together urban planning, economic growth, and heritage conservation in inclusive manner with the objective of restoring, reviving and strengthening the soul and heritage of the city. It is hoped that within this purview beautification, conservation, and sustainable development will result in a more rational and sustainable way. Consequently, a holistic view of the site, its cleanliness, planning, and the livelihood of its people and economy will emerge. (cf. Singh 2015: 115). The major twelve sites selected at priority level, include Varanasi, Amritsar, Warangal, Ajmer, Gaya, Mathura, Kanchipuram, Vellankini, Amaravati, Badami, Dwarka, and Puri. None of them are official religious WHS yet, and only eight are broadly associated with Hinduism; however in their respective development plans the emphasis has not been laid on the religious codes and manifested symbolic meanings that may enhance universal values and encourage mass awakening for preserving and maintaining of the religious heritage and making them more functional for the society and environment.

Cultural heritage sites are a people’s time-specific (both short- and long-) understanding of the divine order and humankind’s response. “Religious,” from that view, is scientific, recreational, aesthetic, economic and sacramental. Thus the metaphorical meaning of “HRIDAY” (literally ‘heart’) is the core concern for the ‘inclusive-sustainable development of heritage-and-pilgrimage cities’ in India. This frame would be taken as core concerns under the HRIDAY Programme.

The protection, augmentation, management, authenticity and integrity of properties (both tangible and intangible) are also important considerations, together with the above specific characteristics. In the above context three basic meanings, in historical context, to the understanding of heritage sites are:

• a political meaning – to assure responsibility for the decisions; • a cultural meaning – to save culture rootedness and sense of continuity; and • a didactic meaning – to promote citizen’s participation.

These meanings are associated with deconstructing the value of cultural heritage into its component parts identifying the following six value elements:

• aesthetic value: the visual-iconographic beauty of the building, site, and so on; • spiritual value: the significance of the asset in providing understanding or enlightenment or in

representing a particular religion or religious tradition; • social value: the role of the site in forming cultural identity or a sense of connection with others; • historical value: connections with the past; • symbolic value: objects or sites as repositories or conveyors of meaning, and • authenticity value: the uniqueness of visiting ‘the real thing’.


(ii) National mission of PRASAD The National mission on ‘Pilgrimage Rejuvenation And Spiritual Augmentation Drive’ (PRASAD) is included in the Union Budget 2014-2015, a proposed Rs. 1000 million (ca US$ 17 millions) initiative. It aims to beautify and improve the amenities and infrastructure at pilgrimage centres of all faiths. Under PRASAD the old historical-cultural pilgrimage routes and associated sites that have heritage repositories would also be developed. However, no detailed plans for such pilgrimage-heritage cities have yet been structured. Of course, with reference to Varanasi, a good mass of detailed works on pilgrimage routes already available, no plans have been formulated. I personally opine that Varanasi to be conceived as a model pilgrimage-heritage city which record the continuity and popularity of at least fifty such pilgrimage routes those are well marked, mapped and supported with the literature too.

As with HRIDAY, interconnectivity and reciprocity between pilgrimage and tourism are integral to human travel, ‘pilgrimage-tourism’ is more inclined to metaphysical and life philosophy when defined in the deepest sense, where sacred-and-profane are interactive. Pilgrimage-tourism can then easily be seen as a strategy for heritage awakening, deeper experiences and transferring the religiosity into global humanism and spirituality. The sustainable frame of pilgrimage-tourism and heritage should be promoted in three ways: philosophical, organisational, and managerial. The eco-healing approach to pilgrimage-tourism is considered as a post-modernist way to consider pilgrimage as a bridge between recreation and spirituality; this way pilgrimage-tourism will provide a rational alternative for cultural consciousness and strategy for poverty alleviation that ultimately help heritage preservation facilitate the goal of religion and spirituality.

The UNESCO supports both PRASAD and HRIDAY as they compliment UNESCO’s view of heritage conservation and its uses for sustainable development. Clearly, the deepest sense of attachment is pre-requisite for awakening (of awareness) and action; once a person develops deep feeling (of love) to a place he/she would help care for it. Realization and revelation are inseparable. As the ‘caring for the place (the Earth)’ is inherent in the pilgrimage-tourism, it provides opportunity to intimately sense and feel deeply for the place and the people – their behaviour, their heritage, and the present in which they live, act, and sustain the cherished tradition. (cf. Singh 2015: 116). People’s appreciation for Religious Heritage Sites often develops gradually given the prevalence and marketing of the modern and secular. Being the secular state where the ethics of religion is defined as personal, religion is not given exposure, of course in practice this is so strongly controls the life, pilgrimages and related activities.

5. The Riverfront Religious Heritage of Varanasi, the Capital of Hinduism

The holy city of Varanasi possesses about 3300 Hindu sanctuaries, 1388 Muslim shrines, 45 Sikh sites, 11 Buddhist places, 4 Jain shrines, and countless markers to a multitude of folk deities. The city is famous for its many pilgrimage routes, festivities, and rituals. Most festivities occur on the Ganga riverfront which is dotted with religious rest houses, temples, monasteries and other structures, representing both, tangible and intangible heritages (cf. Singh 2009b). Additionally, all the criteria, according to Article 2 of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention of 2003 and 2005, related to both tangible and intangible cultural heritage are already part of age-long religious traditions of Varanasi. This includes oral traditions of ritual performances, folk music and songs; performance arts like traditional dance, music and theatrical performances on special festive occasions throughout the year; social practices in celebrating festivals and events; knowledge and practices concerning nature (like naturopathy, alternative medicine, yoga) and the universe (classical astronomy and astrology); and traditional craftsmanship like toy and pot making, silk embroidery, etc.

Moreover, other characteristics as required by Article 2 also are a part of life in Varanasi, having been transmitted from generation to generation; being constantly recreated by communities and groups, in response to their environment, their interaction with nature, and their history; providing communities and groups with a sense of identity and continuity; promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity; being compatible with international human rights instruments; and complying with the requirements of mutual respect among communities and of sustainable development.


Fig. 17. Varanasi: The Riverfront Heritage, Ghats.


The Ganga riverfront with its ghats (stairways; cf. Fig. 17) fully justify the criteria of Cultural Landscapes as designated in Article 1 of the Convention, and specifically that of a cultural landscape “that retains an active social role in contemporary society closely associated with the traditional way of life, and in which the evolutionary process is still in progress . . . by virtue of powerful religious, artistic, cultural associations of the natural element.” Varanasi’s riverfront ghats, which evolved over centuries into the spiritual centre of Hinduism, fulfil the requirements of ‘an organically evolved landscape’ as well as ‘an associative cultural landscape’ in the cultural landscape criteria of UNESCO World Heritage List.

The conservation of most heritage properties faces intense pressure. And even though many of these properties are presently in the same physical condition as the last couple of decades, they have been maintained without needed legal and administrative measures. Consequently, increasingly their architectural integrity is now being threatened. Thankfully, for the first time, heritage protection issues have been discussed in the Master Plan for 1991-2011 and specific heritage zones, sites, and properties have been identified. In the follow up Master Plan for 2011-2031, the earlier Plan has been revised to fully ensure preservation of heritage sites and to oversee the development of the city so it maintains the spirit of religion and spirituality.

5.1. The Riverfront Varanasi on the scale of UNESCO-WHL The Riverfront Heritage-Cultural Landscapes of Varanasi fully justify the eight criteria out of ten of UNESCO-WHL, as mentioned below (cf. Singh 2015: 109-111):

i. Representing a masterpiece of human creative genius

There are several examples of architectural master pieces of attached with inherent meanings, archetypal representations and continuity of performances and rituals. The list includes Hindu temples of Panchakroshi, Bharat Mata (‘mother India’), and others like Gurudham, Kardameshvara, Vrisabhadhvajeshvara, Amethy, Mahamaya, Lolarka water pool, etc. The Gothic structure of main building of Sampurnananda Sanskrit University is a distinct landmark too.

ii. Exhibiting interchange of human values in architecture and monuments Varanasi is the only city in India where textually described cosmogonic frame and geomantic

outlines are existent in their full form and totality. In the city alone, there are over 3300 Hindu shrines and temples, about 1388 Muslim shrines and mosques, 12 churches, 3 Jain temples, 9 Buddhist temples, 32 Sikh temples (gurudvaras) and several other sacred sites and places. Here Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Christianity and even Islam have their distinct traditions, and on the other end they together conform the harmonious life and culture of the city called ‘Banarasian’. iii. Testimony to cultural tradition in history

The city has two remnants of a holy past: the first one being Sarnath where Buddha gave his first sermon, ‘Turning the wheel of law’ in ca. 528 BCE. Later during the 3rd century BCE king Ashoka built a monastery township there which continued its existence till the 12th century CE and was later destroyed. The second one is the Rajghat Plateau, where the archaeological findings and the C14

dating of some of the wares excavated from the earliest level (upper part of IA layer, sample No. TF-293) refer the existence of urban settlements in the period during 1000-500 BCE. iv. Outstanding example of architectural ensemble and landscape

The unique crescent-shaped arc of the Ganga river has attracted people from various parts of India to come, settled and make their own distinct imprint along the 6.8 km bank of the river as clearly visualised in the architectural grandeur and the cultural landscapes. The existence of 84 ghats along the Ganga river to archetypal connotations, e.g. 12 division of time x 7 chakra (sheaths), or layers in the atmosphere; likewise the number 84 refers to the 84 lacs (hundred thousands) of organic species as described in Hindu mythologies.


v. Example of a traditional habitat, culture and interaction Since the past people from different cultures, religions and territories came and settled here while

maintaining their own distinct traditions in their own community, and also developed a harmoniously integrated culture of traditions lost elsewhere, which is still visible on different festive occasions. There are fourteen tombs of Muslim Sufi saints which are regularly visited by Hindus and Muslim, who perform their own rituals side-by-side. vi. Example of the continuity of living traditions of life (intangible)

Since ancient times the natural and cultural landscapes of the city, closely associated with the traditional way of life, have retained an active social role in contemporary society. The presence of ‘dying homes’, charitable homes and pilgrims’ rest houses are some of the city’s unique characteristics. Additionally, silk weaving and sari making, metal, wood and terracotta handicrafts, toy making, particular painting forms, etc., bear witness to the continuity of historico-cultural tradition. Banaras is considered to be a veritable jungle of fairs and festivals with respect to variety, distinction, time, sacred sites, performers, overseers and side-shows. “Every day is a great festival in Banaras” – so says the tradition. Recently some of the old festivals have been revived in it original style, despite some modern touches. This lifestyle has also manifested itself in a musical tradition known as the Banaras Gharana (style). vii. Beauty of natural phenomena & aesthetic importance

The city represents a unique natural shape along the Ganga river which forms a crescent shape, flowing from south to north for about 6.8 km; the city has grown on the left bank in semi-circular form around it. The area along the right side is a flood plain, preserving the natural ecosystem. Thus, together the two sides represent the cultural and natural beauty where meet the human construct of architectural grandeur in the form of series of traditional buildings and other side perennial flow of the Ganga from south to north, which is unique in the whole course of the Ganga valley.

viii. Unique traditional performance: example of environmental theatre

Of course originally proclaimed in 2005 by the government of India, UNESCO has incorporated the ‘Rāmalilā ― traditional performance of the Rāmāyana’ in its representative list of 90 declared on 4 November 2008. This list also includes two more intangible heritages, i.e. ‘Kutiyattam, Sanskrit Theatre’, and the ‘Tradition of Vedic Chanting’. The Rāmalilā is a dramatisation of the epic journey of Rāma, the 7th incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. In the city of Banaras Rāmalilā holds for different periods at different sites according to their tradition and historicity, ranging from the period of 10 days to 31 days (cf. for details see Sax 1990/ 1993).

The increasing impact of pollution and the decreasing volume of water in the Ganga river have

had a multiplying effect in Varanasi. The very existence of Varanasi’s ghats is in danger because the existence of the Ganga is in danger! In spite of this threat, however, people are still hopeful for positive changes that would maintain and protect the culture and religious landscapes of this heritage city. In May 2014 the Hon’ble Narendra Modi, Member of Parliament from Varanasi, became India’s Prime Minister. He explicitly supports the vision and plans of HRIDAY and PRASAD, as described earlier. The implementation of these new measures will keep and polish the image of Varanasi as indeed the “City of Light.” There is every reason to be hopeful.

We note with pleasure that a few local NGO’s, staffed with experts and eminent citizens of Varanasi, helped proposing the nomination of Varanasi’s Riverfront and Old city Centre to the UNESCO World Heritage List. This act has sparked a positive response within the city administration: preservation of Varanasi’s cultural heritage, specifically its religious elements, will receive greater support. A mass movement of awakening (chetna march) is required for reverential development. Nevertheless caution will be given to prevent religious fundamentalism or threat to those who lead secular lives.

One has also to keep in mind the story for putting Varanasi at the margin, while proposing dossier for enlisting in the World Heritage City of the UNESCO, referring highlights of the Delhi’s dossier that focuses on Old Delhi’s Shahjahanabad area that served as the capital under Mughal


Emperor Shah Jahan from 1638 to 1648, and the British capital planned by architect Edwin Lutyens; this was prepared in February 2014, and finally after approval by the ICOMOS evaluation experts in October 2014, already submitted to UNESCO, expecting that by June 2015 the final decision with favour will be declared. There is a little hope in this situation that the Riverfront Varanasi may compete with! Unfortunately, till date no final dossier has been prepared for the sacred city of Varanasi (that may emphasise the Riverfront Heritage and the Old City Sacred Landscapes).

It is reported that Prime Minister “Narendra Modi’s plans to popularise the ancient heritage of his constituency Varanasi may be on mission mode but the city has yet again lost an opportunity to be listed among UNESCO World Heritage Cities, even in the Tentative List. Varanasi does not figure even in the shortlist of cities that could be nominated as a World Heritage City by the UNESCO, officials at the ministry of culture said. Experts blame bureaucratic delays, lack of coordination between Central and State governments, and shortage of documentation regarding the city’s plans for Varanasi missing out on the opportunity. …. The approach lacks persistence. The dossier to be submitted to UNESCO requires a ten-year vision for the city that includes financial, management and structural plans and an intensive proof document on the city’s heritage value. Most of it is already ready but unless civic bodies, NGOs and bureaucrats interact more, specific details will always be missing, making the document incomplete” (cf. Venugopal 2015).

6. Epilogue: From Perspective to Appeal

Culture is always in flux, but in our technological age seems to be changing more quickly than in the past. So while humans have always ritualized their understanding of the cosmos, the planet, society, nature, and themselves, today some traditional festivities, structures, and religious expressions are not only quickly changing, but disappearing. The heritagescapes that survive will be those we preserve. Let us rejoice, for we are alive, and life is good; let us participate in the celebration of renewal, caring for one another and our cosmos. There is a need for heritage ecology at this crucial time (Singh 1995: 210). Visits to heritage sites and heritagescapes, our efforts to understand, the work to keep the mind and heart open to the sacred manifestation, all these invigorate our vision with insight and the purpose (c.f. Jarow 1986: 12). This is the real pilgrimage – ‘an enacting of an internal process in the external world.’ Heritage ecology is also a way to pilgrimage – a way of relating to the land (Earth/ Nature spirit) and the people (human psyche), similar to that of marching from realization to revelation (Singh 1995: 211). In fact, reverential development is unitary in the broadest and deepest sense, combining reverence and sanctity of life with contemporary economic, social, moral, cultural and traditional premises to bring peace and harmony with the nature (Skolimowski 1990: 103). The fact that this may be difficult to implement in no way negates their importance and desirability.

In order for a religious heritage to become a resource for development, first it needs to be documented, then protected, and finally utilized according to specific heritage guidelines and legislation. Only then, with an increased stakeholder awareness and participation, will policy efforts and interventions become sustainable – environmentally, socially, and culturally. We may separate ourselves from the web of our heritage in the pursuit of modernity and secularism, but it will always be at the cost of our hearts and our souls (Singh 2015: 120).

A recently founded Global Hindu Heritage Foundation (GHHF) has taken initiatives and used non-violent actions of mass awakening and realization to preserve the cultural heritage among the Hindu communities all over the world. Their GHHF’s objective is to protect, preserve, conserve, promote, and maintain Hindu culture, Hindu temples, monasteries, temple institutions, endowments, trusts and other such related institutions globally (cf. Rao 2007). It is expected that the GHHF’s attempts will help to conserve and preserve Hindu Religious Heritage Sites making Hindu heritage ecology in service of humanity through the ethics of integrating humanity and divinity.

7. Acknowledgements

My participation was made possible by the kind recommendation of Prof. Rohit Jigyasu (President ICOMOS-India), who appreciated and supported my works on heritage issues; I express my gratitude


to him. Special thanks is due to Dr. Hae Un RII (President of ICOMOS-Korea) and Dr. Jae-Heon CHOI (Secretary-General ICOMOS-Korea), both Professors of Geography in Dongguk, and Konkuk Universities, respectively, Seoul, Rep. Korea, for having trust and friendship and finally inviting me to deliver a special address, representing ‘Religious heritage sites of Hinduism in the World Heritage List’ in the ICOMOS International Conference: 22~25 April 2015, organised by them under the aegis of Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism at Seoul. I also express my thanks to Mr Rick Silveira (U.S.A.), who has been so kind to edit the entire article and made it simple and expressive.

* Note This expanded and revised paper, having the same title, was originally presented as a special address (24 April 2015) in the ICOMOS International Conference on “Value of Religious Heritage on the World Heritage List”: Seoul, Korea: 22~25 April 2015; under the aegis of the Steering Committee for the Nomination of the Traditional Buddhist Mountain Temples of Korea as UNESCO World Heritage; and its short version in English and Korean published in the Proceedings: pp. 137~173. With the permission of the ICOMOS-Korea this expanded paper is published here; however this essay is fully copyrighted © by the author.

8. References

Eiter, Sebastian 2004. Protected areas in the Norwegian mountains: Cultural landscape conservation - whose landscape? Norwegian Journal of Geography, 58 (4): pp. 171-182.

Fischer, Clare Benedicks 2003. Monument or Mall? Pilgrimage and tourism in Indonesia, a paper delivered in the annual meeting of the American Academy of Religions in Atlanta, November. 8pp. Web: http://81.47.175.201/Montserrat/documents/monumentormall.pdf <Retrieved on 15 December 2014>

Harvey, David 1979. Monument and myth. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 69 (3): pp. 362-381.

Hitchcock, Michael and Putra, I. Nyoman Darma 2012. Tourism, Development and Terrorism in Bali. Ashgate Publ., Farnham, London.

Jarow, Rick 1986. In Search of the Sacred: A Pilgrimage to Holy Places. Quest Books, Wheaton, IL. Kramrisch, Stella 1946/ 1976. The Hindu Temple. 2 vols. Motilal Banarasidass Publ., Delhi. Lowenthal, David 1998. The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge. Rao, V.V. Prakasa 2007. Global Hindu Heritage Foundation. Championing the Global Preservation

of Hinduism. Web: http://www.preservehinduism.org/ <accessed on: 21 March 2015>. Salazar, Noel B. 2014. Indonesia’s world heritage; in, Smith, Claire (ed.) Encyclopedia of Global

Archaeology. Springer, Dordrecht and New York: pp. 3841-3846. Singh Rana P.B. 1995. Heritage Ecology & Caring for the Earth: A Search for Preserving Harmony

and Ethical values. National Geographical Journal of India (BHU Varanasi), vol. 41 (2), June: 191-218.

Singh, Rana P.B. 1997. Sacredscape and urban heritage in India: contestation and perspective; in, Shaw, Brian and Jones, Roy (eds.) Contested Urban Heritage. Voices from the Periphery. Ashgate, London, UK: pp. 101-131.

Singh, Rana P.B. 2009a. Khajuraho, Where stone Speaks; in, [his] Cosmic Order and Cultural

Astronomy: Sacred Cities of India. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne. U.K.: pp. 49-78.

Singh, Rana P.B. 2009b. Banaras, Making of India’s Heritage City. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne U.K.

Singh, Rana P.B. 2015. Banaras, the Cultural Capital of India: Visioning Cultural Heritage and Planning. SANDHI, A Journal of Interfacing Science-Heritage and Technology-Tradition of

India, vol. 1 (no. 1), February: pp. 100-122. Skolimowski, Henryk 1990. Reverence for life; in, Engel, J.R. and Engel, J.G. (eds.) Ethics of

Environment and Development. University of Arizona Press, Tucson: pp. 93-103.


Venugopal, Vasudha 2015. Varanasi misses UNESCO’s heritage cities list once again. The Economic Times (a daily from New Delhi), 14 April. Web: http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes. com/2015-04-14/news/61142237_1_unesco-world-heritage-rana-pb-singh-tentative-list

Vukonić, Boris 2006. Sacred places and tourism in Roman Catholic tradition; in, Timothy, Dallen J. and Olsen, Daniel H. (eds.), Tourism, Religion, and Spiritual Journeys. Routledge, London: pp. 237-253.

Waterton, E.; Smith, Laurajane and Campbell, G. 2006. The Utility of Discourse Analysis to Heritage Studies: The Burra Charter and Social Inclusion. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 12 (4): pp. 339-355.

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APPENDICES

Table 1. India: WHL Hindu Religious Heritage Sites (8) and their Characteristics

Se Name of WHS; year of inscription

Period, dynasty; major God Main Temples, and important monuments

1 Chola Temples; 3 main granite temples (1987, 2004)

Chola dynasty, 10th ~11th Centuries, King Rajendra I; Shiva

Brihadishvara, Gangaikondacholapuram, Darasuram, and Airavatesvara temple, Shiva as Kankal Murti, Peruvudaiyar Koyil.

2 Hampi monuments and temple complexes (1986)

Vijayanagara empire, 14th ~17th Centuries; Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Vishnu

Hazara Rama Temple complex – stories of the Ramayana, Krishna Temple complex (by King Krishnadevaraya), Virupaksha complex, Vittala Temple Complex (7th century)

3 Mahabalipuram/ Mamallapuram; monolithic granite sculptures (1984)

Pallava-kings, ca 7th century; monolithic sculptures, Five Pandavas (the epic Mahabharata), the Ganga River

Sculptures of rock-cut caves, monolithic temples or Five Rathas hewn out of a large boulder, bas-reliefs in the open air, and structural temples - five Pandavas (Yudishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakul and Sahadeva), and wife Draupadi ; Shore temple (Shiva); Thirukadalmallai temple (Vishnu), Varaha rock-cut temple (Vishnu)

4 Pattadakal (1987)

Chalukya Dynasty, 7th ~ 8th centuries; Shiva and Jain

9 Shiva Temples, and 1 Jain Temple; interfacing sculptures of North and South India; Shiva temples of Virupakha, Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Sangameshvara, Chandrashekhara, Galaganatha, Kadasiddhesvara, Jambulingeswara and Kadasiddheshvara.

5 Khajuraho; an area of 22 temples (1986)

Chandela Dynasty, 9th ~11th Centuries; Shiva, Vishnu, Goddess,

Temples of Chaturbhuj (Vishnu), Devi Jagambi (Goddess), Duladeo (Shiva), Javari (Vishnu), Kandariya Mahadev (Shiva), Lakshmana (Shiva), Varah (Vishnu)

6 Sun temple, Konark (1984)

Ganga dynasty King Narasimhadeva I, 13th century; Sun god

Sun temple with huge chariot drawn by seven spirited horses on twelve pairs of exquisitely decorated wheels.

7. Elephanta Caves (1987)

Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas, 5th ~ 8th centuries; Shiva

Shiva in his various forms, Shiva-Parvati Ardhanarishvara (androgen)

8. Kailahsanatha Temple, Ellora Caves (1983)

Rashtrakuta dynasty king Krishna I, 8th century; Shiva, also Buddhist and Jain Images

The caves are world-known for rock-cut temples containing elaborate carvings on the walls; Mt Kailasha and Shiva is a megalith carved out of one single rock.


Table 2. India: Tentative WHL Hindu Religious Heritage Sites (7) and their Characteristics

Se Heritage Site Name Period, dynasty; major God Main Temples, and important monuments

1 Bishunpur, Bankura District, WB (1998)

16th ~ 17th centuries; Krishna

Traditional architectural temples with a single tower upon a sloping roof and a square cell (Garbhagriha) with three multi-cusped arches (i.e. Lalji, Kalachand, Radhashyam, Jormandir and Nandalal). Others with multiple towers are Pancha Ratna types (Shyam Rai of CE 1643), the Jor Bangle temple (CE 1655), and Rasmancha (CE 1600).

2 Ekambra, the temple city of Bhubaneswar, Odisha (2014)

3rd century BCE ~ CE 15th centuries; Shiva, Vishnu, and Goddess

Kundalesvara temple in the east, Balhadevi Temple on the north and Bahirangesvara temple near Dhauli on the south, Mukteshvara in the west, with Lingaraj Temple as its centre mark the sacred territory forming an archetype of universe (mandala).

3 Sacred ensembles of Hoysala, Karnataka (2014)

12th ~ 18th centuries; Shiva and Vishnu and his incarnations, and some Jain temples too.

The Chennakeshava temple at Belur and the Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebid; the sacred territory forming an archetype of universe (mandala); sculptures depicts scenes from the life of Vishnu and his reincarnations and the epics, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata.

4 Srirangapattna Island town (with Fort), Mandya Dt., Karnataka (2014)

9th ~ 12th centuries; Sri Rangasvamy and his tutelary deity Tirumala Dev

Temples of Sri Ranganatha Svami, Srirangapattana, Sri Kanthirava Statue in Narasimha Temple.

5 Kakatiya, Warangal, A.P. (2014)

King Ganapati Deva Maharaja (1199-1261); Mother Earth, Shiva

Remnants of temples of Swayambhu and Keerthi Thoranas, Rudreswara (Thousand pillars temple), Hanumakonda , and Rudreswara (Ramappa) Temple, Palampet; Swayambhu Alayam (‘Mother Earth’)

6 Sri Ranganathasvamy Temple at Srirangam, like temple town (Tiruchirapalli), Tamil Nadu (2014)

3rd century BCE ~ CE 10th centuries; Ranganatha-Vishnu

One among the three largest Functioning Temples in the World, and the largest religious

complexes of the world; the finest is the Hall

of 1000 pillars (actually 953) dated ca 14th century; the notable mandapam (hall) are: Shesharayar, Garuda, Kili, and Ranga Vilas; the Kottarams (granaries), small shrines, and Gopurams (temple towers), 640 inscriptions, frescos and mural paintings, vahanas (vehicles), and ten temple tanks are the other notable treasures.

7 Majuli Island, Assam (2004)

16th century; Vishnu and his incarnation – a site of spiritual tourism.

30 Satras (monasteries) of 16th century Vaishnavite socio-religious reformer Srimanta Sankar Deb.


Table 3. India: WHL Hindu Religious Sites and their association with major Gods.

Se Hindu Divinity WHS- representative temple, no. in the list (8)

WHS Ten. List, temple, no. in the list (7)

1 Shiva, Cosmic dancer and god of dissolution-recreation

1. Brihadishvara (Chola) 2. Virupakha (Hampi) 4. Nine Shiva temples (Pattadakal) 7. Ardhanarishvara (Elephanta) 8. Kailasanatha (Ellora)

2. Mukteshvara, Lingaraja (Ekambra)

2 Shiva, and Vishnu (the of sustenance)

3. Shore temple (Shiva), Varaha (Vishnu) – Mahabalipuram. 5. Shiva (Kandariya, Matangeshvara), Vishnu (Chaturbhuji, Varaha) – Khajuraho

2. Lingaraja as Harihara – Shiva and Vishnu together (Ekambra, Bhubaneshwar) 3. Chennakeshvara I(Shiva), Hoyaleshvara (Vishnu) – Hoyalsha.

3 Surya, Sun-god 6. Sun temple (Konark)

4 Vishnu, god of sustenance; his form Krishna

4. Ranganath Svami (Vishnu-form), Narsimha Man-lion form) – Srirangapattanam. 6. Rangasvamy (Vishnu) – Srirangam. 7. Satta (monasteries, Vishnu-form) – Majuli Island. 1. Krishna – Bishunpur.

5 Goddess/ Devi 5. Swayambhu Alyam (‘Mother Earth’- Bhu-

Devi), Rudreshvara (Shiva) – Kakatiya.

Table 4. WHS, other than India: Hindu Religious Heritage Sites (5)

Se WHS, place, country; year of inscription

Period, dynasty; major God

Main Temples, and characteristics

1 Prambanan Temple (Central Java), Indonesia (1991)

10th century; Shiva, Nandi, Brahma, and Vishnu

The largest Hindu temples in south-east Asia: Shiva, Nandi, Vishnu, Brahma temples, and several small shrines.

2 Angkor Wat (Angkor), Cambodia (1992)

12th century under Suryavarman II; Vishnu

Sculpturing Vishnu and his reincarnated forms, and scenes from ancient Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

3 Pashupatinath Temple, and seven monuments and temples in the valley (Kathmandu), Nepal (1979)

15th ~ 18th centuries, the Malla kings; the two Buddhist stupas of Swayambhu and Bauddhanath included

Pashupatinath temple (Shiva) - Kathmandu, Changu Narayan (Vishnu) - Bhaktapur; Kathmandu Darbar Square temples (Bhagvati, Jagannath, Kotilingeswara Mahadev, Mahendreswara, Taleju and Krishna); Bhaktapur Darbar Square (Teleju temple)

4 Mỹ Son Sanctuary (Duy Phu Commune, Duy Xuyen District), Viet Nam (1999)

4th ~ 13th centuries, Hindu Champa Kingdom; dominantly Shiva, also Krishna and Vishnu.

A series of impressive tower-temples, having cosmological archetypes: the main tower (kalan), the sacred mountain (meru) at the centre, the square or rectangular base (bhurloka), and above this rises the main tower (bhuvakola ), the realm of sun.

5 Mother Temple of Besakih, Eastern Bali, Indonesia (WHL Tent. 1995)

13th ~ 15th centuries, Geigel-Kiungkung dynasty; Shiva, Brahma, and Vishnu, and Mother Nature.

The largest and holiest temple of Hinduism in Indonesia, lies on sacred mountain of Agung at Pura Panataran, where enshrined the central shine of Trinity Hindu gods (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva); surrounding to this exist 18 other sanctuaries; total 86 temples are in the complex.


The Author

Contact & Corresponding Address:

Prof. Dr. RANA P. B. SINGH Vice-President: ACLA, Asian Cultural Landscape Association

Professor of Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies, Head, Dept. of Geography, Banaras Hindu University

# New F - 7, Jodhpur Colony; B.H.U., Varanasi, UP 221005. INDIA.

Tel: (+091)-542-2575-843. Cell: (+91-0)- 9838 119474. Email: [email protected]

§ Rana P.B. Singh [born: 15 Dec. 1950], M.A. 1971, Ph.D. 1974, F.J.F. (Japan) 1980, F.I.F.S. (Japan) 2004,

F.A.A.I. (Italy) 2010, F.A.C.L.A. (Korea) 2013, ‘Ganga-Ratna’ (GMS India) 2014, Professor of Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies, and Head, Department of Geography at Banaras Hindu University, has been involved in studying, performing and promoting the heritage planning, sacred geography & cultural astronomy, pilgrimage studies in the Varanasi region for the last four decades, as consultant, project director, collaborator and organiser. He has also studied heritagescapes of Japan, Korea and Sweden. He has been a Member, UNESCO Network of Indian Cities of Living Heritage (- representing Varanasi), and was a South Asian representative to the IGU initiative on ‘Culture and Civilisation to Human Development’ (CCHD), 2005-08. He is also the Member of the two Steering Committees of the International Geographical Union’s Commissions, 2012-2016: (i) Cultural Approach in Geography (C12.07), and Landscape Analysis and Landscape Planning (C12.25). He is also serving as President (2014-2016) of IASR, Indian Association for Study of Religion, an affiliate of the International Association of Study of Religion (Netherlands). In recognition of his works, he has been honoured as being Fellow of the Academia Ambrosiana, Italy, F.A.A.I. in 2009, and serving as member of its International Board of the Scientific Committee, 2010-15. As visiting scholar he has given lectures and seminars on these topics at various centres in Australia, Austria, Belgium, China PR, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, USA (& Hawaii), and USSR.

His publications include 16 monographs, 25 books, and around 240 research papers in journals of repute. His recent publications include Towards the Pilgrimage Archetype (2002), Where the Buddha

Walked (2003/ 2009), Cultural Landscapes and the Lifeworld (2004), Banaras, the City Revealed (2005, ed. with George Michell), Banaras: History, Geography and Bibliography (2009), and the eight books under ‘Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series’: ‒ five from Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK: Uprooting Geographic Thoughts in India (2009), Geographical Thoughts in India:

Snapshots and Vision for the 21st Century (2009), Cosmic Order & Cultural Astronomy (2009),

Banaras, Making of India’s Heritage City (2009), Sacred Geography of Goddesses in South Asia (2010), and ‒ three from Shubhi Publications (New Delhi): Heritagescapes and Cultural Landscapes (2011), Sacredscapes and Pilgrimage Systems (2011), and Holy Places and Pilgrimages: Essays on

India (2011); Indo-Kyosei Global Ordering: Gandhi’s Vision, Harmonious Coexistence, &

Ecospirituality (Toyo Univ. Tokyo, Japan, 2011); and Hindu Tradition of Pilgrimage (2013). Presently he is working on the Kashi & Cosmos: Sacred Geography and Ritualscape of Banaras.

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[430.15a]. Singh, Rana P.B. 2015. Heritage Value of Religious Sites and Built Archetypes: The...

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