Water Symbolism and Sacred Landscape in Hinduism: A Study of Benares (Vārāṇasī)(Wassersymbolismus und heilige Landschaft im Hinduismus: Eine Studie aus Benares(Vārāṇasi))Author(s): Rana P. B. SinghReviewed work(s):Source: Erdkunde, Bd. 48, H. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1994), pp. 210-227Published by: ErdkundeStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25646594 .Accessed: 29/10/2011 04:55

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Erdkunde is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Erdkunde.

http://www.jstor.org

210 Erdkunde Band 48/1994

WATER SYMBOLISM AND SACRED LANDSCAPE IN HINDUISM: A STUDY OF BENARES (VARANASI)

With 7 figures and 6 photos

Rana P. B. Singh

Zusammenfassung: Wassersymbolismus und heilige Land

schaft im Hinduismus: Eine Studie aus Benares (Varanasi) In der iiberlieferten Hindu-Mythologie wird Wasser als

die Ursprungsquelle von Schopfung und Leben beschrie

ben. Spater werden Gewassern und Flufiufern Heilkrafte

zugeschrieben. Sie werden dementsprechend als heilige Statten betrachtet. Der Ganges wird als die ? Mutter aller

Fliisse" angesehen und man glaubt, dafi besonders der

nordlich fliefiende Abschnitt bei Varanasi hochste Gnade

verheifit. In Varanasi fuhren vierundachtzig Stufenanlagen

(ghats) zum Ganges hinunter und es gibt mehr als fiinfzig Weiher. Diese Wasserstellen sind von mythologischer Be

deutung und werden regelmafiig von Glaubigen besucht -

entweder fiir Reinigungsrituale oder aus speziellen Moti

ven zu verschiedenen giinstigen Gelegenheiten. Die raum

liche Nahe und sakrale Gemeinsamkeit von Wasserstellen

fiihrten zur Entstehung einer Wasserlandschaft in der hei

ligen Stadt Varanasi. Dariiber hinaus gilt die Stadt als der

heiligste Ort des hinduistischen Glaubens iiberhaupt. Die

ser Aufsatz versucht, dessen speziellen Wassersymbolis mus im Zusammenhang mit der heiligen Landschaft zu

beschreiben.

Introduction

In ancient Hindu mythology (about 800 BCE) water is described as the foundation of the whole

world, the basis for life and the elixir of immortality (see SBr IV 8.2.2; III. 6.1.7; and IV. 4.3, 15). The

Atharva Veda (II. 3.6) prays: "May the waters bring us well-being!". There appear many such descrip tions about the quality, use, sanctity and symbolism of water (Eliade 1958, 188). In the later period water becomes a symbol of life, and the flow of water: life world. In curative terms water is regarded as a healer

{AVIV. 91.3). Metaphorically and metaphysically the ancient mythologies refer to water as the container of life, strength and eternity. More commonly water is perceived as a purifying medium. However, to

reach the source and receive the merit of "living water" involves a series of consecrations, rituals and

religious activities like pilgrimage and sacred baths. The cult of water is described in the vedic literature, and followed on vividly in the puranic literature.

The "wash away sins" quality of water is bound

up with the power of sanctity and cosmological con

notation in mythologies. Says Eliade (1959, 131), "Everything that is form manifests itself above the

waters, by detaching itself from the waters". The run

ning water in general and the Ganga (Ganges) water in particular, and sacred ponds, too, are described

as bestowers of sanctity and miracles. In this way a

common chain of interrelationship between water

bodies and human society is maintained by the varieties of performances and rituals. The psychic attachment to a place and maintenance of cultural

traditions reflect a realization of the divine mani festation at the place. The intensity of this manifest

power varies from one place to another. Such specific

places are known as tirthas (holy sites, or sacred

places). The three more generally identifiable factors for popularity and acceptance of sacred places are:

unique natural landscape, unique body of water, and an association with some great sage. These charac

teristics are eulogized in Hindu mythology. Varanasi

(Benares) in span of time acquired a distinct status

among the holy sites in India. Its location between the two rivers and along the notherly flow of the Ganga, and its association with Lord Siva are its unique characteristics.

The Ganga (Ganges) River

In Hindu mythology all the rivers are revered as remover of pollution, however, the Ganga is embody

ing the most prominent and purifying liquid power. No river in the world's history has achieved such fame as the sacred river Ganga. At least from about

the third century the Ganga has played a vital role in ceremonies and worship

- in rituals of birth and

initiation, of purification and religious merit, of mar

riage and death. The Gariga is known as Mother

Gariga (Ganga Mai) bringing life in the form of sacred water. The Ganga is a sacred fluid, an essential ele

ment for all the Hindu rites and rituals. The Ganga is often described as the river flowing

in heaven, on earth and also in the netherworlds

(Tripathaga). That is how the Gariga is a "liquid axis

mundi, a pathway connecting all spheres of reality, a

presence at which or in which one may cross over to

Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 211

/\?u^^ Kailala

0 ?--^Gomukha-. A

Simla j / Gangotri" 3^ Manasarovara <. \ ^^Badrinatha ^\ Rsike?a_ Nt,^/ X

Harid'vara^ir^^Prayag3 / J>^^

1 J,, . . \ / \_ _ J Tsangpo Rivet \ IHastmapura j

X. ?" \

-

\ ^S>s**>. \ ̂ ^^\

c - j ^ Everest

MathSa^!^^ \^ \

^^^f^/ ( J

>/ ^^^Bithura Sonepur^N ( \\ I >v 7^^^

//M^ if / / ( CitrLta# J~\V^ARA^IAST/ /^^J^anT^ \l / yf y / Vmdhyacala Cunara / ^nganj YXK. \\ J

\ Calcuttaj^k 1 \l ) y^o^^X

0 500km Of \ 1-1-1-1-1-1 Gan^isigara BgNQAL \

Fig. 1: The Gariga river flows from Gomukha (source) to Garigasagara (mouth) and covers a distance of 2,525 km

Der Ganges verlauft von Gomukha (Quelle) nach Garigasagara (Miindung) und ist 2525 km lang

another sphere of the cosmos, ascend to heavenly

worlds, or transcend human limitations" (Kinsley

1987, 193). Paraphrasing one of Carl Jung's state ments one could propose an ethics for the Gariga river and Hinduism: "People of India would never find true peace until they could come into harmo nious relationship with and deep feelings of rever ence to the Gariga river who is the cradle and identity of India's culture and civilization since time imme morial" (Singh 1993, 301).

Only after walking along the Gariga's bank one realizes that one's great-great-grandfathers once

walked that very bank and had certain experiences, manifestations and revelations. Revealing the Gariga as the living organism requires specific forms of com

munication, interaction and environmental sensitiv

ity. That is how the Gariga is known as the mother.

Beyond the economic and physical milieu one reaches the point of realizing the true spiritual value of the power of the Gariga for what it really is: a sense of power. As natural place she has physical,

mental, emotional and spiritual powers (energy) beyond her economic value. The stories of the Gariga may change, but the motherly river lives on. The

Gariga is described as the soul of India. There are many sacred sites and centres of pilgrim

age along the Gariga river (2525 km), for example Gomukha, Gangotri, Devaprayaga, Rsikesa, Harid

vara, Karikhala, Soron, Bithura, Prayaga/Allahabad, Vindyacala, Cunara, Varanasi, Patna, Sultanganj

212_Erdkunde_Band 48/1994

"^^"^ J AITPURAJ ^ ^-^

y^g^^^^; :: ; ; /: //y |

A j J^^^^^^i''; 0 500 1000 m

? Rana P B.Singh_^^^^P^'j^jj^U?^-//====^_

Fig. 2: Varanasi: The 84 ghats along the Ganga riverfront

Varanasi: Die 84 ghats am Ufer des Ganges

Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 213

and Garigasagara - from source to mouth (Fig. 1).

The most sacred place among all the holy places of India is Varanasi, known as the microcosm of India.

The Gahga River in Varanasi

In its whole course the Gariga flows south to north in a crescent shape only in Varanasi. On the other

hand, the current has not shifted its water-edge along the left-bank cliff since the ancient past, while the other side is a flood-prone area. This natural condi

tion has tended to support the natural beauty of Varanasi.

The Gariga, the patron deity Lord Siva, and the sacred territory of Kasi together form the Cosmic

Trinity (Trimurti) of this great city says a 12th cen

tury text, the KKh (35.10): The Gahga, Siva, and Kasi: Where this Trinity is watchful, No wonder where is found the grace, That leads one on to perfect bliss.

With the realization of its highest mystic power of

sanctity, especially in Varanasi, people from all parts of India came and settled along the river - resulting in the development of a social space encompassing all of India (Singh 1980, 1990, 125).

The Gariga riverfront spreads over an arc of 6.4 km

(4 miles) along which lie 84 ghats (steps to the river

bank) between the confluence of the Asi in south and the Varana in north (Fig. 2). In archetypal terms each

ghat represents one lakha (100000) of organic species as described in Hindu mythologies; that is how in total all the 8400000 species are symbolized along the 84 ghats in Varanasi. Further, 12 zodiacs X 7 layers of atmosphere, or 7 cakras (sheaths in the human

body) also comes to 84. Thus the annual cycle of the cosmic journey is completed by taking a sacred bath at the 84 ghats. At these sacred sites puranic texts

identify 98 water-front sacred spots. The number 98 indicates the cosmic frame linking 14 bhuvana-kosa

(sheaths in total) of the human body and 7 layers between earth and heaven (Singh 1993, 68).

According to the Brahma Purana (a 15th century text), the mystic power of bestowing bliss increases ten times when the Gariga enters the Vindhya region;

where it follows a westerly flow it is increased by hundred times, and when it follows a northerly flow in Varanasi the merit increases by a thousand times

(Singh 1987, 509). Following a common Hindu tra dition in the early morning at sunrise, pilgrims or devout citizens gather on the ghats to bathe in the

Gariga, drink at least a few drops of the sacred

water, and take blessings or religious instructions

from the ghatias ("priests" at the ghats) who, while seated at the river's edge under a typical canopy, preside over various offerings, including ancestral

offerings. Pilgrims then move into the narrow lanes to take a 'darsana' (auspicious sight) of the Visvesvara/

Visvanatha temple and the other sacred entities.

Among the 84 ghats five are considered as more

auspicious (Pahcatirthi); from the south to the north

they are: Asl, Dasasvamedha, Manikarnika, Parica

gariga, and Adi Kesava. Says the KKh (84.107) that

'having bathed in which a person shall never again be born'. These ghats are the most commonly visited

by pilgrims and devotees. These selective spots are

prescribed and described in detail in the KKh

(84.107-110), and are still very popularly visited

places -

either daily, or on auspicious occasions. The

architectural beauty of the city is not completed without the ghats. Vast beaches of stones, pavements and landings, ensure passage towards the waters of

the Gahga. They were developed during the con struction of the palaces and the bank buildings and ensure a transition of space. The palatial building at Ranamahala Ghat was made in late 17th century, and the Darbhanga Ghat in early 20th century in Greek pillar style (Photo 1). This portion is the most scenic spot along the Gariga.

Ast Ghat

Marking the southern edge of the city at the con fluence of the Asi, this ghat was referred to in a 17th

century text. The palatial buildings were made by the king of Varanasi in about 1830. This is one of the famous sites for celebrating the Surya Sasthi

("the Sixth day of the Sun" as mother goddess) festival held on the 5th and 6th day of the waxing fortnight of the month Karttika (October-Novem ber), when over ten thousand mothers perform this festival for the wellbeing of their sons.

Dasasvamedha Ghat

This ghat (Fig. 3, Photo 2) is presumed to be the first historically recorded site associated with the myth of the horse-sacrifice performed by the Bhara Siva

Naga kings around the 2nd century CE. Throughout the year this is the busiest ghat. On the 10th day of the waxing fortnight of Jyestha (May-June) worship of the Gariga is celebrated on a grand scale in the

Gariga temple at the top of the ghat. The sacred bath

PAofo 7: Varanasi: A scene of Ranamahala Ghat and Darbhariga Ghat, showing the architectural beauty (courtesy Niels Gutschow) ^

Co

Varanasi: Blick auf die architektonische Vielfalt von Ranamahala Ghat und Darbhariga Ghat

Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 215

" - ̂w^JW*'- ~^Wj&?.;:

Pteo -2: Varanasi: An early scene of Dasasvamedha Ghat as pictured by James Prinsep in 1830

Varanasi: Eine friihe Szenerie von Dasasvamedha Ghat, 1830 gemalt von James Prinsep

on the occasions of solar and lunar eclipses and in the month of Magna (December-January) is also

important.

Manikarnika Ghat

Mythologically known as "the great cremation

ground", this ghat (Fig. 4, Photo 3) is mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions of the 4th century. The ghat has two parts

- one for cremation, and the other for

bathing and rituals. After cremating corpses, the mourner and attendants take a bath at this site.

Pilgrims and devotees perform ancestral rites at this

ghat, more commonly in the special period of the

waning fortnight of Asvina (September-October).

Pancagahga Ghat

In 11th century mythologies this ghat (Fig. 5, Photo 4) is referred to frequently. It was famous for the grand temple of Veni Madhava, one representa

tion of Visnu, which was demolished and converted into a mosque in 1670 by the Mughal king Aurang zeb. That mosque still serves as a landmark along the arc of the river. The Gahga-arati ("offering oil

lamps to the goddess Gahga") at the time of sunrise and sunset is the most attractive scene at this ghat In the month of Karttika (October-November) the ritual of offering oil lamps to ancestors, hung up in the air on bamboo poles, is performed by the ghatias (^to-priests) on behalf of the devotees who patronize the cost or materials involved. Additional payment is also made for service of hoisting the lamps (daksina) every night. A ghatia tells many such stories of the families which by doing this ritual had received bles

sings from their ancestors resulting in prosperity.

Adi Kesava Ghat

Since the Gahadavala period (11th century), this

ghat is famous for the temple of Visnu as Kesava -

assumed to be the oldest in the region. For Vaisnavi

^^^^ ^

Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 217

I I I I t \\/hll \ Jf jfllm A m mL*\ It I H I ill I I hi Jirl I * in //Ail/ Imm m- \ fl I \ I

^mMwnwnwnwnwnwnwnwnwnwnmmMwnwnwnwnwnwnwMwnwBMwm^^ if^Ail' AS^Ba^^^^^l

Photo 3: Varanasi: A scene of Manikarnika Ghat. The ritual of offering oil lamps hung up in the air on bamboo poles marks an ancestral rite (courtesy Niels Gutsghow)

Varanasi: Eine Szenerie von Manikarnika Ghat. Das Ritual der Darbietung von Ollampen an Bambusstocken be

inhaltet die Verehrung der Ahnen

tes (devotees of Visnu) this is the most attractive site. In practice, most of the pilgrims take a bath at the closeby confluence of the Varana and the Gahga, followed by a visit and rituals in the Adi Kesava

temple.

The five ghats in perspective

These five ghats symbolize the microcosmic body of Lord Visnu: Asi is the head, Dasasvamedha is the

chest, Manikarnika is the navel, Pancagahga is the

thighs, and Adi Kesava is the feet. This recalls the

myth that Visnu first placed his holy feet in Vara nasi. Thus the area along the Gahga river is sym bolized as Visnu's body. Says the KKh (84.114) that

"having bathed in the five ghats a person never again receives a body of five elements; rather he becomes the five-faced Siva in Kasi."

The two most important occasions for bathing in the Gahga at Varanasi are makara-samkranti (winter

solstice; 14th of January), and mesa-samkranti (vernal equinox; 14th of April). The other important occa sions are the full-moon days (especially of Octo

ber-November), eclipses, and the new-moon days. On any of these occasions over a hundred thousand

visitors take a holy bath in the Gariga. It is obvious from the participatory survey on the

occasion of the winter solstice (14th of January 1993,

Thursday) that a little less than half of the visitors

belonged to higher castes (Brahmins, Rajputs and

Bhumihars) -

reflecting the sense of faith and better economic affordability. Age (50 and above), low education and nearness to the city are among the fac

tors for the intensity of participation. Similar results were also found on the occasion of the new-moon

day that fell on the 26th February 1993 (Saturday). If the new-moon day falls on Monday it increases the power of bestowing merit, e. g. on the 18th of

January 1988. Most of the visitors belong to the middle-class income group.

After a purificatory bath in the Gariga and wor

shipping her, pilgrims head for an auspicious glimpse

218 Erdkunde Band 48/1994

^Z^T^ y^^^^^ y^y^^^^^^ ^ k IMaheSvara ^^Si^^^^'^ ^^^^W%% V? 2 CakraPu$kar'nT Kuo^a

^^^^^ S^^&Sj^ ^^W^ \^ ^ 3 Visnu'8 Caraoa PSdukl

p*3* (^^^^^^^<^> ^ 4 Ma^ikaroikeSvara '

>^^A_^^^^T^^^^^ ^ u SSidd'ha Vinayaka uWlU^Ir^ <0&&Y^^ G 6Tarakesvara l^do^Sr?n^m^^?^y^ 70attStreyeSvara

^^JST/j" ^^^^^ 8 Amethy Temple

^<^T^8llM 0MJ 0 50 m ^V^^^^g^COreiftiflori 0round) i--*- -?-?-?

^ ? Rana P. B. Singh

Ft?. 4: Varanasi: Manikarnika and nearby ghats, known for cremation and ancestral rites. Numbers 1 to 8 show the

important shrines and temples

Varanasi: Manikarnika und die umliegenden ghats, bekannt fiir Einascherungen und Rituale, die den Ahnen gewid met sind. Die Nummern 1 bis 8 markieren die Lage der bedeutenden Schreine und Tempel

(darsana) of the patron deity, Visvesvara/Visvanatha and the ancillary shrines in and around the temple compound, Kala Bhairava (the protector of the city and controller of Death), Sarikatamocana, Durga, and others.

The birth of the Gariga, referring to her coming on earth from heaven, is celebrated on the 10th of the

waxing fortnight of Jyestha (May-June). In 1992 it fell on June 10. Devotees believe that to bathe in the

Gariga in the morning of this day bestows high merit and relief from the sins committed earlier. This day is followed by another auspicious day, ekddasi, asso ciated with the worship of Visnu, the protector. Those who take a religious vow (sahkalpa) to worship the Gariga start the bathing and associated rituals from the first day of Jyestha and complete the cycle on the 11th day (ekddasi).

Kundas/Sacred Ponds

The sacred territory of Varanasi is dramatically associated with water bodies. The eastern edge is determined by the Gariga river, north by the Varana

river, and south by the Asi. The whole city has hun dreds of water ponds (Hindi: tdldb, Sanskrit: kundd) which even as late as the mid nineteenth century formed a series of streams dividing the city into five forest tracts (vana)

- from north to south these were Maha Vana, Daru Vana, Ananda Vana, Harikesa

Vana and Bhadra Vana (Fig. 6) Many of the water

ponds were interlinked during heavy rains (July September), draining the area. In a way the sacred

topography of the city thus followed a seasonal

rhythm of nature. The map of Varanasi made by the British scholar Prinsep in 1822 clearly shows how

Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 219

^^^:DI^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ <- ; / :

] Ik ^^^^^^^^^^ ^ " ' "'^

^^^^^^^^^^^ a ^ ; * i^|^Sf4iv#r?

mIM/ ////// ^ mrutmikm ^n, - y^W/// n//J MaAgala <S*t*r?

_'_1

"" ">:'"1'VI" 1 ?^-1

<g> Rana P. B. Singh

Fig. 5: Varanasi: Pancaganga and nearby ghats. Numbers 1 to 8 refer to important shrines and temples

Varanasi: Pancaganga und die umliegenden ghats. Die Nummern 1 bis 8 markieren die Lage von bedeutenden

Schreinen und Tempeln

numerous these ponds and tanks were (Fig. 6). His

drawing shows how in the north Maha Vana and Daru Vana were divided by the stream linking Mari dakini and Matsyodari, further meeting Rinamocana and finally flowing into the Varana river. One part of this stream, during heavy rains, met the Gahga river near Manikarnika Ghat. The overflow of the

water connected Bhulotana Garha, Benia Talab,

Suraja Kunda Misira Pokhara and finally met the

Gahga at Dasasvamedha Ghat. Of course, these water bodies are filled up, however, only during heavy rains or floods, when the channels come again to the surface, reminding us of the old water bodies and their routes, as in the years 1948, 1978 and 1992.

In spite of such changes in landscape, the impor tance of sacred ponds (kundas) is not lost. On auspi cious occasions at the bank of these sacred ponds

many religious activities are performed, and fairs

(melds) and bathing rituals held. These are eulogized in the mythological literature and maintained by continuing tradition.

The mythological literature mentions sixty sacred

ponds, six bigger wells (vdpis) and thirty-one sacred wells (kupas) in Varanasi. With the increase of pop ulation and spread of settlements, many of the water sites were either filled up, or were encroached upon

within the residential quarters. However, the famous sites are still alive. The notable onces are described below.

Jndnavdpi ("Well of Wisdom ")

This well symbolizes the primordial water asso ciated with the story of Isana (Siva's form controlling

220 Erdkunde Band 48/1994

b^^HBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB BBBBBBBBBBBB

1 S^g^ ^BbBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB

II^b^bI^b^b^bsHb^b^b^b^b^Hb^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^ b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^bIb^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^b^H

Photo 4: Varanasi: A scene of Pancagahga Ghat. A series of chatari (canopy) of priests is a distinct view (courtesy Niels Gutschow)

Varanasi: Eine Szenerie von Pancagahga Ghat. Eine Ansammlung von Schirmen fur die Priester ist ein bezeichnen

der Anblick

the northeast realm of the universe), who dug the earth at this site with his trident and offered the water to Avimuktesvara, the most ancient form of Siva in

Varanasi (KKh 33.17, 18). Says the KKh (33.50) that

Siva, on becoming acquainted with the circumstance, promised to take up his abode in the well in liquid form, and to reside there for destroying ignorance and to give wisdom (jhana). According to local tradition, after the temple was demolished in 1669 by the

Mughal king Aurangzeb, Visvanatha-Siva took refuge in the well and since then resides there. Jnanavapi is the highest among all the pilgrimage centres, and a direct manifestation of wisdom, giver of all sorts of

knowledge, preserver of merits of all the lihgas, the most auspicious and direct manifestation of Siva, and was in Varanasi long before the Ganga came to earth (KKh 34.123).

During most of the sacred journeys and rituals

pilgrims first come here to sip the water and take a vow (sahkalpa) of initiation and completion of their ritual journeys. At the end of the journey they return to sip the saced water again as a mark of completion.

Presently the well is well equipped with iron bars across the top, and a cloth is spread over the iron

grill to prevent coins, flowers and ritual items of

pilgrims from plunging into it. The well is surrounded

by a low-roofed colonnade, the stone pillars of which are arranged in four rows.

Manikarnika, or Cakrapuskarini Kunda

The mythology given in the KKh (60.137-138; 61.83-85) tells us that for the benefit of the three worlds the mythic king Bhagiratha brought the Gariga to the place where Manikarnika is - to Siva's Forest of Bliss, to Visnu's Lotus Pool. This is eulogized as the "Door of Heaven", located close to the Ghat, around which the cremation ground is situated. The

tank, surrounded today by a cast-iron railing, is some sixty feet square at the top, narrowing to about

twenty feet square at the water's edge (Photo 5). The well is said "to spring from a square independent of the Gariga

- an underground river that flows directly

Rana P. B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 221

nll^H^k^k^k^ki&^k^k^k^B^kHflH^&al Ink^k^k^k^k^k^k^k^k^k^kVkik^nBW

i%o/0 5: Varanasi: A scene of Cakrapuskarini Kunda, Manikarnika Ghat (courtesy Niels Gutschow) Varanasi: Eine Szenerie von Cakrapuskarini Kunda, Manikarnika Ghat

from Gomukha, the "Cow's mouth" in the Hima

laya, the place where the River Ganga emerges from a mountain glacier" (Egk 1983, 239f). The KKh

(chapter 26) says:

During the cosmic flood of dissolution, there was nothing at all. . . . There was only Pure Reality, aBrahmana. . . .

Then that One pure form, Lord Siva ["spirit"] was the

form of that Formless One, and with him was the goddess Sakti, calledPrakrti

["Matter"J as well as Maya ["Illu

sion"]. And the two of them, Siva and Sakti, created this

place. . . . Thereafter they created a Divine Man (Visnu) for the creation of world. . . . At this site Visnu made a

beautiful lotus pond and filled it up with water from the sweat of his own limbs, and performed fierce austerities

for 500 000years (KKh 26.8, 15, 28, 43, 52).

This kunda was the world's first pool. It was the first holy spot dug out at the dawn of time and filled

with the sacred water of Lord Visnu's perspiration. As a testimony to that story Visnu's footprints are visible there. Before purifying themselves in the

pond, Hindu pilgrims first pray at the marble slab which bears Visnu's footprints. Millions of Hindus

have sprinkled it with holy water and adorned it with flowers. Whenever a Maharaja (king) of Bena res dies, it is alongside the footprints that he is cremated.

Each year when the Ganga recedes the water leaves a huge mass of alluvial silt in the tank.

Moreover, during the peak floods the kunda is com

pletely inundated and often disappears from view, as in August 1993. When floods and waters recede,

gradually the excavation and reclamation of the silt

begins and is completed by sivaratri (the new-moon

day of February-March). On this occasion a grand celebration takes place. The pilgrims passing along this route perform special rituals in honour of their

ancestors; additionally as a completion rite pilgrims also come here and perform the rituals of thanks

giving.

Durgd Kunda

The temple of the goddess Durga is located in the southern extremity of Varanasi and associated with

222 Erdkunde Band 48/1994

o""' ' *!&us$ JN .i^^MurghabT

Tb.

^SrVmf&t^'^ Burhwa Kunda j/ V;

' |\> '^T^Umaria Tb.

Ta,ab ? ^ IT ff* V"1^ ,;>,?,

J||p r^jKapalamocana Kd.

o 0fe $ % Maha Vana

& P% |4sT^\aria /O Papamocana A, Corua / B^,? MotiW\ \i ?""" ^^^^

DhupacandT jJY- fQi ^ ^ '

- ^

0 gci?,.kuu ^ %hanesara fft> f !^ VJUtraKuta

.Llahsaid OpllRani BhavanT

"

isvaragangTKd. 15 ^ ||l ^ Ramakatora Kd. m

0~ l=iJf Nagotri =

0Khajua ̂>?"?*? Daru VanajL <j$^*f >mv;S1F1L.,_ HaratTratha,^ X' "' ^|LJJ Ptsacamocana

^g^> Matsyod^lfiy s^^^^^^^'";*'

OJ.NayapokharT \JF V " '/^iT i*!!?^

?. \ Bhulotan X^rzi*

Kunda Kunda ^ Q ^ // jJ^K^%^

*

Kunda t ^ ^JnanavapT

Wwcr?

J 7<m Vana

^^p^^;;^v;V R=mafoi LakLi C^V^S^ a KSSda Kunda Misira ̂^Na^ ^

^ 5: A Pokhara |n ̂ MSnamandira

^ Harikesa ^iy?//* ^ n i

Vana #c^i^^^;;;-: 1 ^

Garha , . o Jj ; .

^[fC^V Manasarovara V / ^-v-' Kunda[|]/f\ ; v f';'- M

^SjS'- f ^ HjL, / ^ The water of Matsyodan No^O^* ?V ^_ djBftj^l*ll^^/v'-".

runs into the Varana Garha D . - . _ X^GaunEf

* b at Madhia Ghat

b n a d r a ^ Kd:?/ Sankudhara ^Vana '^W^^^^

Tb- Tal5b HKu,da ^ Ku^l^^|;|^

^ Kuoda

Scotia /' >!i; ^iNfe ;

Kuruksetra \? Kd.* 5 f** 0 ̂ . v.-.: . . . . . i _ . _. Kunda Ji '*

V-:. Guanbai m ^ t >W&

? RanaR B.Singh "'"''"^'^^^^ ^ , \'.

_D.G.

F/^. 5: Varanasi: Ancient water bodies and five forest tracts (after James Prinsep 1822)

Varanasi: Uralte Gewasser und fiinf Waldgebiete

Rana P. B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 223

1 Durga Devi 2 LaksmT 3 SarasvatT 4 Canda Bhairava 5 BhadrakalT 6 Ganesa

7 Jalesvara 8 Surya 9 Kukkutesvara 10 Jvalaharesvara 11 Durga Vinayaka G Gate

Fig. 7: Varanasi: Durga Kunda and Durga temple. Numbers 1 to 12 show the shrines

Varanasi: Durga Kunda und der Tempel von Durga. Die Nummern 1 bis 12 markieren die Lage der Schreine

a sacred pond (Fig. 7). According to mythology Durga protects the city from the south. She is said to have rested at Durga Kunda after slaying the

mythic demon. Durga here is called Kusmanda

("Pumpkin Gourd"), one among the nine manifesta tions. On every Tuesday, and more frequently in the

month of Sravana (July-August) worshippers per form rituals at this site. Presently the water of the

pond is so polluted that only a few pilgrims dare to bathe; in fact most of them put only some drops

of this water upon their head as a mark of the puri ficatory rite. Pilgrims performing sacred journeys like the Nagara Pradaksina ("Pilgrimage around the City"), Kedara Khanda ("Sacred segment of

Kedara") and Pancakrosi (the outer sacred circuit) pass through this site and perform rituals. During the month of Sravana (July-August) a religious fair is held - attended by an enormous multitude of people. Both sides of the road are decorated by shops for sweets and ritual items. The other two periods of

224 Erdkunde Band 48/1994

mass visitation are the 1st to 9th day of the waxing fortnight of Gaitra (March-April) and Asvina (Sep tember

- October).

Closeby to this sacred pond lies Kuruksetra Kunda, which is famous for the bath taken there on the occa sion of a solar eclipse. This tank was constructed by

Queen Rani Bhavani of Bengal in about 1775, in commemoration of the war fought at Kuruksetra

described in the epicMahabharata. This tank is square, and is built with stone stairs, leading down to the water.

Loldrka Kunda ("Well of the Trembling Sun ")

Of the twelve sun shrines of the city, the one called Lolarka is the most famous and marks the southern

edge of the city. Its first reference is made in a 8th

century BC text, the SBr (VI. 1.28), which describes the twelve Suns associated with twelve solar months.

Long before the formation of Hinduism, Lolarka was famous for sun and snake worship during Bud dha's time. Historically it became more famous

during the Gahadavala kings in the 11th century.

Presently, Lolarka Kunda is a Sun and Saivite site of worship that reflects a complex history of gradual mythological fusion, and it remains a powerful place that draws thousands of Hindus. Eulogizing this tank the KKh (46.67) states that the water of Asi River and the rays of the sun god Lolarka work

together to erase the sins of those who come to Vara

nasi. Bathing in this tank provides the merit of

purification from sin and disease, and finally bles

sing for life and fertility. On every Sunday many people still take baths and

worship the Sun god Lolarka and a nearby lihga of Lolarka-Siva (Lolarkesvara). The 6th day of the

waxing fortnight of Bhadrapada (August-Septem ber) is the most auspicious day, Lolarka Sasthi, when tens of thousands of worshippers, mostly ladies, take baths in the tank to receive bliss for their sons and

their wellbeing. This tank maintains its popularity as a site of a non-Brahmanical fertility ritual. Both,

vow-taking and thanksgiving rites are performed on

this occasion. Most pilgrims come here to perform thanksgiving who have earlier received an offspring, and finally they perform the tonsure of small chil

dren (mundana) as a rite of passage at the same spot. As is customary since the early 19th century, after

taking baths and performing rituals at this site pil

grims proceed to Krnga Kunda, about half a kilo metre northwest, associated with the Tantric sage

Kina Rama. They again take baths in the latter tank

and sing religious songs.

Laksmi Kunda

Lying in the central part of the city the tank is associated with Laksmi, the goddess of "wealth" (see KKh 70.63). On the 8th of the waxing fortnight of

Bhadrapada (August-September) the goddess moves from the sanctum to the foreground. And, on the 16th day a religious fair is held there. Those who

perform fasting and austerity for Laksmi bathe in the tank, listen to puranic stories, enjoy the glimpse of Laksmi, and honour her with sixteen kinds of

grains and sixteen kinds of flowers. The sixteen-day period is called "Sorahia Mela". On the final day of this period

- the eighth day of the waning fortnight of Asvina (September-October)

- the festival of

Jivita Putrika, or popularly known as Jiutia is cele brated on a great scale. In 1993 this period started on 23 rd September and was completed on 8th October. This festival is mostly observed by women

for a long and prosperous life of their children. At the embankments of Laksmi Kunda ladies make

yantras (sacred designs) under the guidance of a

priest with vermilion and wheat and rice flour. While

performing thanksgiving both husband and wife

together take an active part in rituals.

Pisacamocana Kunda

This sacred tank is one among the three sites for ancestral worship and rituals; the others are Mani

karnika Kunda and Kapiladhara Kunda. The wan

ing fortnight of Asvina (September-October) is the most auspicious period of worship at these sites. The ancient name of this pond was Vimaladaka Kunda, but after its association with providing liberation

(-mocana) to a departed soul that took the form of a

goblin (Pisaca-), the present name became popular

(see KKh 54.74; KP 32, 62). For those departed souls fated to become a goblin, by baths and doing rituals here they are "set free". After a passage of

time there also developed exorcism to get relief from

the evil spirit. Most commonly on every Sunday and

Tuesday victims pay a visit and by the complicated rituals under the guidance of oracles obtain libera tion from the evil spirits. On the 14th day of the

waxing fortnight of Margasirsa (November-Decem ber), a sacred journey in the form of a circumam

bulation of the tank is done. A huge crowd of visitors

stop on this occasion and cook wheat-flour balls and

fry eggplants on the open fire made of pats of cow

dung. This food is called "pure food" (sattvika), the one inclined towards tranquillity and quietism (Parry

Rana R B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 225

Photo 6: Varanasi: A scene of Dharma Kiipa, a sacred well associated with Dharmaraja - the Lord of Death, Yama

(courtesy Niels Gutschow)

Varanasi: Eine Szenerie von Dharma Kiipa, ein heiliger Brunnen, zugeordnet Dharmaraja - dem "Herrn des

Todes", Yama

1985, 613). This fair is called Lota-Bhanta Mela. The ritual performed here is meant to remember the Pisaca's soul finally was set free. The majority of the attendants are women from nearby villages.

Sacred Ponds along the Pahcakrosi Route

The route which delimits the sacred territory (Kasi), called pancakrosiyatra, passes by eight sacred

ponds and wells; from east to west (clockwise) they are: Lolarka, Durga, Kardama, Gandharva, Bhai

rava, Sindhusarovara, Yupa and Kapiladhara. In

these ponds pilgrims take baths and receive merit; however, at present Sindhusarovara and Yupa have

lost their existence due to lack of water, while the rest have polluted water. Kapiladhara Kunda represents

the holy spot of Garigasagara, the meeting point of the Gariga to the Bay of Bengal, and is famous for ancestral rites. To avoid pollution, pilgrims bathe at the closeby wells and perform an abstract form of bathing at these sites by pouring a few drops of water from these ponds upon their heads.

The other important sacred ponds are: Suraja ("sun") Kunda, specially visited on every Sunday of Caitra (March-April) to get relief from skin diseases

(see KKh 48.53); Dharma Kupa (Photo 6), visited

during the llth-15th of the waxing days of Karttika

(October-November) to receive blessing from Yama, or Dharmaraja (Lord of Death; see KKh 97.58); Naga ("snake") Kupa, visited on the 5th of the

waxing day of Sravana (July -August) to be safe from snakes (see KKh 66.10); and Candresvara Kupa visited on the full-moon day of Caitra (March-April) to honour the Moon (see KKh 68.51).

There are still many lakes, pools and wells in Vara nasi today. In addition to their mundane use they serve as places of ritual bathing. Most of them still remain as natural, clay-banked pools; however, some

of them have been converted into tanks with stone

steps leading to the water along all four sides. These

pools in the ancient past served as popular religious sites for Hindus, and the city was famous as a place of abundant waters. But nowadays the visitor to the

city would hardly notice this unusual geography. Eck (1983, 51) has rightly remarked that "Its many tanks and pools are hidden in crowded sections of the city, accessible only by very narrow lanes. The basins that were once lakes have become city parks, and the running streams have become streets".

Towards Sacred Ecology

Concerning environmental problems, ethics of

land use is suggested as a philosophical legacy. The

226_Erdkunde _ Band 48/1994

Gariga river is symbolized as the liquid divine energy nourishing the inhabitants and purifying them. The

mythologies recall that the water of the Gahga meets various water bodies (ponds and wells) on auspicious occasions through legendary underground connec tions. This refers to the idea of transferring energy at various spots. The sacred bath and astronomically defined sacred time suitable for it are described in

conjunction with the position of the sun and its association with various constellations. The sun sym bolizes the male (awakened, jagrathd) and water the female (sleep, susupta) modes of existence. The sense of divine landscape (e. g. of land or water) is either the direct product of inherent qualities of living organisms or else has been greatly modified by their

presence.

The efficacy of the water spots for bathing is often

eulogized to be equal to or many times greater than one of the standard vedic sacrifices. They were thus

prescribed as a simpler means of obtaining the kind of benefits acquired by those who could not afford to

support expensive, elaborate, and archaic rituals or

extensive journeys. The mythic stories tell us how a sinner restored to a particular bathing place and attained salvation or spiritual blessing. In most of the cases the names of the ponds and ghats recall this

mythology. In comparison to other sacred sites, the water-spot

places are charged with more liminality. They are

places that were in the past, and still are on the

margins of a structured world. In time these places began to assume an ambiguity, each used in a trans

formed form from their original motive; however,

they maintain their basic essence. But the minor

spots, mythologically less important, have lost their

identity in the physical milieu - being replaced by

a replicated version like a well. However, of these remain memorable spots. Pilgrims pay their rever

ence to them. These water-spots are liminal places, "thresholds"

- interconnecting the physical realm of

the present earth and the divine realm of the past heaven.

The nature is serene, beautiful, and hospitable to

life if we maintain the counter-balance with it. We need to revitalize the spiritual sense of ecology, a

worldview of harmonic relationship between man

and nature. It is a sad irony that somehow we are

on the verge of losing that relationship, resulting in water logging, opening of old channels and blocking of drain lines during heavy rains or heavy floods in

Varanasi. This results from our present poverty of

awareness and realization. The ecological mind never

interprets its habitat in human terms only, but also

in terms of divine and natural landscape. Above all, we are part of the cosmos where the order and unity of the whole world ist maintained.

References

AV, Atharva Veda. (1895) Bombay.

Barker, H. T. (1993): Early mythology relating to Vara

nasi. In: Singh, R. P. B. (Ed.) (1993): Banaras, Vara

nasi: Cosmic Order, Sacred City, Hindu Traditions

Varanasi, 21.

Coute, P.-D. a. Leger, j.-M. (Eds.) (1989): Benares.

Un voyage d'architecture - an architectural voyage. Paris.

Dubey, D. P. (1985): Varanasi: A name study: Archiv

orientalni 53, 347-354 (Reprint in Singh (1993), 29-36). Eck, D. L. (1983): A survey of Sanskrit sources for the

study of Varanasi. Purana (Varanasi: Ramnagar), 22

(1) 81-101. (Reprint in Singh (1993, 9-19)). -

(1983): Banaras. City of Light. London.

Eliade, M. (1952): Images and Symbols. London. -

(1958): Patterns in Comparative Religion. London. -

(1959): The Sacred and the Profane. The Nature of

Religion. San Diego. Gutschow, N. u. Michaels, A. (1993): Benares. Tempel

und religioses Leben in der heiligen Stadt der Hindus.

Koln.

Havell, E. B. (1905): Benares, The Sacred City. Lon

don. (Reprint: Calcutta 1968).

KKh, Kasi Khanda (IV canto of the Skanda Purana). Guru

mandala Granthamalaya No. XX, vol. IV, Calcutta

196L Kinsley, D. (1987: Hindu Goddesses. Delhi.

KP, Kurma Purana. Ed. by A. S. Gupta (1972). Varanasi.

Kockmann, U. (1980): Hindutradition und Stadtentwick

lung. Bochum.

Kumar, N. (1988): The Artisans of Banaras: Popular Cul

ture and Identity, 1880-1986. Princeton.

Mecking, L. (1913): Benares, ein kulturgeographisches Charakterbild. In: Geographische Zeitschrift 19, 20-35

u. 77-96.

Narain, A. K. a. Gopal, L. (1976): Excavations at Raj

ghat 1957-58, 1960-65. Varanasi.

Parry, j. P. (1980): Ghosts, greeds and sin: the occupa tional identity of the Benares funeral priests. In: Man

15/1, 88-111. -

(1981): Death and Cosmogony in Kashi. In: Contribu

tions to Indian Sociology 15/1-2, 337-365. (Reprint in

Singh (1993), 103-121). - (1985): Death and digestion: the symbolism of food and

eating in north Indian mortuary rites. In: Man 20, 612-630.

Rana P. B. Singh: Water symbolism and sacred landscape in Hinduism 227

Pieper, J. (1979): A pilgrim's map of Benares, notes on

codification in Hindu cartography. In: Geojournal 3, 215-218.

Prinsep, J. (1833): Benares, Illustrated in a Series of

Drawings. Third Series. Calcutta.

SBr, Satapatha Brdhmana. Translated byj. Eggeling. Sa

cred Books of the East. Oxford 1882. (Reprint: Delhi

1989). Sherring, M. A. (1868): Benares. The Sacred City of the

Hindus. (Reprint: Delhi 1990). Singh, R. P. B. (1980): The Socio-cultural space of

Varanasi. In: Art & Archaeology Research Papers 17, 41-46.

- (1987): The pilgrimage mandala of Varanasi (Kasi): a study in sacred geography. In: National Geographic

Journal of India 33/4, 493-524. -

(1990): Literary images, cultural symbols and intimate

sensing: The Ganga river in Varanasi. In: National

Geographic Journal of India 36/1-2, 117-128. -

(1993): Cosmic layout of hindus' sacred city, Varanasi

(Benares). In: Architecture & Comportement/Architec ture & Behavior 9/2, 239-250.

- (Ed.) (1993): Banaras, Varanasi: Cosmic Order, Sacred

City, Hindu Traditions. Varanasi.

Singh, R. L. (1955): Banaras. A Study in Urban Geo

graphy. Banaras. -

(1976): Origin, growth and morphological structure of

Varanasi. In: Alam, S. M. a. Pokshishevsky (Eds.): Urbanization in Developing Countries. Hyderabad, 475-500.

Sukul, K. N. (1974): Varanasi Down the Ages. Patna.

Verma, T. P. Sing, D. P., a. Mishra, J. S. (Eds.) (1986): Varanasi Through the Ages. (Proceedings of an All

India Seminar). Varanasi.